[ 469 J cut, A Pyoanteal Theory of the Electromagnetic Fld. Hy. Cums Maxi PRS. Reoeivéd Ontobur 27,— Reed December 8, 1864. PART I.—INTRODUCTORY. ¢) ox mot ebvioos mechanical phenomauonn elsritl und magnets! spo jibe motnal action by which bodies in certain sintes set each other in motion while ‘gil ut a sensible distance from each other. The first step, therefore, in reducing these Seeooone ito scien form, ia to ascertain the mnagaltnde eo disetion of the nes acting between the bodies, and when itis found that this foree depensls in a certain wey avon the relative position of the bodies and on ths electric or magnetio condition, Treen at fist sight naturel to explain the faets by assuming the existence of seme- thing either at rest ot in motion in each body, constituting its electrie oF magnetic state, ted capable of acting st « distance soonrding to mathematical Jews. Th this way muthematical theories of statical clectriity, of magnetism, of the mecha- sia astion between. conductors carrying curzents, and of the induetion of eurrents have ‘been formed. “in these theories the force acting between the two bodiesis treated with reference only to the condition of the bodies and their relative position, and without “The theories assume, ore or less explicitly, the existence of substanoes the parti- dhafof which ve the property of acting on one another st = distance by attraction a repulsion, ‘Phe most complete development of w theory of this kind is that of MW. Waunn*, who has made the same theory include electrostatic and electromagnetic Tn doing so, howeret, be has found it necessary to assume thet the force between tno electric particles depends on their relative velocity, a8 well as on their distance. This theory, aa developed Uy MIM, W. Wesen and C. Nuvaasst, is exceedingly hngenious, and wonderfully comprehensive in its application to the phenomena of sitied electricity, electromagnetic attractions, induetion of currents and. diamagnetic Poenomeng; end it eames to us with the mare authority, as it has served to guide the Aecultione of one who has made so great an advance in the practial part of cleviie ice, both by introducing a consistent system of units in electrical measarement, aud by actually determining electrical quantities with an accurscy hitherto unknown. a. Tstigaamiade Masnbetinanges. Leipste Trane vel i 1940, and Tarzan'e Sciomtise Memoirs, vo. + "Epicure tentstar quando fat-ut losis plana polarisation per vines lesriss val mognctions deel- Seon” —Halis Soxemam, 1858. Mbvceuxr, BR430 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, (2) The mechanical difficulties, however, which are involved in the essumption of Particles acting at a distance with forces which depend on their velocities are such ga to prevent me from considering this theory as en ultimate one, though it may have been, and may yet be usefal in lending to the coordination of phenomena. 1 have therefore preferred to seek an explanation of the fact in another direction, by supposing them to be produced by actions which go on in the surrounding medium ax well a in the exeited bodies, and endeavouring to explain the action between distant ‘bodies without assuming the existence of forces capable of acting directly at sensible distances. (3) The theory I propose may therefore be called a theory of the Electromagnetic Field, ‘because it has fe do-with the space in the neighbourhood of the electrie ar magnetic bodies and it may be called a Dynamical Theory, because it assumes that in that space there js amatter in motion, by which the observed electromagnetic phenomena aré produced. (4) The electromagnetic field is that part of spuce which contains and surrounds bodies in cleotrie or magnetic conditions. Tt may be filled with any kind of matter, or we may endeavour to render it empty of all gross matter, as in the case of Guissurn’s tubes and other so~alled vacua. ‘There isalways, however, enough of matter left to receive and transmit the undulations of light and heat, and it is because the transmission of these radiations is not greatly altered when transparent bodies of measurable density are substituted for the so-called vacuum, that we are obliged tn admit that’ the undulations are those of an wthereal substance, und mot of the gross matter, the presence of which merely modifies in some way the motion of the mther, ‘We have therefore some reason to believe, from the phenomena of light and heat, that there is an wthereal medium filling space and permeating bodies, capable of being set in motion and of transmitting that motion fram one part to another, and of com- ‘Taunicating that motion to grow matter so as to heat it and affect it in various ways. (6) Now the energy communiested to the body in heating it must have formerly existed in the moving medinm, for the undulations had left the source of heat somie-time before they reached the body, and daring that time the energy must have been half ia ‘the form of mation of the medium and half in the form of elostic resilience. From ‘these considerations Professor W. Twomson has atgued*, that the medium must have a deasity capable of comparison with thet of gross matter, and haa even assigned an infe- rior limit to that density, (6) We may therefore receive, as a datum derived from a branch of science inde- peadent of that with which we have to deal, the existence of = pervading medium, of small but real density, eapable of being set in motion, and of tranemitting motion from ‘one part to another with great, but not infinite, velocity. Hence the parts of this medium must be so connected that the mation of one part * On the Possible Density of the Laminiferuas Medium, and on the Mechunioal Valan of a Oubie Mite of Sonlight,” Tromsections of the Royal Suuiaty of Edinburgh (1854), p. 67.FROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 461 depends in some way on the motion of the rest; and at the same time these connexions snust be capable of @ certain kind of elastic yielding, since the communication of motion is not instantaneous, but occupies time, ‘The medium is therefore capable of receiving and storing up two kinds of enengy, namely, the “actual” energy depending on the motions of its parts, and “ potential” energy, consisting of the work which the medium will do in recovering from displace- ment in virtue of its elasticity. ‘The propagation of undulations consists in the continual transformation of one of these forms of energy into the other alternately, and at any instant the amount of energy in the whole medium is equally divided, so that half is energy of motion, and half is elastic resilience. {7) A medium having ench a constitution may be capable of other kinds of motion and displacement than those which produce the phenomena of light and heat, and come of these may be of such a kind that they may be evidenced to cur senses by the pheno- mena they produce. (8) Now we know that the luminiferous medium is in certain cases acted on by magnetism ; for Fananay* discovered that when a plane polarized ray traverses a trans- parent diamagnetic medium in the direction of the lines of magnetic force produced by magnets or currents in the neighbourhood, the plane of polarization is cansed to rotate. ‘This rotation is always in the direction in which positive electricity must ‘be caried round the diamagnetic body in order to produce the actual magnetization of the field. ‘M. Venvert has since discovered that if a paramagnetic body, suchas solution of petchloride of iron in ether, be substituted for the diamagnetic body, the rotation is in the opposite direction. Now Professor W. Taousor has pointed out that no distribution of forces acting between the prts of a medium whose only motion is that of the luminous vibrations, is sufficient to account for the phenomena, but that we must admit the existence of a motion in the medium depending am the maguetization, in addition to the vibratory It is true that the rotation by magnetism of the plane of polarization has been observed only in media of considerable density; but the properties of the magnetic field are not 6 much altered by the substitution of one medium for another, or for a-vacuum, as to allow us to suppose that the dense medium docs anything more than merely modify the motion of the ether. We have therefore warrantable grounds for inquiring whether there may not be a motion of the ethereal medium going on wherever magnetic effects are observed, and we have some reason ‘to suppose that this motion is one of rotation, ‘having the direction.of the magnetic forve as its xis, (3) We may now consider another phenomenon obserred in the electromagnetic * Exporimental Hescarshes, Series 18, ‘+ Comptes Hendus (1856, sttoad hulf yuar, p. 520, end 1807, fst ill your, p. 1208), 2 Prooeedings of the Hoyal Sosiety, ctune 1856 and Jane 1861, Sul462 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC ‘FIELD. field. ‘When a body is moved across the lines of magnetic force it experiences what in called an elestromotive foroe: the two extremities of the body tend to become appo- ‘itely electrified, and an electric current tenda to flow through the body. When the slectromotive force is sufficiently powerful, and is made to act om certain compound bodies, it decomposes them, and causes one of their components to pass towards one extremity of the body, and the other in the opposite direction. Here we have evidence of a force causing an electric current in spite of resist ance; electrifying the extremities of a body in opposite ways, a condition whigh ic sustained only by the action of the electromotive force, and which, as socn as that faroe is removed, tend, with an equal and oppotite force, to produce coutter current though the body and to restore the original electrical state of the body; aud finally, if strong enough, tesring to pisces chemical compounds and carrying their components in oppo site dizections, while their natural tendency is to combine, and to combine with a foree which can generate an electromotive force in the reverse direction, ‘This, then, is a foree weting on a body exused by its motion through the electro magnetic field, or by changes occurring in thnt field itse’; and the effect of the force 4a sither to produce « current and heat the body, or to decompose the body, or, when it can de neither, to put the kody in 2 state of electric polarization,—a state of constraint in which opposite extremities are oppositely electrified, and fram which the body tende ‘to xelievo itself as soon us the disturbing force is removed. (10) According to the theory which I propose to explain this * electromotive farce" is the force called into play duriug the communication of motion fram one part af the medium to another, and it is by means of this force that the motion of one part causes motion in amather part. When electromotive force acts on a conducting cireuit, it pro- duces a current, which, as if meets with resistance, occasions a continual transformation of electrical energy into heat, which is incapable of being restored again to the farm of electrical energy by any reversal of the process, (11) But when electromotive foroe acts on a dielectric it produces a state of polam- sation of its parts sitnilar in distribution to the polarity of the parts of a mass of iran turder the influence of a magnet, and Like the magnetic polarization, capable of being Geseribed as a state in which every purticle has its opposite poles in opposite com- ditions*. Jn a dielectric under the action of electromotive force, we may coucrive that the eleotricity in each molecule is so displneed that one side is rendered positively and the other negatively electrical, but that the electricity remains entixely connected with the molecule, and docs not pass fiom one molecule ta another. ‘The effect of this action on the whole dielectric muss is to produce a general displacement of electricity in a cer tain direction, This displacement does not amount to a eurrent, because when it has attained to certain value it remains constant, but it is the commencoment ofa currant and its variations constitute currents in the positive or the negative dizection according * Famanary Exp, Nes, Series X1.; Moserrst, Mats, dela Gc Ialiana (Modena), vol. xxiv. part 9 p 4,PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 408 ns the displacement is increasing or decreasing. In the interior of the dielectric there je no indication of electrificatian, becanse the electrification of the surface ofany melecule jg neutralized by the opposite electrification of the surface of the molecules in. eantact with it; but at a bounding surface of the dielectric, where the electrification is not neutralized, we find the phenomena which indicate positive or megative electrification, ‘The relation between the electromotive force und the emount of electric displacement 4t produces depends on the moture of the dielectric, the same electromotive foree pro- ducing generally a greater electric displacement in. solid dielectries, such as glass or sulphur, thaa in ai, (12) Here, then, we perceive another effect of electromotive force, namely, elecizie which according to our theory is a kind of elastic yielding to the action of the force, similar to that which takes place in structares and machines owing to the want of perfect rigidity of the connexions. (18) ‘The practical investigation of the inductive capacity of diclectrics is rendered dificult on account of two disturbing phenomena. ‘The first is the conductivity of the diclectdic, which, though in many cases excoodingly small, is not altogether insensible. ‘The second is the phenomenon called electric sbsorption*, in virtue of which, when the dielectric is exposed to electromotive force, the electric displacement gradually increases, and when the clectromptive foree is removed, the dielectric does not instantly return to its primitive state, but only discharges a portion of its electrification, and when Ieft to ituelf gradually acquires electrification on its surface, ws the interior gradually beoumes depolarized. Almost all solid dielectrics exhibit this phenomenon, which gives rise to the residual charge in the Leyden jar, and to several phenomena of electric cables described by Mx. F, Jusaus t- (24) We have here two other kinds of yielding besides the yielding of the perfect dielectric, which we have compared to o perfectly elastic body. The yielding due to conductivity may be compared to that ofa viscous fluid (that is to say, « duid having great internal friction), or a soft solid on which the smallest force produces 4 permanent alteration of figure increasing with the time during which the foreo acts, The yielding tue to electric absorption may be compared to that of a cellular elastic body containing thick fluid in its cavities. Such a body, whep subjected to pressure, it compressed by ‘on account of the gradual yielding of the thick fluid; and when the pressure ix removed it does not of once recover its figure, because the elasticity of the substance of the body has graduslly to overcome the tenacity of the Said before it ean regain come plete equilibrium, Several solid bodies in which no such structure 2s we have empposed can be found, seem to possess a mechanical property of this kind}; and it seems probable that the * Fusupar, Exp. Res, 126-1250, 4 Raporte of Hits Amocition, 1850, y. 248; abd Report of Committee of Beard of Trade ou Submarine ‘Cables, pp. 136 de 404, “£ As, for insiasée, the compaltion af plo, treacle, de., of which small pluie figures are rade, which aftcr ‘being Gisturted gradually recover their shape.464 FROVESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THR ELEOTHOMAGNETIC FrExD, same substances, if Giclectrice, may possess the analogous electrical property, and if magnetic, may have cotresponding properties relating to the acquisition, retention, and loss of magnetic polarity, (05) Te appears therefore chat certahi phenomena in eleeticity and magmetins lead fo fhe same conclusion a theee of optics, namely, that there is an e2uetonl medinnn pervading all bodies, and modified oaly in degree by their presenoo; that the parts of from the connexions of those parts : thst under the action of these forces there is a cera vieleing depending on the elasticity of these eonnesions: and that theeehge Seergy ip to different forms may exist in the medium, the one farm being the wns sone a notion ofits parts, and the other being tho potential energy stored up iu the connexions, in virtue of their elasticity. (16) ‘Thus, then, we are led to the conception of a complicated mechanism capable Propose to examine, is the induction of one current by another, and by the motion of conductors in the field. ‘The second result, which is deduced from this, is the mechanioal action betiveen con- Cuctors carrying currents, The phenomenon of the induction of currents has been magnet, 1 show the distribution of its equipotential imagnetie surfaoes, cutting the lines of foree at right angles, * “Gmuservation of Furey," Physical Society of Berlin, 1847; and Tarten’s Scientifle Memusirs, 1859, ple + Reports of the Beitish Asweintion, 18483 Philosophical Magucine, Do. 1651,FROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 465 Tn order to bring these results within the power of symbolical calculation, I then express them in the form of the General Equations of the Electromaguetic Field, ‘These equations express— (A) ‘The relation between electric displacement, true conduction, and the total current, compounded of both. (B) The relation between the lines of magnetic force and the inductive coefficients of a cireuit, as already deduced from the lows of induction, (C) The relation between the strength of a current and its maguetio effects, according tu the electromagnetic system of measurement, (D) The value of the electromotive force in a body, as arising from the motion of the body in the field, the alteration of the field itself, and the variation of electric potential from one part of the field to another. (E) The relation between electric displacement, and the electromotive foros which uces it. (F) The relation between an electric carent, and the electromotive force whish pro- duces it, (G) ‘The relation between the amount of free electrisity at any point, and the electric displacements in the neighbourhood. (H) The relation between the increase or diminution of free electricity und the elec- tric currents in the neighbourhood. ‘There are twenty of these equations in all, involving twenty variable quantities. (19) [then express in torms of these quantities the intrinsic energy of the Electro- magnetic Ficld es depending partly on its magnetic and partly on its electric polariza- ‘tion at every point. From this I determine the mechanical force acting, 1st, on a moveable conductor carrying an electric eurrent; 2ndly, on a magnetic pole: Srdly, on an electrified body. The last rosalt, namely, the mechanical forca acting on an electrified body, gives rise. to an independent method of electrical measurement founded on its electrostatic effects, ‘The relation between the units employed in the two methods is shown to depend on what I have called the “electric elasticity” of the medium, and to be a velocity, which has been experimentally determined by MM. Wenes and Kounzavscn. I then show how fo calculate the electrostatic capacity of a condenser, and the apecifie inductive capacity of a dielectric, ‘The case of a condenser composed of parallel layers of substances of different electric resistances and inductive capacities is next examined, and it is shown that the pheno- inenon called electric absorption will generally occur, that is, the condenser, when suddenly discharged, will after « short time show signs of a rendual charge. (20) The general equations are next appliad to the case of a magnetic disturbances propagated through a non-conducting field, end it is chown that the only disturbances Which can be eo propagated are those which are transverse to the direction of propaga- tion, and thet the velocity of propagation is the velocity 2, found from experiments such406 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE BLECTROMAGNETIO FIELD, as those of Wenzs, which expresses the number of electrostatic units of electricity which are contained in one electromagnetic unit. This velocity is so nearly that of Tight, that it seems we have: strong reason to com clnde that light itself (including radiant heat, and other radiations if any) is an eleotro- ‘magnetic disturbance fn the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field aceording to electromagnetic laws. If #0, the agreement between the elasticity of the medium as calculated from the rapid alternations of luminous vibrations, and as found by the slow processes of electrical experiments, shows how perfect and regular the elastic properties of the medium must be when not encumbered with any matter denser ‘tham air, Tf the same character of the elasticity is retained in dense transparent bodies, it appears that the square of the index of refraction is equel to the product of the specifié dielectric capacity and the specifia magnetic capacity. Conducting media are shawn to absarb such radiations rapidly, and therefore to be generally opaque. ‘The conception of the propagation of transverse magnetic disturbances to the exclue sion of normal ones is distinctly set forth by Professor Farapay* in his “Thoughts on Ray Vibrations.” The electromagnetic theory of light, as proposed by him, is the same in substance as that which I have hegun to develope in this paper, except that in 184¢t thera were no data to calcnlate the velocity of propagation. (21) ‘The general equations are then applied to the calculation of the coofficients of mutual induetion of two circular currents and the coaficient of selfinduction in a coil. ‘The want of uniformity of the current in the different parts of the section of a wire at the commencement of the current is investigated, I believe for the first time, and the consequent correction of the coefficient of seli-induction is found. ‘These results are applied to the calculation of the sclf-induction of the coil used in. the experiments of the Committee of the British Association on Standards of Electric Resistance, and the valne compared with that deduced from the experiments, PART I1—ON ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Electromagnetic Momentum of a Current, (22) We may begin by considering the state of the ficld in the neighbourhood of an clectrie current. We know that magnetie forces are excited in the field, their direction and magnitude depending according to known Jaws upon the form of the conductor carrying the current, When the strength of the cument is increased, all the magnetic effects are increased in the same proportion. Now, if the mognetic state of the field depends on motions of the medium, a certain force must he exerted in order to increase or diminish these motions, aud when the motions are excited they continue, so that the effect of the connexion between the current and the electromagnetic field surrounding it, is to endow the current with « kind of momentum, just as the connexion between the driving-point of a machine and a fly-wheel endows the driving-point with an addi- © Fhilosophioal Magaaine, May 1840, or Experimental Researches, i, p. 447.PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 467 tional momentum, which may be called the momentum of the fly-wheel reduced to the driving-point. The unbalanced force acting on the driving-point increases this sorentum, and is measured by the vate of its increase. ‘In the case of electric eurrents, the resistance to sudden increase or diminution of strength produces effects exactly like those of momentum, but the amount of this mo- mentum depends on the shape of the conductor and the relative position of its different parts. Miutual Action of too Currents. {28} If there are tyro electric currents in the field, the magnetie threo at amy point is that compounded of the forces due to each current separately, and since the two currents ave in connexion with every point of the field, they willbe in connexion with each other, so that any increase or diminution of the one will produce a foree acting with or con tmry to the other. Dynasnioat Iiustration of Reduced Momentum. (24) As a dynamical illustration, let us suppose a body C so comnected with two independent driving-points A and B that its velocity is p times that of A together with g times that of B. Let u be the velocity of A, » that of B, and w that of C, and let Br, iy, 2 be their simultancous displacements, then by the general equation of dynamics, of Kar Yip, where X and Y are the forces acting at A and B. But far and deploy. Substituting, and remembering that &r and By are independent, X= f(OpurOne), » y= font Cr Wo may call Cp'u-+Opgv the momentum of © referred to A, and Cpgu-t-Cy' its smomentum referred to B; then wemay say thatthe effectof the force X isto increase the momentum of C referred to A, and thet of ¥ to increase its momentum referred to B, If there are many bodies connected with A and B ina similar way but with different values of p and g, we may treat the question in the same way by assuming L=HOr), M=(Cpy), and N=2(Cy) © Tanmanor, Mée, Anal. i. 2. § 5, ‘MDCCOLAY: 3s408 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. Where the summation is extended to all the bodies with thelr proper values of ©, p, andy. Then the momentum of the system referred to A is Lu +Mo, and referred to B, Mu+Noe, and we shall have K=j(le+Me), : , hee ee. Y¥=§(Mu-+No), where X and Y are the external forces acting on A and B. (25) To make the illustration more complete we have otily to suppose that the motion of A is resisted by a foree proportional to its velocity, which we may call Ru, and that of B bya similar force, which we may call 89, Rand § being coeificiente-of resistance. Then if § and » are the forees on A and B E=aX+RusRu+$(LutMn), Lee .@ a= ¥ +80 S049 (Mu-tNe) If the velocity of A be increased at the rate then in onder to prevent B fiom moving a force, n= $(Mu) must be applied to it, This effect on B, due to an increase of the velocity of A, corresponds to the electro motive force on one cirenit arising from an increase in the strength of a neighbouring clreuit. This dynamical illustration is to be considered merely es assisting the reader to under- stand what is meant in mechanics ‘by Reduced Momentum, The facts of the induction af currents as depending on the variations of the quantity called Electromagnetic Mo- mentum, or Electratonic State, rest on the experiments of Farapar®, Ferscr}, &e: Cogffisients of Induction for Two Cireuits, (26) In the electromagnatic field the values of L, M,N depend on the distribution of the magnetic affcets due to the two civonits, aad this distribution depends only on the form and relative position of the circuits, Henoe I, M, N are quantities depending on the form and relative position of the circuits, and are subject to variation with the motion of the conductors It will ba prosenily seen that L, M,N are geometrical quantities of the nature of lines, that is, of one dimension in space; L depends on the form of the first conductor, which we shall enll A, Non that of the second, which we shall eall B, and M on the relative position of A and B (27) Let & be the electromotive force acting on A, @ the strength of the enrrent, and. * Experimental Resoarches, Series 1, TE. f Annales do Chimie, sir, 8. scrxin, (1889) p. 64.PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 460 BR the resistance, then Ry will be the resisting force. In steady currents the electro- motive force just balances the resisting foree, but in variable currents the resultant force E=Rtr is expended in increasing the “‘electromagnetic momentum,” using the word momentum merely to express that which is generated by « force acting during a time, that is, a velocity existing in » body. In the care of electric currents, the force in action is not ordinary mechanicel foree, et east we are not as yet able to measure it as common force, but we call it electromotive force, and the body moved is not merely the electricity in the conductor, but something outside the conductor, and capable of being effected by other conductors: in theneighbour- hood carrying carrents. In this it resembles rather the reduced momentum of a driving~ point of 2 machine os influenced by its mechanical conmexions, than that of s simple moving body like a cannon ball, or water in a tube. Electromagnetic Relations of two Conducting Circuits, (28.) In the case of two conducting civeuits, A and B. we shall assume that the electromagnetic momentum belonging to A is La +My, Mr+Ny, where L, M, N correspand to the seme quantities in the dynamical illustration, except that they are supposed to be capable of variation when the conductors A or B are moved. ‘Then the equation of the current x in A will be geRetS(letMy, ee anid that belonging to B, and that of y in B a a=Syt+4QMetNy ee where £ and » are the electromotive forees, x and y the currents, and Rand § the resistances in A and B respectively. Induetion of one Gurrent by another. (29) Case let, Let there be no electromotive force on B, except that which srises from the action of A, and Jet the current of A ineresse from 0 to the value 2, then, a y+ 7 (Ble+-Ky)—9, whence va('=—Be. that is, © quantity of electricity Y¥, beitig the total induced current, will flow through B when rises from 0 to 2, ‘This is induction by variation of the current in the primary S52470 FROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIO VIRLp, conductor, When M is positive, the indueed current due to increase of the primary current is negative. Induction by Motion of Conductor, (30) Case 2nd. Let « remain constant, and let M change from M to M’, then yoUM=M,. =e: 30 that if M is inereased, which it will be by the primary and secondary cireuite spproaching euch other, there will be a negative induced current, the total quantily of electricity passed through B being ¥. ‘This is induction by the relative motion of the primary and secondary conductors, Equation of Work and Energy. (31) To form the equation between work done and energy produced, multiply (1) by wand (4) by y, and add Eyelet Sy pot let Myty GON)... . 8 Here a is the work done in unit of time by the electromotive force £ acting on the cunent ¢ and maintaining it, and wy is the work done by the electromotive faron . Hence the left-hand side of the equation represents the work done by the electromotive forces in unit of time. Heat prodwoed by the Current, (82) On the other side of the equation we have, first, Rete OyeHy kL (8) ‘which represents the work done in overcoming the resistance of the cireuits in unit of time. This is converted into heat. ‘The remaining terms represent work not converted into heat, They may be written Gye Moy py) 4 ear eg Fntrinsic Energy of the Currents. (38) TfL, M, N are constant, the whole work of the electromotive forces which is not spentagaitist resistance will be devoted to the development of the currents, The whole intrinsic energy of the currents is therefore aLa'tMaytiNy=E cay This energy exists in e form imperceptible to our senses, probably as actual motion, the seat o£ this motion being not merely the conducting circuits, but the space surrounding them,FHOFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, 471 Mechanical Action between Conductors. (84) ‘The remaining terms, Apes Bet ihyew oe aD represent the work, done in unit of time arising from the variations of L, M, and N, or, what is the same thing, alterations in the farm and position of the conducting circuits Aand B Now if work is done when a body is moved, it must arise from ordinary mechanical foree acting on the body while it is moved. Hence this part of the expression shows that there is a mechanical foree urging every part of the conductors themselves in that direction in which I, M, and N will be most inereased. ‘The existence of the electromagnetic force between conductors carrying eurrents is therefore a direct consequence of the joint and independent action of each current on ‘the electromagnetic field. Tf A and B are allowed to approach a distance ds, so as to increase M from M to M' while the currents are x and y, them the work done will be Qf —M)ey, and the force im the direction of ds will he aM Tap ee (IR) and this will be an attraction if «and y are of the same sign, and if M is increased as Aand B approach. Tt appears, therefore, that if we admit that the unresisted part of electromotive force goes on as long as it acts, generating a self-persistent state of the current, which ‘we may call (from mechanical analogy) its electromagnetic momentum, and that this ‘momentum depends on cireumstonces externnl to the conductor, then both induction of currents and electromagnetic attractions may be proved by mechanical xensoning. ‘What I have called electromagnetic momentum is the same quantity which is called ‘by Fanapar* the clectrotonic state of the circuit, every change of which involves the action of an electromotive force, just as change of momentum involves the action of mechanical force. Tf, therafore, the phenomena described by Fanapar in the Ninth Series of hin Expe- “imental Researches were the only known facts about electric currents, the laws of Awpime relating to the attraction of conductora darrying currents, as well as those of Fanapar about the mutual induction of currents, might be deduced by mechanical reasoning. In onder to bring these results within the mnge of experimental verification, T shall next investigate the case of a single current, of two currents, and of the six currents in the electric ‘balance, co as to enable the experimenter to determine the values of M,N. : * Exporimentel Hesonrches, arise 1. 0, de.472 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, Case of a single Circuit. (55) The equation of the cument © in a circuit whose resistance is R, and whose coefficient of selfinduction is LL, acted on by an external electromotive force & is f-ReeGln ss. toe (18 ‘When § is constant, the solution is of the form amb+(a—aje Ft, ‘where a is the value of the cuuvent ut the commencement, aud 2 ia its final value ‘The total quantity of electricity which passes in time & where ¢ is great, is Jiodemars (one, He ay ‘The value of the integral of «* srith respect to'the time is Siete ie stack (222), SL amy ‘The actual current changes gradually from the initial value a ta the final value 4, but ‘the values af the integrals of x and a* are the exme as if steady current of intensity Hat) were to dow fora time 22, and were then wneceeded by the stendy current 5, The time 27 is generally so minute a fraction of a second, that the effects on the galvano- meter and dynamometer may be calculated as if the impulse were instantaneous. seine, Sreult consists of a battery aad a cll, then, when the circuit is frat enmploted, ihe nféols are the seme ue ifthe ourrent had only Half ts finn strength during the the 2] This diminution of the eurrent, due to induction, is sometimes called the counter: current. (38) Ifan additional resistance r is snddenly thrown into the efrcuit, as by breaking eontact, so as to force the eutrent to pass through a thin wive of resistance r, then tha original current is i Od the fined current io dem The current of induction iy then BE gay tad continwes Zora time 2%, ‘This current is greater than that which the battery can maintain in the two wires Rand r, ond may be sufficient to ignite the thin wire r. When contact is broken by separnting the wires in wir, this additional resistance iz given by the interposed air, and since the electromotive force neross the new regiatanor is very great, a spark will be forced across,PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL OW THE ELECTROMAGNELIC $TELD. = 475 Uf the electromotive force is of the form Evin pt, as in the case ofa coil revolving in magnetic field, then 2 = jein( pia), where @=R* Lip’, and tana= "2. Case of to Gircwite. (87) Let B be the primary cirooit and S the secondary eivenit, then we bare & eos similar to that of the induction coil. ‘The equations of currents are those marked A and B, and we may here assume L, M, N as constant because there is no motion of the conductors, The equations then become renga) os dz Sy + MSN 0. ‘To find the total quantity of electricity which passes, we have only to integrate these equations with respect to ¢) then if ¢,, yp be the strengths of the currents ut tine 0, and», #, at time #, oud if X,Y be the quastities of electricity passed through ecch circuit during time ¢, : X=_lht+ Lia) + Min—yh E Maa) . oe Yap (Mee )+ Ng gh ‘When the circuit R is completed, then the total currents up to time ¢, when @ is great, are found by making n=0, mah, w=, weds then as (154) The value of the total counter-current in R is therefore independent of the secondary cirouit, and the induction current in the secondury cireuit depends only on M, the cocfficient of induction between the coils, § the resistance of the secondary coil, and fr, the final strength of the current in R. ‘When the elactromotive force £ ceases to act, there is an extra current in the pri- mary cironit, and # positive induced enzrent in the secondary chrouit, whose values sre aqual and opposite to those produced on making contact. (38) All questions relating to the total quantity of transient currents, os measured, by the impulse given to the magnet of the galvanometer, may be solved in this way wcithont the necessity of a complete solution of the equations. ‘The heating effect of4i4 FROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, the current, and the impulse it gives to the suspended cail of Wunan's dynamometer, depend on the square of the current st every instant during the short time it Inns. Hence we must obtain the solution of the equations, and from the solution we may find the effects both on the galyanometer and @ynainometer; and we may then make use of the method of Wise for estimating the intensity und doration of a current uniform while it lasts which would produce the same effects, (59) Let m,, m, be the roots of the equation (LN +(QNGISV4RS=0, . . . . . (any and let the primary eail be acted on by a constant electromotive force Ro, so that c ip the constant current it could maintain ; then the complete solution of the equations for snaking contact is pate (Gry) (Exes, ee GY Re ay From these we obtain for calculating the impulse on the dynamometer, foatmofmaq—a ee amy Ivtimeigar rs Fe ee 05 ‘The effects of the eutrent in the secandary eail on the galvannmeter aud dynamometer are the same as those ef a uniftera cuzrent MR — hrs Le, 2(te+3)- (40) The equation between work and energy may be easily verified. The work done by the electromotive farce is for a time sfedtse(Re+1), ‘Work done in overcoming resistance and producing hest, Rfstit4 Slyrat—e(Re_pL), =ieL (41) Te the cironit R is suddenly and completely interrupted while ewying a current ® then the equation of the current in the secondary eoil would be yoo it, This current begins with a value eM, and gradually disappears, Energy remaining in the system,PROFESSOR CLERE MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FLELD. 475 ‘Thortotal quantity of electricity is of, and the value of fyrde is ot SM. ‘The offects on the galvanometer end dynamometer are equal to those of n uniform curent go% for e time 25 ‘The heating effect is therefore greater than that of the current on making contact (42) Tf am electromotive force of the formn E=E ous pt acts on the circuit R. then if the circuit § is removed, the value of # will be a= sin (pt—a) where MeRLp, tan oxi ‘The effect of the presence of the circuit 8 in the neighbourhood is to alter the value of A und a, to that which they would be if R become Bp gti : and and L became ae x Lor sre Honce the effact of the presenes of the cireuit Sis to increase the epparent resistance and diminish the apparent seli-induction af the circuit R. On the Determination of Coeffictents of Induction by the Electric Balance. (48) ‘The electric balance consists of six con- ductors joining four points, AC DE, two and two. ‘One pair, AC, of these points is connected through the battery B. ‘The opposite pair, DE, is connected through the gulvanometerG, ‘Then if the resistances of the four remaining conductors are represented by P, Q, B, 8, and the currents in them by 2, #—2, % and y-++4, the current through G will bez. Let the = potentials at the dour pointsbe A,,D, ZB ‘Then the conditions of tteady currents may be found from the equations ProA—D Qis—z)=D—C, Ry=A-E B(y+2)=E—-0, Ss . a Gz=D-E Be tyj=—AtC+F. Solving these equations for 2, we find ofpthtatat®(p+n) (G44) +0(p+4) (345) +rgu2+0+848)]= ar ‘MDCOCLEY. aay476 FROFESSOR CLEEK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FORLD. ‘In this expression F is the electromotive force of the batiery, s the current through: the galvanometer when it has become steady. P, Q, R, S tho resistances in the four arms, B that of the battery and electrodes, and G that of the galvanometer. (44) If PS=QR, then s=0, and there will be no steady current, but a trateiant current tlirough the galvanometer may be produced on making or breaking circuit on accouut of induction, and the indications of the galvanometer may be used to determine ‘the corfficients of induction, provided we understand the actions which take place. ‘We shall suppose PS=QR, so that the current ¢ vanishes when sufficient tima is allowed, and F AP+QD=1B+8)— pry RE EOE Let the induction coefficients between P, Q, RS, be given by the following ‘Table, the coefficient of induction of P on itself being », between P and Q, A, and sa on. ‘Let g be the coefficient of induction of the galvanometer on itself, and let it be out of the reach of the inductive infinence of P,Q, R, S (as it must be in order to avoid direct action of F, Q, R,S on the needle). Let X, ¥, Z be the integrals of 2, , # with respect tot, At making contact #, 9,2 ere zero. After a time 2 disappears, and and y teach constant values. ‘The equations for each eondactor will therefore be PR +lptah jet (ke +! y= fade—[Dae, QK—Z)+(h+g jet(ntnly=[Dee— cae, BY — +lktm)edtr poyymfadt—fitde |... (aA) S(V+Z) +(0+n w+e(o +s)y—fedt— fae, GZ={Did—[Edt, Solving these equations for Z, we find ifbderiteto it) (G8) +6(b44) (h+2)1ieeerannasy =—Fys{B-§ ft th(b—a) +4(—p) 40244) —m(h 8) 5) ++(a-8)+°(3-&)} (45) Now let the deflection of the galvanomeéter by the instantaneous current whose intengity is Z be «. ‘Let the permanent deflection produced by making the ratio-of PS to QR, g instead of unity, be ¢, Also let the tiine of vibration of the gulvanometer meedle from reat th rest be T.a. P wefind BiasindsToo ee BT) yo unl In determining + By exporiment, it ix best to make the alteration of resistance in one of the arms by means of the atrangement described by Mr, Juwaux in the Report of the British Association for 1868, by which any value of g from 1 to 1-01 oan be accurately speasured, ‘We observe (2) the greatest deflection due to the impulse of induction when tho galvanometer is in circttit, when the comnexions are made, and when the resistances are co adjusted os to give no permanent current. ‘We then observe (8) the greatest deflection produced by the permanent eurrent when the resistance of one of the arms is increased in the vatio of 1 tog, the galvanometer not being in circuit till a little while after the connexion is made with the battery. Tn order to liminate the effects of resistance of the air, it is best to vary ¢ till B=2a nearly; then 1 Sein da reTtapiite 8) Tf all the arms of the balance except P consist of resistance coils of very fine wire of no great length and doubled before being coiled, the induction evefficients belonging to these coils will be insensibile, and ¢ will be rednoed to §. ‘The electrie balanee there- fore affords the means of measuring the self-induction of any chrouit whose resistance is known, (40) It may also be used to determine the coefficient of induction between. tro sirenits, as for instance, that between P and § which we have called mj ‘but it would be more convenient to measure this by directly measuring the carrent, as in (37), without using the balanes, We may also ascertain the equality of f and by there being no current of induction, and thna, when we know the value of p, we may determine that of q by a more perfect method than the comparison of deflections, Exploration of the Electromagnetic Field. (47) Let us now suppose the primary cireult A to be of invariable form, and let us explore the electromagnetic field by means of the secondary cizeuit B, whieh we ehall suppose to be variable in form and position. ‘We may begin by supposing B to consist of a short straight conductor with its extre- mities sliding on two parallel condueting rails, which are put in connexion at some Bee478 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. Then, if sliding the moveable conductor in a given direction increases the value of BE, negative electromotive force will act in the circuit B, tending to produce a negative current in B during the motion of the i If a current be kept up in the cirenit B, then the sliding-pieve will itself tend to move in. that direction, which causes M to increase. At every point of the field there ‘will always be a certain direction such that a conductor moved in that direction does not experience any electromotive force in whatever direction its extremities are timed. A conductor carrying a current will experience no mechanical force urging it in that direction or the opposite. ‘This direction is called the direction of the line of magnetic force through that paint Motion of a conductor across such a line produaes electromotive force in n direction perpendicular to the line and to the direction of motion, and a conductor carrying current is urged in a direction perpendicular to the line and to the direction of the current. (48) We may next suppose B to consist of a very small plane circuit eapable of placed in any position and of having its plane tured in any direction. The value of M ‘will be greatest when the plane of the circuit is perpendicular to the line of magnetic foree. Hence if a current is maintained in B it will tend to set itself in this position, and will of itself indicate, like a magnet, the direction of the magnetic force. On Lines of Magnetic Force. (49) Let any surface be drawn, cutting the lines of magnetie force, and on this sur ace let any system of lines he drawn at small intervals, so as to lie side by side without cutting each other. Next, let any Tine be drawn on the surface cutting all these lines, and Jet o second line be drawn near it, its distance from the first being such that the value of M for each of the small spaces enclosed between these two ines and the lines of the first system is equal to unity. In this way let more lines be drawn 40 as to forma second system, so that the value of M for every reticulation formed by the intersection of the two systems of lines is unity. Finally, from every point of intersection of these reticulations let a line be drawn ‘throngh the field, always coinciding in direction with the direction af magnetic force. (60) In this way the whole field will be filled with lines of magnetic force at regular intervals, and the properties of the electromagnetic field will be completely expressed ‘by them, For, Ist, If any closed enrve be drawn in the field, the value of M for that carve will ‘be expressed by the number of Iines of force which pass through that closed curve. 2ndly. If this curve be a conducting circuit and be moved through the feld, an electromotive force will act in it, represented by the rate of decrease of the number of lines passing through the curve. ‘Srdly. [fa current be maintained in the cirenit, the conductor will be acted on by forces tending ta move it 80 a8 to inerense the number of lines passing through it, andPROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON-THE “ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. = 479 the amount of work dons by these forces ia equal to the current in the cirouit multi. Hed by the number of additional Tines. 4thly. ‘Téasmall plane cirouit be placed in the field, and be free to turn, it will place its plane perpendicular to the lines of force, A small magnet will place itself with ite ‘axis in the direction of the lines of farce, ‘Sthly. Ha long uniformly magnetized bar is placed in the field, each pole will be acted on by a force in the direction of the lines of force. The number of lines of force passing through unit of area is equal to the force acting on a unit pale multiplied by s coefficient depending on the magnetic nature of the medium, and called the coefficient of magnetic induction. Yn finids and isotropic solids the value of this coefficient is the same in whatever @irection the lines of force pass through the substance, but in erystallized, strained, and orgmnized solids the valuo of may depend on the divection of the Tines of faroe with respect ta the axes of crystallization, strain, or growth. In all bodies j is affected by temperature, and in irou it appears to diminish as the intensity of the magnetization increases. On Magnetic Equipotential Surfaces. (51) I we explore the field with « uniformly magnetized bar, 60 long that one of its poles js in a very weak part of the magnetic field, then the magnetic forces will perform work on the other pole as it moves about the field. ‘Tf we start from a given point, and move this pole from it to any other point, the work performed will be independent of the path of the pole between the two points ; provided that no electric current: passes between the different paths pursued by the pole. Hence, when there are no electric currents but only magnets in the field, we may draw a series of surfaces such that the work done in passing from one to another shall ‘be constant whatever be the path pursued between them. Sueh surfaces are called Fauipotential Surfaces, and in ordinary oases are perpendicular to the Lines of mag- netic force. Tf these surfaces are so drawn that, when» unit pole pastes from any one to the next in order, unity of work is done, then the work done in any motion of a magnetic pole will be measured by the strength of the pole multiplied by the number of surfaces which it has passed through in the positive direction. (52) Tf there ere eireuits carrying electric currents in. the field, then there will still ‘ve equipotential surfaces in the parts of the field external to the condnetors carrying the currents, but the work done on a unit pole in pasting from one to another will depend ‘on the number of times which the path of the pole circulates round any of these currents, Hence the potential in each surface will have @ series of values in arith- metieal progression, differing by the work done in passing completely zound one of the eurrents in the field. ‘The equipotential surfaces will not be continnous closed surfaces, but some of them480 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELEGTROMAGNETIO FIELD, will he limited sheets, terminating in the electric cireuit as their common edge or ‘boundary. ‘The number of these will be equal to the amount of work done on a unit pole in going round the current, and thisby the ordinary measurement =4ry, where y ‘is the value of the current. ‘These surfaces, therefore, are connected with the clectrio current as soap-bubbles axe connected. with @ ring in M, Puarmav's experiments. Every eurrent y bas dary surfaces attached ta it. These surfaces have the oyrrant for their common edge, and meet it at, equal angles. ‘The form of the surfaces in: other parts depends on the presences of other currents and magnets, as well as on the shape of the cireuit to which they belong. FART UL—GEWERAL EQUATIONS GF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. (53.) Let us assume three rectangular directions in apace as the axes of 2, y, and s, and let all quantities having direction be expressed by their components in thesn three iyecti Sresiong: Etectrical Currents (p, q, 2). (64) Am clectrical current consists in the transmission of electricity from. one part of abody to another, Tot the quantity of electricity transmitted in unit of time across unit of area perpendicular to the axis of # be ealled », then p is the component of the current at that place in the direction of x. We shall use the letters p, ¢, r to denote the components of the current per unit of area in the directions of a, y, Electrical Displacements (f, g, hi). (65) Electrical displacement consisis in the Opposite electrification of the sides of a molecule or particle of a body which may or may net be accompanied with transmission throngh the body, Let the quantity of electsicity which would appear on the faces y-ds of an clement da dy, ds cut from the body be f.dy.dz, then fis the compauent of electric displacement parallel to «, ‘We shall use f, g, A to denote the electric displucoments parallel tor, y, 2 respectively. ‘The variations of the electrical displacoment taust be added to the currents Barto get the total motion of electricity, which we may call g/, ¢', +, ao that wap+, gaat, Fe ee fA) vorpal, Electramotive Force (P, Q, RB). (56) Let P,Q, R represent the components of the ¢lectremative force at any point. ‘Then P sepreventa the difference of potential per unit of length in a conductorPROFESSOR CHER MAXWELL ON THE ELHOTKOMAGNETIO FIELD. = 481 placed in the direction of x at the given point. ‘We may suppose an indefinitely shart wvine placed parallel to ¢ at a given paint and touched, during the action of the force P, by two emall conductors, which are then insulated and removed from the influence of the electromotive force, ‘The value of P might then be ascertained by measuring the charge of the tonductars. ‘Thus if 7 be the length of the wire, the difference of potential at its ends will be Pi, and if C be the capacity of each of the small conductors the charge on gach will be 4OP7. Bince the onpacities of moderately large conductors, meazuzed om the electro- magnetic system, are excoedingly small, ordinary élnctiuidtive forces arising from clectromagneticastions could hardly be-mensured in this way. Tn practice ouch meusure- ments are always inde with long ¢onduetors, forming tlssed or nearly closed circuits. Electromagnetic Momentum (F, G, H). (67) Let P, G, H represent the components of electromagnatic momentum at any of the field, due to any system of magnets or currents. ‘Then F is the total impulse of the electromotive force in the direction of « that would be generated by the removal of these magnets or curréits from the field, that is, if P ba the electromotive farce at any instant during the removal of the system ¥F=SPdt, ‘Hence the part of the electromotive fores which depends on the motion of magnets or ‘currents in the field, or their alteration of intensity, is po—2P, g=-48, pa es 8) Electromagnetic Momentum. of a Otrewit. (68) Let « be the length of the ciroult, them if we integrate f(eEro$ wg) round the cirenit, we shell get the total electromagnetic momentum of the circuit, or the number of lines of mngnetis fares which pass through it, the variations of which measure the total electromotive force in the circuit. ‘This clectromagnetic momentum is the sume thing to which Professor Faraay has ayiplied the name of the Electrotonic State. Tf the cireuit be the boundary of the clementary area dy ds, thon its electromagnetio momentum is, ‘aH wa) aas tnd this is the number of lines of magnetic fave which pass through the area dy dz, Magnatio Fores (a, (i, ¥)- (60) Lot a, 8, 7 represent the force acting on a unit magnetia pele placed at the given point resolved in the directions of x, j, aid 5.482 PROVESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, Coefficient of Magnetic Induction (2). (60) Let» be the ratio of the magnetic induction in a given medinm to thet in air under an equal magnetizing force, then the nuinber of lines of force in unit of ara perpendicular to # will be we (@ isa quantity depending on the nature of the medium, its temperature, the amount of magnetization alzeady produced, and in crystalline bodies varying with the direction). (61) Expressing the electric momentum of small circuits perpendicular to the three axfs in this notation, we obtain the following - B) Ejpuations of Currents. (62) It is known from experiment that the motion of a smagnotic pole in the electro saguetic Geld in @ closed circuit camot generate wark unless the eizouit which the pole describes passes round an electric current, ‘Hence, except in the space occupied by the electric currents, ude} Bdy4-yds=dp eC?) & complete differential of p, the magnetic potential, ‘The quantity p may be susceptible of an indefinite number of distinct values, according to the number of times that the exploring point passes round electric currents in its course, the difference between successive values ofp comesponding to a pasnage gom- pletely round a current of strength ¢ boing dre. Hence if there is no electric current, _ ‘but if there ise current p’, Simian, ae ’ E-Rate $B ter ‘We may call these the Equations of Currents.PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 488 Electromotive Force tn « Oirewit, (63) Let § be the electromotive foree acting round the eizeuit A, then s=[(PE+0F 42S) & be ee (82) where ds is the element of length, and the integration is performed round the circuit. ‘Let the forces in the field be those due to the circnits A and B, then the electro- magnetic momentum of A is (eheoR rae )astoae, 88) where « and » are the currents in A and B, and ta Gt Me ee BH ‘Hence, if there is no motion of the cireuit A, ae oy Pa-%-z aeeB fe du a re. where ‘¥ is w function af 2, y, 2, and 4 which is indeterminate as far ax regards tho solution of the sbove equations, becense the terns depending on it will disappear on integrating round the circuit, ‘The quantity ¥ can always, however, ‘be determined in any pavticulat case when we know the actual conditions of the question. The physical intenpretation of ¥ is that it repronents the eletrie potential at each point of epaco Electromativa Force on a Moving Conductor. (64) Teta short siruight conductor of lengli parallel to the axis of ss move with a velocity whose components are SF, 3, 4, and Jet is extremities slide slong ¢we parallel conductors with a velocity 2. ‘Let us find the alteration of the electro inaguetic momentum of the eSteuit of which this arrangement forms e pave Sen ee cries cosdurer tae toalal ian %, 9. & slong Ge directions of the thee axes nod at the ue tine the length of the parallel conductors included in the cireuit have each been increased by 3 ‘Hence the quantity . \@ geod ag)e pceeLyy. Bu497° PROFESSOR OLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. will be increased. by the following increments, a(Z a+ oF #4 7 a), due to motion of conductor, | 0 ESA B+ @)- duc to Lengthening of sirens. ‘The total increment will therefore be E2t (2 or, by the equations of Magnetic Force (8), eit —08Z)- EP is the electromotive force in the moving conductor parallel to we referred to unit of length, them the setual elactromotive force is Pa; and since this is measured by the decrement of the electromagnetic momentum of the cireuit, the electromotive force due * to motion will ba Papp es (88) (G5) The complete equations of electromotive foroe on a moving conductor may now. ‘be written as follows:— Equations of Electramntive Force. Qan( G7) —F 7 . m. noe (eG eg) ‘The dret term on the right-hand side of each equation represents the electromotive force arising from the motion of the conductor itself. ‘This electromotive force is per- pendicular to the direction of motion and to the lines of magnetic force; and if a parallelogram be drawn whose sides represent in direction and magnitude the velocity of the conductor and the magnetic induction at that point of the field, then the aren of. the parallelogram will represent the electromotive force due to the motion of the con ductor, and the direvtion of the force is perpendicular to the plane of the parallelogram. The second term in eth equation indicates the effect of changes in the position or strength of magnets or currents in.the ficld. The third term shows the effect of the clectrie potential ¥. It has na effect in causing & civeulating current in a closed circuit. It indicates the ‘existence of a force urging the electricity to or from certain defivite points in the field, Pae(vt-0g)-F ae | +t JPROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 485 Electric Elasticity. (86) When aa electromotive force acts on a dielectric, it puts every part of the - dielectric into a polarized condition, in which its opposite sides are oppositely electri- fied, ‘The amount of this electrification depends on the electromotive force and on the nature of the substance, and, in solids having a structure defined by axes, on the direo- tion of the eleetromotive force with respect to these axes. In izotropic substances, if & is the ratio of the electromotive force to the electric displacement, we may write the Equations of Hiectrie Blastiity, oe | . - (B (67) When an electromotive force acts on a conductor it produces « current of elec tricity through it. This effect is additional to the eloctria displacement already con- sidered. In solids of complex structure, the relation between the electromotive foree and the current depedids on their direction through the eolid. Tn ‘isotropic substances, which slime we shall here consider, if ¢ is the specific resistance referred to unit of ~ volume, we may write the: Equations of Hlectrio Resistance, Pee ee (68) Let ¢ represent the quantity of free positive electricity contained im unit of _ volume at any part ofthe field, then, since this arises from the electrification af the different parts of the field not neutralizing cach other, we may write the Bquation. of Pret Electricity, et fade Bao. De ee ee (89) Tf the medium conducts electricity, then we shall have another condition, which may be called, as in hydrodynamics, the Equation of Continseity, ee (70) Tn these equations of the electromagnetic field we have assumed twenty variable sua488 © FROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. w Electric Potential . 2... wae Between these twenty quantities we have fina twenty equations, quantities, namely, For Electromagnetic Momentum... . . . . . . FG OH » Magnetic Intensity Doser By » Electromotive Fore 2 2... 2...) P QR ® Current due to true conduction . Deer » Electric Displacement . af gh » tal Games (lang varaen of igineement) pga » Quantity of free Electricity . 2. 4 ¥ viz. ‘Three equations of Mugnetic Force. 2 2... 2. . (B) * Electric Currents. 2 2 2. 2... (C) " Eleetromotive Force -. @ . Electric Elasticity a. CB) . Electric Resistance . 2. ® Total Currents 2.) , A One equation of Free Electricity . See ee ee » Continnity 2 (H) ‘These equations are therefore sufficient to determine all the quantities which ovecit in them, provided we know the conditions of the problem. In many questions, how- ever, only & few of the equations are required. Intrinsic Energy of the Electromagnetic Field. (Tl) We have seen (88) that the intrinsic energy of any system of currents is found by multiplying half the current in each cirenit into its electromagnetic momentum. ‘This is equivalent to finding the integral ESti(Fy'+Gq'+Hryd¥ 2. 8) over all the space occnpied by currents, where p, 7, r aré the components of currents, and F, G, H the components of electromagnetic momentum. ae RC Du ee Dee a[(2-B)+6(@-2)+9(-3 ae Integrating by parts, and remembering that «, 8, 7 vanish at an infinite distance, the — 1 a aE _ deh ao -G) +8(2—) 44(-F) ev. where the integration is to be extended orey all space, Rofavsing to the equations of Magnetic Force (B), p. 489, this becomes Eahita. wat Bimibymd¥, . 1. 2... (88)PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. = 487 where 2, 8; y ave the components of magnetic intensity or the force on a unit magnetic pole, mad pat pf, py are the components of the quantity of magnetic induction, or the wamber of lines of force in unit of aren. Tn isotropic media the value of w is the same in all directions, and we may express the result more simply by saying that the intrinsic energy of any part of the magnetic field arising from its magnetization is sr cs per unit of volume, where I is the magnetic intensity. (72) Energy may be stored up in the field in 9 different way, namely, by the action of electromotive force in producing electric displacement. ‘The work done by a variable clectsomplive foree, P, in producing a variable displacement, f, is got by integrating JPaf from P=0 to the given value of P. Since P=, equation (E), this quantity becomes Safafm ayes. : Hence the intrinsic energy of any part of the field, as existing in the form of electric displacement, fs AUEP+Op FRAY. ‘The total energy existing in the field is therefore Eas eme tonite bese aytmm}ey, Tho first term of this expression depends on the magnetization of the field, and is explained on our theory by netmal motion of some kind. "The second term depends on tthe electric polarization of the field, and is explained on our theory by strain of some kind in an elastic medium. (73) 1 have on a former occasion * attempted to describe a particular kind of motion and a particular kind of strain, so axvangedl ax to account for the phenomena, In the present paper Isvoid any hypothesis of this kind: and in using each words as electric mmomentnm and electrie elasticity in reference to the known phenomena of the induc: tioa of currents and the polarization of diclectries, 1 wish merely to direct the mind of the reader to mechanical phenomena which will assist him in understanding the eleo- teical ones. All such phrases in the present paper aré te be considered as {Iustrative, not as explanatory. (74) In spealsing of the Energy of the field, however, I wish to be understood Literally, “All energy is the same as mechanical energy, whether it exists in the form of mation or in thot of elasticity, or in ony other form. ‘The encrgy in electromagnetic phenomena is mechanical energy. The only question is, Where does it reside? On the old theories © 4.0m Physical Lines of Force,” Philesophical Msgusine, 1861-62.488 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIO FIELD, it vesides in the electrified bodies, condueting circuits, and magnets, in the form ofan unknown quality called potential energy, or the power of producing certain effects ata distance. On our theory it resides in the electromagnetic field, in the space the electrified and maguetio bodies, as well as in those bodies themscives, and ie in-two- diferent forms, which may be described without hypothesis as magnetic polarization and electric polarization, or, according to «very probable hypothesis, as the motion and the strain of one and the gamé mediun. (76) The conclusions arrived at in the present paper are independent of this hypo- thesis, being deduced from experimentil facts of three kinds:— 1. The induotion of electric currents by the increase or diminution of neighbouring currents according to the changes im the lines of force passing through the circuit, 2. Tha dubsiballea of mngnotie Intenalty asnonding to the variations of a magnetic potential. 3. The induction (or influence) of statical electricity through dielectrics, ‘We may now proceed to demoustrate from these principles the existence and laws of the mechanical forces which act upon electric currents, magnets, and clestrified bodies placed in the electromagnetic field. PANT 1V,MECHANIGAT ACTIONS IX THE FIELD. Mechanical Force on a Moveable Conduator, {76} We have shown (§§ 84 & 35) that the work done by the electromagnetic forces in aiding the motion of a conductor is equal to the product of the current in the con- ductor muldplied by the increment of the electromagzetic momentum due to the mation, ‘Let a short straight conductor of length @ move parallel to itself in the direction of @, with its extremities on two parallel conductors. Then the increment of the electro- magnetic momentum due fo the motion of a will be aG dy , aH de’ a(S ae “40 =) ‘That due to the lengthening of the cireuit by increasing the length of the pavallel com ‘ willbe ee at ate & +23) ae(a_ a deja ait anl2(2—9)-2-2)} which is by the equations of Moguetie Force (B), p. 482, dy at oe (Zar ~Gee). Let X be the force acting along the dizection of & per unit of length of the conductor, then the work done is Xabi ‘The total increment isPROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELI- ON THE ELEGTROMAGNETIC FIRLD. 489 Lot C be the current in the eondnetor, and let pg’ » be its components, then ‘dt a Kod Catss (¥er— 08) or X=pyy —ear. Similarly, ee eo Zapbp — png ‘These aro the equations which determine the snechanioal fores acting on a condactar carrying a current, ‘The foros is perpendicular ta the enrrent and to the lines of foree, and is measured by the area of the parallelogram formed by lines parallel to the ewrent nd lines of force, and proportional to their intensities. “Mechanteal Fores on a Magnet. ‘this quantity has a single value for each point. ‘When there are currents, the potential ‘has a series of valnes at exch point, but its differential coefficients have only one value, namely, fan $=6 Bay. Substituting these values of «, @, 7 in the expreasion (equation 38) for ‘the intrinsic energy of the field, and integrating by parts, it becomes —3{en (E+ +2) ev. 3 (G4 S24 avery os G8) indicates the uumber of Tines of magnetic force which have their origin within the space V. Now a magnetic pole is Inown tous only as the origin or termination of Tinos of inagnetic force, and a unit pole is one which hes 4s lines belonging to it, sine it produces unit of anaguotie intensity at unit of distice over a sphere whose snrfice is de. . Hence if m is the amount of free positive magnetism’ in unit of volume, the above espression may be writien dam, and the expression dor the energy of the field becomes ee ee 7) If there are twa magnetic poles m, and m, producing potentials p, and ¢, in the field, then if m, is moved a distance da, qnd is urged in that direetion by a farce X, then the work done is Xde, and the decrease of energy in the field is alate elute) nad these must he equal by the principle of Conservation of Energy. ‘The expression490 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWALL ON THR ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. Since the distribution g, is determined by #,, and ¢, by m,, the quantities gm, and F. im, Will remain constant. It can be shown also, as Gexew has proved (Essay, p. 10), that to that we get (MPM or Xde=d(m,2,), Xam, 2 oma, where @, represents the magnetic intensity due tom. |. soe ee eee Similacly, Yam,p,, ‘Dmmy,. So that 2 magnetic pele is urged in the direction of the lines of magnetio force with * force equal to the product of the strongth of the pole and the magnetic intensity. (78) Ten single magnetic pole, that is one pole of a very long magnet, be placed in the field, the only solution of p ix 1 oe eee (ALY ment ( ‘where m, is the strength of the pole and r the distance from it. ‘The repulsion between two poles of strength m, and m, is aC) To air oF any medium in which j= this is simply 7%, but inother media the force acting between two given magnetic poles is inversely proportional to the coefficient of Tnagaetic induction for the medium. ‘This may be explained by the magnetization of the medium induced by the aotion of the poles, Mechantoal Foros on an Electrified Hody. (79) If there is no motion or change of strength of currents or magnets in the field the electromotive force is entirely due to variation of electric potential, and we shall have (§ 05) ay ay _ pa, g=-@, na. Integrating by parts the expression (I) for the energy due to cleetric displacement, and remembering that P,Q. R vauish at an infinite distance, it becomes : = {e(F+ 242), or by the equation of Pree Electricity (@), p. 485, —EE(¥edv.FROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. = 401 By the sume demonsization as was used in the ease of the mechanical action on & magnet, jtsany be shown that the mechanical force on a small body containing » quantity ¢, of fee electricity placed in « field whose potential arising from other electrified bodies fo ¥,, has for components Kaa =P, Vee a Get ee DD Lee aR, So that an. electrified body is urged in the direction of the electromotive force with a foree equal to the product of the quantity of free electricity and the electromotive force. Tf the electrification of the.field arises from the presence of a small electrified budy containing ¢, of-free electzity, the only solution of ¥, is Wade (08) where # is the distance from the electrified body. The repulsion between two electrified bodies ¢,, ¢ is therefore wei Measurement of Electrical Phenomena ty Etectrostatio Effects. (80) ‘The quantities with which we have had to do have been hitherto expressed in terms.of the Electromagnetic System of measurement, which is founded on the mecha- nical notion between currents. The electrostatic system of mensurement is founded on the mechanical action between electrified bodies, and is independent of, and incom- potible with, the electromagnetic system ; go that the units of the different kinds of Quantity have different values according to the system we adopt, end to pass from the ‘one system to the other, a reduction of all the quantities is required. According ta the electrostatic system, the repulsion between two small bodies changed ‘with quantities 2,, x, of electricity is s where ris the distance between them. _ Let the relation of the two systems be such that one electromagnetic unit of elec- twicity contains v electrostatic units; then s,=ve, and ,==14,, and this repulsion becomes of Sim 2 8p by equation (44). © + = = + + (48) whence & the coefficient of “electric elasticity” in the medium in which the experi- ments are made, #.¢, common air, is related toe, the number of electrostatic unite in ons electromagnetic unit, by the equation by the eq bade ee (AB) Bx492 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, ‘The quantity v may be determined by experiment in sevoral ways, Acconding to the experiments of MM. Wauex and Konumanscu, v=810,740,000 metres per second. (81) 1t appears from this investigation, that if we assume that the medium which constitutes the eleatromagnetic feld is, when dieleotric, eapable of reoeiving in every part of it an electric polarization, in which the opposite sides of evary element into which we may conceive the medinin divided are oppositely electrified, und if we also asame that this polerization ar olectric displacement is proportional to the electros motive force which produces or maintains it, then we can show that elecirified bodies ina dielectric medium will uct on one another with forces obeying the sama laws as ara established by experiment, ‘The energy, by the expenditure of which electrical attractions and repulsions are pro- duced, we suppose to be stored up in the dielectric medinfm which surrounds the electri- fed hodies, and not on the surface of those bodies themselves, which on our theory are merely che bounding surfaces of the air or other dielectric in which the true springs of action are to be sought, Note on the Attraction of Gravitation, (82) After tcing to the action of the surtounding medium both the magnetic and the electrio attractions and repulsions, and finding them to depend on the inverse equare of the distance, we are naturally led to inquire whether the attraction of gravitation; wlsieh follows the same law of the distance, is not also traceable to the action of a surrounding medium, Gravitation differs fron inagnetism and electricity in this; that the bodies concerned are ull of the mume kind, instead of being of oppoite signs, like magnetic poles and electrified bodies, and that the force between these bodies is an attraction and not a vepulsion, ax is the case between like electrie and magnetic bodies. ‘The Lines of gravitating force near two dents bodies are exactly of the enme form as the lines of magnetic force neur two poles of the sume name; but whereas the poles are two gravitating bodies M,, M,, and let E be the intrinsic enargy of the field surrounding fwo magnetic poles m,, m,, equal in numerical value to M,, M,, and let X be the gravi- tating fores acting daring the displacement &, and the magnetic force, Eiratk, Xr 3E'; now X and X! ure equal in numerical value, but of opposite signs; so that tE=— 2B), E=C-E SOs Ley yy,PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 408 where «, 8, y are the components of magnetic intensity. TER be the resultant gravi- tating forea, and R’ the resultant magnetic force at a corresponding part of the field, =—R, and of +S == R* Hence a Bac-2iRwy. 2 ee es (AD ‘The intrinsic energy of the field of gravitation must therefore be less wherever there is a veaultant gravitating Fores. ‘As energy is essentinlly positive; it is impossible far any part of space to hare nega- tive intrinsic energy. Hance, those parts of space in whieh there is uo remiltant fhece, such as the points of equilibrium in the epace between the different bodies of a system, and within the substance of each body, must have an intrinsic energy per unit of volume greater than 1 ae where Ris the greatest possible value of the intensity of gravitating fares in any part of ‘The assumption, therefore, that gravitation arises from the action of the surrounding medium in the way pointed out, leads to the conclusion that every part of this mediuin possesses, when undisturbed, an enormous intrinsic energy, and that the presence of dense bodies influences the medium ao as to diminish this energy wherever there is a resultant attraction. ‘As Tam unable to understand in what way a medium can poses mich properties, T éaunot go any further in this direction in searching for the cause of gravitation. PART V.—THEORY OF CONDENEERS. Capacity of a Condenser. (88) ‘The simplest form of condenser-consists of a uniform layer of insulating matter ‘bounded by two conducting surfaces, and its capacity is meusured by the quantity of electricity on either surface when the difference of potentials is unity. ‘Lat § be the area of either surface, @ the thickness of the dielectric. and & its eoeffi- cient of electric elasticity; then on one side of the condenser the potential ia ¥,, and on the other side VY, 4-1, and within its substance ps er Since 4 and therefore J is vero ontside the condenser, the quantity of electricity on its first surface =—Sf, and on the second -S/. The eapaeity of the condenser is there- fore Sf = im electromagnetic measure, GxeAaa PROFESSOR CLERE MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, Specific Capacity of Electric Tnduetion (D). (84) If the dielectric of the condenser be aiz, then its capacity in. electrostatic mes sure is 9. (neglecting comections arising from the conditions to be fulilled at the edges). If the dieleetrie have a capacity whose ratio to that of air is D, chen the capa: city of the condenser will be PS. Hence Dee eee (ABD where &, is the value of & in nir, which is taken for unity. Electric Absorption. (85) When the dicleetric of which the condenser is formed is not a perfect insulator, the phenomena of conduction are combined with these of electric displacement. The condenser, when left charged, gradually loses its charge, and in some cases, after being discharged completely, it gradually acquires a siew chargé of the same sign as the original charge, and this finally disappears, ‘These phenomena have been described by Profassor Fanapay (Experimental Researches, Series XL) and by Mz. F. Saxxm (Report of Com mittee of Board of Trade on Submarine Cables), and may be classed under the name ef, * Electric Absorption.” (86) We shall take the case of a condenser composed of any number of parallel layers of different materials, Tf a constant difference of potentials between its extreme surfnecs is kept up for a sufficient time tll a condition of permanent steady flow of electricity is established, then each bounding surface will have a charge of electricity depending on the nature of the substances on ench side of it, If the extreme surfaces be now discharged, these internal charges will gradually be dissipated, and a certain charge may reappear on the extreme surfaces if they are ‘insulated, or, if they are eon nected by a conductor, a certain quantity of electricity may be urged through the com ductor during the reestablishment of equilibrium. Let the thickness of the several layers of the condenser be a, dy &¢, ‘Let the values of F for these layers be respectively &,, dy Ky, and let ak tak phemak,. 2 6 we (50) where & is the “electric elasticity” of air, and a is the thickness of ax equivalent com denser of air, ‘Let the resistances of the ayers be respectively r,. 7, &e., and let r,-pr+ &e. =r be the resistance of the whole condenser, to a steady current through it per unit of surface. Lot the electric displacement in each layer be f,, fi, &c. Let the electric current in each Isyer he p,, pa dc. Let the potential on the first surface be %,, and the electricity per unit of surface e Let the corresponding quantities at the boundary of the first and second surface be , and ¢,, and soon, Then by equations (G) and (H),PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 405 e=—fe 4p, acfictp Mapepp G1) ee. &e. ‘But by equations (E) und (F), ¥,-V aah fers ke. &e. &e. ‘After the electromotive force has been kept up for & saficiant tne the current eoumes the same in each layer, ond pap be. apa es where ¥ is the total difference of potentials between the extreme layers, We have then at, fet ha-tik F ak and + ve ee ee G8) Pap set Ghoat)e ‘These are the quantities of electricity on the diferent surfaces. (87) Now let the condenser be, discharged by eoumecting the extreme surfanes througiu a perfect conductor so that their potentials are instantly rendered equal, then ¥,-¥,=0hfi=—nty ‘ . cs (68) the cleetricity-on the extreme surfaces will be altered, but that on the internal surfiece ‘vill not hiave time to escupe. ‘The total difference of potentials is now Pao paklebe)tak(d tebe) ke =O) 2 + ss + (54) ahenoe if ¢, is what ¢, becomes st the instant of discharge, —? 5%, ame eae (65) ‘The instantaneous discharge is therefore 2, or the quantity which would be dis charged by a condenser of ir of the equivalent thickness a, and it 3s unaffected by the wont of perfect insulation. (88) ow let us suppose the connexion between the extreme surfaces broken, and the ‘condenser Toft to“teelé, ond lot us eansider the gradual dissipation of the internsl charges Tar P be the difference of potential of the extreme surfaoes at any time ¢ then Weakftabitee: oo 7 + GB ‘but akfm—ni afar496 = PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. SAR, fA", he; and by referring to the values of d, a, &o, Hence: we find et aa a Se. a0 that we find for the difference of extreme potentials at any time, PoeOBIE GBR aeh ey (89) It appears from this result thet if all the layers are made of the same sub- stance, ‘¥ will be zero always, If they are of different substances, the order in which they wre placed is indifferent, and the effect will be the sume whether each substance consists of one layer, or is divided into any nomber of thin layers and arranged in any order among thin layers of the other substances. Any substance, therefore, the parts of which are not mathematically homogeneous, though they may be apparently 40, may exhibit phenomena of absorption, Also, since the order of magnitude of the coefficients {is the same as that of the indices, the value of ¥ can never change sign, but must start from zero, become positive, and finally disappear. (90) Let us next consider the total amount of electricity which would pass from the first su#fiee to the second, if the condenser, efter being thoronghly saturated by the onrrent and then discharged, has its extreme surfaces connected by a conductar of resistance R. Let p be the ourrent in this conductor; then, during the discharge, Woprtpn+eempR 2... (6a) Integrating with respect to the time, and calling gy, 92, @ the quantities of electricity: which traverse the different conduotors, Gritgtet ooh |. LL (8D) ‘The quantities of electricity on the several surfaces will be G9 Hs Fae and since of last all these quantities vanish, we find. = whence mal + 3+ se.) 3 or = had (Some) tamer (SZ) be), . (62)PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 497 a quantity essentially positive; #0 that, when the primary electrification is in one direc- tion, the secondary discharge is always in the sume direction as the primary discharge*: PART VIL—ELECTHOMAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT. (91) At the. commencement of this paper we mode nse of the optical hypothesis of an clastic medium through which the vibrations of Jight are propageted, in order td show thut'we hive warrantable grounds for seeking, in thi same medium, the cause of other phenomena as well as those of light. We then examined electromagnetic pheno- ineng, secking for their explanation in the properties of the field which surrounds the electrified or magnetic bodies, In this way we arrived at certain equations expressing certain properties of the electromagnetic field. We now proceed to investigate whether ‘these properties of that which constitutes the electromagnetic field, deduced from electro- magnetic phenomena alone, are sufficient to explain the propagation of light through ‘the sume substance. (82) Let us suppose that a plane wave whose direction cosines are i, m, sis propa gated thnough the field with a velocity V. ‘Then all the electromagnetic functions will ‘be functions of wale my-pae—Ve, ‘The equations of Magnetic Force (B), p. 462, will become meri 28 pom —m os one = wat Fame. Té we multiply these equations respectively by J, m,n, endadd, we find potinaS+iey=t, 2. - ‘which shows thet the direetion of the ningnetization must bo‘ the plane of tha wave, (98) Tf we combine the equations of Magnetic Force (B) with those of Electric Currents (C), and put for brevity +g tas and Stet wee | (68) top =Z—VR, teugmg—VG} = OH deat = WE, * ines this paper was commrunicatod ta tho Reyol’Sestety, I kevascon a popr by M. Ganeary in the Annales de Chimis fir 1864, in which ha has dodused the phenamenn af elestsic absorption wall scoimdity discharge rom the theory of compound eotdennere,498 PROFESSOR. CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIO FIELD. ‘Tf the medium in the field is.a perfect dielectric there is no true conduction, and the currents p/, g/,¥ are only variations in the electri¢ displacement, or, by the equations of Total Currents (4), a ce (68) But these clectrie displacements are caused by electromotive foroes, and by the equations of Blectrio Elasticity (E), Pai, Q=i, Rea, + se (68) p=—T_2, an on 2 (94) Combining these equations, we obtain the following — #(G—V8 ) +40u(St+Ey) =0, #(F-VG) +40 (SEY =o} 0... Ry 1G) nf) If we differentiate the third of these equations with respect to 9, and the second with Yespect to ¢, aud subtract, J and Y disappeer, and by remembering the equations (B) of smagnetic foree, the results may be written BViua mee Sua, EV pf=dap TB, See sone (68) RV oy ten Su. (05) TE we assume that «, 8, y ere functions of iz-+-my-+ne—Vi=m, the first equa- tion becomes te te er CY) oe VetVe eee ‘The other equations give the same value for V, so that the wave is propagated in either direction with a velocity V.PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THR ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. agg ‘This wave consists entirely of ic disturbances, the direction of magnetization being in the plane of the wave. Wo magnetie disturbance whose direction of magaeti- ee ie not dn the plane of the wave ean ba propagated as a plane wave at ah. ‘Tenoe magmotie disturbances propugeted throvgh the electromagnetic eld agree with Sight in this, iat dhe disturbance at any point is transverse to the direction of propagee (36) ‘The only medium in which experiments have been male to determine the value of kis air, in which p==1, and therefore, by equation (46), Weu 2 ee ee et TR) By the electromagnetic experiments of MM. Wrexa and Kounnacsce*, p=$10,740,000 metres per second ta the number of eleotrostatic units in one electromagnetic wait of electricity, and this, ecording to our result, should be equal to the velocity of light in air or vacuuit. ‘The velocity of ight in aix, by M. Fueav's} expariiments, is . ‘V= 314,858,000: according to the mote accurate experiments of M. Foveawur d, Y= 208,000,000. "The velocity of light in the space surrounding the earth, deduced from the coefficient ‘of aberration and the reovived value of the radius of the earth's orbit, is ‘¥=808,000,000. (87) Hence the velocity of light deduced from experiment agreos sufficiently well wwith the value of» deduced from the only set af experiments we as yet Possess. ‘The with ane payne detertained by measuring the electromotive force with which s condenser vi parma capacity was changed, and then dlacherging the condenser through « galvano- moter, 40 s to measure the quantity of lectricity in it in electromagnetic measure, ‘The ealy wae modo of light in the experiment was to spo the instruments The value ‘of ¥ found by ‘MM, Foreavur -wes obtained by determining the angle through which @ vevelring mirror jared, while the light rellected from it went and returned along « measured course. No use whatever was mnade of electricity or magnetism. "The agreement of the resullsscoms to show that Tight and magnetinm are affections of the syme substance, and that light is mm electromagnetic disturbance propagated throngh the field according ta electromagnetic Iews, (08) Let ns now go beck upon the equations in (24), in which the quantities J and + occur, to see whether any other kind of disturbance can be propagated through. the radium depending on these quontities which disappeared from the final equations. Laipeig Tonashetions, val. v- (867), P: 200, 0x Posaeourr's’ Apnaien! dug. 1858, p10, ¢ Comptes Hendus, vol. ecix. (1848), p80. £ Thid. vol. Iv. (1862), pp. 601, 702, ‘MpoecLEY. ay600 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. If'we determine x from the equation Via + at (73) and F, ©, H! from the equations Par-%, @=G-%, H=H-% . |. (74) shen a ar, aw oa =, coe ee (TBD and the equations in (04) beeome of the form af] weston (Ge tae (+). oe ee (TB) Differentiating the three equations with respect.to 2, y, and.2, and adding, we find that wa-Begageh oe TT and that ROP adept, RVG Shew pw (TB) We. aq ROS TE} Hence the disturbances indieated by F, G’, H' are propagated with the velocity: V=4 {5 through the field; and since the resultant of these disturbances ia in the plane of the wave. (00) ‘The remaining part.of the total disturbances F, G, H being the part. depending on x, is subject to no condition except.that expressed in the equation 40 Tf we perform the operation V' on this equation, it becomes ar Bem FEV teed ee ee (78) Sinee the medium is a perfeet insulator, ¢, the free electricil immoveable, and therefore isa function of #, y, 2, and the value of J 3 either constant or zero, oz, uniformly increasing or diminishing with the time; so that no disturbance depending F ean be propnyated as a were. . (100) The equations of the electromagnetic field, deduced from purely experimental evidence, show that transversi! vibrations only canbe propagated. If we were to go ‘beyond our experimental knowledge and to assign « definite density ton substance whichPROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 601 we should call the electric fluid, and select either vitreous or resinous electricity as the ‘representative of that fluid, then we might have normal vibrations propagated with a velocity depending on this density. We have, however, no evidence as to the density of electricity, as we do not even know whether to consider vitreous electricity a3 a sub- stance or as the absence of a substance. lence electromagnetic science leads to exactly the same conclusions as optical science with respect to the direction of the disturbances which can be propagated through the field; both affirm the propagation of transverse vibrations, and both give the same velocity: of propagntion, On the other hand, both sciences are at a loss when called on to affirm or deny the existence of normal vibrations, Relation between the Tudes of Refraction andthe Electromagnetic Character of the substance. (101) The velocity of light in a medium, according to the Undulatory Theory, fe 1a where i is the index of refraction and V, is the velocity in vacuum. The velocity, according to the Electromagnetic Theory, is where, by equations (49) and (71), Fh, and dyad Hence eC.) ax the Specific Inductive Capacity ia equal to the square sof the index of refraction divided by the coefficient of magnetic induction. Propagation of Electromagnetic Disturbances ina Crystallized Mediura, (102) Let ns now culeulate (he conditions of propagation of a plane wave in a medium for which the values of & and js ave different in different dizections. As we do not propose to give a complete investigation of the question in the present imperfect state of the theory ab extended to disturbances of short period, we shell essume that the axes of magnetic induction coincide in direction with those of electric elasticity. (103) Lot the values of the magnetic coefficient for the three axes be >, j4, *, then the equations ef magnetic farce (B) become wae ay602 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, ‘The equations of clectric onrrents (C) remain as before. ‘The equations of electric elasticity (E) will be Padwayf, ants | Redrch, where drat, 404, and 4rc* are the values of & for the axes of x, y, 2. ‘Combining these equations with (A) and (D), we get equations of the form L/@F, OF, OF) ids dF, dG 1 (ae eet S) pa CE tee HE) =a(arHs). 8 (104) Lf m, n are the direction-cosines of the wave, and V its velocity, and if ietmypu—View . .. 8M) then F, G, H, and Y will be functions of w; ond if we pot FP, G', H’, -¥" for the second differentials of these quantities with respect to w, the equations will be (m-e( E42) 4 oy Sane Foe ee (Rp (vee Gees rep nveeo, |... (88 (we G42) a ry eave, Tf we now put ViVi Ptah) tm(er re ptwron.t d4)} eA (nk at ves + (80) ie (GA F+E)Otmptena, swe shall find FVUMvU=0, 6... with two similar equations for G' and H’. Hence either Va. 088) US, apy “ VESI, VGlem¥ and Vian. 2... (50) ‘The third supposition indicates that the resultant of F', G’, H' is in the direction normal to the plane of the wave; but the equations do mot indicate that such a disturb- ance, if possible, could be propagated, as we have no other relation between WF and F,G, H. a ‘The solution V==0 refers to a case in which there is no propagation, The solntion U=0 gives two values for V* corresponding ta values af F', G', H'y whichPROVESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THR ELECTROMAGNETIC THUD. 503 are given by the equations ee » + GL ry as Meat) grlen—Hksd, - = O (105) The velocities slong the axes are as follows:— Diveotion of propagation... + Now we know that in each principal plane of a ergetol the ray polarized in shit ane obopa the ordinacy law of refeetion, snd therofne Se wslodiy ix the came 12 ‘whatever dizeotion in that plane it is propagated. Tf polarized light consists of cleotomagnelic disturbances in which the electric dis placement is in the plane of polarization, then WaPo ce . + (83) sf, on the contrary, the eleotrcdisplanements we perpendieslar tothe pine of Poli sization, pepe ee OH ‘We know, from the magnetic experiments of Fanny, Puteann, 6¢,, that in many crystals A, py ¥ are unequal. ree ae ee eats of Knostaved* on lestric indncton thraugh erprals snow to ehow that a, Band c, may be different. Boa ea alty, However, ofp r34s0 small that great magnetic Zorom as remuiret bo ethene the diforence, and the dferences do not eem of sificient magnitude Yo of minute flaws, or potions of condueting mnatter in the crystal. Further experiments on the magnetic and dielectric propertios of erystals are required Fee cajeside. whether the relation of these bodies te magnetic ané elociafs forces is the same, ‘ctioy these forces ace permanent as when they are alternating with the rapidity of the vibrations of light “+ Philosophien! Magnsine, 1852.504 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE .RLECIHOMAGNETIO FIELD. Relation between Etsctric Resistance ened Transparency. (106) IF the medium, instead of being a perfect insulator, is a conductor whote resist. ance per unit of volume is», then there will be not unly electric displacements, but true currents of conduction in which electrical energy is transformed into heat, and the undu- jation is thereby werkened. ‘Lo determine the coefficient of absorption, let us inwesti- gete the propagation along the axis of x of the transverse disturbance G. ‘By the former equations oe = tena) =—4eu (H+) oy (A) Gente | Se PS) by Band ES (0 Tf G.is.of the form ye fad that Geemeos (gett es (6) pometaiey, . . (87) where Vis the velocity of light in air, and ¢ {s the index 6f refraction, “The proportion of incident light transimitted through the thickness w ia Om. coy Let R be the resistance in electromagnetic mensure of a plate of the substance whose thickness is a, breadth 8, and length 7, then rok, va Qprsdeey ee we (88) (107) Most uunsparent solid bodies are god insulators, whereas all good conductors are very opaque, © Electrolytes allow a current to pass eesily and yet are often very transparent. We may suppose, however, that in the.rapidly alternating vibrations of light, the electro ‘motive forees net for so ehavt a time that they are unable to effwet a complete separation between the particles im conibinotion, so that when the force is reversed the particles oscillate into their farmer position without loss of energy. Gold, silver, and platinam are good conductors, and yet when redueed to sufficiently thir: plates they allow light to pass through them, Lf the resistance of gold is the-same for electromotive forees of short period as for those with which we make experiments, the amount of ight which. passes through a piece of goldeaf, of which the resistance was determined by Mr C. Hocxis, would be only 10-® of the ingident liyht, a totally imperceptible quantity. Cfind that between yty and-ryry of gréeu light gets throughPROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 605" such gold-leaf. ‘Much of this is transmitted through holes and cracks; there is enough, however, transmitted through the gold itself to give a strong greon hue to the transmitted light. ‘This result cannot be reconciled with the electromagnetic theory of light, unless we suppose that there is less loss of energy when the electromotive farces quo reversed with the rapidity of the vibrations of light than when they act for sensible ‘times, as in our experiments. Adsolute Values of the Elctramotive and Magnetic Forces oatled into play in the: Propagation of Light. (108) If the equation of propagation of light is FoAcos ¥(s-Ve), the electromotive force will be Pa—A ZV sin Z(e—Ve): and the energy per unit of volume will be Pr ie where P represents the greatest value of the electromotive force. Half of this consists: of magnetie and half of electric energy. The energy passing through a unit of aren is Pr Wasa! P =/Sep VW, where ¥ is the velocity of light, and W is the energy communicated to unit of area by the light in a second. According to Power's data, as calculated by Professor W. Tuowson*, the mecha- nical value of direct sunlight at the Earth is + 83-4 foot-pounds per second per square foot. ‘This gives the maximum value of Pin direct sunlight at the Earth's distance from the Sun, P=60,000,000, or abont 600 Danteii’s cells per metre. ‘At the Sun's surfuce the value of P would be about. 13,000 Dantett’s cells per metre. ‘At the Earth the masimum magnetie force would be 198+ At the Sun it would be 4-18, "These electromotive and magnetic forces must be conceived to be reversed twice in every vibration of Light; thot is, more than a thousand million million times in a second, © Toanssstions of the Royal Society of Eainbungh, 18344 (" 2ochanieal Energics of tse Solar System"). + The borizmtal weaguetie foro at Kew is sbamt 1-70 ia motries| unite. so that506 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. (109) ‘The clectromagnetic relations between two conducting circuits, A and B, cron Sen fonction M of their form and xdlative postion, a4 has heen alveaie shown. M may be calealated in several difavent ways, which must of cousss all lead ta the sume result, First Method. ‘M is the electrpmagnetic momentum of the eironit B when A carries 8 unit carent, oF wafleSro$.re2)ae, hee FG, 3 ere the components of electromagnetic momentous due to a unit eurent it A; And de! is au element of length of B, and the integration ix perforod evwed ane tiranit of B ‘To find F, G, Ti, we observe that by (B) and (Q) SG SES — top With corresponding: equations for @ and H, py, and r! being the oomponente of the eurrent in A. ‘Now if we consider only u single element dy of A, we shall have raye, potas pata, md the solution of the equation wives de & FoiGa Gat Pa, Hat Fas, whore ¢ is the distance of any point from ds, Henoe ide de dy diy dis ce) w= ([SGs+e ee B)owe = [feos eed Cineaee teat angle betwem. the Givections of the tw clemeate ded, and fs the distance bebyoen them, and the integration is performed round bath cironits, (410) Second Method. M is the number of Ti of magnetic force which pass through the cireait B when A caries # unit current, o M=Zipal+ Bint wyapes’, where we, af, wy ave the components of magnetic induction due to unit current in A,PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIO FIELD. BOT of is a surftce bounded by the eorrent B, and f,2m,m ara the dizection-corines of the moral 20 the surfaee, the integration being extended over the surface, ‘We may express this in the form M=pH sin dein f sin paSids, cere d&} is an element of the surfioe bounded by B, dé is wn element of the cirlt A, tis the distance between them, # anil fre the angles betwee ¢ an ds end befyiet wT che normal to a9 respectively, md ¢-is the angle between the planca in which Sand ¢ are measured. ‘The integration is performed round the eireuit A snd over the surface bounded by B. ‘This method is most convenient in the case af cirouite lying in one plane, in which onse sin #=1, and sin g=1. 111. ‘Third Method. ‘MM is that part of the intrinde magnetic energy of the whole field which depends on the product of the currents in the two circuits, each current being unity. ‘Lot 2, B, y be the components of magnetic intensity at any point due to the fist heait, a; Ble 7! tho sense for the second circuit; then the intrinsle energy of the element of volume dV of the field is E(@reT+Greytte yey ‘The part which depends on the product of the currents is Efao+p'tay' KV. Hence if we know the magnetic intensities Tana J’ due to unit eurrent in each cixcuit we may obtain M by integrating Ew eos dv ver all space, where d is the angle betwoen the directions of T and T’ Application to « Cvil. (aig) To find the coedicient (M) of mutnal induction between two circular Hnear conductors in parallel planes, the distance between the curves being everywhere the sare, and small compared with the mdins of either. Lfr be the distance Letween the carves, and a the yadius of either, then when 7 is very email compared with we find by the second method, as a ftst appsaximation, Mz 4ex (los. 82-2). ‘To approximate more closely to the value of M, let a and a, be the radfi of the circles, and B the distance between their planes; then Fale—al te Bs508 PROFESSOH CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIO FLED, We obtain M by considering the following conditions:— Ast. MU must fulfil the differential equation BaD atan This equation being trae for any magnetic field symmetrical with respect: to the common xis of the cizcles, ennnot of itself lead to the determination of Mas a function of a, ¢,, and 6. We therefore make use of other ecnditions, andly. The value of M{ must remain the same when @ and a, are exchanged. Srdly. ‘The first two terms of Mf must be the same as those given above. ‘M may thus be expanded in the following series — M=tralog Ff1 4} 8784 18a gg Heel we} — teal pS Ease Oana gel a . (218) We moy apply this reenlé to find the coetficiont of self-induetion (L) of woireular coil of wire whose suction is small compared with the radius of the circle. ‘Let the section of the coil ‘bea rectangle, the breadth in the plane of the circle being ¢ and the depth perpendicular to the plane of the cirele being }. Let the mem radius of ‘the coil be @, and the number of windings »; then we find, by integrating, le. a Ail ster Sila dy da! dy, where M(xy iy’) means tho valve of M for the te windings whose coordinates axe ay and sy respectively; and the integration is performed first with zespect ta wand y over the rectangular section, and then with respect to a’ und y/ over the same space, L=4en'efiog. 84.1.4 4 )oot2r—jeor2¢— outlay conan slogan +e loc aarp 1425. par4y6 cose —82(5—0) Ses Foe log cond £8 pend +e ‘Hore am mean radius of the ooil, » ¥= diagonal of the rectangular section = /Pie, » = angle between r and the plane of the circle. » = muuber of windings, ‘The logarithms are Napierian, and the angles are in circular measure. In the experimania made by the Committee of the British Association for deter mining astendard of Hlecizical Resistance, a double coil was used, cansiting of two nearly equal coils of rectangular section, placed parallel to each other, with a small interval between them,PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 508 rye value of L for this coi. was found in the following W°¥- ee etd Uy the preceding formula for six dees Sot ee a rection condor ays Sh me eh wise Sh APP was A,B,C, ATE, B+G, A+B+C, and n=1 in each case. Calling the reanlts 1A), LB), LC) ee wre calculate the coefficient of mutual induction M(AC) of the two coils thas, BACM[AC}=(A4+B+07UA+ B+ C)—(A+-BYL(A+B)}— (B4 Cy LB + c)+B LB). ‘Then ifn, is the number of windings i in'the coll A and a, in the coil B, the esefficient of selfinduction of the two coils together is Toni A) 2m esL(AC +818). (114) These welues of L are gated ‘lated on the supposition that the windings of the wire are evenly distril buted eo as to fill up exactly the whole section, "This, however, is not the case, us the wire is enerally eoculnt ad covered with dnwulating motes? mek fhe en theres amore concentrated thin t would have bess ST Fence the cues Sfouly ver tno mction, andthe caents im the nelabowing WS whatever be the form of the coil. ‘Let the distance between cach wire and the next, on the supposition that they are cranged in equare order, Ye D, and let the diameter of the wire be & then Se corse tion for diameter of wire is +3(tog] + ft0e2+3- 2) ‘The comrection for the eight nearest wires is 00236. For the cixteen in the next row -0-00088. (115) But at the commencement of jg eurrent and during ite variation the current is not nniform throughout the section of the wire, Hecnuse the inductive action between different ions of dhe casrent tends to make the ourent stronger sone est of section than ef another, When @ uniform electromotive farce P arising from any omse B22S10 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. acts on a cylindrical wire of specific resistance g, we have w=P-F, where F is got from the equation +t P= —tepp, + being the distance from the axis of the cylinder. Lot one torm of the valua af F be of the form Ty", where T is a function af the time, then the term of p which produced it is of the form Ba 2 —aaet FoT+ (-P4 Fe Sn Bet we, a= (P+) Fe a ee he ‘The total counter current of self-induction at any peint ix Slime) ampie DeH SF ce Gre from f=0 to f=: - wimrat eat 3 (BaP (B),=040 When tao, p= i a (2): s (37),=0 &e, SL Gaeta free pe Se Fah GE from t=0 te =o, When #=0, p=0 throughout the section, .- (@),=2: (H),=9 Be. When too, p= thronghout. 2 2. (a) =0, (Gt) =O, & Also if f be the length of the wire, and R its resistance, . Re Ss and if C he the curzent when established in the wire, C= T!. The totel counter current may be written q(t.—T)—}agon_ by § (86). Hence if we writePROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. BIT sow tne enmvent nai of ig rca from the care t0 te dronmfeenss of oa ten te wire haa book the eame throughons, the wae of F won Reve be Fatter(1—9): where y is the current in the wire at any instant, and the total countercurrent would have been . ; “(0 at vo (Beceem ptt dee LoU—jpl, or the value of L which must be used in calculating the seltinduetion of a wire for “triable currents i less than that which is deduced from ‘the mpposition of the current being constant thronghaut the section of the wire by jt, where [is the length of the vite and pis the coefficient of magnetic induction for the substance of the wire. (216) ‘ihe dimensions of the oofl used by the Committee of the British i in their experiments at King's College in 1864 were as follows: Hence Mean vading 5 2s ee =e=abeita Depth of each coil. - - - + = b= 01008 eecath of each col») = > e=VOUBAL ‘Distance between the coils. wo = 02010 umber of windings. 5) meSSLS Diameter ofwire - + 1 + + ==00126 ‘pho value of I. darived from the fist ven of the exprassion js 48744) weetes ‘The oorrection depending on the zadins not being infinitely greet compared with the section of the coil as found from the aecond term is —TS43 metres, ‘The souection depending on. the diameter of the wire Se Teaser per unit oflength. =. + + > ie Correction of eight neighbouring wires... 5 5 7 > + +0286 For sixteon wires next to these 2-057 stn +0008 Comoction for variation of untrent in different parts of section — 2500 ‘Total convection per unit oflength . - - 5 5 5 ttt -wa48T Jongh | 811-986 metres. Sum of corractions of thiskind © 0-2 5 5 5 tt" * Won Final value of L by calculation ee 430165 ‘thie value of 1, was employed in reducing the cbservations, according oo Hhe methot explained in the Report of the Committee”. ‘The correction depending on L varies aa the square of the velocity. "Tho resulis of sixteen exporiments to which this eotre Mon ined been applied, and in which the velocity varied from 100 revolutions in Ce eto 100 i sovonty-ecven.reseuls, were compared by the method of © British Amoeiation Reports, 1268, p- 16%$12 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, Teast squaves to determine what further correction deponding on the square of the velocity should be applied to make the outetanding errors a minimum, ‘The result of this examination showed that the calculated value of LL should be multiplied by 10818 to obtain the value of L, which would give the most consistent results, ‘We have thevefowe L by ouleulation. . . . . . . . . , 480165 matres, Probable valne of L by method of least squares. . 2). |. 450748 Result of rough experiment with the Electric Balance (see § 48) #10000, ‘The value of L calculated from the dimensions of the coil is probably much more accurate than either of the other determinations. ”