CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
In the modern increasing competitive environment, an efficient operating criterion for
pulverized coal fired furnace is vital for the future of thermal power station. Thermal power plants
contribute about 70% to all India installed capacity of electric power generating stations. In
worldwide energy sector, total 37% of electricity is produced by combusting coal.
A countrys production of electricity is a basic indicator of its size & level of developments.
Although a few countries export electric power, mostly generation is for domestic consumption.
In 1983 the first electric supply undertaking was established in India by a company, which
constructed a small generating station in the city of Surat in Gujrat. This was perhaps one of the
earliest electric supply companies anywhere in the world. This undertaking got as far as lighting
the main streets of the city by arc lamps, but unfortunately in the next year disastrous floods of the
river Tapi submerged its generating plant. In the year 1896 an undertaking started operation at
Calcutta. Thus the beginning of electric supply industry in India was mainly due
to private company effort.

According to reports (31-11-2014)

The total installed capacity

2,55,012.78MW

Thermal power

1,77,741.89MW

= 69.69%

Hydro

40,798.76MW

= 15.99%

Nuclear

4780MW

= 1.87%

Renewable Energy Sources

31,692.14MW

= 12.42%

100%

In the thermal power station, the boiler performance is a backbone for power production.
With ever increasing demand for electricity, it is very necessary for the power plants to generate
electricity without forced outages. The power plants are facing the problem of boiler tube leakage
and it is more critical when they are running on full load. It becomes one of the critical reasons
1

among numerous reasons of the energy crisis. Utilities have been fighting boiler tube failure since
long. The tube failures cost crores of rupees lost, as it causes loss in generation. Boiler tubes have
limited life and can fail due to various failure mechanisms. Tube failures are classified as in-service
failure in boilers. These failures can be grouped under six major causes. Stress rupture, fatigue,
corrosion, erosion, material failure and welding defects.
The actual cost of repairing failed tubes is less than the cost of generation loss due to
outage, so it becomes imperative to repair & bring the unit quickly into service. Also, it is equally
important to identify the cause of failure so as to take corrective action and preventive measures
so that the failure does not recur. Tube failure is most significant causes of bringing down the plant
availability in utility fossil-fired boilers. Shutdown of a 200MW unit on account of tube failure
will cause a loss of several lakhs rupees, even when the shutdown is only for three days. Further,
during outage of boiler, if the secondary damages due to the tube failure is not detected additional
failure during start up or afterwards can occur, thus prolonging shutdown & increasing the
generation loss.
1. Forced / unplanned / planned outages in power plant amount to 15%.
2. Forced / unplanned / planned outages resulting out of boiler are 60%
3. Outages due to boiler tube leakage are 75%

BOILER PRESSURE PARTS

ECONOMISER
Economisers are provided in the boilers to improve the efficiency of the boiler by extracting
the heat from flue gases and add it as either sensible heat alone or sensible heat and latent heat to the
feed water enters the evaporating surface of the boiler. The economiser in the present day power
boilers have tubes made of low carbon steel with tube outside diameters ranging from 38 mm to 52
mm with spacing about 90 to 140 mm, Both horizontally and vertically.

LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT

Location of economiser will vary with the overall design of the boiler. It is usual to locate
the economiser ahead of air heaters and following the primary super heater of reheater in the
convective pass of the gas stream. In some cases where very low exit gas temperature and high air
temperatures are desired it may be necessary to divide the economiser and the air heater and place
the cooler section of the economiser between the air heater sections.

WATER WALL TUBES

Any boiler needs primarily an evaporating surface for the conversion of water into steam. In
the early periods of boiler development the evaporating surfaces are formed by placing many coils
of tubes or tube banks across the flow path of the hot gases from the furnace and circulating water
through these tubes. With the need for increase in steaming capacity of boilers and to minimise the
furnace heat losses by radiation, in modern boilers the evaporating surface is made of water walls,
which form the major part, if no all, of the furnace enclosure. Usually carbon steel especially low
carbon steel is used for the water wall tubes as the tube metal temperature normally will be within
4000C. However some prefer to use % molybdenum steel also for water wall tubes to have better
stress value.
MEMBRANE WALL
In this type the tubes are welded together by means of flat metal strips approximately 12 mm
wide. This type of construction enables furnace wall tube panels to be prefabricated in a factory and
facilitate the erection of the wall at site. With membrane wall construction the furnace walls are
airtight. The membrane walls will be insulated at the non-firing side by mineral wool blankets and
covered by metal lagging called skin casing.
SUPER- HEATERS:
SH are meant to raise the steam temperature above the saturation temperature by absorbing
heat from flue gas. By increasing the temperature of the medium (steam) the useful energy that can
be recovered increases thus efficiency of the cycle is improved. So in modern Boilers SH are widely
used to increase a cycle efficiency economically. The maximum temperature to which steam can be
heated is dictated by the metallurgy & economy in initial cost and maintenance cost. Present trend
is to limit the steam temperature value to 540oC both in SH as well as reheater. SH also eliminates
the formation of condensate during transporting of steam in pipelines and inside the early stages of
turbines, which is harmful to the turbine blades and pipelines.

REHEATER:
RH is used to raise the temperature of cold steam from which, part of the energy has been
extracted in H.P.T. This is another method of increasing the cycle efficiency. The efficiency
increases with number of stages of reheating. Reheating requires additional equipment (i.e.) heating
surface, boiler turbine connecting piping, safety equipment like safety valve, NRV, isolating valve,
steam temperature regulating equipment , instruments etc. Because of these additional investment,
complexity in operation and reduced availability of such system offsets the gain in efficiency of the
system gets minimised. Hence single RH can be economically applied only for capacity above 100
MW & two RH for capacity above 500MW. The limit is also dictated by the predicted fuel price
over the period of operation.

CHAPTER-2

BOILER TUBE METALLURGY

Boiler pressure parts subjected to high pressure and temperature call for following properties:

High Temperature Strength

Allowable stress is a good representation of the high temperature strength characteristics
of heat resistant steels, and is often determined by creep rupture strength under actual operating
conditions. In order to improve the reliability of high temperature components, it is therefore
necessary to ascertain creep rupture strength up to 100 000 h (the basis for fixing allowable stress),
or to make an accurate estimate of this, and to fully appreciate the relationship between the changes
in creep rupture strength and structures over long periods of time. Both high temperature strength
and economy must be considered in the selection of materials. In general, higher cost materials
have greater high temperature strength.

High Temperature Corrosion

High temperature corrosion is a major factor affecting the life of superheater tubes, and the
corrosion rate increases as the temperature goes up. In general, increasing the chromium content
makes materials more corrosion resistant, and corrosion resistance goes up dramatically when
the chromium content exceeds 20%.
Coal is one of the main fuels for power plants. The corrosion caused by coal ash is quite different
from that caused by other fuels, as it is highly dependent on the amount of SO2 in flue gas and on
the amount of Na2SO4 and K2SO4 in the ash. When large quantities of these substances are
present, Na3Fe (SO4)3, K3Fe (SO4)3 and other basic iron sulfates form on the surface of the tube,
giving rise to severe corrosion. Ash is carried upwards with the flue gas, and corrosion occurs
where it accumulates on tube surfaces. It is most severe on surfaces at an angle of 45 to the upward
flow of flue gas.
As the corrosion resistance of boiler tube materials is greatly affected by the amount of SO2 in
flue gas and the amount of Na2SO4 and K2SO4 in the ash, it is also necessary to evaluate different
types of coal, particularly in terms of sulfur content. Corrosion has been controlled by using a
mixture of various types of coal to reduce the sulfur content to less than 2%. The need to reduce
the S content to control air pollution has also helped to reduce corrosion caused by coal combustion
6

products, and this latter issue is almost unheard of in modern coal-fired boilers. High temperature
corrosion due to coal ash is strongly associated with the chemical composition of the ash, as coal
contains different types of compounds which accelerate or inhibit corrosion. It is important to
know the chemical composition of the ash for evaluation of corrosion resistance of alloys to be
investigated.

Steam Oxidation
Problems due to steam oxidation include
a) Creep rupture resulting from overheating caused by tube plugging, which is due in turn to
exfoliation and buildup of formed scale
b) solid-particle erosion of turbine components caused by exfoliated scale.
Examination of scale from austenitic steels shows that the outer layer of scale, Fe3O4, is very
likely to exfoliate, whereas the inner layer is a tightly formed spinal oxide composed primarily of
Cr and Ni which never exfoliates from the tube surface. In scale which has grown beyond a certain
thickness, the outer layer exfoliates due to the difference in thermal expansion between the tube
material and the scale during start and stop of the boiler. Various studies have been conducted with
the aim of preventing this, and it is now known that increasing the Cr content in excess of about
20% is effective in inhibiting growth of steam oxide scale. Treatment of the inner surface of the
tube such as chrome plating and chromizing is also useful. Meanwhile, as a protective measure
employed for practical purposes, fine-grained TP347HFG steels or TP321H with a fine-grained
inside surface are used, taking advantage of the fact that the finer the grain size of stainless steel,
the smaller the scale formation. Steel tubes with shot-blasted internal surfaces are also used, given
the fact that the cold-worked layer tends to inhibit scale formation.
Thermal Fatigue
According to the failure experiences thermal fatigue and creep fatigue caused substantial
damage to the header, main steam pipes and valves, which were mainly made of austenitic TP316
steel because of the high steam pressure and temperature. The low thermal conductivity of this
steel was one reason for the damage, because large thermal stresses soon arose when the plant
started and stopped, even given base load operation. For this reason, and because of frequent start
and stop operation of recent power plants, ferritic steels must be employed even in temperature
ranges where austenitic steels were formerly used.

Materials used for boiler pressure parts and their properties are as shown in table

SECTION

MATERIAL

SPECIFICATION

ECONOMISER

CARBON STEEL

Gr 210 Gr A1
SA 210 Gr C

SMOOTH
CARBONSTEEL
WATER WALL

SA 210 Gr C

RIFLED CARBON
STEEL

SA 210 Gr C

STUDDED TUBES
SA 209 T1
CARBON STEEL
SUPER/RE

and

SA 213 T11

HEATER

ALLOY STEEL

SA 213 T22
SA 213 T91
SA 213 TP 347H

Mechanical Properties
ASME/ASTM
Material
Specification

Tensile

Yield

Strength

Strength

Min Elongation
(2 in./50mm),%

ksi

MPa

ksi

MPa

A1

60

415

37

255

30

SA-210 Gr. C

70

485

40

275

30

SA-210 Gr.

CHAPTER - 3
BOILER TUBE FAILURE MECHANISMS

IDENTIFICATION:

1.

Short term Overheating (Stress Rupture):

For a specific tube material, there is a maximum allowable stress at a particular
temperature. If the tube metal temperature increases beyond this point, creep will occur
and the tube will eventually fail by stress rupture.
Super heaters and reheaters can experience interruptions and/or reductions in steam flow
that can increase tube metal temperatures that lead to stress rupture failures.
With ferritic steel, a "fish mouth" or longitudinal rupture, with a thin edge fracture
is most likely. With other tube materials, still other appearances are possible. The causes
for this type of failure are the following

Abnormal coolant flow from a blockage in the tube

Blockage due to debris in the tube

Blockage due to scale in the tube

Blockage due to condensate in the tube following an incomplete boil out Excessive
combustion gas temperatures

2.

High temperatures from over-firing during start-up.

Dissimilar Metal Welds (Stress Rupture):

The weld failures will normally have one side of the weld that responds to a magnet, while
the other does not. The weld crack will be circumferential at the weld, over on the side that
responds to the magnet; the ferritic side. The cause of failure relate the stress of the two
metals expanding differently and the following
Stress from internal steam pressure
Stress from the vertical weight on the weld
Stress from the constraints of how the tube is supported or attached
Internal thermal gradients, which add up to the total stress. The higher the value, the sooner
the weld fails.
9

3. Caustic Corrosion (Water-side Corrosion):

There are two types of caustic corrosion: caustic embrittlement and caustic
gouging. Caustic embrittlement is an intergranular attack along grain boundaries leading to sudden
failures. Caustic gouging is a general eating away of the protective magnetite film until the tube
wall is thinned to failure. Caustic embrittlement is relatively uncommon in comparison to caustic
gouging. Caustic embrittlement is characterized by intergranular cracking with very little metal
loss. It normally occurs in stressed and restricted areas where boiler water containing caustic soda
can reach high concentration levels (100,000 to 200,000 ppm NaOH). The most common
occurrence of caustic embrittlement is on tubes that the rolled into boiler drums. If leakage occurs
around the rolled-in tube, the escaping steam leaves the tube-drum interface highly concentrated
with soluble boiler water salts. If caustic is present, then the potential for caustic embrittlement
exists. Three conditions are necessary for caustic embrittlement: high metal stress, concentrating
mechanism and free caustic.
There is no question that more boilers suffer from caustic gouging. This water side
corrosion literally eats away the protective magnetite film along boiler tubing.
Caustic corrosion can cause either a pinhole leak or what looks more like a small, bulged,
thin edge rupture. The tube fails when the tube is so thin that it cannot take the internal pressure
any longer. There is often a thick deposit on the inside of the tube, but the leak could purge much
of the deposit. These failures are usually found where the heat flux is greatest and are the result of
the following
Condenser leaks Deposits of caustic contaminants from the feed water system Upsets in
the boiler water chemistry.
The two conditions necessary for caustic gouging are: a concentrating mechanism must be
initiated and free caustic must be present in the boiler water. Dirty tubes are far more susceptible
to caustic gouging because the deposits trap and concentrate the boiler water. Proper adjustment
of boiler water chemistry is required to prevent caustic gouging
4.

Pitting Localized corrosion (Water-side corrosion):

Water containing dissolved oxygen is highly corrosive to many metals: therefore

everything must be done to minimize the introduction of oxygenated water into the boiler and preboiler systems. Oxygen corrosion can dramatically affect various components in operating and
non-operating boilers. Much of the suspended crux that enters an operating boiler is the direct
result of oxygen attack of components in the pre-boiler system.
10

Localized pitting is found where oxygen is allowed to come in contact with the inside of
the tubes, which is just about anywhere. It appears as a steep edged crater with red iron oxide
surrounding the pit. The tube surface near the pit may show little or no attack. Sometimes there is
a series of smaller pits. The typical cause starts with High levels of oxygen in the feed water, i.e.
poor deaeration at start-up filling of condensate in low point, such as bends, when the steam cools
Outages where air gets inside the assembly from adjacent repairs, or vents being left open as the
steam condenses
5. Stress Corrosion Cracking (Water-side Corrosion):
These thick-edged fractures can be either circumferential or longitudinal,
depending on how the stress is oriented. Typically the chemical attack is on the inside of the tube
and works its way out through the growing crack. Far less commonly, the chemical attack exists
on the outside (fire side) and works its way inward. The root cause is the coupling of more than
one factor working on the same location.
Contaminants can come from contamination in the desuperheater
spray. External contaminants come from acidic components to the fuel. Additionally there
must be a stress possibly from a bend in the tube Weld attachments from initial assembly
or possibly from cyclic unit operation.
6. Low temperature corrosion (Fire side):
External surfaces of furnace tubes that are exposed to a moist environment containing flue
gases can experience acid corrosion. Certain acidic salts (ferrous sulfate for example) can
hydrolyze in moist environment to produce low pH conditions that will attack carbon steel.
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), present in the cooler flue gas areas, can react with water vapour to
produce sulfuric acid. If the temperature is below the dew point, sulfuric acid condenses along
metal surfaces and corrodes the metal. Water washing can also produce acid attack.
A gouged exterior and a thin ductile failure characterize this form of failure. When the
pressure becomes too great, the pressure inside blows out a hole. The root cause for low
temperature failures are

The presence of sulfur in the oil, which has an opportunity to condense on the
last rows of economiser tubes

The condensing of sulfur and ash when the exit gas temperature is low.

11

7. Water wall corrosion (Fire side):

Fire side water wall corrosion covers a broad array of corrosive forces from the intense
combustion process. A broad, general thinning occurs with the surface of the tube having fairly
deep longitudinal and lateral gouges or cracks. The thin wall ductile rupture will go length wise
down the tube. The surface of the tube will typically have a hard dark slag deposit. The causes are
a) A zone of combustion where there is too little oxygen

b) High level of chloride or sulfides in the fuel being burned

8. Vibration Fatigue:
In locations where boiler tubes are welded to support lugs, a thick edge failure can form at the
toe of the weld. This fracture is circumferential, running at right angles to the weld. The root cause
is
a)

The vibration of the tube, caused by the steady flow of exhaust gases

c) Along with a lug location that induces a rigid point that will concentrate the force into a
short distance.
9. Thermal Fatigue:
The flexing action of thermal fatigue produces multiple surface cracks, laterally across the
tube which results in a thick edge fracture. The fatigue is caused by
a) Sudden cooling of the tube metal, either from within or externally
b) Rapid change in the feed water temperatures to the economiser, i.e. maloperation of the
pre-boiler system
10. Corrosion Fatigue:
Like the previous fatigue mechanism, cyclic stresses produce a series of parallel surface
cracks, however this time the corrosive environment adds to the deterioration by forcing an oxide
wedge into the cracks, further leveraging the fracture. The thick edge fracture will be coated with
an oxide layer. Pits can often be found on the inside surface of the cracks. The causes have two
key ingredients, corrosion and stress
There is either induced stress from the way the tube connects to another pressure part or,
there is induced stress from the way the tube is tied to a structural support,

12

There is residual stress left over from fabrication

a) Internal pits from dissolved oxygen or acidic corrosion from the pre-boiler circuit
aggravate the cracking process in the water cooled tubes.
b) External corrosion in steam cooled units aggravates the cyclic flexing where the tube
enters the header.
11.

Steam/Condensate Erosion
a) When a failure is allowed to continue for several hours or days, the result can amount to
more time and energy needed to make repairs. The root cause is
b) Decision making in how quickly a unit is brought off-line once a failure is found
c) Insufficient documentation to justify the economics of not waiting to bring the unit off-

line to attend to the tube failure.

12.

Exfoliation:
The above list of 12 failure mechanism does not necessarily include all possible failure

modes, and some tubing problems do not necessarily reduce availability by virtue of a tube failure,
as in the example shown below. The spalling of the indigenous oxide on super heater, reheater
tubes and steam piping is referred to as exfoliation. With exfoliation, the tube wastage is from the
inside out, and the damaged component is in the turbine's internals. The root cause is not known,
however, consider the following
a) Bottling-up of stream in the tube when the unit trips, resulting in forced migration of
steam into the black oxide scale layer within the tube.
b) Difference in the coefficient in expansion between the internal magnetite layer and the
tube metal, resulting in spalling of scale when the unit cycles
c) Quenching of the tube internals when the unit is in a start-up mode.

13

CHAPTER - 4
CAUSES OF BOILER TUBE FAILURE THROUGH WATER
CHEMISTRY
In power plant operation a Chemist is intimately mixed up with tube failures. It may be due
to faulty water conditioning or improper operation. In general, every tube failure may be due to
any of the following three reasons:

a) Material failure

b) Mal - operation

c) Improper water conditioning

In case of material failure, blame goes to the manufacturer, for mal-operation and improper
water conditioning it is human error. In the present chapter, based on experience, it has been tried
to show how improper water conditioning can cause tube failures.

NEED FOR WATER CONDITIONING:

1. The main need is to protect the internals from corrosion which cause ultimate failure. There
are several types of corrosion possible, like
1. Dissolved O2 pitting
2. Stress corrosion
3. Ductile corrosion
4. H2 embrittlement etc.
There are three zones, where same water is conditioned differently. They are
a.

Feed System

b.

Drum

c.

Steam and Condensate

14

Various parameters are laid by the boiler manufacturers, time to time, depending upon the
metallurgy of the surfaces through which water/steam flows. These parameters vary depending
upon the pressure of boiler and temperature of the Steam Cycle. In the table below, effective
parameters are shown.

Particulars

Boiler Pressure 60 kg/cm2 and

Boiler Pressure from 60 kg/cm2 and

under

above

PH

Cond.

Silica

PH

Cond.

Silica

Make up

7.0

0.5

Nil

Nil

7.0

0.5

Nil

Nil

Feed

8.8 9.0

Upto 4.0

Nil

Nil

8.9 9.0

Upto 2.5

Nil

Nil

Drum

9.5 9.9

Upto 100

Nil

9.3 9.5

Upto 25

Nil

Steam

8.8 9.0

Upto 4.0

Nil

0.02

8.9 9.0

Upto 2.5

Nil

0.02

Upto4.0

Nil

Nil

8.5 8.7

Upto 2.5

Nil

Nil

Condensate 8.5-8.7

Scale: Conductivity in Micromhos, Silica in ppm, silica, hardness in ppm CaCO3. * As per
pressure silica curve

The change of pH 7.0 in make-up to 9.5 in drum is maintained by dosing suitable

chemicals at different places of the water cycle. The parameters are designed to suit the internals
of the system, so that a corrosion free surface is maintained. The dosings are mainly of two types
volatile and non-volatile.

Sr.

Type of

No.

Dosing

1.

Volatile

Chemical Dosed

Place of Dosing

Ultimate Effect

Ammonia

Feed System at the

To increase pH

Morpholine

suction of feed pump

Cyclohexyl amine
2.

Volatile

Hydrazine hydrate

Feed System at the

inhibited or treated

suction of feed pump

Hydrazine

&
15

To scavange oxygen
&
To increase pH

In condensers at the
suction of Extraction
Pump
3.

Non-

Tri-sodium Phosphate

volatile

Sodium Hydroxide

Drum

To increase pH to
maintain residual
Phosphate.
To decrease pH, to

4.

Non-

Sodium Hydroxide &

Drum

When dosed properly, the required parameters can be obtained and conditioning becomes
proper, resulting a trouble free service.

MAIN CAUSE OF TUBE FAILURES EVEN AFTER PROPER DOSING:

There can be two types of main causes of failures. These are

a) Improper Chemicals
b) Excess or incorrect amount of dosing
Improper chemicals not only deviate main aim of water conditioning it raise complication
also, the effect of improper chemical dosings are summerised as under with particular reference
to the probable impurities.

Chemical

Possible Impurities

Effect or Dosing

Ammonia

Hardness, Silica

Very slow increase in pH

Rapid increase in conductivity.
Injection of silica in System/

Phosphate

Free Sodium Hydroxide and chloride

16

Unstable pH condition

Increase in conductivity
Foaming action in drum,
Free sodium hydroxide in Steam

All above conditions lead to tube failure,

Effect of Excess Dosing

Chemical

Normal Reaction

Effect

Remarks on effect

Ammonia

Simple addition

High pH &

Caustic corrosion

NH4OH + H2O NH4OH H2O

Conductivity

N2H4 + O2 = N2 + 2H2O

Oxygen Scavenging

None

2N2H4 = N2 + H2 + 2NH3

Hydrogen in steam

Stress corrosion

2N2H4 +H2O = 2NH4OH + N2

Ammonia formation

None

Na3PO4 + H2O = NaOH +

High pH &

Caustic attack carry

NaH2PO4

Conductivity

over foaming causing

Hydrazine
Hydrate

Phosphate

Starvation
When we analyze the remarks on last column following points are raised on tube failure:
a) Caustic attack
b) Hydrogen attack
Caustic Attack
Although the pH of the media is high and safe for most of the tubes, yet excess of it may
cause soap-bubble effect at a particular point leading to carryover and or volatile caustic carryover
from drum and improper distribution of heat flux at any point due to the same.

The caustic attack due to sodium hydroxide is very much deteriorating than due to
ammonia. Whereas, excess of ammonia may give raise to a possible formation of nitric acid as :

NH3 + 202 = HNO3 + H2O

17

The possibility is very less due to the presence of excess hydrazine hydrate, which takes
care of any oxygen available in the system.
The caustic attack due to the presence of excess sodium hydroxide is very much harmful
due to the phenomenon known as steam blanketing, resulting static or slow moving slug of steam
generation causing rupture in the tube due to irregular heat transfer.
Hydrogen Attack
This is very serious, sometimes we find unnecessary increase in hydrogen level in steam,
this leads to corrosion as per per-oxide theory.
The H2 released combines immediately with free O2 to from hydrogen per-oxide (H2O2).
This reacts with Fe(OH)2 and forms Fe(OH)3.
2Fe(OH)2 + H2O2 = 2Fe(OH)3
But hydrogen aid polarization which reduces electro-chemical reaction.
WATER WALL CORROSION:
Control of the water and/or steam environment inside economiser, boiler, superheater and reheater
tubes is a pre-requisite for trouble free performance of a fossil-fired steam generator. When water
and steam chemistry are not maintained within limits recommended by the boiler manufacturer or
a qualified consultant, corrosion damage may occur in water walls and economiser tubes.

Water wall corrosion problems generally can be avoided in boiler if

1.

Recommended water treatment controls are followed;

2.
3.

Corrosion products formed in the feed water system are kept within specified limits;
Feed water oxygen concentration is properly controlled and

4.

Precautions are taken during chemical cleaning operations to prevent metal attack.

LOW-pH DAMAGE:
Corrosion failure occurs when acid or alkaline salts are concentrated. Hydrogen induced
brittle fracture occurs beneath a relatively dense deposit and is most likely to occur when boiler
water pH is too low. Though some metal loss may be caused by corrosion mechanisms, the steam
generator tube usually fractures long before it has corroded to the point at which tensile failure
would occur.
18

Some of the hydrogen produced in the corrosion reaction diffuses into the tube metal where
it combines with carbon in the steel. Methane is formed and it exerts internal pressures within the
steel, causing grain-boundary fissuring. Brittle fracture occurs along the partially separated
boundaries. In many cases an entire section is blown out of the damaged tube. Restoration of proper
boiler water treatment may not be sufficient to prevent further hydrogen attack, unless the dense
corrosion product deposits are removed. Even repeated chemical cleanings sometimes will not
remove them. Arbitrary replacement of tubes, in the general areas where metal attack exists,
becomes necessary. Generally, hydrogen damage is difficult to detect using nondestructive means.
Ultrasonic thickness checks may pinpoint some damaged areas, but

positive identification of all

failure prone tube is not possible.

HIGH-pH DAMAGE:
Ductile failures caused by a gouging type of corrosion usually occur when the concentrtion
of hydroxide salts such as sodium hydroxide in the boiler water is too high. Ultrsonic tube-wall
thickness checks can detect tubes with metal loss. Proper boiler water treament can minimize
further corrosion.

MINIMISING CORROSIVE ATTACK:

Corrosion concentrations of salts generally exist at tube surfaces only when these
iterrelated conditions are present.
a)

An acidic or alkaline producing environment prevails.

b)

The boiler operates outside of the established boiler water treatment recommendations,
allowing abnormal acidic or alkaline conditions to persist.

c)

A means of concentrating the acidic or alkaline salts exists.

WATER TREATMENT CONTROLS:

To protect steam generator tubes against corrosion two widely used boiler water treatments
are available, however, even in the event of moderate contamination. They are volatile and
coordinated phosphate/pH control.
19

Briefly, volatile treatment uses a volatile neutralizing amine, such as ammonia, to maintain
a pH that will not disrupt the magnetite coating on the boiler tubes. It does not contribute additional
dissolved solids to the boiler water. Thus, it minimizes the amount of solids that can be carried
into the superheater by the steam. But it does not give any protection against contaminants, such
as salts carried into the boiler by condenser cooling water.
Phosphate treatment in drum type units maintains pH in the proper alkaline range to protect
the magnetite film and it reacts with salt contaminants to prevent the formation of free caustic or
acidic compounds. Coordinated phosphate/pH control is maintained by using a combination of disodium phosphate and tri-sodium phosphate or sodium hydroxide to give a residual phosphate
concentration of upto 10 ppm.
If the phosphate and pH control points are below the curve no potentially damaging free
caustic is produced. The concentrating mechanism most often responsible for corrosion damage
involves internal deposits. As heat is transferred through the tube wall to the water/steam mixture
in the tube, a temperature gradient is established. That is, the temperature of the internal surface
of the tube is slightly higher than that of the bulk fluid. When boiler water evaporates, dissolved
solids such as sodium hydroxide, concentrate in the thin film between the tube wall and the bulk
fluid. When porous internal deposits are formed in areas of high heat absorption, it is possible to
produce very high stable concentrations, because the deposit acts as a diffusion barrier.
This concentration mechanism explains why corrosion damage normally occurs on the tube
internal surface facing the fire and tends to be most severe in the highest heat absorbing area.
Pre-boiler corrosion occurs when oxygen and pH values deviate from established limits.
Oxygen control is, perhaps more critical than pH-especially during start-up, shut-down, and idle
periods. Low pressure feed water heaters and related extraction piping often are under negative
pressure during low load operation. Thus any leaking valves, pumps, flanges, etc. provide a path
for air into the system. Idle units may even become saturated with oxygen if proper precautions
are not exercised. Oxygen concentration in feed water should be maintained at less than about 5
ppb during unit operation to minimise the formation of pre-boiler corrosion products. The
following are few of the ways to minimise oxygen infiltration during idle and start up periods and
to reduce the transport of corrosion products to the boiler.

20

1.

The boiler and as much of the pre-boiler system as possible should be blanketed with steam
or nitrogen when the unit is out of service. If a long outage is contemplated, fill the boiler and
feed water system to the greatest extent possible with the corrosion inhibitor. Excellent results
have been obtained with solutions containing 200 ppm of hydrazine and 10 ppm of ammonia
for lay-up period of more than one year. For pre-boiler systems containing copper alloys,
reduce the dosage to 50 ppm of hydrazine and 0.5 ppm of ammonia to avoid copper attack by
ammonia.

2.

Make sure an adequate supply of steam is available to the deaerator during unit start-up so
that oxygen can be purged from the feed water. If no adequate auxiliary steam source is
available, peg the deaerator with steam from the boiler drum until turbine extraction steam is
available.

3.

Introduce aerated storage water into the feed water system only through the dearerating
section of the condenser, if all deaeration is accomplished there.

Connect aerated storage water into the feed water system only through the dearerating
section of the condenser, or through the aerator.
5.

Consider a partial flow condensate polisher for cycling units. Its use together with that of the
pre-boiler systems recycle line, permits removal of both erosion products and oxygen from
the feed water during steam-generator start-up operations.

Minimizing Pitting of Boiler Tubes:

Excessive dissolved oxygen in the boiler water and excessive temperature during chemical
cleaning, can cause severe local attack pitting. Crevices, like those formed by backing rings, or
minor variations in metallurgical structure, may act to promote localized corrosion. Normal, but
higher than the average peak stress also can contribute to preferential pitting. Pitting attack of
various types can affect the internal surfaces of all tubes. The pitting attack usually is quite shallow
and does not adversely affect the tube integrity, but occasionally it may be locally severe and even
penetrate the tube wall. Crack like interconnected pitting is a common form of attack, too.
Penetrations of this type can develop into corrosion fatigue cracks, but it is not unusual for them
to propagate through the wall as a result of corrosion alone. Most leaks associated with corrosion
pitting are like to occur at or near weld or attachments.
21

Prevention:
Pitting caused by dissolved oxygen can be prevented by maintaining feed water oxygen
level within the 5 ppm limit while attack by chemical cleaning solvents can be eliminated by
carefully following the cleaning procedures. During shut-down periods, it is necessary to protect
all internal surfaces, wet lay up, together with a positive nitrogen pressure cap of about 3 5 psig,
will protect metal surfaces from corrosion. Some of the pitting attack may have been caused by
the presence of oxygen and moisture during shut down periods. Those that do occur usually can
be attributed to improper wet lay up, or to the introduction of contaminants into the heat transfer
sections.
Avoiding Steam side Deposition:
A more common problem affecting the internal surfaces of steam side components, such
as the superheater and reheater, deposits. They can cause overheating failures by insulating the
tube from the cooling effect of the steam. Such failures usually occur as creep blisters at the low
spot in pendant surfaces. But deposits also have caused failures on vertical tubes. Occasionally,
they partially or totally block steam flow in a particular circuit. Solids carried by the steam into
the turbine also can be damaging.
Failures Due to Manufacturing Defects Raw Material Defect:
Either mix up of material or raw material defect also accounts to tube failures. Due to mix
up of material of different specification than designed one comes to the service and failure occurs.
And raw material defect comes in the rolling of tubes itself and a lap or eccentricity formed thus
causes tube failures at elevated temperatures.
Material defect due to defective rolling of tubes is shown in figures below:

Eccentric Rolling Defects

Lap Formed Tube

22

Sufficient care during rolling of tubes and correct material selection can avoid failures due
to such defects.
Procedures for failure investigations and collection of failed sample:
The causes for failures are evaluated by removing carefully the failed material (e.g. tube)
along with deposits if present. It is preferable to pack them with polythene wrappers and box, such
that no corrosion and mechanical damage occur during transit. If the deposits are loose, water side
and fire side deposits are collected in separate polythene bags with rigid tags. The flame cut region
should be at least 200 mm away from the region of failure since heat produced during flame cutting
will change the microstructure, if the cut region is close to failed region. For comparison, it is
preferable to have a good portion (about 300 mm) of the tube (along with deposits if it is present)
which is considerably away from failed region. The samples of materials which failed due to brittle
fracture should be taken out (if it possible) and the fractured facets should be protected by using
rust preventive coatings. In some cases in site micro-examination is carried out when the specimen
could not be removed. This technique is also used for fracture investigations. In certain cases it
becomes essential for the metallurgist or chemist to visit the site and have firsthand information
regarding the location and overall nature of failed tubes or any other components. He has to watch
the performance under the existing condition at site. This will help in the interpretation of complex
failures.

Procedures for Metallurgical Investigations:

The tools and techniques for failure investigations are chosen as to suit the individual
requirements. Generally the following procedures are followed:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Dimension and thickness measurement at important locations comparison with the original
or good material.
Standard mechanical tests; usually tensile, drift flattening, hardness etc.
Spectral and chemical analysis of deposits, water, fuel, ash etc.
Investigations with microscope for evaluating the nature of failures special corrosion tests
for stainless steel components.
Advanced techniques; Electron microscopy for detailed information on fine structures and
creep damages, x-ray diffraction for the analyzing of ash, deposits, scales etc., creep testing
and burst testing for the determination of residual creep life etc. are used for complex case
histories.
23

Data Required for Investigation:

The log book is to be referred at site for one or more of the following information which
will be required for effective investigation of failed components.

a)

Operating pressure and temperature of the pressure parts close to failed region location of

the failed tube, data of failure etc.

b)

Composition of the fuel gas

c)

Amount of excess combustion air

d)

Analysis of feed water and steam condensate type and amount of contaminants in make-up

water
e)

Normal power output and fluctuation in steam demand

f)

Frequency and method of cleaning water side and fire side surfaces of tubes.

REPAIR GUIDELINES:
Introduction
All plant personnel should bear in mind the legal formalities involved in the repair
of boiler pressure parts. The responsible parties, before making repairs or alterations of a pressure
part, must notify the legally responsible inspection agency and obtain approval before starting the
work. The responsible inspection agency may be the boiler insurance carrier or state or municipal
inspection agency. In some cases, it may be a federal agency. The responsible parties must follow
this procedure even though a pressure part fails during the manufacturer's warranty period. The
boiler manufacturer may recommend a repair procedure, but it must be approved by the responsible
inspection agency. Generally, the manufacturer's recommendation will be accepted, but the
inspection agency still has the legal responsibility for approval.

24

Welding Repair or Low Carbon Steel Tubes:

Cut out a damaged tube at least 50 mm (2') on each side of the defective area. The
minimum replacement tube length should be not less than 152 mm (6'). Do not use backing rings
to weld any heat-absorbing tubes carrying water or a mixture of steam and water. Without a
backing ring, make the first pass of the weld using gas tungsten arc or oxyacetylene. The weld
passes may be completed by either process, or by shielding metal arc. If access is difficult, use
window welds for repair work. The first pass of a window weld must be made by gas tungsten arc
of oxyacetylene.
Fit-up of the weld joints is important. Although it is difficult to obtain accurate cuts
on furnace tubes, it is important to get the existing tube ends squared and correctly chamfered and
to cut the replacement tube to the correct length. Use a tube-end scarfing tool when possible. Allow
for shrink in welding. Remember that the weld metal and parent metal are melted in the welding
process and the molten metal shrinks as it solidifies.

A butt weld in a tube will shorten the total length about 1.6 mm (1/16").
Use a clamp or guide lug to hold one end of the replacement tube in alignment while the
first weld is made.
Do not tack weld both ends of the replacement tube, particularly if the existing tubes are
rigidly supported.
As a general rule, first complete the weld at the lower end of the replacement tube.
Do not start welding the upper end of the replacement tube until both the replacement and
existing tubes have cooled to ambient temperature.
Alloy Tube Repairs:
If a damaged alloy tube must be replaced, it is always preferable to weld the replacement
tube to an existing tube end of the same alloy and the same wall thickness. Before removing the
damaged tube, check the manufacturer's unit material diagram and locate shop welds used to join
the damaged length to tubes of different material or different wall thickness. If at all possible, make
the cuts to remove the damaged tube at least 152 mm (6") from the shop weld, thus leaving a "Safe
end".

25

If necessary to cut out a shop weld joining tubes of different material and/or wall thickness,
pay special attention since all qualified but-welding procedures require the two tube ends to have
the same internal diameter (ID) as the weld root.
In some cases, the thicker wall tube may be bored to match the ID of the thinner wall tube
But the thicker wall tube may be bored only if the strength of the tube, after reducing the wall
thickness, is at least equal to the strength of the thinner wall tube at the same operating temperature.

A ferritic alloy tube must not be bored to match a thinner wall austenitic alloy tube.

The only satisfactory method is to use a connector of austenitic alloy tube having the same
wall thickness as the ferritic alloy tube.

One end of the connector is bored to match the wall thickness of the existing austenitic
alloy tube.

Shrinkage in welding alloy tubes is similar to that for carbon steel tubes. Allowance must
be made for expansion from preheating which will close the root gap slightly.

For shielded metal arc welding with a backing ring, it is essential that the root gap opening
be sufficient to assure full penetration and fusion with the backing ring during the first pass.

For gas tungsten arc welding, a zero root gap opening is permitted. There must
be no pressure exerted between the two tubes.

It is advisable to allow enough clearance to avoid actual contact at the root gap opening
after the two tubes are preheated.

Repair of Tube Blisters:

Internal deposits cause blisters on the furnace wall or boiler tubes.
Generally, they occur in boilers operated with a high percentage of make-up feed water.
A blister forms because an internal deposit increases tube metal temperature until metal
creep occurs.
As the heated area swells, the internal deposit cracks off and the tube metal temperature
returns to normal.

26

The process may be repeated several times before the blister ruptures.
Commonly, a large number of tubes are blistered and not noticed until one of the blisters
cracks open. To avoid a massive tube replacement job, particularly where replacement tubes are
not immediately available, work the blisters down to the original tube radius.
Follow these general guidelines:

Remove the damaged tube, then carefully cut away enough of the bar or fin to allow
chamfering the tube end for welding around the sides of the replacement tube joint

After the tube welds are completed, weld the bar or fin to the replacement tube.

If the gas between bar or fin is too great for easy bridging, insert a low carbon steel
welding rod for a fin is too great for easy bridging, insert a low carbon steel welding
rod for a filler.

The spaces in the bars or fins, at the tube joints, are built up with deposited weld metal.

Be sure no cracks exist before making the final weld to the tubes.

27

CHAPTER-5
CASE STUDIES

CASE - 1: Flame Impingement of Water Wall Tubes

During unit reliability operation flame impingement test was conducted on water wall tubes
for a few hours and it was found that flame touched the rear wall of the furnace. It was decided by
the Plant management to send some tubes for investigating the effect of flame impingement on
water wall tubes.
Physical Inspection
Out of the 6 tubes provided for analysis, 3 tubes were from flame impingement area, 2
tubes and from non-flame impingement area and one tube was unused tube for comparison
purposes. The tubes were in services at variable boiler load conditions. All the tubes were electrical
resistance welded seam (ERWS), however, the location of the seam was not visible by naked eye.
The position of the seam in the tube was located by grinding, polishing and deep etching of the
tube. The original thickness of the tube was 6.2 mm and the material composition corresponded to
SA 178C. Steam side (internal surface) of the tubes contains very thin adherent dark grey colored
scales. The results of analysis steam side scales indicate high concentrations of Cu (19-28%) and
Ni (6 to 11%) along with Zn, P, Ca and Al in significant concentrations. There is much higher
concentration of Cu and Ni in steam side scales in tubes from flame impingement zone. All these
compounds are contaminated with magnetite scales.

28

Microstructural Studies
The microstructures of the cross-sections of unused, non-flame impingement zone and
flame impingement zone tubes were studied. The microstructures of the cross-sections of all the
tubes were observed at the seam area. In general, the microstructures of the seam areas show
contour shaped structures in which contours in opposite directions can be seen along a vertical
axis. Some typical microstructures are discussed below:
(i) Unused Tube: Contour type with well-defined central line structure is pearlitic-ferritic type with
no decarburization layer.
(ii) Non-Flame Impingement Zone Tube: Diffused line along the opposite Contours with no
decarburization.
(iii) Flame Impingement Zone Tubes: There are following cases:
(a) When the seam is not facing flame directly, there is a contour structure but no Evidence of
decarburization.
(b) When the seam is directly facing the flame, refinement of the grains along the vertical axis can
be seen with a well-defined decarburized layer. This tube appears to be most affected by flame
impingement. In all the tubes, there is reduction in wall thickness (5 to 8%) after operation.

Conclusions
1. No decarburization was found in the unused tube and non-impingement zone tubes. However,
in flame impingement zone tubes, a well-defined decarburized layer is present in area between the
opposite contours.
2. A clear decarburization layer is probably only when the seam of the boiler tube is directly facing
the flames.

29

CASE 2: Economizer Tube Failure

Tripping of boiler occurred as a result of economizer tubes failure. A huge rupture was
noticed as revealed by nearly fish-mouthed full opening. Figure 1 shows back view of the ruptured
area of the economizer tube. Figure 11 shows thinning of the cross-section of the tube. The total
length of the tube was 145 cm and the length of ruptured portion was 0.28 cm due to rupture, the
tube reduced its original thickness by 0.25 to 2.00 mm. Figure 1. Photograph showing economizer
tube in as received condition Figure 2. Photograph showing back view of the ruptured area of
economizer tube and greenish deposits SEM and EDX Studies shows EDX profile of the external
(fire side) deposits. The profile shows the presence of S, V and Mg in substantial concentration.
The source of S and V appears to be the heavy oil (fuel) which is usually rich in these elements.
Na, Ni, Fe and C are present in very small concentrations.

Figure 1. Photograph showing economizer tube in as received condition

Figure 2. Photograph showing back view of the ruptured area of economizer tube

30

Discussion
In the present scenario, the visual examination and the metallographic studies show that
there is nominal corrosion attack at the inner (steam) side of the economizer tube. This is further
confirmed by low value of scale thickness and scale density (20.0 m near rupture) obtained from
experiments. The corrosion activity in the economizer tube appears to be concentrated at the fire
side where huge deposits of corrosion products rich in sulfur and significantly rich in vanadium
were found. The inner surface around the ruptured areas is free from scales or corrosion products
therefore, the possibility of overheating is ruled out. It appears that the failure of economizer tube
is a case of H2SO4 dew-point in which there is condensation of acid on the outer surface of the
tube causing severe corrosion. In consequence, this resulted in the thinning of the metal to a state
where it could not bear the inside pressure of feed water and eventually got ruptured. A reduction
in wall thickness of the tubes, located inside the furnace support the initiation of corrosion from
fire side as a result of acid condensation. Furthermore, the external deposits on the tube helped in
lowering down the tube metal temperature and thus favoring acid condensation over the deposits.
Conclusions
1. No significant corrosion activity or abnormal scaling was observed at the inner side of the boiler
tube.
2. The relatively low temperature of feed water caused the lowering of the tube metal temperature
and promoted the condensation of H2SO4.
3. The thinning and rupture of the economizer tubes are the results of H2SO4 dew-point corrosion.
Recommendations
1. An increase in the economizer feed inlet temperature will help in reducing the severity of cold
end corrosion.
2. Sulfur content should be reduced to minimum which can be helpful in combating the acid dewpoint corrosion.
3. A powerful and efficient soot blowing system can reduce the possibility of acid dew-point
corrosion effectively.

31

CASE - 3:
Creep Failure of Boiler Reheater Tubes in a Power Plant
The boilers were commissioned about 24 years ago and had been in operation for more than
150,000 hrs. Following were the salient features of the boiler tubes:
Tube material: Medium carbon steel SA 192
Nature of the tube: Seamless
Outer diameter: 57.15 mm
Nominal thickness: 3.4 mm
Working pressure: 345 psig

Metallography
Photograph of the reheater tubes as shown in (Fig 3) in received condition. External surface
appeared reddish brown.

Figure 3. Photograph of the reheater tubes as in received condition

Steam Side Scales

The steam side scales contain dark grey magnetite. The inner surface is covered with small and
big pits with hematite stringers (Fig 4).

32

Figure 4. Photograph of the splitted reheater tube s h ow i n g steam side

magnified view

Microstructural Studies
The microstructures of the boiler tubes were studied by observing the structures of cross-sections
through a photo metallurgical microscope. The main observations were as follows:
(i) Cross-section of boiler steam side: Ferritic-pearlitic structure, there is dispersion of carbides
and accumulation at grain boundaries.
(ii) Cross-section of boiler fire side: Carbides are dispersed in ferrite matrix and precipitated at the
grain boundaries.
(iii) Cross-section of boiler steam side: Pearlitic structure. Dispersion of carbides in the matrix,
precipitation of carbide at the grain boundaries and spheroidization of carbides. Presence of voids
is also indicated.
(iv) Cross-section of boiler fire side: Pearlitic structure. Huge dispersion of carbides,
spheroidization and accumulation of carbide at the grain boundaries.

33

Discussion
Microstructural studies reveal the following features:
(i) Structure is ferritic-pearlitic
(ii) Dispersion of carbides in the ferritic matrix
(iii) Accumulation of carbides at the grain boundaries
(iv) Spheropidization of carbides
(v) Presence of voids in some cases
The afore-mentioned observations provide strong evidence for a creep induced failure of type II
which appeared to be dominant during current operation of the boiler. No cracking or leakage was
found in the tube which indicates that stage III creep has not yet reached, so tubes can be used for
some more time.
Scale density and scale thickness values of the boiler tubes are high but still they can be operated
without cleaning.
Conclusion
The results of metallographic studies point out the involvement of creep type II behavior in
reheater tubes from boiler.
Recommendation
As the reheater tubes from boiler unit appear to be under deterioration due to the influence
of creep type II behavior. Therefore, the replacement of the tubes shall be required in near future.
A better tube material like a low alloy steel shall be a better choice at the operating boiler
temperature above 500 C.

34

CASE - 4: Failure of High Temperature Superheater Tube of Boiler

The boiler had been in operation for more than 15 years. It was found that superheater
tube had failed at 2 locations. The failed portions were from the same pendant.
The first portion of the failure was found at the bottom of the first loop near the
upstream side of the first bend.
The second portion of the failure was found at the bottom portion of the third loop
upstream of the weld point. This portion of the tube consisting of outlet and
inlet tubes were sent for investigation. The pipe sheared at the bottom
portion. From the photograph, it is observed that the failure of the tube occurred by
rupture at the bottom portion of the third loop upstream side of the weld joint (Fig. 5)

Figure 5. Inlet and outlet portions of the ruptured tube at the bottom of the 3rd
loop upstream of boiler, HTSH Pendent As received condition
35

SEM Studies
The inner section of the ruptured tube outlet and inlet are marked 1 to 5 indicating
different locations. (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. Inner section of ruptured super heater tube (HTSH Pendent)

The fractography of the tube sample at locations 1 and 3 was carried out by SEM. Whilst
at location 1 (expanded portion) there are clear indications of intergranular cracking originated
from the outside surface, the cracks at location 3 (protruded portion) are intergranular as well as
trans granular. The cracks at location 5 (inlet of tube) are trans granular. All cracks showed
multiple direction of propagation which are typically arising out of stresses in the scales and the
metal at high temperature.
Quantification of the Scales
The quantification of scale densities carried out near fracture surface of the tubes, as
determined by acid dissolution technique was found to be 483 and 219 mg/cm2 for super heater
inlet and outlet tubes (both third loop), respectively. The scale densities seem to exceed the limits
for chemical cleaning of the boiler tubes.
Discussion
The presence of thick scale deposition in the fractured boiler tubes would result in
overheating leading to fracture under operating pressure-temperature conditions. The presence of
Trans and intergranular fracture in SEM further proves the consequences of thick scale deposition
over team side.

36

Conclusions
(i) Optical and SEM studies and quantification of the scale densities indicate the
cause of superheater tube is overheating.
(ii) Overheating of the tube at the bottom of 3rd loop near the upstream side is due to
heavy scale deposition.
Recommendations
(i) In view of abnormal deposition of scales at various locations of superheater
tubes, chemical cleaning of all high temperature superheater tubes be carried out
to avoid failure in future.
(ii) Periodic evaluation of superheater tubes for its scale density and tube life should
be planned in every maintenance schedule.

37

Case 5 Poor material Quality and Deficiency in Fabrication

The present case documents an interesting analysis of failure of secondary superheater tube
in a power plant due to poor material quality and processing defects.

The material used for the secondary superheater tube conforms to ASTM A335 (Grade P5)
Boiler quality steel. The damaged tube had a crack of about 53 cms long, and had extended along
the length of the tube. There were no seals either on the outside or inside surface of the tube. No
swelling was observed in the cracked zone.

Further, on dissection of the tube longitudinally, typical crack on the bore surface was
noticed .The bore surface of the tube was also found to be uneven and noticeable ribs (alternate
elevation and depression on the tube wall) were detected. It was also evident that longitudinal and
discontinuous crack propagated along one of the pronounced ribs. There was no evidence of
corrosion or fitting on the bore of tube.

Microstructural analysis of the samples selected from the vicinity of crack and away from
it revealed almost identical structures, i.e. fine dispersion of alloy carbides particles in a matrix of
ferrite (Fig. 10). This illustrated that the tube was not overheated as the microstructure was quite
agreeable to this class of material as developed in commercial production of the tubes.

To substantiate the case of failure, metrological measurements in regard to the well thickness at
different locations of the tube in the vicinity of crack and at its sound portion as well as the
roundness error on the inside diameter at the sound portion were done. The observations showed
heterogeneity in measured values.

38

CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION
It is observed from the various failures at various power stations. Research Institute
suggests them to follow the following practices during operation to avoid frequent failure of boiler
tubes & thus prevents the frequency of outages.

1. Proper operation of boiler within the permissible limits of various parameters.

2. Shrouding, shielding the areas, which are prone to erosion & proper inspection of tube elements
during overhaul, may help to reduce the outages.

3. Particular care for operation of oil guns, proper distribution of secondary air and total airflow
& proper soot blower operation may help to reduce outages.

4. Soot blowers operation, proper care to be taken from retraction or leaky poppet valve to avoid
erosion of nearby tubes may help to reduce tube failure considerably. Wall soot blowers should
be properly aligned for hot operation of the blower considering the expansion of furnace &
structure.

5. Sudden variation of loads & abnormal operation beyond permissible limits should be avoided.

6. Proper purging of boiler should be carried out during startup & after every shutdowns.

7. Feed water quality should be maintained within permissible limit.

8.

Startup fuel atomization should be checked for its proper operation.

39

CHAPTER-7
REFERENCES

1. Carbon Steel handbook

2. L&T manuals
3. BHEL manuals
4. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)
5. NLC manuals

40