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Chapter 14
Stress Concentrations
Abrupt changes in geometry can give rise
to stress concentrations
e.g. screw threads, stepped shafts and holes

Other sources for stress discontinuities

Contact points
Material discontinuities, e.g. an inclusion
Residual stresses, e.g. welding and cold
working
Cracks!

Important because local stress increase

can result in an unexpected failure

Can calculate stress concentration factors

Analytically using Theory of Elasticity
Numerically using Finite Elements Methods
Experimentally using

Very small strain gages

Brittle coating
Photoelasticity
Moir

In this chapter will consider stress concentrations

Holes
Notches
Cracks

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Presence of a stress concentration

causes a stress gradient

High stresses isolated to a local area on the structure

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1. Introduce some basic concepts of Stress

Concentrations
2. Theory of Elasticity
Stress Concentration Factors
3. Combined Loads
4. Experimental Techniques
5. Effective Stress Concentration Factors:
Elastic Strains
6. Effective Stress Concentration Factors:
Inelastic Strains
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14.1

Nature of a Stress Concentration

Problem and the Stress Concentration Factor

In a uniaxial tension test, the stress is assumed to be

uniformly distributed over the cross section at locations
away from the load application
The nominal stress is n=P/A
The stress concentration factor is calculated as

(14.1)
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Fig. 14.1 Stress concentrations and stress trajectories

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Lines of force, i.e. the stress

trajectories whose paths must lie
in the material
Cluster together in passing around a
geometric hole or discontinuity
The average spacing between the
lines of force is reduced
Results in more lines of force
squeezed into the same area

Consider a crack
The lines of force may be considered to
be transmitted from one row of atoms to
another row
The transmission of force around the tip
of the crack entails high straining of the
bonds (AB, CD, AC, etc.)

Fig. 14.2
Atomic model of a crack in a solid

In real problems, stress state is 3Dnot simply 2D

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14.2

Stress
Concentration Factors:
Theory of Elasticity

14.2.1 Circular Hole in an Infinite Plate under Uniaxial

Tension
(14.3)

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14.2.2 Elliptical Hole in an Infinite Plate Stressed in a

Direction Perpendicular to the Major Axis of the Hole
(14.6)

(14.7)

Fig. 14.5
Elliptical hole in an infinite plate

In the limit, as 00, the

elliptical hole becomes a
sharp crack of length 2a
Dimensions a and b are very
small compared to the length
and width of the plate
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For uniaxial tension stress, perpendicular to the major

axis of the elliptical hole, the sum of the stress
components and is given by
(14.8)

Because the stress =0 at the hole (= 0 Free

Surface), Eq. 14.8 yields the stress at the hole
(14.9)
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Fig. 14.6
Elliptical coordinates
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The max value of increases w/o bound as

b/a0 (a/band the elliptical hole becomes a
crack)
(14.11)

For a=b, Eq. 14.11 agrees w/ the circular hole equations

Fig. 14.7
Circumferential stress distribution
around an edge of a circular hole in
an infinite plate

Fig. 14.8
Distribution of around an
elliptical hole in an infinite plate
loaded
perpendicular to the major axis

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By geometry, the radius of curvature of an ellipse at the end

of the major axis is
(14.12)
(14.13)

By Eq. 14.9, the minimum value of =0 ( @ the ends

of the minor axes, where =/2 , -/2)

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Elliptical Hole in an Infinite Plate Stressed in a

Direction Perpendicular to the Minor Axis of the Hole

The value of @ any point on the perimeter

around the hole
(14.14)

For =/2 , -/2,

attains the maximum value
@ the ends of the minor axis
(14.15)

For =or attains

the
minimum value @ the ends of
Fig. 14.9
Distribution of around anthe
elliptical
holeaxis
in anof
infinite
major
= -
plate loaded
perpendicular to the minor axis

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14.2.4 Crack in a Plate

As b0, the elliptical hole in an infinite plate becomes
very flat and approaches the shape of a throughthickness crack
The maximum value of may become quite
large compared to the applied stress for nonzero
values of b as b0, depending on the nature of the
load
e.g., Fig. 14.5, Eq. 14.11 w/ a/b=100 gives
()max=201
e.g., Eq. 14.15 w/ a/b=100 gives ()max=1.02
The case b=0 leads to a special study of
stress singularities
The practical significance of very large stress
concentrations will be addressed in Chapter 15

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Ellipsoidal Cavity
Prolate spheroid (football shape)
The semimajor axis a of the ellipsoid (the axis of revolution) is oriented s.t. it
is perpendicular to the direction of the axial pull in the member
The semiminor axis b always lies in a plane parallel to the axial pull
Dimensions a and b are small compared to the dimensions of the
axial member
The max stress occurs at the end of the semimajor axis a
e.g., A long narrow stringlike internal flaw (b/a=0) oriented in a direction
perpendicular to the load is 2.83 n

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Oblate spheroid (doorknob shape)

Has its semiminor axis, b (the axis of revolution) oriented in the direction
of the uniaxial pull in the member
The semimajor axis a always lies in a plane perpendicular to the load
The max stress occurs at the end of the semimajor axis a
e.g., An internal flaw or cavity of spheroidal shape such as a gas
bubble in a composite resin raises the stress from n to 2.05 n

e.g., a very flat, round cavity oriented s.t. the flat plane is
perpendicular to the load gives 13.5 n
If the material remains elastic, then this value is comparable to the value for a
narrow elliptical hole as given by Eq. 14.11

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14.2.6 Grooves and Holes

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Fig. 14.10
Neubers diagram (nomograph) for a calculated stress concentration
factor at the root of a notch

Consider the construction of Fig. 14.10

Assume a member contains the groove as shown in Fig. A of Table
14.3
Subject to an axial load P
Let the calculated stress concentration factor be Scs when the
groove is very shallow
Then from Neuber (1958)

(14.16)
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Fig. 14.10
Neubers diagram (nomograph) for a calculated stress concentration
factor at the root of a notch
Let the calculated stress concentration factor be Scd when the groove is
very deep
Then from Neuber (1958)
(14.17)
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Fig. 14.10
Neubers diagram (nomograph) for a calculated stress concentration
factor at the root of a notch
Let Scc represent the calculated stress concentration for any
depth of groove
Then according to Neuber, an approximate (and usually quite
accurate) value of Scc is given by
(14.18)
When the groove is very shallow, Eq. 14.18 reduces to Scc =Scs
When the groove is very deep, Eq. 14.18 reduces to Scc =Scd

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Fig. 14.10
Neubers diagram (nomograph) for a calculated stress concentration
factor at the root of a notch

Curve #1 was plotted using Eqs. 14.16-14.18

The rest of the curves were obtained in a similar manner
How is Fig. 14.10 used?
Assume for Fig. A of Table 14.3

=6.35
mm
t=38.0
mm
b=241.0
mm
Bar is subjected to a bending moment M

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=6.35
mm
t=38.0 mm
b=241.0 mm
From these values

Scale f applies for

Curve 2 applies for
Enter Fig 14.10 with
Proceed vertically upward to Curve 2
Move horizontally to the left to the axis of ordinates
By a straight line, join this point to the point
This line is tangent to the circle corresponding to the
approximate Scc=4.25

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Some values of Scc for bending obtained from Neubers

diagram (Fig. 14.10) as found are given in Fig. 14.11

Fig. 14.11
Scc for semicircular grooves in a cylindrical member subjected to a
bending only obtained for Neubers diagram

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Fig. 14.10

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Fig. P14.7
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Stress Concentration Factors: Combined Loads

Assuming
Linear superposition is applicable
Isotropic material

14.3.1 Infinite Plate with a Circular Hole

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14.3.2 Elliptical Hole in an Infinite Plate Uniformly Stressed

in Directions of Major and Minor Axes of the Hole

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Pure Shear Parallel to Major and Minor Axes of the

Elliptical Hole

Let an infinite plate be subject to a uniform shear stress

The stress state resulting from this case of pure shear parallel to the
(x,y) axes may be found by superposition of the two cases for uniform
tension
(=) @ =/4 and (=-) @ =3/4
See Figs. 14.5 and 14.6 and Eqs. 14.9 and 14.14

(14.22)
Fig. 14.12
Distribution of around an elliptical hole in an infinite
plate loaded in pure shear

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Elliptical Hole in an Infinite Plate with Different Loads

in Two Perpendicular Directions

Let the plate be subjected to uniformly

distributed stresses 1 > 2 along straight
line edges far removed from the hole
Let the major axis be at an angle w.r.t.
the edge on which 1 acts
The solution to this problem can be found by
superimposing the loadings of Figs. 14.8,14.9
and 14.12

Fig. 14.8

Fig. 14.9

Fig. 14.12

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Fig. 14.13 Infinite plate with

inclined elliptical hole and
uniformly distributed stresses
1 > 2

Fig. 14.14 Infinite plate with inclined

elliptical hole and uniformly
distributed stresses 1 >
2
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40

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Stress Concentration at a Groove in a Circular Shaft

Assume the shaft is subject to
Axial force P
Bending moment M
Twisting moment T
Shear force V (small effect therefore neglect)

Want to calculate the max principal stress at the root of the

groove
Max prin occurs at Point A
Stress components are zz and zx
By Eq. 2.37, the max prin is
(14.40)

Fig. 14.15
Circumferential groove in a
circular shaft
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The axial stress zz is due to P and M

(14.41)

The Scc values are determined from Curves 6 and 7 in Fig.

14.10
The stress zx is given by
(14.42)

The Scc is determined from

Curve 9 in Fig. 14.10
Fig. 14.15
Circumferential groove in a
circular shaft
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44

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14.4

Stress
Concentration Factors:
Experimental Techniques
14.4.1 Photoelastic Method

Fig. 14.16 Stress concentration factors obtained by use of the photoelastic method
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Fig. 14.17
Stress distribution at notches found by the photoelastic method

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14.4.2 Strain-Gage Method

Fig. 14.18
Calculated stress concentration factors for a shaft in bending
with a transverse hole as found by the elastic strain method

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Fig. 14.19
The effect of bearing pressure of a load at the center of a beam
on the longitudinal strains in the beam

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14.4.3 Elastic Torsional Stress Concentration at a Fillet in a

Shaft

Fig. 14.20 Torsional shear-stress concentration at a fillet in a shaft of two diameters

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Elastic Membrane Method: Torsional Stress

Concentration
Found using soap film analogy

Fig. 14.21 Factors of torsional shear-stress concentration at keyway in a hollow shaft

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Torsional Stress in a Fillet at an Angle Section

Fig. 14.22
Angle section tested
with soap film method
(1917)
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14.4.5

Beams with Rectangular Cross Sections

Fig. 14.23 Stress concentrations at the fillet in a rectangular beam cross section

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If the beam is made of a

ductile material and is not
subject to a large number of
repeated loads (fatigue), the
effects of stress
concentrations are usually
disregarded
Implies just use flexure formula
=My/I
Respectfully disagree w/ book on
this one

If beam is made of a brittle

material, then effect of stress
concentration must be
considered in the design

Fig. 14.24
Stress concentration factors for
fillets in rectangular section beams
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Fig. 14.25 Stress concentration factors for grooves in rectangular section beams
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58

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14.5
14.5.1

Effective Stress Concentration Factors

Definition of Effective Stress Concentration

Scc (calculated stress concentration factors)

Apply mainly to ideal, elastic materials
Depend mainly on the geometry (or form) of the abrupt change in
section
Often called form factors

In applications involving real materials,

The significance of the stress concentration factor is
not indicated satisfactorily by the calculated value
Rather, it is found through experience

The significant or effective stress value that indicates

impending failure depends on
The characteristics of the material
Nature of the load
Geometry of the stress riser

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When possible in practice, use the significant or

effective stress concentration factor
Usually, Sce < Scc
Sce is found by testing two or more samples or sets
of test specimens
One set (or sample) w/o the discontinuity
One set (or sample) w/ the discontinuity
Failure is assumed to occur at same stress level in both sets
(or samples)
Sce = Pn/Pe = Failure load w/o discontinuity
Pn= Failure load w/o discontinuity
Pe= Failure load w/ discontinuity

Because Sce < Scc (usually), the Sce may be defined

in terms of an effective stress quantity e
where c > e > n
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Consider the case where c > e > n

Theory implies the value of c

Experiment gives the value of e
Theory can be used to calculate n
Then e may be expressed as the n plus some proportion q of the
increase in the calculated stress caused by the stress concentration

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q is called the notch sensitivity index

q=0 implies no notch sensitivity
q=1 implies fully notch sensitive

q is a function of the ability of the material and the

member to make adjustments that reduce the effects
of the localized high stress, e.g., Local yielding
Ability of the material to make adjustments depends on

Type of loading (static, cyclic (aka repeated) or impact)

Residual stresses
Material structure
Temperature
Surface finish
Stress gradient
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Fig. 14.26 The influence of the groove radius on the notch sensitivity index
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14.5.2

Static Loads
Ductile Materials

Material able to yield at high local stress

q is usually between 0 and 0.1
If local deformation is restricted, then may have q 1
At high temperature, may have creep
and may have q 1
Brittle Materials

q is usually between 0.5 and 1 for an abrupt change in

cross section subjected to static loads
Except for materials that contain many internal stress risers
inherent in the internal structure of the material, e.g. graphite
flakes in gray cast iron. In such a material, the value of q is
relatively small because the internal stress risers are as
important as the abrupt change on the surface.

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Repeated Loads
Mode of failure is of progressive fracture (fatigue)
Ability of the material to make adjustments by local
yielding is reduced
Leads to a large value of q (usually between 0.5 and 1.0)

Fig. 14.27 Fatigue cracks in a herringbone gear

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14.5.4

Residual Stresses

If the member is made of ductile metal and subjected

to static loads, localized yielding relieves the effects of
residual stresses
and q is not altered by the residual stresses

In contrast for a brittle material, the residual stresses

can add or subtract from the effects of the stresses
Consequently q may increase or decrease

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14.5.5

Very Abrupt Changes in Section: Stress Gradient

Let the change in section of a member be very abrupt;

i.e., let the hole, fillet or groove have a very small
characteristic dimension compared to the dimensions of
the section, s.t. the calculated stress gradient is steep
in the region of the stress concentration
The value of Scc is large
However, the Sce found from tests of such members is
relatively low lower q than for less abrupt changes
i.e., a small scratch is not as critical as a big groove

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Significance of Stress Gradient

For notches such as holes, fillets, and grooves, the
stress gradient is given by
(14.45)

As S increases, the amount of material that needs to

adjust to the stress goes down
As a consequence q goes down and the notch
sensitivity decreases as decreases

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Impact or Energy Loading

If a member is required to absorb energy delivered to it by
a relatively high-velocity impact, localized stress is a large
influence in decreasing the load-carrying capacity of the
member
For a uniaxial state of stress Uo=2/2E
Justification for putting a v-notch in a fracture specimen to
initiate point of failure
Charpy
Izod

http://www.instron.us/wa/products/impact/charp
y_izod.aspx
?ref=http://www.google.com/search

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14.6

Effective Stress Concentration Factors:

Inelastic Strains

Consider a flat plat w/ symmetric edge notches

Can find elastic Scc in Fig. 14.10
using , t and a

Let P > yield x Area

Fig. 14.28 (a) Stress Distribution (b) Stress-strain curve (c) Strain distribution

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Want to find the maximum stress and max strain at the roots of the
notches
Assume the stress distribution as shown in Fig. 14.28(a)
max = Scen (14.46) in terms of the significant concentration factor
Let n denote the nominal strain as shown by Point A in Fig. 14.28(b)
Let CD denote the strain distribution
Define Ece

to be the strain concentration factor

(14.47)

Fig. 14.28 (a) Stress Distribution (b) Stress-strain curve (c) Strain distribution

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Neubers Theorem
For relatively sharp notches
(14.48)

Multiply both sides by

nn
(14.49)

Typically Scc, n and n are known, thus

(14.50)

Eq. 14.50 represents a hyperbola in -

space in Fig. 14.28(b)
Point B is the intersection of the hyperbola with the
-
curve

(14.47)

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Fig. E14.4 (a) Stress-strain diagram. (b) Stress concentration factor for lowcarbon steel of (a). Experimental data from Neuber (1961)
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