Measurements and Errors

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1

Measurements and Errors

THE MEASUREMENT PROCESS

Making measurements of physical quantities and subsequently using the resultant values in
computations are fundamental tasks performed by surveyors. For example, a surveyor may
be asked to ascertain the dimensions of a dwelling existing on a parcel that is to be
redeveloped. However, as we shall see over and over again, these measurements are never
exact and will always contain errors.
Thus it is very important that the surveyor has a full understanding of the error sources and
magnitudes, which can be expected to affect his/her measurements. Only with this
understanding is it possible to decide which measuring instruments and techniques will
allow the achievement of the required measurements to within acceptable accuracies!!
(Different types of surveys require different accuracies).
For example, if you are asked to measure a distance to the nearest 0.1m, a standard
hardware store tape measure would suffice, however if you were asked to measure the same
distance to the nearest 0.005 m, a total station (or equally precise instrument) would be
required.
A consideration of the physical quantities which exist and which are capable of being
measured can lead to a table similar to the following (although this is not exhaustive).
Measured directly
in surveying

Measured indirectly
in surveying

Of interest in some
survey measurements

* DISTANCES
* ANGLES
* HEIGHTS

AREA
VOLUME
DENSITY

MASS
WEIGHT

It is important to recognise that errors made in measurements of direct quantities such

as distance, are propagated in indirect quantities via computations. The effect of these
errors can be analyses using standard statistical functions.
PRECISION VS ACCURACY
Surveying measurements, like all measurements, are also inexact - i.e.: they contain errors,
and the true value of the property (distance, height or direction) being measured is usually
never known.
But this does not mean that measurements need not be made accurately - in fact a level of
accuracy must be achieved which is consistent with that needed according to prescribed
specifications, and as dictated by economy and by the available equipment and methods.

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The accuracy of a measurement can be defined as the nearness of the measured value M to
the true value T, thus a small error implies high accuracy. We can also define precision,
which refers to the degree of consistency of a group of measurements. The following
diagram illustrates the concepts of precision and accuracy.

Precise but not

accurate

Neither precise
nor accurate

Precise and
accurate

Figure 1 Accuracy and Precision

QUANTATIES MOST FREQUENTLY MEASURED BY SURVEYORS
Survey measurements are made in the three elements of space - i.e.: in 3-dimensional
space. These three elements are:
1- distance
(horizontal)
2- elevation (vertical)
3- direction (angular measurement from a given
direction)
Thus, in surveying there are basically five types of measurement made. Referring to Figure 2
these are:

Figure 2 5 measurement types (Elfick et al., 1994)

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< DAC , for example 4330

1.

Horizontal angles - eg:

2.

Horizontal distances - eg: AD or AC, for example 67.45m

3.

Vertical angles - eg:

4.

Vertical distances (heights) - eg: DB, for example 12.65m

5.

Slope distances - eg: AB, for example 68.62m

< BAD, for example 3845

Measurements of these types of quantities may be made in many ways, with a variety of
measuring instruments (i.e. taping, levelling, EDM, Total station, GPS), and to varying
degrees of accuracy.
Computations using the above measurements allow determination of such quantities as the
relative positions of points, areas, and volumes. Depending on the equipment and techniques
used, it may also be necessary to measure many other quantities, such as temperature, time,
etc.

Height

Diameter

Figure 3 Direct measurements

For example, to calculate the volume of the shape in the above figure, which may be a
stockpile of gravel, the surveyor would have to measure the height and diameter of the cone.
This is in order to calculate the base area for the volume formula.
V = 1/3 * base area * height

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MISTAKES AND ERRORS

Mistakes

Mistakes occur when the prescribed measurement procedure is not followed correctly. They
are often called blunders, and are generally caused by
- carelessness
- haste
- distraction
- improper training
- bad habits.
In most cases, mistakes are large and are easily detected. However they can be very serious
if not detected at an early stage. The measurement procedure should be designed to detect
their presence, and care should always be taken by the observer when making the
measurement.
Examples of mistakes are:

- transposing figures: eg:

53 -> 35
- misreading scales: eg: 1.324 -> 2.324
- sighting the wrong field target
- omitting a complete measuring band length.

Any survey measurement procedure must therefore include independent checks to assist in
the detection of such blunders. Taking multiple measurements of the same quantity can
identify mistakes. Identifying a mistake is often easy, for example consider the following
example. Five distance measurements are recorded (booked) as follows:
567.91, 576.95, 567.88, 567.90, 567.93

Errors

ERRORS must not be confused with MISTAKES. An error is the difference between an
observed value for a quantity and its true value. Errors generally fall into 2 basic categories:
systematic errors and random errors.
o Systematic errors conform to known mathematical & physical laws, and remain
the same under set conditions. Thus if these conditions are observed, a correction
can be calculated and applied to the measurements. In many cases, rather than
applying corrections, systematic errors can be almost eliminated by using
particular measuring procedures (eg: reciprocal trig heighting - LATER).
Systematic errors are generally caused by:

1. maladjustment
of
the
measuring
instruments (due to such factors as misuse,
normal wear or faulty manufacture), or
2. natural phenomena (temperature change).

So, in theory, systematic errors can be either counteracted or compensated. For example the
amount that a steel tape expands in the heat can be calculated and used to correct all

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measurements with that tape. In practice, they are never completely eliminated, since the
variable causing the error is itself usually subject to error in reading, aligning, etc.
o Random errors: After systematic errors have been compensated or counteracted
for and mistakes are identified, the remaining errors are random in nature and are
often called accidental errors. An example of a random error includes the
estimation of millimetre accuracy from a tape that has only centimetre level
graduations.
Despite attempts to achieve perfection, and even when mistakes are completely
avoided, random errors will always occur due to the inability of people to
achieve perfection in reading, manipulation, design and manufacture of
equipment, as well as to unpredictable natural forces and instrument wear.
It is because of this impossibility of avoiding random errors that anything measured is
inexact!
ERROR SOURCES AND FIELD PROCEDURES
All errors may be categorised as:

1. natural,
2. instrumental, or
3. personal.

Natural errors are caused by effects from nature, such as temperature, humidity, gravity,
atmospheric pressure, atmospheric refraction, Earth curvature, wind, tension, etc. For
example the length of a steel band varies with change in temperature.

Instrumental errors are those caused by either: 1.manufacture of the instruments, or

2.wear and/or maladjustments.
Most errors resulting from manufacture or wear would be unpredictable,
and therefore random in nature. For example, the graduations on a tape
may not be perfectly spaced. Those caused by maladjustment would
generally be detectable and probably systematic.

Personal errors are those deriving directly from people, and usually result from a
natural inability of humans to perceive anything exactly. Also, people vary in their
skilfulness, experience, training, intelligence, motivation, and desire to employ the
proper care. Factors such as fatigue, emotional fluctuations and environment cause
variations in personal errors.

To minimise the occurrence of mistakes and errors, surveyors have developed and practice a
number of procedures in the field. This includes taking multiple readings and measurements
of distances, double-checking work, applying appropriate corrections to instruments and
measurements etc. This ensures that the survey undertaken and any subsequent calculations
satisfy the requirements for the work undertaken.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
One of the underlying principles of surveying is to work from the known to the unknown thus, if the position of a point or series of points is already known, then measurements may
be made to enable the position of some other point or series of points, relative to the known
point(s), to be established.
We can extend the principle of working from the known to the unknown - to determine the
positions of points relative to other known points - to produce a common surveying saying:
. . . always work from the WHOLE to the PARTS!
That is, we should always perform our surveying measurements within a framework of what
is already known or established, in order to fix that which is as yet unknown. By making
measurements within an established framework, the introduction of further errors is kept to
a minimum.

Figure 4 Working from the whole to the parts -Tennis Court example

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
In recording measurements, an indication of the accuracy attained is the number of digits
(significant figures) recorded. By definition, the number of significant figures in any value
includes the positive (certain) digits plus one (only one) digit that is estimated, and therefore
questionable For example, a distance recorded as 873.52m is said to have five significant
figures, the first four are certain and the last questionable. For values read directly, the
significant figures generally include those that are read directly and the first estimated
figure. (The doubtful figure is usually the one that is estimated rather than read directly. For
example in some instances it may be required to estimate mm, or tenths of a millimetre)
When making a measurement, recording too few digits degrades the accuracy that can be
achieved with the instruments and techniques being employed. For example, a distance
measured as 27.139m being recorded as 27.14 m or 27.13m!
Recording too many digits, if they have no meaning, adds nothing to final computational
precision, misrepresents the precision of the equipment and method, and wastes time. For
example, estimating millimetre accuracy using a tape graduated in centimetres. Thus an
appreciation of significant figures is an important part of understanding measurement.
Two significant figures: 24, 2.4, 0.24, 0.0024, 0.020
Three significant figures: 264, 36.4, 0.000364, 0.0240
Four significant figures: 7621, 76.21, 0.0007621, 24.00
Typically, surveyors do not measure beyond 0.001 m (i.e. millimetres, unless the survey or
application at hand requires so).
Measurement uncertainty
A statement of uncertainty is a statement of the precision of the measured (or computed)
value. It is a statement that the value shown is not exact, and it is an attempt to estimate the
inexactness due to random errors. A sign always accompanies such a statement. For
example, suppose a distance is estimated to the nearest (0.1m) on a tape. In this instance the
measurement would be recorded as 34.5m 0.05 m.
Statements of uncertainty can be based on: 1. judgement, or
2. statistical analysis.
Judgement means the professional level of judgement, which is well considered, based on
experience, and exercised only after understanding the theoretical concepts. In surveying,
this is common sense based on knowledge of measuring methods, field conditions,
equipment capabilities, computational methods and the geometrical characteristics of a
particular survey.
ROUNDING OFF
The process of rounding off a number involves dropping one or more digits so that the
answer contains only those digits that are significant. In general three procedures are
observed.

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Measurements and Errors

1. when the number to be dropped is less then 5, the number is written
without the digit, i.e., 78.374 becomes 78.37.
2. when the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number
is used for the preceding digit, i.e., 78.375 becomes 78.38.
3. when the digit to be dropped is greater then 5, the number is
written with the preceding digit increased by one, i.e. 78.376
becomes 78.38.
It is important to note that rounding should only occur with the final answer, intermediate
calculations should be done without rounding. Consider the following example: find the sum
of 46.7418, 1.02,and 375.0.
46.7418
+ 1.03
+375.0
422.7718
answer (422.8)

46.7
+ 1.0
+ 375.0
422.7
answer (422.7)

It can be seen that if the individual values are rounded before the calculations as
shown in the incorrect column, the incorrect value of 422.7 is obtained.

STATISTICS ON THE HP35S CALCULATOR

Your HP33s calculator has a number of statistical functions that allow you to determine the
mean, standard deviation and sum(s) of a set of data.
Determine the mean of the following data set:
15.5
12.5

9.25
12.0

10.0
8.5

Note: you must always clear the statistical data before entering a new set of statistical data.
Keys

Display

15.5
9.25
12.0

CLEAR {}
+
+ 10 + 12.5
+ 8.5 +
x, y ,

1.0000
+
6.0000

x=

11.3(mean)

Also use the

S, option for the standard deviation of the above data set.
Answer (using sx ) = 2.58 (std deviation)
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LINEAR REGRESSION
Linear regression is a least squares mathematical method of fitting the best straight line
between known sets of data where for values of x we have corresponding values for y.

x
When used properly linear regression is extremely useful for surveying applications. From
an origin the equation of a straight line is y = mx + b, where m is the slope and x and y are a
set of observations. We solve for m and b using:
xy
n slope
m
(
x) 2

x 2
n
xy

and

y mx
y intercept
n

The available options in the HP35s calculator include:

x

estimates (predicts) x for a given hypothetical value of y, based on the line

calculated to fit the data.

estimates (predicts) y for a given hypothetical value of x, based on the line

calculated to fit the data.

correlation coefficient for the (x,y) data. The correlation coefficient is a

number in the range -1 through +1 that measures how closely the calculated
line fits the data.

slope of calculated line.

y-intercept of the calculated line.

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Measurements and Errors

Example: Suppose a uniform grade road is to be constructed between A and B, with
chainages and R.Ls as shown in the diagram.
A
RL 87.352

B
RL 79.235

Chainage 103.25

Chainage 251.86

Obviously for various purposes such as setting out and volume calculations the grade is
required as well as construction data for cut/fill at various chainages. This problem can be
solved by the ordinary methods or alternatively using the calculator.
Regression on the HP 35s calculator

For the example data above:

87.352 ENTER 103.25 +
79.235 ENTER 251.86 +
select

8 then L.R. to select L.R (Linear regression)

the x intercept, y intercept, r, m and b values are displayed.

To interpolate the RL for a chainage:

i.e. what is the RL at a chainage 110m?

110.0
select

ENTER
8 then L.R.

select y and the RL will be displayed, i.e. 86.983m

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