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Notes:
This Manual is based on Eddy Current Manual Volume I: Test Method published by the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
Chalk River Laboratories (Report AECL7523), written by V.S. Cecco, G. Van Drunen and F.L. Sharp.
Publication RC 1433, Innovations in Eddy Current Testing (Document Number RC 1433). complements this manual and is
available through the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Engineering Technologies Division, Nondestructive Testing
Development Branch, Chalk River Laboratories. Telephone (613) 584-3311 ext. 4623.
Prepared by the
Canadian General Standards Board
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Approved by the
Standards Council of Canada
No pan of this publication may be r e p m d u d in any form without the prior permission of the publisher.
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Dziuh, G.
Canadair Inc.
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Marshall, D.
Martin. D.G.
Ontario Hydro
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Newhury, J.
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Quirion, Capt A.
Reid, J.
Schnuhh. P.
Siehen, G.
Stasuk, D.G.
First Air
NDT Management Association
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Szucs, J.R.
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Tremblay. S.Y.
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Metaltec Inc.
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CANICGSB-48.14-M86
L,
SCOPE
EDDY CURRENT TESTING
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE O F EDDY CURRENT TESTING
ORGANIZATION OF MANUAL
BASIC EQUIPMENT
GENERATION O F EDDY CURRENTS
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Introduction
Magnetic Field Around a Coil
Equations Governing Generation of Eddy Currents
SUMMARY
WORKED EXAMPLES
2.6.1
INTRODUCTION
IMPEDANCE EQUATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
SINUSOIDS, PHASORS AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
MODEL O F PROBE IN PRESENCE O F TEST MATERIAL
SIMPLIFIED IMPEDANCE DIAGRAMS
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.6
3.7
SUMMARY
WORKED EXAMPLES
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
PAGE
CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTATION
PAGE
4.1
4.2
INTRODUCTION
BRIDGE CIRCUITS
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.3
4.4
4.5
Hall-Effect Detector
Send-Receive Coils and Lif t-Off Compensation
MULTIFREQUENCY EQUIPMENT
PULSED EDDY CURRENT EQUIPMENT
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
RECORDING EQUIPMENT
4.9.1
4.10
4.1 1
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Frequency Response
SUMMARY
WORKED EXAMPLES
4.1 1.1
Impedance a t Resonance
INTRODUCTION
SURFACE PROBES
5.2.1
5.2.2
Probe Types
Directional Properties
5.2.2.1
5.2.3
Sensitivity a t C e n t r e of a Coil
Probe Inductance
PAGE
62
64
Effect of Resistivity
Effect of Permeability
Effect of Thickness
Effect of Frequency
Effect of Probe Diameter
Comparison of Experimental and Computer Impedance Diagrams
67
67
67
67
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.5.6
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETER
DEFINITION O F "PHASE" TERMINOLOGY
SELECTION O F TEST FREQUENCY
5.8.1
5.8.2
5.8.3
5.8.4
5.8.5
Inspecting f o r Defects
Measuring Resistivity
Measuring Thickness
Measuring Thickness of a Non-Conducting Layer on a Conductor
Measuring Thickness of a Conducting Layer on a Conductor
PROBE-CABLE RESONANCE
SUMMARY
WORKED EXAMPLES
5.11.1
5.11.2
CHAPTER 6
6.1
6.2
6.4
80
81
82
32
82
83
83
85
6.6
6.7
73
74
77
78
79
INTRODUCTION
EDDY CURRENT SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.5
69
72
73
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.3
67
68
Ferromagnetic Indications
Electrical Resistivity
Signals from Changes in Sample Surface Geometry
CALIBRATION DEFECTS
SUMMARY
83
87
90
90
90
91
91
93
93
94
97
INTRODUCTION
PROBES FOR TUBES AND CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
Probe Types
Comparing Differential and Absolute Probes
Directional Properties
Probe Inductance
Probe-Cable Resonance
Solid Cylinders
7.3.1.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
Sensitivity in C e n t r e of a Cylinder
Tubes
Characteristic Frequency for Tubes
Computer Generated Impedance Diagrams
- SIGNAL ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.5
8.2.6
PAGE
8.4
8.5
Background
Multif requency Testing of Dented Tubes
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.3
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.4
Magnetic Hysteresis
Magnetic Permeability
Factors Affecting Magnetic Permeability
9.5
SUMMARY
9.6
WORKED EXAMPLES
9.6.1
9.6.2
9.6.3
Calculate Conductivity
Calculate Magnetic Permeability
Calculate Standard Depth of Penetration
NOMENCLATURE
DEFINITIONS
ABBREVIATIONS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING TERMS
REFERENCES
INDEX
SCOPE
This manual covers t h e principles of t h e eddy c u r r e n t method of nondestructive
testing including relevant electromagnetic theory, instrumentation, testing
techniques and signal analysis.
I t is intended t o act as;
L
1%
.
current flow or otherwise influence probe impedance has t o b e taken into account t o
obtain reliable results. Thus, credible eddy current testing requires a high level of
operator training and awareness.
Until recently, eddy current testing was a technology where t h e basic principles were
known only t o researchers, and a l'black box" approach t o inspection was often followed. The authors' objective in compiling this manual is t o draw upon research,
laboratory and industrial inspection experience t o bridge t h a t gap and thereby permit
t h e full potential of eddy current testing t o b e realized.
ORGAMZATION OF MANUAL
The presentation moves from theory (including a review of basic electrical concepts)
t o t e s t methods and signal analysis. Simplified derivations of probe response t o test
parameters a r e presented t o develop a basic understanding of eddy current t e s t
principles. Thus, eddy current signals a r e consistently illustrated on impedance plane
diagrams (the display used in modern eddy current t e s t instruments) and t o aid
explanation, t h e parameter "eddy current phase lagu is introduced.
Since probes play a key role in eddy current testing, technical aspects of probe design
a r e introduced with pertinent electrical impedance calculations. While knowledge of
basic electrical circuits is required for a complete understanding of eddy current t e s t
principles, a good technical base for inspection can still be obtained if sections of this
manual requiring such a background a r e skipped.
From an applications point of view, t h e material in this manual provides an inspector
with t h e necessary background t o decide:
1)
what probe(s) t o use,
2)
what t e s t frequencies a r e suitable,
3)
what calibration defects or standards a r e required for signal calibration and/or
simulation,
4)
what t e s t s a r e required t o differentiate between significant signals and false
indications,
5)
how t o estimate depth of real defects.
To supplement theory, practical examples a r e presented t o develop proficiency in
performing inspections, and t o illustrate how basic principles a r e applied t o diagnose
real signals.
I t rnay b e useful t o review sections 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3 before continuing and t o refer
t o these sections a s necessary while reading this manual.
FIGURE 1.1
Misinterpreted Signals
L
2.1
BASIC EQUIPMENT
Basic eddy current test equipment consists of a n alternating current source
(oscillator), a probe containing a coil connected t o t h e current source, and a
voltmeter which measures t h e voltage change across t h e coil, a s shown in Figure 2.1.
OSCILLATOR
VOLTMETER
cuRR
PROBE
PROBE
MOVEMENT
CRACK
I
"I it T:
PLATE
FIGURE 2.1
Eddy Current Test Equipment
The oscillator must b e capable of generating a t i m e varying (usually sinusoidal)
current at frequencies ranging from about 1 kHz (1000 cycles per second) t o about
2 MHz (2,000,000 cycles per second). Oscillators which operate at higher or lower
frequencies, o r with pulsed currents, a r e used for specialized applications.
The coil within t h e probe is a n insulated copper wire wound onto a suitable form. The
wire diameter, t h e number of turns and coil dimensions a r e all variables which must
b e determined in order t o obtain t h e desired inspection results. Coil variables a r e
discussed in later chapters.
Depending upon t h e type of inspection, a n eddy current probe can consist of a single
test coil, an excitation coil with a separate receive (sensing) coil, or a n excitation
coil with a Hall-effect sensing detector, as shown in Figure 2.2.
VOLTMETER
VOLTMETER
VOLTMETER
-0-
OSCILLATOR
OSCILLATOR
OSCILLATOR
, co
SENSING
1L
--
TEST ARTICLE
COIL
(B) SEND-RECEIVE
SELF- INIIUCTANCE
EXCITATION
co 1L
EXCITATION
COIL
(A)
TEST ARTICLE
(C)
MAGNETIC REACTION
FIGURE 2.2
Eddy Current Inspection Systems
The voltmeter measures charges in voltage across t h e coil which result from changes
in the electrical conditions and properties of t h e conducting material tested and/or
changes in relative position between t h e coil and t h e material tested. This voltage
change consists of a n amplitude variation and a phase variation relative t o t h e
current passing through t h e coil. The reason for amplitude and phase changes in this
voltage is discussed in Chapter 3.
Associated with a magnetic field is magnetic flux density. I t has the s a m e direction
as t h e magnetic field and its magnitude depends upon position and current. It is
therefore a field vector quantity and is given t h e symbol 8. Its units in t h e SI system
is t h e tesla (T) o r webers per square m e t r e ( ub / rZ )
The B-field distribution around a long straight wire is shown in Figure 2.3(a). In
Figure 2.3(b) t h e B-field in t h e axial direction of a single turn is shown as a function
of radius. As more windings a r e added, each carrying t h e same current, t h e flux
density rapidly increases and i t s associated distribution is altered.
(a) S t r a i g h t W i r e
C m &
(b) S i n g l e T u r n C o i l
FIGURE 2.3
Magnetic Flux Distribution
Flux density varies linearly with electric current in t h e coil, i.e., if coil current
doubles, flux density doubles everywhere. The total magnetic f lux,@p,contained
within t h e loop is t h e product of B and t h e a r e a of t h e coil. The unit in t h e 51 system
for magnetic flux is t h e weber (Wb).
2.2.3
The eddy current coil is part of the primary circuit. The current passing through t h e
coil normally varies sinusoidally with time and is given by:
PROBE
(primary
circuit)
FIGURE 2.4
Coil Carrying Alternating Current Adjacent to a Test Sample
Faraday's Law states t h a t a voltage (V,) is created or induced in a region of space
when there is a changing magnetic field. When we apply this t o our coil,
d@
2
is t h e r a t e of change in 4
dt
with time.
P
Since coil current varies sinusoidally with time, total magnetic flux in t h e coil also
varies sinusoidally,
where
= @,
sin(ut)
+P
where 4, is t h e magnetic flux corresponding t o I ,
The induced voltage a s described by equation 2.4 results in
which also varies periodically with time. If we bring t h e coil close t o a test sample,
Ohm's Law s t a t e s t h a t if there is a driving voltage ( V , ) and t h e sample's
impedance is finite, current will flow,
where I,
These induced currents a r e known as eddy currents because of their circulatory paths.
According t o Lenz's Law, they, in turn, generate their own magnetic field which
opposes t h e primary field,
and
where 6~ is t h e equilibrium magnetic flux surrounding t h e coil in t h e presence of a
t e s t sample.
The flow of eddy currents results in resistive (Ohmic) losses and a decrease in
magnetic flux. This is reflected as a decrease in probe impedance. In equation form,
and
Equation 2.9 indicates a coil's impedance is a function of t h e magnetic field
surrounding i t and in turn t h e magnetic field is governed by induced current in t h e
specimen (equations 2.8 and 2.7). The relations between probe impedance and sample
properties will be derived in Chapter 3.
To summarize, flux is s e t up by passing alternating current through t h e test coil.
When this coil is brought close t o a conductive sample, eddy currents a r e induced. In
addition, t h e magnetic flux associated with the eddy currents oppose t h e coil's
magnetic flux, thereby decreasing n e t flux. This results in a change in coil impedance
and voltage drop. It is t h e opposition between t h e primary (coil) and secondary (eddy
current) fields t h a t provides t h e basis for extracting information during eddy current
testing.
It should be noted t h a t if a sample is ferromagnetic, equation 2.9 still applies but t h e
magnetic flux is strengthened despite opposing eddy current effects. The high
magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials distinguishes them from nonferromagnetic materials and strongly influences eddy current t e s t parameters.
Ferromagnetic specimen inspection is discussed in Chapter 9 and unless specified t h e
rest of t h e manual is restricted t o non-ferromagnetic materials.
2.3
FIGURE 2.5
Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Distribution With Depth Into a Conductor
SKIN EFFECT
where J
which describes t h e exponential decrease in eddy current density with depth, and
2.4.1
FIGURE 2.6
Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Distribution With Depth in a Thick Plate
The depth at which eddy current density has decreased t o l/e o r 36.8% of t h e surface
density is called t h e standard depth of penetration. The word 'standard' denotes plane
wave electromagnetic field excitation within t h e t e s t sample (conditions which a r e
rarely achieved in practice). The standard depth of penetration is given by
inches
,' V A
The skin depth equation is strictly t r u e only for infinitely thick material and planar
magnetic fields. Using t h e standard depth, 6 ,calculated from t h e above equation
makes i t a material/test parameter rather than a t r u e measure of penetration.
2.4.2
.2
-t
.8
.B
1.0
1.
(a)
---EQUATION 2 I 2
(b)
ACTUAL
PLATE GEOYETRY
.2
.6
.8
1.0
r0
(c)
>S rp)
( r , =O FOR ROO)
HGURE
2.7
Eddy Current Distribution With Depth in Various Samples
or
= x / b x 57
(2.14b)
degrees
90s i n
57"
1
(wt)
1 1 4O
1
X
p = -g
x
-p
(DEGREES)
5 7 , DEGREES
FIGURE 2.8
Eddy Current Phase Lag Variation With Depth in Thick Samples
When x is equal t o one standard depth of penetration, phase lag is 57" or one radian.
This means t h a t t h e eddy current flowing below t h e surface, a t one standard depth of
penetration, lag t h e surface currents by 57'. At two standard depths of penetration
they lag t h e surface currents by 114.O. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8.
L
2.4.4
(a)
FLATE
PLATE GEOMETRY
Pa'Pr
1 0 SURFACE CURRENT
---
ACTUAL CURVES
( c ) ROO
CALCULATED. E O U A T l O N 2 . 1 4 ( b )
FIGURE 2.9
Eddy Current Phase Lag in Various Samples
where p
and
B = x/6 =
radians
(2.14a)
50-
.-
2.6
WORKED EXAMPLES
2.6.1
(b)
SOLUTION:
and
(a)
- centimetres
Mr - 1
(b)
= x / b x 5 7
=-
1.3
x 57
6 4 degrees
INTRODUCTION
Eddy current testing consists of monitoring t h e flow and distribution of eddy currents
in test material. This is achieved indirectly by monitoring probe impedance during a
test. An understanding of impedance and associated electrical quantities is therefore
imperative for a fundamental appreciation of eddy current behaviour.
The first two sections review t h e electrical quantities important in eddy current
testing. This is followed by presentation of a model of a test coil coupled t o test
material and i t s equivalent electrical circuit. The equivalent circuit approach permits
derivation of simplified impedance diagrams t o show t h e e f f e c t of test and material
parameters on probe impedance in graphical form. Once t h e simple impedance
diagram concepts of this chapter a r e understood, t h e more complex diagrams of
subsequent chapters should present little difficulty.
3.2
RESISTANCE:
Ohm's Law
where,
INDUCTANCE:
(3.1)
where,
nj
or
(3.4a)
WL
= 2 ~ f L
(3.4b)
*L
f is frequency of alternating current (hertz), and w is angular
frequency (radiansfsecond)
where,
units: ohm, R)
where,
C is capacitance (farad)
IMPEDANCE:
(3.6)
and
where
12
is magnitude of 2, and
In a direct current (DC) circuit, such as a battery and light bulb, current and voltage
a r e described completely by their respective magnitudes, Figure 3.l(a). Analysis of
alternating current (AC) circuits is more complex. Since voltage and current
amplitude vary with time, t h e phase (or t i m e delay) relationship between them must
also be taken into account. A typical A C circuit, an inductor in series with a resistor,
is presented in Figure 3.l(b). This is a simplified model of a probe assembly: t h e
inductor is t h e reactive part of t h e assembly (coil) while t h e resistor models both coil
wire and cable resistance. Figure 3 . l k ) shows voltage across t h e inductor ( V L )
leads t h e current (I) by 90, while voltage across t h e resistor ( V R ) is in phase with
current. Since t h e current is common t o both inductor and resistor, i t is possible t o
use current as a point of reference. Hence, we deduce t h e voltage across t h e inductor
leads t h e voltage across t h e resistor by 90'.
If one measures t h e voltage drop, V T , across both t h e inductor and resistor, we
find V T leads current ( o r V R ) by an angle less than 90, a s shown in Figure 3.l(d).
To evaluate t h e t o t a l voltage V T
vL,
I R e i n ( w t+O)
j IuL s i n ( w t
+~
/ 2 ) (3.9b)
4
DIRECT CURRENT
1'
I
(4)
V = 1R
"R
CURRENT
AND
VOLTLBE C U I
DIRECT CURRENT C I R C U I T
ALTERNATING CURRENT
VL LEADS
r v 90'
( b ) ALTERNATING CURRENT C I R C U I T
I NOUC 1 I VE
REACTANC
WF,
FIGURE 3.1
Representation of D i m t Current and Altanating Current Circuit Parameters
To obtain t h e reactive and resistive components from this graph requires knowledge
of trigonometry.
Reactive component:
XL=
Resistive component:
Amplitude of impedance:
IZI
Phase angle:
WL
= 121 sin
(3.11)
121 c o s 8
dlt2
(3.10)
+ xL2
A r c t a n XL/R
(3.7)
The test probe contains a coil which when placed on o r close t o a t e s t sample can b e
considered as t h e primary winding of a transformer. The field c r e a t e d by alternating
current in t h e coil induces eddy currents in t h e test sample which acts as a single
turn secondary winding, N g = 1 Figure 3.2(b). Eddy currents align to produce a
magnetic field which tends t o weaken t h e surrounding n e t magnetic flux 4 p *
according to Lenz's Law.
#E
,-------a
' V
--
SECONDARY
RECEIVE COIL
FIGURE 3.2
Model of a Coil with Test Object
3.5
3.5.1
( c ) EQUIVALENT SERIES C I R C U I T
FIGURE 3.3
Equivalent Circuits
The equivalent circuit concept can b e used t o obtain simplified impedance diagrams
applicable t o eddy current testing. These diagrams serve as a n introduction t o t h e
more detailed diagrams which include variations caused by t h e skin effect. The
coilfsample circuit model can be transformed into t h e simpler series circuit by t h e
following mathematical manipulations. The load resistance R, can b e transfered
from t h e secondary back t o t h e primary winding b e multiplying i t by t h e turns ratio
squared, ( N / N 1 , Figure 3.3(b).
The total impedance of this parallel circuit can b e evaluated and transformed into a n
equivalent series circuit a s follows:
where
z1
= N~R,
and
22
'~XO,
w h e r e Xo-
wLo,
Therefore
x~0
np2 n P + j x o
which transforms t o
The series circuit in Figure 3.3(c) is therefore fully equivalent t o t h e parallel one of
Figure 3.3(b). Rp can b e considered a s coil wire and cable resistance while Z p - R L + j x p
is t h e total impedance of t h e probefsample combination.
When t h e probe is far from t h e sample (probe in air), R,
into equation 3.12a results in
substituting R ,
RL-0,
Xp-Xo
and Z p m X 0
where
XoG
1/ N
Normalizirrg with respect t o X o , the coil's inductive reactance when far removed
from the sample (coil in air) results in
L'
By varying C,,
in equation 3.13, from 0 t o infinity t h e impedance curve of
Figure 3.4 is obtained. The impedance locus is t h a t of a semi-circle with center a t X / x =, %
and R L / X o
0 ; i t s radius is 112. With t h e help of equation 3.13 and Figure 3.4,
impedance changes can be related t o changes in t h e sample characteristics.
FIGURE 3.4
Impedance Graph Display
3.5.2
I.
where, P is electrical resistivity, 1 is eddy current flow distance and A is crosssectional a r e a t o current flow.
Therefore,
c o n s t a n t x RE
Co
2
uLo/NpRs = c o n s t a n t x
5.
Lo
c onstant x D ;
or tube diameter squared.
pn D / t w
c o n s t a n t x D , for constant thickness, t, and coil width, w.
Also R ,
w L ~ / N ~ R results
,
in C o - c o n s t a n t x D.
Substituting Lo and R into C o
An increase in probe diameter or tube drameter will move t h e operating point
DOWN t h e impedance curve, see Figure 3.5(d).
6.
DSURFACE
PROBE
.L,
f!L
DECREASING F I L L FACTOR
OR INCREASING L I F T - O F F
0.5
(dl
(e)
FIGURE 3.5
Simplified Impedance Diagrams
/X(
SUMMARY
, ohms
= Arctan wL
degrees
(3.7)
NORMAL l ZEO
l NDUCTANCE
REACTANCE
RL
4
FIGURE 3.6
Impedance Graph Display
3.7
WORKED EXAMPLES
Probe Impedance in Air
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
a)
XL
XL
--
2 nfL
(2 n ) ( S O x lo3) (60 x
18.8 ohms
= Arctan
8
51.4 d e g r e e s
Arctan
18 8 = A r c t a n
15
a) X , inductive reactance
b) ItL, resistive load
Calculate:
and
SOLUTION: a)
b)
= Z
sine
= 2 4 . 5 sin 3 5 ' RL = Z c o s e
P
R~~
= 2 4 . 5 c o a 35'
3.7.3
Voltage
1 4 . 1 ohms
1 5 . 0 = 5 . 1 ohms
- Current Relationship
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
theref ore,
CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTArnN
4.1
INTRODUCTION
All t h e information about a test part is t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e test coil through t h e
magnetic field surrounding it. T h e impedance eddy current method monitors voltage
drop across t h e primary coil, V p
I p Z p ; as coil impedance changes s o will t h e
voltage across t h e coil if current remains reasonably constant. The send-receive eddy
c u r r e n t method monitors voltage developed across a sensing coil (or Hall e f f e c t
d e t e c t o r ) placed close t o t h e excitation coil, see Figure 2.2.
In most inspections, probe impedance (or voltage) changes only slightly as t h e probe
passes a d e f e c t , typically less t h a n 1%. This small change is difficult t o d e t e c t by
measuring absolute impedance or voltage. Special instruments have been developed
incorporating various methods of detecting and amplifying small impedance changes.
T h e main functions of a n eddy current instrument a r e illustrated in t h e block diagram
of Figure 4.1. A sine wave oscillator generates sinusoidal current, at a specified
frequency, t h a t passes through t h e test coils. Since t h e impedance of t w o coils is
never exactly equal, balancing is required t o eliminate t h e voltage difference
between them. Most eddy current instruments achieve this through an AC bridge or
by subtracting a voltage equal t o t h e unbalance voltage. In general they c a n t o l e r a t e
a n impedance mismatch of 5%. O n c e balanced, t h e presence of a d e f e c t in t h e
vicinity of o n e coil c r e a t e s a small unbalanced signal which is then amplified.
r----
TRANSFORMER
FIGURE 4.1
Block Diagram of Eddy Curtent Instrument
Q
DsCa
METER
.&
The most troublesome parameter in eddy current testing is lift-off (probe-tospecimen spacing). A small change in lift-off c r e a t e s a large output signal. The
various methods used t o decrease this e f f e c t a r e discussed in t h e individual sections
on specific eddy current instruments.
BRIDGE CIRCUITS
FIGURE 4.2
Common Bridge Circuit
At balance,
and
11Z3
G' '
Z3
Zqs point C is at a higher potential than point A.
FIGURE 4.3
Typical Bridge Circuit Used in Eddy Current Instruments
The inductive voltage drop across each coil is equalized by controlling the current
passing through t h e coils. This is done by varying potentiometer R2. However, when
t h e test coil inductance differs significantly from reference coil inductance,
potentiometer 1 2 will have t o be rotated t o one extremity. This means less current
passes through one coil making i t less sensitive than t h e other coil. When this occurs,
a distorted (unsymmetrical) signal results if a differential probe is used. In addition,
t h e common cable lead carries t h e unbalanced current, resulting in cable noise,
especially if t h e cable is not properly shielded and grounded.
In t h e Figure 4.3 circuit, t h e output voltage for large ( > 10% ) off-null (of f-balance)
conditions is a nonlinear function of t h e change in coil impedance. However, for
defect detection, close to balance, this discrepancy is small.
Bridge Circuit in Crack Detectors
Portable eddy current instruments a r e often used t o inspect for surface defects. A
typical crack detector circuit is shown in Figure 4.4. An oscillator supplies a n
alternating current t o a n AC Bridge, containing a single eddy current probe coil a s
one arm of t h e bridge. A capacitor is connected in parallel with t h e coil so t h e L-C
(inductance-capacitance) circuit is near resonance. When t h e coil is placed on a t e s t
sample, t h e bridge is unbalanced and t h e pointer on t h e meter swings off-scale. The
bridge can be balanced by adjusting potentiometer R
FIGURE 4.4
Simplified Circuit of Crack Detector
4.3
FIGURE 4.5
Parallel L C Circuit
At resonance,
hence
--
when R
where
Q.-
,qualityfactor.
CARBON STEEL
HONEL
COPPER
OUTPUT
STORAGE MONITOR
0
SELECTO(I
FREQUENCY
PROBE
CONNECTOR
FIGURE 4.6
Typical Eddy Current Instrument With Storage Mcmitur
Most bridges can tolerate a coil impedance between 10 and 200 ohms. The
BALANCING controls, labelled X and R in some instruments, a r e potentiometers
R~ and ~2 in Figure 4.3. They match coil impedance t o achieve a null when the probe
is in a defect f r e e location on t h e t e s t sample. Some instruments have automatic
balancing.
The bridge output signal amplitude is controlled by t h e GAIN control. In some
instruments i t is labelled a s SENSITIVITY. It controls the amplifier of t h e bridge
output signal, shown in Figure 4.1, and therefore does not a f f e c t current going
through t h e probe. However, some instruments control amplification by varying
current through t h e coils. This is undesirable because i t could cause coil heating, and
when testing ferromagnetic materials t h e magnetization level changes, resulting in
signal distortion and non-repeatable signals.
Following amplification of the bridge unbalance signal, t h e signal is converted t o
direct current signals. Since t h e AC signal has both amplitude and phase i t is
converted into QUADRATURE X and Y components. The quadrature components of
t h e bridge output a r e generated by samplin t h e sinusoidal signal at two positions 90"
apart (one-quarter wave) on t h e waveform o r by using electronic multipliers). The
DC voltage values (amplitudes) constitute t h e X and Y quadrature components. If
phase is taken relative t o t h e resistive voltage component, then t h e X quadrature
component i s R (orvR)
~
and t h e Y component, xL(orVL), in equation 3.12(b) or Figure
3.4. We now have a n efficient way of analyzing bridge unbalance signals.
Eddy current instruments do not have a phase reference. To compensate for this, they
have a PHASE SHIFT control (phase-discrimination control). Normal impedance
diagram orientation with inductive reactance displayed vertically (+ Y) and resistive
horizontally (+ X) can b e obtained experimentally. This is achieved by adjusting t h e
PHASE control until t h e signal from a probe approaching a f e r r i t e sample (high IJ and
very high P ) displays a vertical (+ Y) signal indicating a n increase in probe inductive
reactance, s e e Section 5.5.6 f o r examples. PHASE control can also be used t o
minimize t h e e f f e c t of extraneous signals such as lift-off. The X-Y signal pattern is
rotated until t h e lift-off signal is horizontal (X). Thus any vertical (Y) channel signal
indicates defects, thickness variations, etc., with little e f f e c t from probe wobble.
Coil wire and cable resistance increase linearly with temperature according t o
4.4.2
Crack Detectors
A typical crack detector circuit was shown in Figure 4.4. Crack detector probes
contain only one coil, with a fixed value capacitor in parallel with t h e coil t o form a
resonant circuit. At this condition t h e output voltage, for a given change in coil
impedance, is maximum. The coil's inductive reactance, X L , must be close to t h e
In most crack detectors this is in t h e range of 20 t o
capacitive reactance, xC
100 ohms.
WITH L I F T - O F F = 0 . 1
mm
PROBE W I T H L I F T - O F F = O
mn
METER
OU TPU T
OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY,
SAMPLE W I T H D E F E C T
fr
FIGURE 4.7
Meter Output with Varying Oxillator Frequency
Crack detectors have a meter output and three basic controls: balance, lift-off, and
sensitivity. BALANCING control is performed by adjusting t h e potentiometer on t h e
adjacent bridge arm, until bridge output is zero (or close t o zero). GAIN control
(sensitivity) adjustment occurs at t h e bridge output. The signal is then rectified and
displayed on a METER. Because the signal is filtered, in addition t o t h e mechnical
inertia of the pointer, t h e frequency response of a meter is very low (less than
10 Hz). LIFT-OFF CONTROL adjusts t h e test frequency (by less than 25%) t o operate
slightly off resonance. In crack detectors t h e t e s t frequency is chosen t o minimize
t h e e f f e c t of probe wobble (lift-off), not t o change the skin depth or phase lag. The
set-up t o compensate for probe wobble c a n be described with t h e help of Figure 4.7.
Frequency is adjusted by trial-and-error t o obtain t h e same output signal on t h e
meter with the probe touching t h e sample and at some specified lift-off (normally
0.1 mm). At this frequency a deep surface d e f e c t will give a different reading on t h e
meter, a s shown in Figure 4.7.
However, t h e meter output is a complex function of signal phase and amplitude, and
cannot b e used t o reliably measure depth of real defects. Nor can they b e used t o
distinguish between real and false indications such a s ferromagnetic inclusions.
AIR
V E S l STANCE
FIGURE 4.8
Unbalanced Bridge Method Showing Selection of Operating Point
4.5
EXClTATION
RLARGE
COIL
7r
TEST
ARTICLE
FIGURE 4.9
Send-Receive Circuit
RECEIVE COILS
The wire resistance of both t h e excitation and receive coils can change, because of
temperature, without affecting t h e output signals; temperature drift has thus been
eliminated. Temperature independence makes this method useful for measuring
resistivity, wall thickness and spacing between components. It has no significant
advantage over t h e impedance method for d e f e c t detection, except in t h e throughwall transmission system discussed in Section 5.4.
Hall-Effect Detector
Most send-receive circuits consist of one excitation (or driver) coil and one or more
receive (or pick-up) coils.
However, the induced magnetic flux 0, can be measured with a Hall-ef f e c t detector
rather than by monitoring t h e induced voltage V, across a pick-up coil, s e e Figure
2.2b and 2 . 2 ~ .
FIGURE 5.10
Hall Detector Circuit
The induced voltage in a pick-up coil is proportional t o t h e t i m e r a t e of change of t h e
magnetic flux and theref ore is proportional t o t h e test frequency,
4.5.2
Off
=0
PROBE SIGNAL,
L I FT
PROBE SIGNAL,
LIFT -OFF
PROBE SIGNAL,
=0.i
am
FIGURE 4.11
Secondary Voltage Waveform f o r Various Test Conditions
4.6
MULTIFREQUENCY EQUIPMENT
The eddy current NDT method is sensitive to many test parameters, making i t very
versatile. However, o n e is usually only interested in a single parameter such as
defects. Insignificant p a r a m e t e r s such as changes in electrical o r magnetic
properties, t h e presence of d e n t s o r support plates in t u b e inspection and lift-off in
surface probe inspection c a n mask d e f e c t signals. T h e multifrequency eddy c u r r e n t
method was developed t o eliminate t h e e f f e c t of undesirable parameters.
The response t o various anomalies changes with test frequency. This allows a means
of discriminating against unimportant changes. In multifrequency instruments, t w o or
more frequencies a r e used simultaneously (through t h e s a m e coil(s)). Coil current
consists of t w o o r m o r e superimposed frequencies, i.e., t h e coil(s) is excited with
more than o n e t e s t frequency simultaneously. A three-f requency multif requency
instrument acts t h e s a m e way as t h r e e s e p a r a t e (single-frequency) eddy current
instruments. Band-pass f i l t e r s s e p a r a t e t h e signals at e a c h frequency. T h e
discrimination o r elimination process is accomplished by combining t h e output signals
(DCsignals) from individual frequencies in a manner similar to simultaneous solution
of multiple equations. T h e elimination of extraneous signals is achieved by matching
t h e signal at t w o test frequencies and subtracting. This process is continued f o r o t h e r
unwanted signals using o t h e r test frequencies until t h e final output consists of only
t h e d e f e c t signal. A discussion of inspection results with multi-frequency is covered
in Section 8.4.
FIGURE 4.12
Voltage Across a Pulsed Eddy Current Pick-Up Cod as a Function of Time
The pulsed eddy current method offers another advantage. The pulsed driving current
produces an inherently wideband frequency spectrum, permitting extraction of more
selective information than can b e determined from t h e test specimen by a single
frequency method. IJnfortunately, t h e r e is at present no commercially available
instrument t h a t operates on this principle.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Two old methods used t o measure large coil impedance variations (greater than 5%)
a r e t h e ELLIPSE and SLIT methods. These methods analyse t h e AC signal directly on
an oscilloscope (without converting i t t o DC). They were mainly used for material
sorting. They a r e obsolete methods and a detailed description is not warranted in this
manual; a full description is contained in Reference 5.
Another technique, MODULATION ANALYSIS, is also described in Reference 5. It
works on t h e same principle as "frequency spectrum analysis" where a discrete
frequency component of a waveform can b e analysed without interference from lower
o r higher frequency noise. The inspection must b e performed at constant speed (in
fact i t only works if t h e r e is relative motion between coil and sample). It is used in
production-line testing at speeds up t o 2 m/s or higher. It is a very specialized and
complicated method and a detailed description is not warranted in this manual.
RECORDING EQUIPMENT
X-Y
STORAGE
MON l TOR
x?
INSTRUMENT
Yy
PROBE
1
.
#b
o f 0
6 o
X Y
X-Y
RECORER
x ; y
X Y
2-CHANNEL
CHA#T RECORDER
FM TAPE
RECORDER
FIGURE 4.13
Block Diagram of Eddy Current Monitoring Equipment
X-Y Recorders
Signal analysis for signal discrimination and defect depth estimation is normally done
on X-Y signal patterns. The CRT storage monitors have a frequency response of at
least 1 k H z and therefore do not restrict maximum inspection speed. However, t o
obtain a permanent visual record of t h e signal, i t must b e recorded on X-Y recorders.
The fastest recorders have a speed of response of 8 H z for small signals. This
drastically limits inspection speed if used on-line. I t is therefore only used in t h e
laboratory or t o record playback from t a p e recorders (this is done by recording at t h e
highest tape speed and playing back at t h e lowest, a factor of 8:l for most t a p e
recorder). One solution t o on-line recording of X-Y signals is t o paragraph t h e CUT
display; however, this is not practical for recording many signals.
Another solution is t o use storage monitors with hard copy (paper output) capability.
These exist commercially but require custom-made control units. They have a
frequency response of 1 k H z or higher.
Strip Chart Recorders
Recording X and Y signal components against t i m e is useful in locating d e f e c t s and
determining their length.
F M Tape Recorders
Tape recorders allow storage of eddy current signals (on magnetic tape) for
subsequent retrieval. They have a frequency response proportional t o recording speed.
The lowest recording speed is 24 mm/s (15/16 ips) giving a frequency response of
300 Hz, and t h e fastest, 380 mm/s (15 ips), will respond t o 4.8 kHz.
Frequency Response
Eddy current instruments and recording instrumentation have limited frequency
response. This means they require finite t i m e to respond to a n input signal.
Frequency response, sometimes called speed of response, is defined as t h e frequency
a t which t h e output signal falls to 0.707 (-3 dB) of t h e maximum input signal.
A test coil with a n effective sensing width w passing over a localized d e f e c t a t a
speed s will sense t h e point defect for a duration of w/s seconds. This signal is
approximately equal t o one wavelength with a frequency
f
s/w
hertz
(4.6)
r = 1/2lrfi
(4.4a)
where L is coil inductance in henries and C is cable capacitance in farads. The liftoff signal is minimized by adjusting t h e frequency (slightly off resonance) until zero
and a small probe lift-off gives zero output signal. High test frequencies a r e normally
used t o inspect for shallow defects in high resistivity or ferromagnetic materials.
Low test frequencies a r e used for detecting deep defects or inspecting g o d
conductors. Crack detectors have a meter output, and cannot b e used t o reliably
measure defect depth.
4.11
WORKED EXAMPLES
4.1 1.1
Impedance at Resonance
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
(b)
I n d u c t i v e Reactance, XL = 2 r f L
X~
(=)
= 2 n x 2 5 2 x 1 0 3 x 80 x
C a p a c i t i v e Reactance,
I
2n x 252 x 1 0
(3.4b)
= 1 2 6 . 5 ohm.
Xc
l/ZnfC
(3.5)
= 1 2 6 . 5 ohms
x 5 x
5.1
INTRODUCTION
The goal of this chapter is t o present a practical approach t o eddy current inspections
using surface probes. The emphasis is on t e s t variables such as test frequency, probe
size and type; these a r e normally t h e only variables a n inspector has at his control.
These selections a r e usually determined by skin depth considerations, defect size, and
probe size.
Impedance graphs and t h e Characteristics Parameter a r e included because they a r e
tools t h a t an inspector should not b e without. A thorough understanding of impedance
graphs is essential t o manipulate t e s t conditions t o minimize and/or t o cope with
undesirable test variables. Erroneous conclusions a r e often made by persons who do
not have a working knowledge of impedance graphs.
The scope of t h e approach t o an eddy current inspection can be very broad; a
successful outcome usually depends on t h e proper approach. When planning a n
inspection t h e first questions t h a t must b e answered before proceeding are; For what
type of defects is t h e inspection being conducted? If t h e expected defects a r e crack,
how big a r e they? Do they have directional properties? What is t h e minimum
acceptable defect size? Does t h e material have ferromagnetic properties? Other
variables will, of course, influence t h e test but these questions must b e answered in
order t o select a n appropriate probe size and t e s t frequency.
5.2
SURFACE PROBES
The eddy current probe plays two important roles: i t induces eddy currents, and
senses t h e distortion of their flow caused by defects. Sensitivity t o defects and other
variables in t h e t e s t article can b e affected by probe design. This is achieved by
controlling direction of eddy current flow, by controlling t h e coil's magnetic field,
and by selecting an appropriate coil size. The e f f e c t s of undesirable material
variations and/or variations in probe t o t e s t article coupling (lift-off) can often be
decreased by using multiple coils.
A surface probe, as t h e name implies, is used for inspecting surfaces, f l a t o r
contoured, for defects or material properties. Defects can b e either surface or
subsurface. (Surface defects a r e those t h a t break through, or originate at t h e surface
- typically cracks, voids, or inclusions: a subsurface defect does not break t h e surface
and is therefore not visible).
Other names used for variations of surface probe designs a r e pancake probe, f l a t
probe, spring probe or coil, spinning probe, and pencil probe.
5.2.1
Probe Types
Simple Probes
Surface probe designs can vary frorn a simple, single coil attached t o lead wires, t o
complex arrangements, a s shown in Figure 5.1. Most eddy current instruments require
two similar coils t o satisfy their AC bridge network a s discussed in Chapter 4. If only
one coil senses t h e test rnaterial, it is a n absolute probe; if both coils sense t h e test
FIGURE 5.1
Surface Probes
material, i t is a differential probe. The simple probe in Figure 5.l(a) is therefore
undesirable because a second coil o r electrical device with similar impedance will be
necessary for bridge nulling. An exception would b e in t h e use of Crack Detectors;
these instruments operate with an internal balancing circuit (see Section 4.2.3).
A better arrangement is shown in t h e pencil probe of Figure 5.l(b). This probe
incorporates a second coil (reference) mounted far enough from t h e test article t h a t
i t will not be influenced by it. The two coils have t h e s a m e impedance when t h e probe
is balanced in air, but will change relative t o each other when t h e t e s t coil is coupled
t o a sample. However, t h e degree of coupling is usually small because of t h e inherent
small size of pencil probes s o t h e coils still match well enough f o r most instruments
over a reasonable frequency range. The probe shown has f e r r i t e cores; ferrite is used
for three reasons:
1.
2.
3.
The probe shown in Figure 5.l(d) is a spring loaded type designed t o minimize lift-off.
The shoe provides a broad area for squarely positioning t h e probe on a f l a t surface,
while t h e spring maintains probe contact at constant force.
Figure 5.l(e) shows a probe used for inspecting large diarneter tubing. The probe can
be rotated and/or moved axially. The design shown incorporates a replaceable wear
cap.
Other Probe Designs
A multi-coil array a s shown in Figure 5.2(a) is useful for inspecting tubes. This type
of probe could detect defects that would not be detected by a conventional
circumferential coil (discussed in Section 7.5).
(8)
F ERROMICNET l C
COYPENSATING
FIELD
GAP PROBE
FIGURE 5.2
Special Surface Probes
A gap probe, Figure 5.2(b), uses ferromagnetic material t o shape t h e magnetic field.
The field is confined by t h e core causing eddy currents t o flow in circular loops
perpendicular to t h e flux lines.
.4 differential configuration is shown in Figure 5.2k); t h e two coils a r e placed sideby-side. Both coils have high sensitivity t o localized variations but tend t o cancel out
t h e effect of lift-off, gradual material variations, o r ambient temperature changes.
A lift-off compensating probe is shown in Figure 5.2(d); this probe combines t h e
signals from two coils t o effectively r o t a t e t h e defect signal relative t o t h e lift-off
signal. Therefore, even on Vough" surfaces, shallow defects can b e detected.
EST ARTICLE
(DRIVER
COIL)
RECEIVER C O l L
PICK-UP COILS
(WOUND OPPOSING
EACH O T H E R )
TEST
ART ICLE
TEST ARTICLE
(b)
FIGURE 5.3
Send-Receive Probes
Send-Receive Probes
Figure 5.3(a) shows a through-transmission probe arrangement. Current flowing in the
SEND coil produces a magnetic field, part of which is transmitted through t h e t e s t
article. The field is detected by t h e RECEIVER coil, inducing a voltage. There will be
no signal variation from t h e receiver coil when a defect-free test article is moved
anywhere between t h e two coils as long as t h e coil-to-coil spacing remains constant.
Figure 5.3(b) shows a reflection-type probe arrangement. The probe consists of a
large send coil which generates a field, and two small receiver coils wound in
opposite directions, as mirror images t o one another, as shown in Figure 5.3k). With
t h e probe in air, n e t output is zero. However, if one end is placed near a test article,
t h e field differs a t t h e two ends, and a n e t voltage appears across t h e two coils.
5.2.2
Directional Properties
Eddy currents are closed loops of induces current circulating in a plane perpendicular
t o t h e direction of magnetic flux. Their normal direction of travel is parallel t o t h e
coil winding and parallel t o the surface. See Figure 5.4.Pancake t y p e surface probes
a r e therefore insensitive t o poor bonding of coatings and flaws parallel to t h e surface
of a sample.
SURFACE CRACK
EDDY CURRENTS
LLYINAR CRACK
*.yiy!Z
I
1
'rCCfZI
TEST PLATE
I
EOOY WRREWT FLOWS PARALLEL TO COIL IIWDIWGS
POOR S E l S l T l V l l V TO LlYlNAllOWS
SURFACE CRACK
ZERO S E N S l l l V l N
AT CENTRE OF COIL
LOW S E N S I l I V l W
PARALLEL TO WIYOI~CS
Y A X l Y W SEWS1 T I V l T Y
ACROSS WINDINGS
FIGURE 5.4
D i r e c t i d Properties of a Surface Probe
When testing for flaws such as cracks, i t is essential t h a t t h e eddy current flow be a t
a large angle (preferably perpendicular) t o t h e crack t o obtain maximum response. If
eddy current flow is parallel t o t h e defect there will be little or no disruption of
currents and hence no coil impedance change.
When testing for flaws parallel t o t h e surface, such a s laminations, a horseshoe
shaped probe (a gap probe with a very large gap) may have reasonable sensitivity.
5.2.2.1
The magnetic flux density, 8,is approximately constant across a coil's diameter,
hence
BA
Resistance t o flow of current is proportional t o flow path length and resistivity and
inversely proportional t o cross-sectional area, Ac,
Rs
Since
and
= 2nrp =
AE
Rs
I8
r
by Ohm's
V8/Z
+ Cull
Z = I'R:
Znrp
u n i t depth x u n i t width
- .
It8
or
I8 u r
since
6s
that
6B
a - I
a
Law
Therefore, eddy current flow and its associated magnetic flux a r e proportional t o
radial distance from t h e centre of a coil. Hence no current flows in t h e c e n t r e (r = 0)
and there is no sensitivity t o defects at t h e c e n t r e of a coil.
Probe Inductance
I
The factor governing coupling and induced voltage in test material is t h e magnetic
flux surrounding t h e coil. The total magnetic flux ( $p ) is proportional t o probe
inductance (L) and current (I), i.e., @ a L I In most eddy current instruments
excitation current is kept reasonably eonstant (in t h e milliampere range) but probe
inductance could vary by a factor of one thousand. The most important aspect of
inductance is that probe impedance, which is a function of inductance, must be
compatible with t h e instrument and signal cable,
z 1
where
ohms.
XL = 2
7f
and B
Arctan X~
--
N = 21
Do = 1.6 mm
Do = 3.2 mm
Do = 6.3 mm
Do = 12.7 mm
Do = 25.4 mm
L = 0.27 M H
R = 0.2 n
L = 0.54 p H
R=o.1~
L = 1.1 VH
R = 0.05 0
L = 2.1UH
R = 0.02n
L = 4.3 pH
R = 0.01 R
40 AWG
(0.080 mm)
34 AWG
(0.16 mm)
28 AWG
(0.32 mm)
22 AWG
(0.64 mm)
16 AWG
(1.3 mm)
L = 1.5
R = l
L = 3.0
R = 0.5
L = 6.1
R = 0.3
L = 12
R = 0.1
L = 24
R = 0.06
43 AWG
(0.056 mm)
37 AWG
(0.1 1 mm)
31 AWG
(0.23 mm)
25 AWG
(0.45 mm)
19 AWG
(0.91 mm)
L = 5.8
R = 4
L = 12
R=2
L = 23
R = l
L = 47
R = 0.5
L = 94
R = 0.3
46 AWG
(0.040 mm)
40 AWG
(0.080 mm)
34 AWG
(0.16 mm)
28 AWG
(0.32 mm)
22 AWG
(0.63 mm)
L = 11
R=9
L = 23
R = 3
L = 45
R=2
L = 90
R = 0.9
L = 180
R = 0.5
48 AWG
(0.031 mm)
41 AWG
(0.071 mm)
36 AWG
(0.13 mm)
29 AWG
(0.29 mm)
23 AWG
(0.57 mm)
N = 50
N = 98
N = 136
-
L = 24
R = 17
L = 49
R =8
L = 97
R=4
L = 195
R =2
L = 390
49 AWG
(0.028 mm)
43 AWG
(0.056 mm)
37 AWG
(0.11 mm)
31 AWG
(0.23 mm)
25 AWG
(0.45 mm)
R=1
N = 200
L
where
vr
A
This formula is a good approximation for coils of lengthidiameter ratio greater than
10.
For a short coil, end e f f e c t s will reduce inductance because of lower flux at coil
ends. The N~ term remains since N e n t e r s in N 4p(total number of flux linkages) and
again since 4 itself is proportional t o N. The following approximate equation can b e
used t o calcurate inductance of short coils:
Do
and
K = 0.112 (2!L+Do
Di
* nm
Di), m m
Most eddy current instruments will operate over a fairly broad range of probe
impedance (and probe inductance) without substantial reduction in signal-to-noise
ratio and signal amplitude. An instrument input impedance of 100 ohms is typical,
although any impedance between 20 and 200 ohtns is generally acceptable, unless test
frequency is too close t o probe-cable resonance; see Section 5.9. Exact probe
inductance calculations a r e therefore not essential. To facilitate impedance
calculations, Table 5.1 has been prepared. This table lists coil inductance and
resistance (with probe away from test material) for various outside diameters and
number of coil turns, keeping both t h e inside diameter and coil length equal t o 0.2
times t h e outside diameter. Wire diameter is chosen t o fill available coil crosssectional space. Using this table and t h e knowledge t h a t inductance,
where N is number of turns of wire and 6 is average coil diameter, one can usually
make a reasonable estimate of wire size and number of turns required t o achieve a
particular inductance.
FIGURE 5.5
Decrease in Sensitivity with
(a) Lift-off
(b) Defect Depth
5.3.2
At high frequencies the 4 6 term will be small and t h e sensing diameter can be
assumed t o be about equal t o coil diameter, but at low t e s t frequencies t h e rnagnetic
field spread can be significant. In this case it is common t o use ferrite cups t o
contain t h e field. This results in a concentrated field without affecting depth of
penetration.
1 m PROBE O l l U E T t R
,
,
1.3 m PROBE O l l Y E T E R
= 0.36 Rm
I MHz
C
r g
C
8 ~ ~ o= 1.16
~ ~ mz
W
0
10
I2
14
16
18
20
22
FIGURE 5.6
Effect of Defect Length
COMPARISON BETWEEN SURFACE AND THROUGH-WALL INSPECTION
~~~
5UPFACE
>URFACk
\'
TUBE
ROTATION
75% FRO'.
OUTSIDE
JURFPCE
I\
25%
O.D. SLIRFACE
GROOVE
S U R F A C E SROOVE
/INSIDE
1voir
SURFACE
GROOVE
50%
75%
I . D . SURFACE
GROOVE
A M F L I T U O E OF D E F E C T S I G N A L , Y C O U P O N E N 1
\ 25%
0 D . GROOVE
3.3
"'F
!3
mm L o r 6
50%
HOLES.
X-Y
I . D . GQOOVE
DEEP
0.8
rc
0.8
13
~ I A . 13 mm LONG
qm
DEEP
LONG
25% 50%
O,D,
GROOVE
v
HOLES
75%
I,D,
GROOVE
A M P L I T U D E OF DEFECT S I G N A L S , Y COMPONENT
FIGURE 5.7
Comparing Conventional and Through-Wall Transmission Techniques
The Y-amplitude presentation in Figure 5.7(b) shows d e f e c t signal amplitude does not
change significantly with d e f e c t depth. It is important t o n o t e t h e phase of t h e
signals does not change with d e f e c t d e p t h when using t h e through-transmission
method a s shown in t h e X-Y display.
5.5
LdI/dt
since 4 = LI/N.
where
w
L
Lo
I
A IR
TEST A R T I C L E
l NDUCT IVE
REACTANCE
ART'IC L E
{ AIR
I \
wL
WLo
u
I
( a)
ROC
RES l STANC
(b)
FIGURE 5.8
Coil Impedance Display
The resistive component is normalized by subtracting coil wire and cable resistance,
R D C , a n d t h e n d i v i d i n g by wLo ,
where R L
1.6
----
CONSTANT PERCIEIBILITY. p ,
CONSTANT R E S I S T I V I T Y , P
,1 . 2
U
p
U
1.0
700rtl.cm
170
w
N
p =
1.7
FREQUENCY ' 5 0
LIFT-OFF ' 0
THICK PLATE
'1.12 (COPPER I
LIFT-OFF.
NORCULIZED RESISTANCE
FIGURE 5.9
Impedance Graph-Resistivity Effect
'
53
FIGURE 5.10
Impedance Graph-Permeability Effect
0.9
0.04
0.0
FREQUENCY, k H z
0.1
0.2
0.3
NORWLIZED RESISTANCE
0.4
N O R W L I Z E D RESISTANCE
FIGURE 5.11
Impedance Graph-Thickness Effect
FIGURE 5.12
Impedance Graph-Frequency Effect
5.5.1
Effect of Resistivity
Figure 5.9 shows t h e e f f e c t of electrical resistivity f o r a range of conducting
materials. The impedance point moves up t h e curve with increasing resistivity.
Impedance points for s t e p changes in coil t o test article spacing between zero and
infinity a r e also included. Note t h a t a small increase in spacing (lift-off) produces a
large impedance change. This results from decreased magnetic flux coupling t o t h e
sample. There would be a relatively larger e f f e c t on t h e impedance of a small coil
than on t h e impedance of a large coil for t h e s a m e change in spacing.
5.5.2
5.5.3
Effect of Thickness
Figure 5.1 1 t r a c e s t h e impedance point path a s sample thickness decreases from
infinity t o zero. As t e s t material becomes thinner, causing increased resistance t o
eddy currents, t h e impedance point moves up t h e curve. This was also t h e c a s e in t h e
resistivity graph, Figure 5.9. This implies t h a t any condition causing an increase in
resistance t o flow of eddy currents, cracks, thinning, alloying elements, temperature,
etc., will basically move t h e impedance point up t h e curve towards t h e probe
impedance in air, X L / X , = l .
The impedance curve in Figure 5.1 1, from t h e knee down, makes a reversal swirl a s
t h e probe moves across a conductor with increasing thickness. This is due t o skin
depth and phase lag effects which overshadow a l l basic movements of t h e impedance
point.
5.5.4
Effect of Frequency
Figure 5.12 shows t h e e f f e c t of test frequency (an instrument parameter). As
frequency is increased, eddy currents a r e sampling a thinner layer close t o t h e
surface (skin depth effect, discussed in Chapter 2). When frequency is decreased eddy
currents penetrate deeper into t h e material and t h e impedance point moves up the
curve.
Towards the upper end of t h e curve, impedance is mainly composed of resistance
which has a g r e a t dependency on temperature, both in t h e test article and in coil wire
resistance (although t h e l a t t e r does not appear on this normalized curve). I t is
therefore desirable, when possible, t o operate near t h e knee of t h e curve say,
20 t o 200 kHz in this example.
5.5.5
11 1
1
-
LIFT-OFF
rnm
Frequency = 50 kliz
FIGURE 5.13
Impedance Graph-Surface Coil Diameter Effect
5.5.6
AIR
INDUCT l VE
REACTANCE
l N O U C T l VE
REACTANCE
SST
BRASS
f
= I00 kHz
Cu
R
-
RESISTANCE
R
-
RESISTANCE
wL0
wL0
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.14
Probe Response to Variws Test Parameters at Two Frequencies
5.6
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETER
In Section 5.5 impedance graphs were normalized t o make test article parameters
independent of probe properties such as inductance. Another method, proposed by
W.E. Deeds, C.V. Dodd and co-workers, combines frequency and probe diameter
with test material parameters, to form one characteristic parameter (2).
-
where
-r
w
ur
and
1 .o
0.9
L I FT -OFF CONSTA
7 = COIL MEAN RAOlU
0.8
0.7
PERMEABILITY
0.6
I!
I\
005
I/
0.10 0.15
u = ELECTRICAL
CONDUCT l V l TY
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
FIGURE 5.15
Impedance Diagram with Characteristic Parameter, PC
Consider Figure 5.15. The solid lines a r e generated by starting with P C equal t o zero
and increasing t h e value t o infinity (while holding coil t o t e s t article spacing
constant). The dashed lines a r e generated by starting with t h e coil infinitely far
away from t h e t e s t article and bringing t h e coil closer until it contacts (while holding
P C constant). Note t h e similarity between these curves and t h e impedance graphs
shown in preceding sections (the horizontal scale is twice t h e vertical scale).
Test 1
Test 2
0-0
SPECIMEN
STORAGE
OSCl LLOSCOPE
0 l SPLAY
NOMENCLATURE
V
I
Rs
VOLTAGE
- CURRENT
Lo
R,,
ANGULAR FREQUENCY
(W = 2 w f )
PROBE INDUCTANCE
I N AIR
- PROBE W l RE L CABLE
OC RESISTANCE
R,
- SRCIMEN AC RSISTANCE
SUBSCRI PTS :
T
TOTAL
INDUCTANCE
L
R
RESISTANCE
PRIMARY
P
S
SECONDARY
.
-
FICURE 5.16
Coil Impedance/Voltage Display
-r
where
f
p
ol,
Arctan
voltage vector.
WL
L
2. AO1.
3. 0 , .
4. AO,,
5. G3,
6. B,
PHASE LAG (not shown in Figure 5.16) of eddy currents below the surface
relative t o those a t the surface. It was derived in the eddy current density
equation Chapter 2, i.e. 6 = x/6 for semi-infinite plates, where x is
the distance below the surface and 6 is in radians.
7. 0
4'
8. 0).
5.8
5.8.1
gom
The first question t h a t must b e answered before proceeding with an inspection is: For
what type of defects is t h e inspection being done? If t h e defects a r e cracks: What is
t h e smallest defect t h a t must b e detected? Are t h e cracks surface or subsurface?
Are they likely t o be laminar cracks or normal t o t h e test surface? A single general
inspection procedure t o verify t h e absence of any and a l l types of defects of ten has
little merit. Inspections often require two o t more test frequencies and/or different
probes t o accurately identify defects.
Test, f requency can be selected without knowledge of t h e character is tic parameter,
P, ,or t h e operating point on t h e impedance graph. I t should be chosen for good
discrimination between defects and other variables. The most troublesome variable is
LIFT-OFF variations, so separation of d e f e c t s from lift-off is t h e forernost
consideration.
Only t h e skin depth equation has t o be used,
L I F T -OFF
SURFACE CRACK
SUBSURFACE
VOlO ( A )
2 5 9-
\
SURFACE
CRACK
SUBSURFACE
VOlD ( A )
SUBSURFACE
VOID ( 0 )
SUBSURFACE
VOID ( 8 )
INCREASING
L I F T -OFF
X - Y DEFECT SIGNALS
FIGURE 5.17
Typical Response Signals for Two Types of Defects
subsurface defects. Test frequency is such t h a t 6 equals depth of deepest defect, and
instrument controls a r e selected such t h a t a signal from lift-off is horizontal. Note
t h e difference in signal amplitude and angle relative t o lift-off of subsurface voids A
and R. This results from skin depth attenuation and phase lag.
If, during inspection, a signal indicating a defect is observed, t e s t frequency may be
altered t o verify whether t h e signal represents a real defect o r t h e e f f e c t of another
variable. This discussion is expanded in t h e next chapter under Signal Analysis.
5.8.2
Measuring Resistivity
Resistivity can be measured a t small localized areas or by sampling a larger volurne
of a test article t o determine bulk resistivity. The volume of material interrogated
depends on probe size and t e s t frequency. For bulk measurements a large probe would
b e used and a low frequency t o maximize penetration. The skin depth equation is
again used t o estimate depth of penetration at t h e t e s t frequency.
Electrical resistivity measurement is a comparative technique; reference samples of
known resistivity must b e used for calibration. Variables t h a t a f f e c t t h e accuracy of
resistivity measurement a r e lift-off, temperature, and chan es in t h e flow of eddy
currents in t e s t articles not related t o electrical resistivity such as cracks, thickness
and surface geometry).
'i
For best discrimination between resistivity and other variables t h e operating point on
a n impedance graph should b e considered. Figure 5.12 illustrated t h e e f f e c t of test
frequency on normalized probe impedance. At t h e top of t h e graph the angle,
between lift-off variations and t h e resistivity curve, is small. Moving down t h e curve
FIGURE 5.18
Resistivity Measurement and t h e Impedance Graph
Figure 5.18 shows t h e method of manipulating test conditions t o best deal with liftoff. Figure 5.18(a) shows t h e resistivity impedance curve with a frequency and probe
selected t o operate near t h e knee. Figure 5.18(b) is a n enlarged section of t h e curve
rotated so lift-off signals a r e approximately horizontal. This is t h e view on an eddy
current instrument monitor.
Next consider temperature effects. First, test article resistivity will be a function of
temperature so test sample and standards should b e at uniform temperature. A
greater potential error is in probe wire resistance, R E . The coil wire resistance is a
part of t h e probe impedance circuit, so variations in temperature which affect coil
resistance will appear as an impedance change. For greatest accuracy, t h e inductive
reactance, X L ,should be large compared t o coil wire resistance; X L / % ~ > 50
is desirable.
Obviously this condition is not easily satisfied at low t e s t frequencies where inductive
reactance is low. One solution is t o use a large diameter probe cupped in ferrite. The
large diameter and ferrite cup will both increase X L / R E
or
23
x 0
rum
- r 2-22500
2
Hz
where
( 3 5 cm)
X ,VOLTS
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.19
Eddy Current Signals from a Change in Electrical Resistivity m the
Surface of a Zr-Nb Test Article. Test Frequency = 300 kHz.
5.8.3
Measuring Thickness
Test frequency should be chosen s o 'lift-off' and 'change in thickness' signals are
separated by a 90' phase angle, see Figure 5.20(a). This frequency can be calculated
using the skin depth equation. A reasonable approximation for thin sections is
obtained when
which converts to
f
1.6
p/t2
kHz
(5.7a)
where
6
t
P
f
Pr
is skin depth, mm
is test article thickness, mm
is electrical resistivity, p 8 a n
is frequency, kHz
is relative permeability (u, = 1 for nonferromagnetic material).
In testing thick material, this equation can similarly be used t o choose a test
frequency t o separate lift-off and subsurface defect signals by 90'. Equation 5.7(a)
can be used by replacing t with x,
'
MONl TOR
OISIL1Y
FIGURE 5.20
Thickness Measurement and the Impedance Graph
Conventional thickness measurement is t o display t h e lift-off signal horizontal (along
t h e X axis) and use t h e vertical signal (along t h e Y axis) t o measure thickness, see
Figure 5.20(b). If t h e signal on t h e instrument monitor is s e t t o move from right t o
left a s t h e probe is moved away from t h e test article, a vertical movement up or
down denotes decreasing and increasing thickness respectively.
5.8.4
R I Y C E O F V I R l I B L E S SHOWN I N C O W P U T O R P L O T S
r~0Yt"c.l
I0 **I
FIGURE 5.21
Computer Simulation of a Multi-Layw Sample
101
PROBE-CABLE RESONANCE
Probe-cable resonance must b e considered when operating a t high test frequencies
and/or using long signal cables, e.g., frequencies greater than 100 kHz and cables
longer than 30 m. Most general purpose eddy current instruments cannot operate at
or close t o resonance.
Probe-cable resonance can be modelled as shown in figure 4.5. In simple terms,
resonance occurs when inductive reactance of t h e coil equals capacitance reactance
of t h e cable, i.e. when
3.
4.
5.10
SUMMARY
Test probes induce eddy currents and also sense t h e distortion of their flow caused by
defects. Surface probes contain a coil mounted with i t s axis perpendicular t o t h e test
specimen. Because i t induces eddy currents t o flow in a circular path i t can be used
t o sense all defects independent of orientation, as long as they have a component
perpendicular t o t h e surface. It cannot b e used t o d e t e c t laminar defects.
For good sensitivity t o short defects, a small probe should be used; probe diameter
should be approximately equal or less than t h e expected length. Sensitivity t o short
subsurface defects decreases drastically with depth, even a 'thint 5 mm sample is
considered very thick for eddy current testing.
The analysis of eddy current signals is t h e most important and unfortunately t h e most
difficult task in a successful inspection. A thorough understanding of impedance
graphs is essential t o manipulate test conditions t o minimize undesirable test
variables. The characteristic parameter for surface probes is used t o locate the
operating point on t h e impedance diagram. I t is given by
,kHz
(5-7)
To optimize test results, t h e inspector has control over probe size and test frequency.
In choosing probe diameter t h e following must b e considered:
operating point on impedance diagram
probe inductance and resistance
sensing a r e a
sensitivity t o d e f e c t length
sensitivity t o d e f e c t depth
sensitivity t o lift-off
sensitivity changes across coil diameter (zero at centre)
sensitivity changes with f e r r i t e core o r cup.
Choice of test frequency depends on:
(a)
(b)
depth of penetration
phase lag
(c)
(d)
(e)
5.11
WORKED EXAMPLES
5.11.1
and
(b)
testing brass ( P = 6 . 2
microhm-centimetres) a t 10 kHz.
SOLUTION:
Characteristic Parameter
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
j2
therefore, f = 50 kHz.
(This calculation places no emphasis on skin depth effect, which may
be a n overriding consideration).
INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing and preventive maintenance inspection of "flatw components with
surface probes is one of t h e oldest and most important applications of eddy current
testing. Manufacturing inspection of small steel components for defects and hardness
is almost exclusively performed by eddy current methods. For safety reasons and
preventive maintenance (savings on replacement costs and downtime) inspection of
aircraft components for cracks and h e a t t r e a t m e n t effects has been performed since
commercial aircraft first went into service. Eddy current testing is one of t h e most
effective NDT methods for t h e above applications because i t doesn't need couplants,
i t is fast, and 100% volumetric inspection is of ten possible.
This chapter describes how t o maximize signal-to-noise by proper choice of test
frequency and minimizing ttlift-offtt noise. Emphasis is given t o signal analysis and
how t o recognize and discriminate between defect signals and false indications. An
a t t e m p t is made throughout this chapter t o illustrate discussions with real or
simulated eddy current signals.
6.2
scanned past a defect. This condition is showm pictorially in Figure 6.1 which
portrays eddy currents induced by a surface probe in a defective plate. Eddy currents
flow in closed loops as illustrated in Figure 6.lta). When a defect interferes with t h e
normal path, current is forced t o flow around o r under i t o r is interrupted completely.
The increased distance of t h e distorted path increases t h e resistance to current just
a s a long length of wire has more resistance than a short length,
Eddy currents always t a k e the path of least resistance; if a defect is very deep but
short, current will flow around t h e ends; conversely, if a defect is very long
(compared t o t h e coil diameter) but shallow, t h e current will flow underneath. In
summary, defect length and depth (and width t o some degree) increase resistance t o
eddy current flow and this, in turn, changes coil impedance. (The e f f e c t of defect
size on flow resistance in tube testing is derived in Section 8.2.1).
In terrns of t h e equivalent coil circuit of a resistor in parallel with a n inductor and its
associated semi-circular impedance diagram (Section 3.51, a defect moves t h e
operating point up t h e impedance diagram. Increasing resistance in a test article
changes both probe inductance and resistance.
In t h e preceding discussion t h e defect was considered t o disrupt t h e surface currents
closest t o t h e coil. Consider t h e difference between surface and subsurface defects.
When a surface probe is placed over a deep crack of infinite length, t h e surface
currents must pass underneath t h e defect if they are t o form a closed loop, see
Figure 6.2(a). This is not t h e case with subsurface defects as shown in Figure 6.2(b).
Although t h e void in this picture is not as far from t h e surface as t h e bottom of the
crack, t h e void may not b e detected. Eddy currents concentrate near t h e surface of a
conductor, and therefore, tests a r e more sensitive t o surface defects than internal
defects.
EMVCURRENTS
TEST PLATE
TEST PLATE
I
(b)
A DEFECT
FIGURE 6.1
Eddy Currents in a Defective Plate
The skin depth equation helps in t h e understanding of this phenomenon. In Chapter 2
i t was shown t h a t current density decreased with distance from t h e surface in t h e
following proportions:
- 63% of the current flows in a layer equivalent in thickness t o t h e skin depth, 6 ,
- 87% flows in a layer equivalent t o t w o skin depths, 2 6 ,
95% flows in a layer equivalent t o three skin depths, 3 6
SURFACE C O I L
'"-/'7
TEST PLATE
role
,,/
rr
U
I
Y
=w
YI
I
0 =
a
L
w n
rr
C Y
YI 0
(b)
FIGURE 6.2
Eddy Current Flow in t h e P r e r a m of (a) Surface and (b) Subsurface Defect
where k? is phase lag (radians), x is distance of defect below t h e surface (mm) and 6 is
skin depth (mm).
DEEP DEFECT
SHALLOW D E F E C T
SUBSURFICE DEFECT
DEFECT P O S I T l O N
DEEP CEFECT
SUBSURFACE
OCFECI
SHALLOW D E F E C T
LIFT
OFF
FIGURE 6.3
Derivation of Eddy Current Signal Appearance for Three Types of Defects
LIFT-OFF
p = 72 p a cm
pr = 1 .O
L I FT -OFF
L I FT 4 F F
FREQUENCY = 1 0 kHz
FREQUENCY = 5 0 kHz
1 . 5 mm I
2.0 mm
FREQUENCY = 2 0 0 kHz
FIGURE 6.4
Probe Response t o Various Test P a r a m e t e r s at Three Frequencies
Discrimination between d e f e c t s and o t h e r variables is accomplished through p a t t e r n
recognition and varying test frequency. Figure 6.4 displays t h e change in coil
impedance loci for various parameters at different test frequencies. The e l e c t r i c a l
resistivity ( A D ) signal angle, relative t o lift-off, increases only slightly a s frequency
FIGURE 6.5
Computer Simulation of Probe Response to Various Test Parameters
plr2
kHz
CAL lBRAT l ON
CRACKS
SAMPLE: p = 50 p a
cm
p, = 1 ' 0 0
CRACK
2 mm DEEP NOTCH
CRACK
2 m DEEP NOTCH
LIFT -OFF
LI FT -OFF
FREQUENCY = 50 kHz
I
0 . 5 mm DEEP NOTCH
FREQUENCY = 300 kHz
FIGURE 6.6
X-Y Display of Coil Impedance Vector from Calibration Grooves
and a Real Crack. Estimated Depth = 1.3 mm.
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
d e p t h x. This signal is similar t o a change in wall thickness signal and i t s phase was
denoted by 0 3 in Figure 5.16.
L
6.5
FERMlYADlET lC
FERRWIAGIIET I C
NOTCH
2 m DEEP
LIFTOFF
0.5 m DEEP
I00 hHZ
-
2 nm OEEP
FERRO
\c,
'
L 0.
0.5 m OEEP
FIGURE 6.7
Coil Impedance/Voltage Display at Three Frequencies
The important point t o note is t h a t relative t o lift-off, defect signals r o t a t e CCW
whereas t h e magnetic inclusion signal rotates CW and approaches 90' at low
frequency (approximately 10 kHz or lower for t h e above probe and sample). On t h e
impedance diagram of Figure 6.7 t h e direction of t h e ferromagnetic signal would not
vary appreciably with frequency; increased permeability primarily increases coil
inductance.
To summarize:
(a) Many nominally %on-magnetic" alloys can exhibit ferromagnetic proper ties and
almost any alloy can pick-up magnetic inclusions or contamination during
manufacture or service.
(b) At normal eddy current test frequencies magnetic indications will often appear
similar t o defects
(c) Magnetic indications can b e distinguished from defects by retesting at a
reduced test frequency.
6.5.2
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity is a material parameter which, unlike a defect, usually varies
over significant area. However, if i t is localized, and t h e eddy current signal is small,
i t could be be mistaken for a small defect. The best means of distinguishing the two
is t o rescan with a smaller probe a t h e s a m e test frequency, at t h r e e times t h e test
frequency, and a t one third the t e s t frequency. Unlike a defect signal, the angle
between resistivity and lift-off changes little with frequency. See impedance graph in
Figure 5.9.
As with the detection of any signal source, resistivity is affected by skin depth. At
high frequency, when skin depth is small, there will b e greater sensitivity t o surface
resistivity variations. At lower test frequency, eddy currents penetrate deeper into
t h e material so t h e measurement will represent a larger volume.
6.5.3
1 VOLT
1 VOLT
(a)
W l DE SHALLOW GROOVE
( b ) LOCAL F L A T SPOT
FIGURE 6.8
X-Y Display of Surface Coil Impedance for Internal Surface Variations
in a 100 m m Diameter Tube
CALIBRATION DEFECTS
Analysis of eddy current signals is, for t h e most part, a comparative technique.
Calibration standards are necessary for comparing signal amplitude and phase (shape)
of unknown defects t o known calibration defects. Calibration signals a r e also used for
standardizing instrument settings, i.e., sensitivity and phase rotation.
Existing national specifications and standards only supply broad guidelines in choice
of t e s t parameters. They cannot b e used t o establish reliable ET procedures for most
inspections. Figure 6.9 shows a calibration plate proposed by t h e authors for general
application. The e f f e c t of t h e following can b e established using this plate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 0.
on ~CoNoucrlNc
0.2 m
1.0 mm
0.1
0.1 m
0.5 m
.05 "m
0.05 m
0.1 m
.Dl
tat
FRONl SIDE
FIGURE 6.9
Calibration Standard
I""
I""
More than one calibration plate would be required t o cover a complete range of
materials. A group of three would normally suffice, comprising base materials:
cm; bronze, p = 2 5 W
cm ;and Type 316 stainless steel,
aluminum alloy, p-4
P -74 uR. cm.
a.
Figure 6.10(a) illustrates eddy current signals obtained with a n absolute surface probe
from some of t h e calibration block defects. Figure 6.10(b) illustrates signals fro:n t h e
s a m e defects using a differential surface probe, similar t o t h a t in Figure 5.2(c).
0 . 5 mm DEEP
4 mm DEEP
4 mm DEEP
LIFT-OFF
L I FT -OFF
SURFACE DEFECTS
0 . 7 mm DEEP
0 . 7 mm DEEP
LIFT-OFF
SUBSURFACE DEFECTS
FIGURE 6.10
Eddy Current Signals With (a) Absolute and (b) Differentia1 Surface Probes
6.7
SUMMARY
Defect signal amplitude is a function of d e f e c t length, depth and closure (if a crack).
Signal phase is primarily a function of defect depth. For volumetric inspection of thin
material t h e following t e s t frequency should b e used:
f = 1.6 p / t 2
kHz
(5.7)
'i
There a r e few national standards governing eddy current inspections with surface
probes. For effective inspection, a calibration block should simulate t h e test piece
and contain appropriate surface and substrate d e f e c t s along with ferromagnetic
inclusions. Basic knowledge of phase lag and impedance diagrams is also required for
reliable analysis of eddy current indications.
INTRODUCTION
Tubes or rods up t o about 50 mm diameter can be inspected for defects with
encircling coils. Defect sensitivity in larger diameter components decreases because
t h e inspected volume increases while defect llvolume" remains t h e s a m e for a given
defect. For larger diameters, surface probes should b e used t o obtain higher defect
sensitivity, see Chapter 5.
The components can b e in t h e form of wire, bars or tubes and round, square,
rectangular or hexagonal in shape, as long as appropriate coil shapes a r e used.
Inspection is f a s t and efficient since a n encircling coil samples t h e complete
circumference of t h e component, allowing 100% inspection in one pass.
Defect detectability depends on disruption of eddy current flow. Therefore, t h e best
probe is t h e one which induces highest possible eddy current density in t h e region of
material t o be inspected, and perpendicular t o t h e defect.
When planning a n inspection, t h e following questions must first be answered:
For what type of defects is t h e inspection t o b e performed?
If cracks a r e expected, do they have directional properties?
Does t h e material or components in close proximity have ferromagnetic
proper ties?
Once these questions have been answered one c a n decide on suitable probe design,
t e s t frequency and calibration standards. With t h e proper procedures one can
discriminate between defect signals and false indications as well a s determine depth
once a defect is located. These procedures a r e based on a knowledge of impedance
diagrams and phase lag.
7.2
1--
TUBE
CENTERING D I S C S
REFERENCE C O l L
REFERENCE C O l L
(A)
(D)
INTERNAL PROBE, D l F F E R E N T I A L
( 0 ) E N C I R C L I N G PROBE, D I F F E R E N T I A L
FIGURE 7.1
-CI
/ / / A / / / / . / /
t
C O I L THICKNESS
C O I L SPACING
I:
C O I L WIDTH
J / / / / / / / / / / /
1
-TX.-
TUBE-COIL
CLEARANCE
t
///y//////////////////L
I
FIGURE 7.2
Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition (although they
could be wound in addition with similar results). When t h e two coils a r e over a flawf r e e area of test sample, there is no differential signal developed between t h e coils
since they a r e both inspecting identical material. However, when first one and then
t h e other of t h e two coils passes over a flaw, a differential signal is produced. They
have t h e advantage of being insensitive t o slowly varying properties such a s gradual
dimensional variations and temperature: t h e signals from two adjacent sections of a
test article continuously cancel. Probe wobble signals a r e also reduced with this
probe type. However, there a r e disadvantages; t h e signals may b e difficult t o
interpret, even t o t h e extent of being misleading. Defect signals under support plates
can be extremely complicated. The signal from a defect is displayed twice: once as
t h e first coil approaches t h e defect and again for t h e second coil. The two signals
from a mirror image and t h e signal direction from t h e first coil must be noted. If a
flaw is longer than t h e spacing between t h e two coils only t h e leading and trailing
edges will be detected due t o signal cancellation when both coils sense t h e flaw
equally.
I
I
SUPPORT PLATE P O S I T I O N
ABSOLUTE COIL
OIFFERENTIbL COILS
L
TRACE Wl TH L0SOLUTE PROBE
OISTINCE
W ~ L LLOSS
TRACE l l T H O l F F E R E N T l h L
PROBE
V COMPONENT
I C I
FIGURE 7.3
Eddy Current Y-Channel Recordings from a Brass Heat Exchanger Tube
An even more serious situation occurs with differential probes when t h e ends of a
flaw vary gradually; t h e defect may not b e observed at all. An example of this is
shown in Figure 7.3; this brass h e a t exchanger tube suffered general corrosion as well
a s localized corrosion on either side of a support plate. The gradual upward trend of
t h e Y-DISTANCE recording in Figure 7.3(b) shows t h e pronounced grooves a t A and B
a r e superimposed on a n a r e a of general wall thinning in t h e vicinity of t h e support
plate. Note t h e response of a differential probe t o t h e s a m e defect in Figure 7.3k).
The differential probe senses t h e localized grooves but t h e Y-DISTANCE recording
shows no indication of t h e gradual wall thinning which was apparent in Figure 7.3(b).
Table 7.1 compares advantages and disadvantages of t h e two probe types.
TABLE 7.1
COMPARISON OF ABSOLUTE AND DIFFERENTIAL PROBES
ADVANTAGES:
DISADVANTAGES:
ABSOLUTE PROBES
DIFFERENTIAL PROBES
not sensitive t o gradual changes in
properties or dimensions
immune to drift from temperature
changes
less sensitive t o probe wobble than a n
absolute probe
Directional Properties
When inspecting for defects, i t is essential t h a t flow of eddy currents b e as
perpendicular a s possible t o defects t o obtain maximum response. If eddy currents
flow parallel t o a defect there will be little distortion of t h e eddy currents and hence
little change in probe impedance.
The eddy current flow characteristics of circumferential internal or external probes
a r e listed and illustrated in Figure 7.4.
EOOV CURRENTS
EOOV
.-.
CURRENTS
EDDY
CURRENTS
EOOV WRRENTS
FIGURE 7.4
Directional Properties of Eddy Currents in Cylindrical Test Articles
In addition t o considerations of eddy current flow direction t h e following a r e
important:
7.2.4
Magnetic flux is not bounded by t h e tube wall but will induce eddy currents in
adjacent conducting material, e.g. tube support plates in h e a t exchangers.
Eddy current coils a r e sensitive t o ferromagnetic material introduced into a
coil's magnetic field. The ferromagnetic material need not be an electrical
conductor nor need i t form a closed path for eddy currents.
Eddy currents coils a r e sensitive t o all material variations t h a t affect
conductivity or permeability.
Probe Inductance
The equations quoted in Section 5.2.3 t o calculate inductance for surface probes a r e
also used t o calculate inductance of probes for testing tubes and cylinders. The
important aspect of inductance is t h a t probe impedance, which is a function of
inductance, must be compatible with eddy current instrument and signal cables,
where XL
2 'IF f L
resistance in ohms.
N = 225
N = 144
N=81
N = 49
N = 25
R = 35
L = 880
L = 490
R = 24
R = 14
L = 360
L = 200
R=9
R=5
R = 45
L = 1.24 mH
R = 18
L = 510
R=6
L = 160
L = 110
L = 64
R=3
R=2
R = 1.5
L = 59
R = l
L = 42
L = 23
R = 0.5 n
"
R = 0.4
R = 0.3
L = 20
L = 15 un
L = 11 UH
L = 6.1 Va
R = 55
L = 1.62 mH
R = 22
L = 660
R=8
L = 210
R=2
L = 77
R = 0.6 n
,,H
Do = 19.1 mm
Do = 15.9 mm
Do = 12.7 mm
Do = 8.9 mm
UH
R = 64
L = 2.02 m H
R = 26
L = 830
R=9
L = 260
R=3
L = 96
R = 0.7 n
L =25
Do = 22.2 mm
41 AWG
(0.071 mm)
39 AWG
(0.089 mm)
37 AWG
(0.1 1 mm)
34 AWG
(0.16 mm)
31 AWG
(0.23 mm)
Wire Size
Most eddy current instruments will o p e r a t e over a fairly broad range of probe
impedance without a substantial reduction in signal-to-noise ratio or signal
amplitude. An instrument input impedance of 100 ohms is typical, although a probe
impedance between 20 and 200 ohms is normally acceptable, unless t h e test
frequency is t o o close t o probe-cable resonance frequency, see Section 7.2.5. Exact
probe inductance calculations a r e therefore n o t essential.
To f a c i l i t a t e impedance calculations Table 7.2 has been prepared. This t a b l e lists coil
inductance and resistance (with probe i n air) f o r various diameters and w i r e sizes
while keeping coil cross section constant at 1.2 mm x 1.2 mm. (These dimensions a r e
fairly typical of t u b e wall thickness in h e a t exchangers). With t h e aid of this table,
and knowledge t h a t inductance is proportional t o t h e square of number of turns and
D ) , o n e c a n usually make a reasonable
t h e square of mean coil diameter ( L a N 2-2
e s t i m a t e of wire size and number of turns for a particular probe.
Probe-Cable Resonance
Probe-cable resonance must b e considered when operating at high test frequencies
and/or using long signal cables, e.g. frequencies over 100 kHz o r cables longer than
30 m. Most general purpose eddy c u r r e n t instruments cannot o p e r a t e at or close t o
resonance.
Probe-cable resonance can be modelled as shown in Figure 4.5. In simple terms,
resonance occurs when inductive r e a c t a n c e of t h e coil eauals capacitive r e a c t a n c e of
t h e cable, i.e. when
where
w
L
C
w = 2nf
1.
2.
3.
Reduce cable length o r use a cable with lower capacitance per unit length (such
as multi-coax cables). This will raise t h e resonance frequency since capacitance
is proportional t o cable length and f
is proportional to 1/ 8 ,
4..
is greater than
f,.
7.3
(7. l a )
for an encircling coil,
and
f o r a bobbin type internal coil,
is cylinder diameter
where
-D0
and
D
is average coil diameter
D~ is tube internal diameter
Fill-factor is always a quantity less than or equal t o one ( q < 1 . 0 ) For a coil
inside a tube t h e impedance change due t o decreasing is t h e s a m e as an increase in
(with constant wall thickness). For a coil around a tube o r cylinder, decreasing
D
is t h e s a m e a s decreasing Do.
ii)
- -.-.THIN
. WALL
TUBE
FREDUENCY ( 1 ) and
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
FIGURE 7.5
Simplified Impedance Diagram of a Long Coil Around a Nan-magnetic Thin-wall
Tube Showing Effect of Test and Material Variables
Impedance diagrams presented in t h e literature a r e often only strictly valid for long
coils (much longer than material thickness), coil lengths for inspection a r e normally
only a fraction of material diameter. Decreasing coil length has a n effect similar t o
decreasing fill-factor, i t causes t h e impedance diagram t o be smaller than expected
(but similar in shape) from coil and t e s t material geometry. Following sections will
present impedance diagrams for tubes and solid cylinders. For simplicity a fill-factor
of unity will b e used.
7.3.1
Solid Cylinders
The impedance diagram for a solid cylinder (diameter, Do ) inside a long coil is
shown in Figure 7.6. As in Figure 7.5 an increase in test frequency or diameter moves
t h e operating point (the point on t h e impedance diagram t h a t specifies the
normalized inductive reactance and resistance of t h e test coil) down t h e curve while
a n increase in resistivity moves i t up t h e curve. This diagram applies t o both wires
and round bars.
CREASING R E S I S T I V I T Y
DECREASING FILL-FACTOR
FIGURE 7.6
Impedance Diagram for a Solid Cylinder
The shape of impedance diagrams for cylinders differ markedly from a semicircle,
particularly at higher t e s t frequencies. The shape difference is due t o skin effect and
phase lag, factors which were not included in arriving at t h e semicircular shape in
Chapter 3. At high t e s t frequencies t h e curve approaches the X and Y axes at 45'.
LOW FREOUENCI
0
> 2
4
FIGURE 7.7
Schematic of Eddy Current Distribution in a Cylinder
Surrounded by an Encircling Coil
7.3.1.1
The magnetic flux density, 8,is approximately constant inside a long coil, hence
@ = BA
= (B) ( n r 2 )
where r is radial distance from centre of cylinder;
therefore,
s2 n r p=
*c
2nrp
u n i t length x u n i t depth
Since
and
by Ohm's Law
Z =
theref ore,
7.3.2
Tubes
The impedance diagram for an extremely thin-wall tube with either an internal or
external circumferential coil is a semicircle. This shape is only obtained when wall
thickness, t, is much less than skin depth (t < < 6 ) , i.e. skin effect and phase lag a r e
negligible. This situation will rarely be encountered in practice, especially at
intermediate and high test frequencies, but t h e concept is useful since i t defines one
of t h e coil impedance limits.
With an external coil t h e other limit is defined by t h e impedance curve for a solid
cylinder (maximum possible wall thickness). The impedance diagram for any tube
tested with an external coil, hence, has t o lie between t h e two broken curves in
Figure 7.8, for example the solid line applies t o a tube with internal diameter 80% of
ENCIRCLING COIL
----
CVLINOER ( O i = 0 )
=
=
TUBE ( D , /OD = 0 8 )
nu
u
z
w
,"
>
+
u
0
.-
d
.
=
=
w
NORIALIZED R E S I S T Y C E
FIGURE 7.8
Impedance Diagram for a Tube with Encircling Coil Showing Effect
of Decreasing Wall Thickness
N O W 1 L I Z E P RESISTANCE
FIGURE 7.9
Impedance Diagram for a Tube With Internal Coil Showing Effect
of Decreasing Wall Thickness
any given tube will again fall between t h e dashed curves a t intermediate frequencies
and approach t h e thin-wall curve a t low frequency and t h e thick-wall curve a t high
frequency as shown for tubes with D i / D o = 0.8 and 0.9. As in t h e previous
figure, a change in wall thickness produces a coil impedance change along t h e dotted
lines tracing a spiral shaped curve. Again, this departure from a semicircle is
attributed t o phase lag across t h e tube wall.
7.3.3
parameter in testing cylinders and tubes. However, most eddy current literature
refers t o a similar variable, t h e characteristic o r limit frequency, f usually
attributed t o Forster. I t differs from pc because probe radius, F, is replaced
with tube or cylinder dimensions.
is t h e frequency for which t h e Bessel function solution, t o
By definition, f
Maxwell% magnefic field equations for a finite test object, equals one. (Bessel
functions a r e similar to, but more complex than trigonometric sine and cosine
functions). For a solid cylinder or thick-wall t u b e tested with a n encircling coil,
I
fg
with
5.07~
2
"rDo
kHz
s.oze
2
, kHz
"rDi
The ratio f / f defines t h e operating point on impedance diagrams. For nonmagnetic materials ( 1 , frequency ratio for cylinders and thick-wall tubes
tested with external coils is given by
f/fg
f~~tlS.07p
5 0 1 1 0 CYLINDER ( E X T E 4 w L C O I L )
f / f , = f o o l / s or p
TWIN.@ALL
TUBE
( I N T E R I A L I EXTERNAL C O I L S )
' / t o = f O , ' / S o1p
0 .?
0 4
0.6
FIGURE 7.10
Impedance Diagrams f o r Tubes and Rods with Long Coils and Unity
Fill-factor Showing Variations of f/f Along Impedance Loci
g
Figure 7.10 shows impedance diagrams f o r thin-wall tubes, solid cylinders a n d thickwall tubes with values of f / f (from 0 t o infinity) on t h e curves. The impedance
plots a r e both different in shape and have drastically different f / f ratios. For
example, at t h e "knee" in t h e curves a thin-wall t u b e h a s f / f -1, for a cylinder
f / f g = 6 and a thick-wall t u b e has f / t g- 4
These differences originate in t h e
and D t
defining equations which contain 0 , , :D
T o find t h e operatin point
on an impedance diagram using frequency r a t i o o n e h a s t o know t h e geometry t u b e
o r cylinder). For tubes which do not satisfy t h e conditions f o r e i t h e r thin o r thick
wall, calculations of f I f is not possible e x c e p t near t h e t o p and bottom of
impedance diagrams where curves for intermediate wall tubes converge with t h e
thin-and thick-wall curves, respectively.
= f ~ ~ i 2 ~ 2 P l
7.3.4
FIGURE 7.11
Computer Simulation of Probe Response to Various Test Parameters
7.4
7.4.2
and converts t o
fgo
3p/t2
kilohertz
(7 .4)
where p i s resistivity in microhm-centimetres and t is t u b e wall thickness in millimetres. This equation is valid for both internal and external coil inspection and is
roughly independent of t u b e diameter. A t f 9 0 , t h e r e is good sensitivity t o internal
FIGURE 7.12
(a) Probe No. 1 Multi-pancake Coil Probe
(b) Probe No. 2 Zig-zag Coil Probe
CABLE
CONNECTOR
REFERENCE
COIL
SPRING
FIGURE 7.13
Spring Loaded Internal Surface Probe for Tube Inspections
A single surface probe is unquestionably t h e easiest t o use; signal analysis is discussed
in Chapter 6. The main disadvantage is t h e partial circumferential coverage;
multiple passes or helical scanning a r e necessary for 100% coverage. Another
disadvantage of t h e surface probe configuration (single or multiple) is t h e loss of
sensitivity with distance from t h e coil. If surface coils a r e small, a s will be t h e case
for most tube inspections, t h e reduction in sensitivity with distance from the surface
will be greater than with circumferential coils, see Section 5.3.1. The sensitivity t o
small localized defects originating frorn t h e outside surface could be a s much a s 10
times lower than t h e sensitivity t o internal defects. A zig-zag coil has less
attenuation t o outside defects, i t falls into t h e circumferential class in this respect.
Neither zig-zag nor surface coil probes will give uniform sensitivity around their
circumference. There will be peaks of maximum and minimum sensitivity depending
on t h e angle between eddy current path and defect orientation. This can best b e
visualized by considering a short circumferential crack passing over t h e coils: there
will b e areas, such as at t h e peaks of t h e zig-zag, where eddy current flow is almost
parallel t o t h e crack, resulting in poor sensitivity.
Figure 7.14 shows examples of signal response t o real circumferential fatigue cracks
with t h e probes discussed above.
( I ) MULTl
-PANCAKE
COl L PROBE
(b)
216-ZAG
COIL PROBE
+
y +
(c)
BOBBIN
m l L ROBE
+
Y
FIGURE 7.14
Eddy Current Scans of Circumferential Cracks in Inconel Tubing
(Signal Amplitude Normalized to a 1.6 mm Diameter
Through Hole). f = 400 kHz.
7.6
SUMMARY
Test coils induce eddy currents and also sense t h e distortion of their flow caused by
defects. Encircling or bobbin probes have test coil(s1 mounted with their axes parallel
t o t h e tube or rod axis. Since t h e coils a r e wound circumferentially the induced eddy
currents also flow circumferentially. They cannot b e used t o detect circumferential
cracks, laminar defects, nor defects in the center of a rod.
As a general guideline for t u b e inspection, probe coil length, depth, and spacing (if
differential) should approximately equal wall thickness.
An absolute bobbin probe (single test coil) should b e used f o r general in-service h e a t
exchanger inspection. However, f o r short localized defects, differential probes (two
test coils side-by-side) are normally preferred.
kHz
where
is used where t is wall thickness in mm. This frequency yields 90" phase separation
between internal and external d e f e c t signals and l i t t l e sensitivity t o magnetic
deposits and ferromagnetic support plates.
Special probes a r e needed t o inspect for circumferential c r a c k s o r d e f e c t s close t o
tubesheets. Single, spring loaded, s u r f a c e probes a r e effective.
7.7
WORKED EXAMPLES
7.7.1
f D&
flfl
therefore
5.07p
- 6
6 x 5.07 x 10
52
=
12 kHz
7.7.2 (a)
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
= 245 kHz
(1.11~
Therefore 245 kHz is the required frequency.
7.7.2 (b)
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
f / f g = fDi/5.07 P
= 245 x (10.2)
(7.3~)
2
1 5 . 0 7 . ~98
SOLUTION:
= 0.5
therefore
f
(0.5) (5.07p)/Dit
= 0.5 x 5.07 x 98/10.2 x 1.1 = 22 kHz
93
- SIGNAL ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing and in-service inspection of tubes is one of t h e most important
applications of eddy current testing. For in-service inspection of small-bore tubing in
particular, eddy current is by f a r t h e most frequently used method. Access is usually
limited t o tube ends which makes other NDT techniques difficult or impossible t o
apply.
This chapter emphasizes in-service testing of tubes using internal probes. This
approach is taken because testing of solid cylinders and tubes with external coils
(manufacturing inspection) is generally less complicated. If t h e reader understands inservice inspection he should encounter no problem applying similar principles t o other
t e s t situations.
Reasons for t h e appearance of impedance plane eddy current signals a r e presented
first. Repetition from previous chapters is intentional, i t was desired t o keep this
chapter a s independent a s possible without excessive cross-referencing. Discussion of
simple defect indications is followed by superimposed signals which a r e frequently
encountered during in-service inspection such a s defects a t baffle plates and
tubesheets. A section dealing with surface probe internal tube inspection is included,
difficult test situations have been resolved with this technique. Signals which could
be mistaken for real defects (anomalous indications) a r e t h e subject of another
section. The chapter concludes with a discussion of multifrequency testing, including
its advantages and limitations.
An a t t e m p t is made throughout this chapter t o illustrate discussion with real or
simulated eddy current defect signals.
8.2
8.2.1
ohms
R~ = 2 n T p l t
@.la)
Introduction of a long defect, of depth h, which constricts eddy current flow over t h e
(in radians), increases total resistance t o
distance
or R =
R,
124-
(defect f r e e resistance)
AR
(due t o defect).
FIGURE 8.1
Schematic Illustration of Eddy Curr a t Distribution
A r o d a Defect in a Tube
The angle between fill-factor and d e f e c t signals in Figure 8.2(b) is about 2 0 , where
Although probably not strictly true, o n e can imagine d e f e c t signal
0
x / 6.
phase angle as t h e sum of a lag of 8 f r o m t h e coil t o t h e d e f e c t and t h e s a m e lag back
t o t h e coil.
E f f e c t of T e s t Frequency
W e can now combine Figure 8.2 results with impedance diagrams from Chapter 7 t o
illustrate t h e e f f e c t of test frequency on d e f e c t signal appearance. Figure 8.3(a)
shows part of Figure 7.9, t h e impedance diagram for a t u b e with D I/ D o = 0.8
t e s t e d with a short internal coil. T h e d o t t e d lines t r a c e t h e impedance change with
decreasing Do. An external d e f e c t (OD d e f e c t ) i n a t u b e is essentially a decrease in
D, with D held constant, t h e r e f o r e t h e d o t t e d lines t r a c e t h e change in impedance
a s a coil is scanned past a n OD defect. N o t e the similarity between t h e subsurface
defect in Figure 8.2(b) and t h e O D d e f e c t at 2 f g o in Figure 8.3(a). The display is
normally r o t a t e d counter-clockwise to m a k e a signal from fill-factor approximately
horizontal. This is achieved by rotating t h e phase control knob on t h e eddy current
instrument.
FILL - t l C T O l
SUBSURFACE
DEFECT 1 1 2 1
FIGURE 8.2
Derivation of Eddy Current Signal Appearance f w Three Types of Defects
With this phase setting and at f gg a n OD d e f e c t shows wall loss (tY)in a tube
without a chan e in fill-factor as in Figure 8.3(b). An ID d e f e c t consists of wall loss
(+Y component as well as a large fill-factor (-X component) because of decreased
coil/tube coupling. The through-wall d e f e c t (hole) signal contains elements of both ID
and O D d e f e c t s and hence yields a signal which falls between t h e two. Note t h a t all
d e f e c t signals must fall between decreasing fill-factor and O D d e f e c t signals.
FIGURE 8.3(a)
Relation Between Impedance Diagram and Defect Signal Appearance
OD DEFECT
THROUGH-WALL
DEFECT
I D DEFECT
DECREASING F I L L FACTOR
-Y
PROBE
WOBBLE
PROBE
PROBE
WOBBLE
FIGURE 8.4
Appearance of Calibration Defect Signals at D i f f e r e n t Test Frequencies
8.2.3
STEEL
SUPPORT P L A T E
, . . ...
OUTSIDE
GROOVE
l NS l DE
GROOVE
THROUGH
HOLE
MAGNETITE
I I
OUTS l DE
HO!E
IECREASING
F I L L FACTOR
OUTSIDE
MAGNETITE
SUPPORT
PLATE
DIFFERENTIAL
FIGURE 8.5
Eddy Current Signals from a Typical Calibration Tube.
Test Frequency fgo = 250 kHz.
S t 1 0 GROOVE
2.5 nm W I D E
1 0 % 0 0 GROOVE
2 , s IMI l l D E
1 d nm
HOLE
0.15 m
DENT
CARBON STEEL
SUPPORT
I
I
Y CHANNEL
'
FIGURE 8.6
Appearance of Quadrature Components on a Chart
R e a d i n g for a Calibration Tube
l .D.
DEFECTS
0.0.
0 .D.
DEFECTS
THROUGH
DEFECT
( b ) ABSOLUTE
THROUGH
( 0 ),
DEGREES
FIGURE 8.7
Eddy Current Phax AngIelDefect Depth Calibration Curve at fqo
Figure 8.8 shows external corrosion in a copper tube. Attack is general but nonuniform with localized severe pitting. An absolute internal probe was used t o obtain
signals from artificial defects and three of t h e localized pits. The phase angle of t h e
first two corrosion indications shows they a r e OD defects, comparison with t h e
calibration defect led t o a depth estimate of 25 t o 50%. Independent mechanical
measurement found deepest penetration t o be 50% for both defects. The third defect
has a noticeably different phase angle from t h e first two. I t approaches t h e angle for
a through-wall hole, hence its depth was estimated t o be 50 t o 75% (actual
measurement yielded 75%).
CALIBRATION
DEFECTS
CORROSION
DEFECTS
25% OD
ECCENTRIC
"'4
10% ID
ECCENTRIC
GROOVE
FIGURE 8.8
E a d Corrosion in a Copper Tube
An example of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in Type 316 stainless steel, from a
heavy water plant heat exchanger, is shown in Figure 8.9. The crack extends nearly
half way around t h e tube. Phase angle of t h e crack signal shows i t extends through
t h e tube wall. Since t h e eddy currents flow parallel t o coil windings, circumferentially, t h e large crack signal is due entirely t o t h e component of t h e crack along
t h e tube axis. The intergranular, branching nature of SCC generally permits their
detection. Since a defect must disrupt eddy current flow t o be detectable, if
circumferential cracks are suspected, fatigue cracks for example, special probes are
required, see Section 7.5 and 8.2.5.
5 0 0 ~
CONCEPJTQ IC
GQOOVE
3 . 2 rnm
HOLE
HOLE
C A L I B R A T ION
DEFECTS
FIGURE 8.9
Stress Corrosion Cracking in Type 316 Stainless Steel Tubing
8.2.4
OD
GROOVE
FIGURE 8.10
Vectorial Addition of Eddy Current Signals
Figure 8.1 1(a) shows a section of stainless s t e e l t u b e removed from a power plant
h e a t exchanger with part of t h e carbon steel support p l a t e still in place. T h e support
shows considerable corrosion; originally t h e r e was about 0.25 mm clearance between
t h e tube and t h e hole in t h e plate. Corrosion products have completely filled t h e gap
leading t o crevice corrosion evident in Figure 8.1 1(b) which is a similar t u b e with t h e
plate removed. Calibration signals a r e presented in Figure 8. I l k ) . T h e eddy current
signal from t h e baffle plate region of Figure 8.1 l(a) is shown in Figure 8.1 l(d). This
seemingly simple signal is actually quite complex. T h e upward component is d u e t o
external pitting similar t o t h a t in Figure 8.1 1(b). T h e presence of a support plate
should result in -X, -Y signal components; in f a c t a + X deflection is observed. This is
t h e result of denting of t h e tube. Denting is circumferential constriction of tubes
d u e to compressive stresses e x e r t e d by baffle p l a t e corrosion products such as
magnetite. The presence of m a g n e t i t e c a n also contribute t o signal distortion
particularly at low test frequencies. Tube denting is of concern because, in addition
t o complicating eddy current signal analysis, i t c a n lead t o further t u b e damage such
as stress corrosion cracking o r thermal f a t i g u e because tubes a r e no longer f r e e t o
expand and c o n t r a c t during t h e r m a l cycling.
FIGURE 8.1 1
Corrosion and Denting Under a Steel Baffle Plate
(Do = 15.9 mm, t = 1.25 mm, fm = 80 kHz)
Another example of defects near a carbon steel tube support is shown in Figure 8.12.
These were obtained from a brass, thermal power plant condenser tube which
suffered erosion/corrosion on either side of supports. This is t h e same tube as in
Figure 7.3. Defect signals from t h e baffle plate vicinity a r e so large t h e support
signal is obscured. The main point of this example is t h e advantage of using phase
angle, rather than amplitude, t o judge defect severity. Defect B with both
differential and absolute probes has a phase angle approaching t h a t of a through-wall
hole, i.e., i t probably extends at least 75% through t h e wall. Defect A on t h e other
hand is vertical and hence is probably no deeper than 50% even though i t exhibits
greater amplitude than B.
DEFECT
SlCNlLS
1 . 6 *n
HOLE
l a 1 C P L I U R P I I O N DFFECT SIGNPLS
FIGURE 8.12
Quadrature Eddy Current Signals from the Brass Tube in figure 7.3
To this point we have only considered ferromagnetic tube supports, carbon steel is
t h e material used in most heat exchangers. With magnetic baffle plates vectorial
addition appears t o apply for all types of defects. Unfortunately deteriorating water
quality, denting problems and longer service life requirements have made i t necessary
t o construct some heat exchangers with non-ferromagnetic support plates. Vectorial
addition of eddy current signals involving nonmagnetic supports is generally not valid.
Several factors contribute t o this situation, nonmagnetic supports yield much larger
signals than magnetic supports. The larger signal from nonmagnetic baffle plates
effectively reduces signal-to-noise making small defects more difficult t o detect.
Possibly t h e most difficult defects t o detect under non-magnetic supports are those
of t h e same width as t h e plate, e.g., fretting wear from tube vibration.
Figure 8.13(a) illustrates such a situation, a brass baffle plate with a copper-nickel
tube containig simulated 50% deep fretting wear. The same defect with a magnetic
baffle plate is shown in figure 8.13(b) for comparison.
Problems in detecting defects at non-magnetic supports cannot be overcome by
employing a multifrequency eddy current technique. he-frequency approach
relies on vectorial addition being valid (Section 8.4). Sensitivity can be improved by
employing special probes as will be shown in Section 8.2.6.
ir
MAXIMUM GAP
OD GROOVE
BAFFLE WITH
nnxrnun
GAP
BRASS B A F F L E
I N CONTACT
BRASS
BAFFLE
MAGNETIC
BAFFLE
FIGURE 8.13
Wear Under (a) Non-Ferromagnetic and (b) Ferromagnetic Baffle Plates
8.2.5
Occasionally one may encounter a tubesheet clad with a corrosion resistant alloy such
as stainless steel or Inconel. If t h e dadding is non-magnetic t h e same complications
arise a s with non-magnetic baffle plates (Section 8.2.4). Fortunately, most tubesheets
a r e only d a d on t h e primary side (near tube ends) where service related defects
rarely occur.
- -LXPLNSION SIGNAL
FIGURE 8.14
Schematic of Tube Geometry a t Rolled Joint in Tubesheet
and Associated Eddy Current Signals
5.2.6
TUBE SHEET
70% OD
DEFECT
1 . 6 mm
HOLE\
70% OD
DEFECT
'
1 . 6 mm
TUBESHEET
CONVENTIONAL
PROBE
SURFACE
PROBE
FIGURE 8.15
Comparison of Eddy Current Test Results in Heat Exchanger Tubesheet
Region with Conventional and Surface Probes
(Do = 12.5 mm, t = 1.2 mm, fgo = 200 kHz)
Figure 8.15 illustrates surface probe testing at t h e tubesheet region of a power plant
s t e a m generator. I t compares signals, from what is believed t o be OD corrosion
damage at t h e end of t h e rolled joint, obtained with conventional and surface probes.
The reason for t h e characteristic A'B'C' s u r f a c e probe signal is as follows. As t h e
probe is withdrawn from t h e t u b e (direction of arrow) it encounters t h e s t a r t of t h e
expanded area. Failure of t h e probe to follow this contour exactly results in a n
increasing lift-off signal, A'R', superimposed on t h e impedance change, A'C', due t o
t h e presence of t h e tubesheet. Both d e f e c t signals were obtained f r o m t h e s a m e
tube, n o t e t h e considerable improvement in sensitivity obtained with t h e surface
probe. This t u b e was in f a c t leaking.
50% OD
ECCENTRIC
GROOVE
GAP
CALI RR4TIOIJ
-
50% GROOVC
BAFFLE
(MAXIMUMGAP)
50% GROOVE
BAFFLE
(NO GAP)
FIGURE 8.16
Internal Surface Probe Testing for Fretting Wear mder a
Non-Magnetic Baffle Plate. (Compare with Figure 8.13 Results)
8.3.1
GROOYC
GROOVE
I.lmn
J@
1.0.
OECREASlNG F I L L FACTOR
OW
DECREASING F I L L FACTOR
%
C,
FIGURE 8.17
Coil Impedance Display at Two Test Frequencies
I.D.
DEFECT
/
'
f
2 5 0 kHz
FERROMAGNETIC
INCLUSION
\ FERROMAGNETIC
INCLUSION
50 kHz
INCLUSION
10 kHz
FIGURE 8.18
Defect and Magnetic Inclusion Signals Obtained from a New Inconel
600 Tube (Do= 13 mm, t = 1.1 mm) with an Absolute External Coil.
f go = 250 kHz
I 0.0.
DEFECT
T
1 . 0 . DEFECT
l NTERNAL
MAGNET l TE
250 k H z
MAGNETITE
'
MAGNET l TE
50 kHz
10 k H z
FIGURE 8.19
Defect and Magnetite Signals from an Inconel 600 Tube
(Do = 13 mm, t = 1.1 mm) Obtained with an Absolute
Internal Probe. fgO = 250 kHz)
O.D.
GROOVE
DENT
+A~
MAGNET l TE
BAFFLE
f2
f =;
BAFFLE
PLATE
BAFFLE
PLATE
f3
= 400
kHz
BAFFLE
PLATE
= 200 kHz
SO kHz
MAGNET l TE
MAGNET l TE
f , = s o kHz
f*
= 200
kHz
fj
400 kHz
FIGURE 8.20
Eddy Current Signals from Monel 000 Tube at Baffle Plate Location.
(f 90 = 100 kHz)
Conducting Deposits
T h e most probable conducting deposit which may b e encountered during in-service
t u b e testing is copper. Copper taken i n t o solution in o n e p a r t of a cooling circuit,
from brass tubes for example, c a n re-deposit at another location at t h e expense of a
less noble metal such as iron. An example is shown in Figure 8.21 which is a copperalloy t u b e from a n a i r conditioner h e a t exchanger. Copper deposits occur near tube
supports, maximum thickness was 0.05 mm. Even such a thin deposit yields a large
eddy current signal since copper is a good conductor. Figure 8.21 shows response from
both absolute and differential internal probes. T h e absolute probe gave eddy current
Ill
AQSOLUTE
Copper D e p o s i t s
DIFFERENTIAL
DEPOSIT SISNALS
FIGURE 8-21
Eddy Current Indications from Copper Deposits on a Copper Alloy Tube
(Do = 19 mm, t = 1.1 mm, fgo = 57 kHz)
Figure 8.22 shows simulated copper deposit signals at different test frequencies.
There is a noticeable change in phase angle with increasing deposit thickness as well
there exists a possibility that deposits
as test frequency. At frequencies above f
could be mistaken for ID defects, even with an absolute probe. The procedure for inservice inspection of nuclear power plant boilers specified by ASME (11)leads t o test
4 - 7Q% OD ECCENTRIC L R O O Y T
B - 10%ID CONCENTRIC GROOVE
C - 0.13 rnm THICK COPPER AROIJUD 'Ij9::
1.0
FIGURE 8.22
Eddy Current Signals Obtained with an Internal Circumferential Probe
from Simulated Copper Deposits on Tubes
8.4
THROUGH
WALL HOLE
BAFFLE
PLATE
MAGNET1 TE
1.3 mm
15.5 mm
I
CALIBRATION TUBE
f , =20 kHz
f , =I00 kHz
f , =500 kHz
FIGURE 8.23
Internal Probe Response to Various Test Parameters.
f g o = 130kHz.
f , = 2 0 kHz
1 , = 100 kHz
(a)
FIGURE 8.24
Eddy Current Signal at Baffle Plate Position in Tube of Figure 8.1 1
fg0 = 130 kHz.
These signals c a n then b e combined to eliminate unwanted signals and leave only t h e
d e f e c t signal. This method is only e f f e c t i v e if a d e f e c t signal differs
characteristically f r o m unwanted signals and if signals a r e vectorially additive. T h e
first condition makes detection of internal defects, in t h e presence of internal
variations, impossible. T h e second requirement makes t h e method ineffective for
detection of f r e t t i n g wear under non-ferromagnetic baffle plates (Section 8.2.4). As a
consequence of combining signals from t h r e e different frequencies, d e f e c t signal
amplitude decreases and instrument noise increases.
Eddy current penetration and phase lag a r e a function of frequency; increasing test
frequency reduces penetration and increases phase lag. Since a n eddy current signal is
a function of c u r r e n t density and phase lag, i t is possible to change t h e response t o
various signal sources by changing test frequency.
If o n e simulates a h e a t exchanger t u b e with d e f e c t s , deposits, dents and support
plates, o n e obtains t h e following results:
(a) at high frequencies, only internal d e f e c t s a n d dents a r e detectable, Figure
8.23(c).
(b) at intermediate frequencies, all f e a t u r e s a r e d e t e c t a b l e and t h e r e is phase
discrimination between internal and external d e f e c t signals (because of phase
lag across t h e wall) and o t h e r signals, Figure 8.23(b).
(c) at low frequencies, baffle plates and m a g n e t i t e deposits yield predominant
signals with l i t t l e phase separation between internal and external d e f e c t
signals, Figure 8.23(a).
With this background in mind, o n e can decide which combination of frequencies
should be used t o eliminate extraneous (unwanted) signals. The following t w o
examples illustrate these effects.
F o r t h e dented t u b e example described in Section 8.2.3 (Figure 8.1 11, t h e extraneous
signals making up t h e composite signal at f = 100 kHz c a n be determined by reinspecting t h e t u b e at higher and lower t e s t frequencies. If t h e signals from t h e
actual d e f e c t in Figure 8.24 a r e compared with t h e corresponding calibration signals
in Figure 8.23, o n e c a n see at 500 kHz t h e signal is primarily from a d e n t while t h a t
at 20 kHz contains a large baffle p l a t e signal component.
Multifrequency Testing of Dented Tubes
With a single frequency eddy c u r r e n t inspection, t u b e supports and dents tend t o mask
signals from t u b e d a m a e under t u b e supports. This makes detection and estimation
of severity difficult a n time-consuming. In t h e remaining section w e show how
multifrequency simplifies t h e inspection of t h e dented t u b e described previously.
= defect
20 kHz
100 kHz
.
fa
500 kHz
FIGURE 8.25
Tube Stripping Sequence by Multif requency
As shown in Figure 8.23, the signal at each baffle plate is a composite signal
comprising a baffle plate, magnetite deposit (or baffle plate corrosion products), dent
and defect signal. Figure 8.26 illustrates elimination of baffle plate and magnetite
signals. The probe is moved back-and-forth under t h e baffle plate and t h e signal is
monitored on the storage scope in t h e chopping mode, where both frequency signals
a r e displayed simultaneously.
BPFFLE
PLPTE
BPFFlE
PLPTE
1
%
FIGURE 8.26
Suppression of Baffle Plate and Magnetite Signals
DENT
FIGURE 8.27
Suppression of Dent Signal
Figure 8.27 illustrates how one c a n eliminate t h e 'denting' signal from t h e resultant
= f 2 -f 1) signal. This is achieved by f i r s t matching t h e phase and amplitude
(c
cl and f 3 'dent' signals and then using a second mixing module ( C ) for
of
subtract~on.
he
Figure 8.28 t r a c e s t h e above sequence f o r two defective tubes, and shows t h e eddy
current signal becoming simpler t o analyze with e a c h step. On comparing d e f e c t i v e
t u b e signals with those from a calibration tube, o n e observes t h e f 2 d e f e c t signal is
distorted by t h e baffle plate, dent and/or m a g n e t i t e deposit. The C 1 signal is only
distorted from t h e dent signal, a n d C 2 is a clear signal indicating outside diameter
(OD) pits approximately 50% deep. Even a n inexperienced inspector could analyse
these results.
FIGURE 8.28
Multif requency Eddy Current Signals from Defective Tube
SUMMARY
D e f e c t signal amplitude is a function of i t s axial and circumferential e x t e n t as well
a s depth. Defect signal phase is primarily a function of depth. For general purpose
volumetric inspection of h e a t exchanger tubes, a suitable test frequency is
fgO
3 p / t 2 , kHz
(7.4)
Signal response from most significant service induced defects is usually comparable
in amplitude t o t h a t from a 1.6 m m diameter through hole. Stress corrosion cracking,
general corrosion and fretting wear give large signals whereas pitting corrosion and
fatigue cracks give small signals.
Testing for fretting wear under non-ferromagnetic support plates is difficult and
unreliable with bobbin type probes, because defect and support plate signals a r e not
vectorially additive. A surface type probe should be used.
Multifrequency equipment can be used t o eliminate unwanted components from
complex signals such as support plates and probe wobble. This greatly simplifies
signal analysis.
INTRODUCTION
O n e c a n find numerous r e f e r e n c e s in NDT publications dealing with eddy current
measurement of material properties, such as chemical composition, hardness,
strength, corrosion damage, d e g r e e of cold work a n d e x t e n t of both carburization and
decarburization. In f a c t , none of t h e s e properties and material conditions a r e
measured directly. Eddy c u r r e n t testing is sensitive t o material properties through
their e f f e c t of resistivity and magnetic permeability. As such, eddy currents only
provide indirect measurement of material properties and c a r e must be taken t o
ensure t h a t s o m e unforseen m a t e r i a l variation does n o t lead t o false conclusions. Two
precautions will help avoid f a l s e test results:
(a)
(b)
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
F a c t o r s Affecting Resistivity
All materials possess intrinsic resistance t o electron flow (current) which is t e r m e d
resistivity ( P , microhm-centimetres). T h e resistance of a conductor is given by
R = O ~ / A
ohms
1721
+ aAT)
P = p0(1
TABLE 9.1
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF COMMON CONDUCTORS AT 20C
MATERIAL
CONDUCTIVITY
(siemensjm)
RESISTIVITY
( ~ .cm)
n
CONDUCTIVITY
( % IACS)
Silver
Copper
Cold
Aluminum
7075-T6 (A1 Alloy)
Zinc
Magnesium
Admiralty Brass
Iron
Phosphor Bronze
Lead
70 Cu-30 Ni
Monel
Zirconium
Ti taniurn
304 SST
Zircaloy-2
Inconel 600
Hastelloy X
W aspaloy
Ti-6A 1-4V
Alloying normally increases resistivity. Figure 9.2 shows even small alloy additions t o
aluminum can increase resistivity appreciably. T h e conductivity of binary Cu-Ni
COPPER
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
TEMPERATURE ('K )
FIGURE
9.1
- -- Effect of Temperture on the Resistivity of Copper, Platinum and Titanium
3L
I
MANGANESE
1.0
2.0
ALLOY
3.0
4.0
5.0
CONTENT (mass
6.0
%)
FIGURE 9.2
Effect of Alloying Elements on the Electrical Resistivity of Aluminum.
COPPER/NICKEL ALLOYS
20
100
80
60
40
MASS
60
MASS
80
100
20
COPPER
40
% NICKEL
FIGURE 9.3
Variation in Electrical Conductivity of Nickel-Copper Alloys with Composition
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(el
--
10
TIME AT TEMPERATURE
I
100
(h)
1000
FIGURE 9.4
Variation of Mechanical Properties and Conductivity in 7075-T6
Aluminum Exposed at 205OC
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
For eddy current purposes one can classify materials as ferromagnetic (magnetic) or
non-ferromagnetic (nonmagnetic). Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials c a n be
considered nonmagnetic. Ferromagnetism has i t s origin in a quantum mechanics
e f f e c t , t h e "exchange interaction". I t occurs in t h e e l e m e n t s iron, cobalt, nickel and
s o m e of t h e r a r e e a r t h metals. These elements have partially filled d and f electron
shells. Alloying with elements which have a higher electron to atom r a t i o fills t h e s e
d and f shells and makes t h e resulting alloys less magnetic, e.g., copper added t o
nickel (Monel) and chromium added t o iron (stainless steel).
T h e main f e a t u r e separating magnetic from nonmagnetic materials is magnetic
permeability, P which is a measure of a material's intrinsic ability t o conduct
magnetic flux. I t is defined as t h e induced magnetic flux density, 0, divided by
external rnagnetic field intensity (magnetizing force), H,
4n x
lo-'
weberrlampere-metre
(dimensionless)
= pluo
9.3.1
= 1.0.
Magnetic Hysteresis
When a material is magnetized in a coil, t h e magnetic field intensity, H, is
proportional to coil current. If alternating current is applied t o a magnetizing coil a
a-H loop results as shown in Figure 9.5. As H increases from z e r o f o r t h e f i r s t time,
B increases along t h e DC curve, path No. 1. When H decreases, B also decreases but
along path No. 2. T h e difference between paths 1 a n d 2 is t e r m e d hysteresis. When H
has fallen to z e r o and residual flux density remains in t h e material, B, , called
retentivity or residual flux density. On decreasing H f u r t h e r (reverse or negative
current) flux density decreases t o zero at H c which is t h e coercive magnetic
intensity o r coercive force. Decreasing H still f u r t h e r drives t h e curve to point S 1.
Additional A C cycles will r e t r a c e t h e loop. A t point S 2 t h e material is s a t u r a t e d ,
from S 2 t o S 3 t h e B-H curve is linear with slope lJO Flux density at
saturation depends on material; carbon s t e e l s a t u r a t e s a t about B = 2 tesla whereas
Monel 400 s a t u r a t e s at about 0.3 tesla.
*Conversion: 1 t e s 1a
FIGURE 9.5
Hysteresis (or B-H) Loop
9.3.2
Magnetic Permeability
F o r eddy c u r r e n t inspection of ferromagnetic materials several kinds of permeability
play a n important role. Normal permeability, U r , is a measure of a material's
ability to conduct magnetic flux; it is a n important f a c t o r when determining t h e ease
with which a magnetic material c a n b e saturated.
Another permeability of concern in ET is incremental o r recoil permeability, P A .It
is defined as
vA
ABlAH
MAGNETIZING FORCE I A l m l
FIGURE 9.6
In a magnetic material
A t H=O w e have t h e relative initial permeability, Pi
without a biasing DC magnetic field, t h e normal permeability is equal t o t h e
incremental p r m e a b i l i t y ,
In eddy current testing, test coil inductance and depth of penetration a r e influenced
by incremental permeability not normal permeability. However, throughout this
report i t is assumed t h a t t h e e d d y current test is performed without DC bias and with
a low magnetizing f o r c e (low alternating coil current). In this case, V, = V A ,and
is used in t h e skin depth and inductance equations
f o r simplification purposes
and impedance diagrams; ur is used throughout t h e manual t o d e n o t e incremental
permeability ( uA) unless otherwise stated. In addition, all permeabilities
described h e r e a f t e r in t h e t e x t of t h e manual a r e relative permeabilities and a r e
therefore dimensionless.
FIGURE 9.7
Magnetization Curve, Incremental Permeability and Normal Permeability
f o r a 3Re60 T u b e Sample
9.3.3
as a result of cold work. The 300 series stainless steels can also become
ferromagnetic as a result of welding, a magnetic delta ferrite phase forms during
solidification.
I
I
I - - - - - - - - - - - -,,-,--_----=-I
_ _ _ - - -- .-400
- - 800-1200 ---------
_____-------
--'--rust r . 2 3 ,
FIGURE 9.8
Magnetization Curves for Various M o d 400 Samples
--
l0OL
---
A U S T E N I T I C STAINLESS STEEL
I COLD WORK
FIGURE 9.9
Variation of Relative Permeability with Cold Reduction
for Various Austenitic Stainless Steels (2)
6 MPa
NO S T R E S S
'24 MPa
AYNEALLEO 1RON
25
50
M A G N E T I Z I N G FORCE
75
100
( A ,m
FIGURE 9.10
Effect of Elastic Strain on the Magnetization of Iron (9)
Figure 9.10 shows changes in B-H curves for iron with internal stress. Note t h a t t h e s e
stress levels a r e purely elastic, well below t h e yield strength. The changes in B-H
(and permeability) a r e d u e t o magnetostr iction.
The above examples illustrate t h e inherent variability of B-H and hence permeability
of ferromagnetic materials. Incremental permeability a f f e c t s a n eddy current coil's
inductance as well as depth of eddy current penetration i n t o a material. T h e large
variations in permeability shown above make conventional eddy current testing for
d e f e c t s in magnetic materials very difficult if not impossible.
T h e best solution t o eddy current testing of a magnetic material for d e f e c t s is t o
bring i t t o a condition where U A = 1.0
A few slightly magnetic materials can b e
heated above their C u r i e temperature to make t h e m nonmagnetic. Monel 400 heated
t o between 50 and 70C has been tested in this manner. Most materials have t o o
high a Curie t e m p e r a t u r e t o b e t e s t e d by this approach. The only other way to
decrease P A t o unity is by magnetic saturation. This t o p i c is t r e a t e d in a
subsequent section.
9.4
9.4.1
where L
is primary coil (probe) inductance,
lJr U A is t h e cylinder's
incremental permeability and D,
i t s diameter. An increase in permeability o r
diameter will increase coil inductance. By a similar t r e a t m e n t to t h a t presented in
Chapter 3, one can g e n e r a t e t h e impedance diagrams of Figure 9.11. Figure 9.1 1 (a) is
obtained by plotting t h e encircling coil impedance normalized to t h e inductive
r e a c t a n c e in air. It illustrates t h e e f f e c t of permeability a n d cylinder diameter. As
permeability or cylinder d i a m e t e r increases (with constant coil d i a m e t e r ) coil
impedance increases drastically. (This explains t h e good response to ferromagnetic
inclusions and deposits discussed in Sections 6.5.1 and 8.3.1). There is no phase
separation and hence no discrimination between variations in permeability and
cylinder diameter. However, t h e r e is about 90 phase separation a n d hence excellent
discrimination between variations in permeability and resistivity.
( a 1 CYLINDER
( b ) CYLINDER
( c ) PLATE
FIGURE 9.1 1
Simplified Impedance Diagrams for Ferromagnetic Cylinders and Plates
70
329
10
STAINLESS STEEL
20
30
90
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
FIGURE 9.12
Experimental Normalized Impedance Diagrams for Three Types 329
Stainless Steel Samples Tested with a Long Encircling Coil
9.4.2
Impedance Diagrams
Figure 9.12 shows experimental impedance curves f o r t h r e e different Type 329
stainless steel samples t e s t e d with long encircling coils. These curves differ markedly
from a semicircle at t h e lower section of t h e impedance diagram, w h e r e t h e curve
approaches t h e Y-axis at 4 5 O rather than 90'. These curves a r e nearly identical in
shape t o t h a t presented in Figure 7.6 f o r a nonmagnetic cylinder. But, while t h e
nonmagnetic curve intersects t h e r e a c t a n c e axis (Y-axis) at 1.0, t h e Figure 9.12
curves intersects this axis at their respective V r values. Magnetic saturation of
these samples would reduce t h e m t o a common curve intersecting t h e axis at 1.0.
This figure is another example of typical permeability variations which may be
encountered in supposedly "identical1' samples.
INCREASING PROCE
CIAMETER
INCREASING
FREOUENCY
PERMEAEILITY
INCREASING
RESISTIVITY
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
FIGURE 9.13
Impedance Diagram for Ferromagnetic Material Showing
Effect of Material and Test Parameters
Figure 9.13 shows a n a c t u a l surface probe impedance diagram for magnetic material.
T h e shape differs appreciably from a semicircle. Most test variables have a similar
e f f e c t on t h e impedance diagram as for surface probes on nonmagnetic material
(Section 5.5). To measure magnetic permeability in t h e presence of lift-off noise,
probe diameter and test frequency should be chosen to o p e r a t e in region A.
Eddy current inspection of magnetic materials for d e f e c t s is difficult or impossible
because of random permeability variation as discussed in Section 9.3.3. In addition
t h e r e a r e skin depth limitations. Without saturation, t h e initial permeability c a n
range from 50 t o over 500. Since depth of penetration is inversely proportional t o t h e
square root of permeability and test frequency,
SUPPORT
0.D.
DEFECT
FLAT PITS
CALIBRATION
TUBE
EDDY CURRENT
TEST WITHOUT
SATURATION
SLIGHT BEND
I N TUBE
,,,
EDDY CURRENT
TEST W lTH
MAGNETIC
SATURATION
(10 X ABOVE GAIN)
FIGURE 9.14
Eddy Current Signals from a High Magnetic Permeability Monel 400 Tube.
Test Frequency = 50 kHz
The reason for t h e charateristic eddy current signals from partially saturated tubing
is more clearly apparent in t h e eddy current impedance display of Figure 9.16 which
includes impedance response as magnetization level increases. This figure shows, at
partial saturation (less than 10 amperes), d e f e c t signals consist nearly entirely of
increasing and decreasing permeability. The initial increasing permeability signal
component is attributed t o less saturation on either side of machined calibration
d e f e c t s while t h e decreasing permeability component is due t o m o r e intense
saturation in t h e reduced tube-wall region at defects.
Similar results a r e obtained with internal saturation using D C magnetization or
permanent magnets. A single rare-earth permanent magnet was found t o be
equivalent t o about 5 amperes of a n external magnetizing c u r r e n t for this tube size
material.
THROUGU noLE
PROBE WOBBLE
0 0 GROOVE
1.0 GROOVE
---I
10
---
-/--
I5
MAGNETIZING
-A--
cC
\AIR
20
25
30
35
40
CURRENT
( A1
FIGURE 9.15
Eddy Current Signals from E-&ite 26-1 Tube With Increasing Saturation,
(fgo = 100 kHz at Complete Saturation)
probes has an advantage over encircling (or internal) probes in the ability t o separate
permeability from lift-off variations (Figure 9.13).
PROBE
A - PROBE WOBBLE
B - THROUGH HOLE
C - 0. D. GROOVE
D I. 0. GROOVE
FIGURE 9.16
Eddy Current Signals from E-Brite 2 6 1 Tube with Increasing Saturation,
fgo = 100 kHz
"i
HOLE
3 R e 60
'
3 c r
ss
TUBE
BAFFLE
PAFFLE PLATE
SIGNALS
ELISTIC
DEFLECTION
5 mn
Y n m
3.m
2mm
FIGURE 9.17
Eddy Current Signals from 3Re60 Tube With Partial Saturation for Various
Levels of Elastic Stress. Test Frequency fgo = 230 kHz.
SUMMARY
Eddy current testing can b e used t o measure electrical resistivity and magnetic
permeability. This parameter, in some cases, c a n be correlated t o a material's
chemical composition, hardness, h e a t t r e a t m e n t , etc. and therefore provide a n
indirect measurement of material properties. Material sorting by electrical
resistivity can be done with general purpose eddy current instruments o r with special
instruments with m e t e r output calibrated in % IACS. C a r e must be taken t o obtain
reliable results. Material sorting by magnetic permeability is not simple. I t requires a
sound knowledge of magnetic properties and eddy current testing. Most of t h e
commercial equipment make use of hysteresis distortion and t h e method is empirical.
I t is more reliable t o use general purpose eddy c u r r e n t equipment t o roughly measure
magnetic permeability and then c o r r e l a t e t o material property.
Testing ferromagnetic materials for surface d e f e c t s is possible but often unreliable.
If material c a n be magnetically saturated, i t appears a s non-ferromagnetic material
t o t h e eddy currents. Testing at partial saturation results in good sensitivity t o
d e f e c t s and t o ferromagnetic anomaiies but can result in f a l s e indications. I t is
possible t o magnetically s a t u r a t e s o m e ferromagnetic t u b e alloys in unsupported t u b e
sections, but nearly impossible under ferromagnetic baffle plates.
Magnetic permeability a f f e c t s t h e following:
depth of penetration
probe inductance
operating point on impedance diagram
characteristic d e f e c t signal is no longer dependent on phase lag
drastically decreases signal-to-noise ratio.
9.6
WORKED EXAMPLES
9.6.1
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
%IACS
1 7 2 1 ~
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
= BIH
ll
0 . 0 2 8 1 4 0 = 7.0 x
henrylm
"
PROBLEM:
SOLUTION:
(a)
p / 11,
PA
- Ur
Pi
p~
1.0 a t saturation
- 177 -
UNIT
SYMBOL
QUANTITY NAME
Cross-Sectional a r e a
Radius
Length
Thickness
Width
Diameter
Magnetic flux density
Capacitance
T e s t frequency
Optimum tube testing frequency
Characteristics o r Limit
frequency
Resonant frequency
Magnetic field intensity
(Magnetizing force)
Current
Current density
Self Inductance
Number of turns (Windings)
Characteristic P a r a m e t e r
Resistance
Resistive load
Electric potential
Depth below t h e surf ace
Inductive Reactance
Capacitive R e a c t a n c e
Impedance
Standard Depth of Penetration
Permeability
Resistivity
Conductivity
Magnetic flux
Fill F a c t o r
Phase Lag
Angular frequency
Angle between Z & R
m e t r e2
metre
metre
metre
metre
metre
weberlmetre 2 o r tesla
farad
hertz
hertz
hertz
hertz
ampereslmetre or
lenze
ampere
2
amperestmetre
henry
dimensionless
dimensionless
ohm
ohm
volt
metre
ohm
ohm
ohm
metre
henrytmetre
microhm-centimetre
siemenstmetre
weber
dimensionless
radian
radianstsecond
degree
In2
m
rn
rn
rn
In
2, T
Wb/m
F
Hz
Hz
Hz
Hz
A/m
A
~/m*
H
s-2
n
v
m
52
n
s-2
rn
Htm
p Recm
Slm
Wb
rad
radls
0
DEFINITIONS
This section lists t h e most common terms covered in t h e manual. For each term, t h e
symbol, t h e SI units and t h e section where t h e topic is covered is given, followed by
t h e definition.
Absolute probe
Alternating current
Anomaly
Bridge
SeeSection4.2.1.
Electrical circuit incorporating four impedance arms.
Calibration standard
Capacitive reactance
Characteristic parameter
-r2uop
fg,
f /f
Circumferential coil
Conductivity
Conductor
Coupling
Current
Defect
Differential probe
Direct current
Discontinuity
A defect.
Eddy currents
Eddy c v r e n t method
Edge effect
End effect
Ferrite
Ferromagnetic
--
Fill-f actor
Flaw
Adefect.
Frequency (angular)
Hysteresis
S e e Section 9.3.1.
Magnetizationcurve.
I ACS
IACS
Inductance
Impedance method
Eddy current method which monitors t h e change in probe impedance; both phase
and amplitude.
Inductive reactance
=,
Inductor
A coil.
Lift-off
Magnetic flux
Magnetizing force
Modulation analysis
Noise
Null balance
Ohm's law
Operating point
Oscillator
Parameter
Performance standard
Permeability (Magnetic)
dimensionless, relative
Phase lag
s e e Section 3.3.
A vector describing sinusoidal signals; i t has both amplitude and phase.
Primary field
The magnetic field surrounding t h e coil due t o t h e current flowing through it.
Probe
Reference coil
Coil which enables bridge balancing in absolute probes. Its impedance is close to
t e s t coil impedance but does not couple t o test material.
Resonance
Resistance
Resistivity
Saturation (Magnetic)
Secondary field
Signal
A change in eddy current instrument output voltage; i t has amplitude and phase.
Signal-t~noiseratio
Skin depth
Skin effect
S e e Section 2.4.
A phenomenon where induced eddy currents a r e restricted t o t h e surface of a
test sample. Increasing test frequency reduces penetration.
Suface probe
S e e Chapters 5 and 6.
A probe for testing surfaces, which has a finite coverage. The coil is usually
pancake in shape.
Test coil
Voltage
Voltmeter
Abbreviation
Nondestructive testing
NDT
ET
Hardness testing
Leak testing
LT
MT
Penetrant testing
PT
Radiographic testing
RT
Ultrasonic testing
UT
Visual testing
VT
References:
Recommended Practice SNT-TC- IA: Personnel Qualification and Certification in
Nondestructive Testing
American Society for Nondestructive Testing
- 1980 Edition
10.4
REFERENCES
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 8, Appendix 1, "Eddy
E,
"Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control", Metals .Handbook, Vol. 1I, 8th
edition, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, p. 75-92 (1976).
13.
10.5
INDEX
Lift-off 39-43, 78
Limit Frequency 1 12-117
Magnetic Field 6, 7
Magnetic Flux - 7-10
Magnetic Flux Density 7, 159
Magnetic Permeability 1 I, 12, 66, 67, 89, 91, 92, 141, 159-165
Magnetic Saturation - 159-161, 169-175
Magnetizing Force - 159, 161
Modulation Analysis 46
Noise - 32, 34, 37, 46, 81, 152, 182
Non-ferroma netic 10, 91, 142
Null Ralance Bridge Balance) 32, 33
Oersted - 6, 8
Ohm's law - 8, 16, 56, 1 10
Operating Point 25-29, 71, 92, 1 13-115, 124, 141
Oscillator 5, 31, 39
Parameter 60, 183
Performance Standard 183
Permeability (Magnetic) 11, 13, 66, 67, 89, 91, 92, 141, 159-165
Phase - 72. 73
Phase Lag 2, 14-17, 73, 85
Phasor 20
Primary Circuit 8, 24
Primary Field 183
Probe 51-57, 98-106
Receive Coil 6, 23, 62, 75
Reference Coil 32, 52, 53, 99
Resistance - 18, 26-29, 123-125
Resistivity 12, 16, 66, 67, 74, 93, 154-158
Resonance - 35, 36, 80, 105
Saturation (Magnetic) 159-161, 169-175
Secondary Field 10, 184
Secondary Voltage 73
Send-Receive 6, 23, 31, 41-44, 75
Sensing Coil 6, 23
Signal - 184
Signal-to-Noise Ratio - 58, 184
Similarity Condition (Law) 71, 1 14
Sinusoidal 5, 1 1
Skin Depth 13, 14, 16, 117
Skin Effect 1 1
Speed of Response 48
Standard Depth of Penetration 12-17
Surface Probe 51-55
Test Coil - 52, 53
Vector - 20
Voltage - 8, 9, 20, 31
Voltrneter 6