Zoonimi U Toponimima - Nazivima Mesta

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA:
ASOPIS ZA NAUKU O JEZIKU I

KNJIEVNOSTI
(7)
Institut za jezik i knjievnost

Filozofski fakultet, Niki
Univerzitet Crne Gore
FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Glavni urednik / General Editor: Marija Krivokapi Kneevi
Izdava: Institut za jezik i knjievnost, Filozofski fakultet, Niki
Publisher: Institute for Language and Literature, Faculty of Philosophy, Niki
Ureivaki odbor / Board of Editors:
Rossella Abbaticchio, University of Bari
Aleksandra Banjevi, University of Montenegro
Nick Ceramella, University for Foreigners of Perugia
Vesna Vukievi Jankovi, University of Montenegro
Ginette Katz-Roy, Pairs West University Nanterre La Dfense
Bernhard Kettemann, University of Graz
Jelena Kneevi, University of Montenegro
Radmila Lazarevi University of Montenegro
Aleksandra Nikevi Batrievi, University of Montenegro
Ana Pejanovi, University of Montengero
Ljiljana Pajovi Dujovi, University of Montenegr
Dirk Skiba, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena
Sekretar / Secretary:
Petar Boovi, University of Montenegro
Recenzenti / Reviewed by:
Dragan Bogojevi, University of Montenegro
Anette urovi, University of Belgrade
Rajka Gluica, University of Montenegro
Biljana Milatovi, University of Montenegro
Biljana Mii Ili, University of Ni
Mark Oparin, Udmurt State University, Izhevsk
Petar Penda, University of Banja Luka
Deja Pileti, Unviersity of Montenegro
Biljana Radi Bojani, Unviersity of Novi Sad
Violeta Stojii, University of Ni
Sanja ubari, University of Montenegro
Radojka Vukevi, University of Belgrade
Grafiki dizajn / Graphic Design: Biljana ivkovi, Studio Mouse
tampa / Printed by: ITP Kolo, Niki
Copies: 1000
Filozofski fakultet, Niki, 2013
SADRAJ / TABLE OF CONTENTS

Nauka o jeziku / Language Studies
Conventionality in Illocutionary Acts and Relevance Theory
Bledar Toska ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Rhetorical Conventions in Written Discourse: Focusing on Coherence
Emilija Sarzhoska-Georgievska------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Nominal Compounds and Nominal Phrases A Look from English into SCBM
Vesna Bulatovi -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
What Standard Written Norms of English Do in the Current U.S. Composition
Classroom?
Duka Vladimira -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
The Discourse of Promotional Tourist Literature in Montenegro
Marina Rmu ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
Washback of State Matura Examination on English Learning in Perception of
Albanian Students of High Schools
Jaup Zenuni ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 77
The Relevance of Discourse Connectives in English and French Electrical
Engineering Discourse
Milo D. uri , Marija Pani --------------------------------------------------------------- 95
Anksioznost u tekstu
Emir Muhi, Dalibor Kesi ------------------------------------------------------------------ 109
Dijalekatske odlike proznog diskursa Stefana Mitrova Ljubie
Miodarka Tepavevi ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 125
Sintaksa i semantika glagola u konstrukcijama s adverbijalnim dopunama
Sonja Nenezi --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 145
Broj atributivnih imenica kao faktor promjene znaenja u imenikoj frazi
Maja arkovi --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 153
Aorist u srpskom i francuskom jeziku (sintaksika analiza upotrebe ovog

vremena u romanu Jedan ivot G. de Mopasana i njegovog prevodnog
ekvivalenta na srpskom jeziku)
Marija Glii, Milica Milainovi ---------------------------------------------------------- 161
Mikrotoponimija Barjamovice, Markovine i Velestova
Novica Vujovi -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 175
Studije knjievnosti i kulture / Literary and Cultural Studies
What Makes Pierre Frhas French Sahib a Novel of
Globalization?: Reflections of a Translator
Shonu Nangia --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 189
(Dis)obeying the Inexorable Censor: Catholicism in the Fiction of Kate OBrien
and Edna OBrien
Vesna Uki Kota ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 199
epard i popularna kultura
Svjetlana R. Ognjenovi --------------------------------------------------------------------- 213
Rekonstrukcja mitu krla Nikoli I Petrovicia w dramacie historycznym Radmiy
Vojvodi Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore
Katarzyna Sudnik ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223
Filmske figure u dokumentarnom filmu drijelo ivka Nikolia
Zoran Koprivica ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 237
Razliiti struni prilozi /Miscellaneous
PRIKAZI / BOOK REVIEWS
Biljana Dojinovi, Susreti u tami. Uvod u itanje Virdinije Vulf. Slubeni Glasnik,
Beograd, 2011.
Nina Sirkovi----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 255
The Current Status of the Trio of Virtues: Truth, Beauty and Goodness Reframed:
Educating for the Virtues in the Twenty-first century. By Howard Gardner (New
York: Basic books. A Member of the Perseus Books Group, 2011)
Slaana ivkovi, Nadeda Stojkovi --------------------------------------------------- 261
PREVODI / TRANSLATIONS
Iz Linda Hutcheon, Teorija adaptacije -------------------------------------------------- 267
Frederik Dejmson, Protivurjenosti debate realizam modernizam ---------- 283
UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA --------------------------------------------------------------------- 293
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS ---------------------------------------------------- 295
Nauka o jeziku / Language Studies
Folia linguistica et litteraria 9

UDK: 81'271
CONVENTIONALITY IN ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS AND RELEVANCE

THEORY
Bledar Toska
University of Vlora Ismail Qemali
Abstract: Conventions in language are generally considered to be socially and

linguistically accepted standards or norms which have been used over time as a practice
to facilitate social and linguistic interaction between members of a speech community.
They are socially constructed and reproduced by individuals of a speech community and
relative to linguistic context as well as time and place. Some instances of these standards
may include orthographic, phonological, morphological systems, sentence meaning or its
interpretation.
Firstly, this paper briefly discusses conventionality issues in fulfilling illocutionary acts
through certain conditions and rules according to the Speech Act Theory which Austin
(1975) and Searle (1969) developed. Performing an illocutionary act of promising or
requesting, for instance, involves following and recognizing four major rules, namely, the
essential, sincerity, preparatory and propositional rules, which are offered as instructions
to speakers in order to enable successful communication.
Secondly, this article talks about Relevance Theory (Wilson & Sperber 2004) and two
principles of relevance: a Cognitive Principle (that human cognition tends to be geared to
the maximisation of relevance), and a Communicative Principle (that every utterance
creates expectations of optimal relevance). This relevance-theoretic approach outlines a
description of what happens when speakers produce and interpret speech and dismisses
conventionality aspects of it. Relevance theory has been adopted in this paper to explain
that illocutionary acts and their communicative force could well be affected by cognitive
effects and not simply (or only) by linguistic conventionality.
Key Words: conventionality, Speech Act Theory, illocutionary acts, Relevance Theory.
A short theoretical discussion

It is not my intention to speak at length about the notion of
conventionality in this paper. However, I would like to make a few brief and
general remarks about this concept. Conventions are present in most of our
daily activities and appear to affect and guide our behaviour in many social
aspects of our lives. Their importance lies in the fact that they as a species of
norms are regarded as rules that regulate human conduct (Marmor x). For
instance, we are inclined to greet each other when we meet, to follow certain
10 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

rules and procedures at work, to please ourselves with a drink in our free time
or to end our day by going to bed.
Conventions as well as the notion of conventionality apply also to
language, in much the way as they do to our social life. This can be a very
interesting area of study for linguists, for, as Marmor states in the preface of his
work (xii), language is central and conventional aspects (and non-conventional
ones) of language provide a useful insight into its nature and study. Although
linguistic conventions are sometimes issues of controversial discussions, there is
hardly any doubt that a few aspects of language are conventional, as for
instance the sound-sense relations of words such as tree or house or the basic
syntactic sentence structure (Subject + Object).
One of the pragmatic theories of language use which embraces the
notion of conventionality in communication is the Speech Act Theory (SAT),
developed and elaborated by J. L. Austin almost half a century ago as a reaction
to the claim about the descriptive nature of language. He claimed that the use
of language goes far beyond the language users purpose to describe or report
something. In using language people perform certain linguistic acts because the
uttering of the sentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action (Austin 5).
Kearns states that a linguistic act, or speech act, is an intentional, meaningful
act performed with an expression or expressions (50). Thus, language use is
regarded as an intentional act expressed through speech (Searle 16), just as an
ordinary everyday act is performed through the appropriate means, such as the
act of greeting someone by waving at him or her. This analogy suggests that
people linguistically communicate by performing certain speech acts under
certain conditions and with particular intentions. For instance, sentence (1) is
intended to perform the act of promising to show someone the most amazing
thing (s)he has ever seen.
(1) I promise you that I can show you the most amazing thing you have ever
seen. (2012 FIC Analog)
Speech acts could be better explored if we distinguish their three basic
types, the locutionary act (and within it the phonetic, the phatic, and the rhetic
acts) which has a meaning; the illocutionary act which has a certain force in
saying something; the perlocutionary act which is the achieving of certain
effects by saying something (Austin 121). As the title of this paper suggests, I
will focus only on illocutionary acts and deal with a few of their characteristics in
the provided examples below.
Moreover, Searle provides a list of conditions (called felicity conditions)
which should be satisfied for the successful performance of a particular
illocutionary act (or the act of promising, as an appropriate explanatory
example). The first condition is the propositional content condition (in

expressing that p, S predicates a future act A of S), the second is the preparatory
condition (S believes that doing A would be in Hs best interest and that S can do
A), the third is the sincerity condition (S intends to do A) and the fourth is the
essential condition (S undertakes the obligation to perform A). Based on these
conditions, rules, which serve to indicate the appropriate illocutionary force, are
formulated as follows: proposition content rule, preparatory rule, sincerity rule
and essential rule (for details, see Searle 54-65). Searle maintains that
illocutionary acts are generally made possible and performed by these rules.
After all, for Searle, speaking a language is engaging in a rule-governed form of
behaviour (16).
This short discussion raises the question of the presence of conventional
aspects (or certain rules) in performing illocutionary acts, a claim vehemently
defended by Austin and Searle, but which remains even today a controversial
issue among linguists and language philosophers. Austin himself warns that we
must notice that the illocutionary act is a conventional act: in act done as
conforming to a convention (105) and Searle asserts that the illocutionary
effect that the speaker intends to produce is achieved by getting the hearer to
recognize his intention to produce that effect [] in virtue of the fact that the
meaning of the item he utters conventionally associates it with producing that
effect (60-61). Presumably, Searle refers here to the perlocutionary act,
although I am not quite certain. But if this is the case, then we should consider
Austins claim that perlocutionary acts are not conventional, though
conventional acts may be made use of in order to bring off the perlocutionary
act (122), which testifies to certain unclear outlines in the SAT itself.
The issue of conventionality in SAT and illocutionary acts has been
criticized in many works, which either partially or totally reject the assertion
that most nontechnical concepts in ordinary language lack absolutely strict
rules (Searle 55) and the need for these rules in communication which Searle
highlights. For instance, Strawson states that there are many cases in which it
is not as conforming to an accepted convention of any kind that an
illocutionary act is performed (153) but as recognizing the speakers intention.
Similarly, Stampe argues against AustinSearle conventionalism in illocutionary
acts on the grounds that it is not by virtue of rules that promises are promises,
but because of the speaker's intending an utterance as a promise, reminder,
suggestion, or request that makes it one; whether it will be so understood
depends on the addressee's ability to infer that it was so intended (qtd. in
Green 113). While Marmor (106-130) takes somehow a more moderate position
on these views, by claiming that only certain institutional or conventional
illocutionary acts are based on fixed conventions (for instance, Guilty!, The
meeting is adjourned., Hi! or Thanks!), but who, nevertheless, excludes the
overgeneralization to attribute conventional aspects to illocutionary acts, as
pretended in SAT.

In simple terms, it appears that illocutionary acts (as well as their force)
are not totally decontextualized, in which case their production and interpretation
would rely on conventional (meta)linguistic rules, but are frequently
contextualized acts, whose fulfillment highly depends on the speakers intentions
and hearers inferential ability to utter and understand utterances.
Relevance Theory (RT) (Wilson and Sperber) takes a somehow different
perspective on utterance interpretation and it is based on this cognitive and
psychological theory and on two principles of relevance: a Cognitive Principle
(that human cognition tends to be geared to the maximisation of relevance),
and a Communicative Principle (that every utterance creates expectations of
optimal relevance). According to RT, utterance interpretation is a psychological
phenomenon affected by cognitive factors in addition to social and linguistic
ones. Every utterance could be interpreted in various ways, but not all of them
are equally accessible to the hearer, who is equipped with a general criterion for
evaluating them and accepting only the most relevant and eliminating
alternative ones.
All utterances occur in a certain determined context, which consists of
mentally represented assumptions that help the hearer process the new
received input. During the interaction between context and the new input the
hearers mind is involved in a processing effort to evaluate the utterance and to
recover cognitive effects, namely to strengthen a contextual assumption, to
eliminate another one or others and to construct a contextual implication, a
conclusion deducible from input and context together, but from neither input
nor context alone (Wilson and Sperber 608). Thus, the cognitive principle of
relevance is that human cognition tends to be geared to the maximisation of
relevance (610) when interpreting utterances and completely rejects the
notion of conventionality in this respect.
Not only the cognitive principle but also the communicative one
excludes conventional aspects of language use. Wilson and Sperber assert that
the cognitive system is relevance-oriented, which makes it possible to predict
and manipulate the mental states of others (610). In this regard, it is likely for
the communicator to predict which contextual assumptions others retrieve,
based on the ostensive-inferential communication process, in which the speaker
transmits his or her intentions and the hearer constructs contextual implications.
The minimal unit of communication, the utterance, creates presumptions or
expectations of relevance which are expected to be worth processing and to assist
the hearer to identify the speakers meaning. Moreover, optimal relevance is
needed at this stage since the utterance should produce sufficient cognitive
effects and with a low level of processing efforts. Thus, optimal relevance
presumes that (612) a) the ostensive stimulus is relevant enough to be worth the
audiences processing effort and b) it is the most relevant one compatible with
communicators abilities and preferences.

This was a brief account of the RT, its principles and the way language is
processed in communication. Obviously, it appears to be a much promising model
relying on the abilities of the human cognition system and its evolution over time.
RT concisely describes in plausible terms how communication is enabled,
produced and interpreted, and takes a different view from other pragmatic
theories, such as Grices Co-operative Principle or Austin and Searles STA, by
rejecting conventional aspects of communication, much supported in them.
Comparative Analyses
In this second part of the article I will attempt to compare the way SAT
and RT interpret aspects of communication between the speaker and the hearer
in promises, requests, assertions, questions, thanks, advice, warnings, greetings
and congratulations, all of which have been listed in Searles discussion of
illocutionary acts (71-72). General comparisons between SAT and RT prove to be
very difficult for two main reasons concerned in this paper. Dominicy and
Franken (263) claim that illocutionary acts do not exist in RT and that in SAT
speakers are assumed to be cooperative while in RT, speakers are assumed
to aim at being optimally relevant.
In example (2) below S predicates a future A of himself or herself,
namely that S will offer special blessings to H on the basis of his or her ability to
perform A and because of A being in the best interest of H. Furthermore, S
intends to do act A and explicitly undertakes the obligation to perform act A.
Based on these conditions, the utterance in example (2) is classified as an
illocutionary act, and because some rules apply (propositional content,
preparatory, sincerity and essential ones) it is believed to be a conventional act.
(2) I can also promise you that if it is Heavenly Father's will, you will receive
special blessings, and that I will do all I'm allowed to do to support you
from the other side. (2011 SPOK ABC 20_20)
Such a framework supported by SAT would suffice to assist the speaker
to produce the utterance and convey his or her intentions (and the promise)
and the hearer to decode the speakers meaning. However there are a couple of
drawbacks in this conventional way of communication. According to RT, the
utterance is expected to create expectations of relevance only if it is worth
being processing. That is, it is to be interpreted as a promise only if it produces
optimal relevance to produce cognitive effects which will create the
appropriate contextual implications.
Example (3) is an utterance that is intended to be a request. S
predicates a future act A (to bring some detection equipment) of H, who is

believed to have the capability to perform act A. S also wants H to do act A and
at the same time makes an attempt to get H do it. SAT claims that illocutionary
act (3) is an intentional act, performed under certain conditions and according
to certain rules. As in the case of example (2) above, it is to be considered to be
conventional.
(3) And then, lastly, Chris, we've got to be smart. Bring some detection
equipment aerial-to-man vehicles, lasers, new technology. (2005 SPOK
Fox_Sunday)
Such an utterance is an act of telling (RT), new input interacting with the
context and yielding cognitive effects in the hearers cognitive system. H
constructs the proper contextual implication that is interprets utterance (3) as
a request because such utterance is the most compatible with the speakers
preferences and it is worth processing. In a word, S is able to gear Hs mind to a
maximization of relevance and consequently assists H to identify Ss meaning.
Utterance (4) asserts a state of affairs included in the proposition p. SAT
claims that in such assertions, S has evidence or reasons to support p (the
estimation in question) and that it is not clear to S if H knows p. Under such
conditions, S believes in the truth and accuracy of p, which represents a state of
affairs. According to SAT, the interaction among the four conditions
(propositional, preparatory, sincerity and essential ones) support the hypothesis
that the illocutionary act of assertion is performed by dint of conventional rules
of interaction between the communicators.
(4) It is estimated that the largest ships can release up to 5,000 tons of
sulphur annually as well as a billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). (2012
ACAD TechEngineerTeacher)
RT takes a different position on assertion utterances such as (4). Ss
intention is to communicate p to the H and to assist him or her to reach a
conclusion, in which case ostensive-inferential communication takes place. It is
not based on linguistic conventions, since utterance (4) could convey a number
of possible intentions to produce a number of possible interpretations under
different circumstances. Utterance (4) is an act of saying presumed to produce
optimal relevance with sufficient cognitive effects and reasonable processing
efforts.
The next example is an illustration of an illocutionary act of asking. As in
the three previous examples this, too, is approached from SAT as a conventional
act of the communicative mode. So, S does not know the answer (if he or she
could be allowed to ask some questions) and is not certain that H will provide
the requested information. Also, S sincerely requests the information and wants

or needs it. The essential condition to be met in utterance (5) counts as an
attempt to elicit this information from H.
(5) I wonder if I could ask you some questions that we might arrive at a
clearer understanding together of these important matters. (2011 ACAD
Education)
Even questions, in the RT framework, could be explained in much the
same way as the previous discussed examples. There are mentally represented
assumptions in the hearers mind which process input (that is, new information).
The hearer in the case of questions constructs the most relevant contextual
implication because of the cognitive effects obtained and the processing effort
the questions produce. As it has been highlighted, the cognitive system is
relevance oriented, which means that the speaker is expected to produce the
most relevant utterance and the hearer the most relevant interpretation.
In example (6) S is referring to a past act A (what youre saying) done by
H. This is an act of thanking H for act A, from which S benefits. The gratefulness
of S towards H is explicitly communicated by means of the performative
expression I thank you. The illocutionary force of the illocution in question
makes it count as an expression of gratitude. SAT maintains that it is through
these conventional associations in communication that the speaker and hearer
manage to transmit the gratitude and recognize it.
(6) I thank you for what you're saying, and I take it in and I'm listening to
every word of it and feeling it. (2011 SPOK ABC_This Week)
However, conventional conditions and conventional associations are
rejected by RT, which claims that this utterance can be counted as an instance
of thanking, owing to the fact that optimal relevance is achieved in the
framework of the cognitive and communicative principles. This is accomplished
under circumstances which are regarded psychological, affected mostly by
cognitive factors rather than only social or linguistic ones.
The four conditions discussed dictate, in some way, the illocutionary
acts of advising as well, an instance being example (7) below. Unlike the act of
thanking, this act has to do with a future act A (to pay special attention to
businessmen and moderately wealthy citizens) of H. In this case S has good
reasons to believe that H will benefit from act A. In such act the essential
condition to be fulfilled is that it counts as an undertaking to the effect that A is in
Hs best interest and this is the reason why the act of advising is performed at all.
(7) You should pay special attention to businessmen and moderately
wealthy citizens. (2012 ACAD ForeignAffairs)

According to RT, cases such as utterance (7) are acts of telling,
characterized by the speakers intention to transmit something which is relevant
to the hearer in the given context. Just because this creates expectations of
relevance, the hearer is assisted to identify the intention and process it with
minimal efforts because of the proper contextual effects the utterances
produce. So, conventional aspects are excluded in such an interpretation since is
it only through the optimization of relevance phenomenon that communication
between the speaker and the hearer is enabled.
The last three examples, (8) illocutionary act of warning, (9) of greeting
and (10) of congratulating are characterized much in the same way as the
previous examples discussed in this paper. They are affected by the four
conditions and are produced and interpreted as part of conventional
associations they produce when uttered. Actually it seems that, when produced,
they go through the process of maximizing relevance and of obtaining optimal
relevance. RT, as in the abovementioned cases, attributes to them cognitive
aspects rather than previously-agreed set of rules, or conventions.
(8) And be careful, really be careful what you post on your Facebook page.
We have the story of how Facebook almost led to jail time for one man.
(2011 SPOK CBC_ThisMorning)
(9) Greetings, good people. And a most radiant greeting to you, Doctor.
(2011 FIC Analog)
(10) I'd like to congratulate the members of the Republican National
Committee for selecting the next chair. (2011 SPOK Fox_Baier)
Summary
This contrastive short study of conventionality issues in illocutionary
acts and RT proved to be even more challenging than I initially expected. This is
mainly for two main reasons. First, the differences between SAT and RT are very
complex and perhaps not even definitive, which makes the discussion somehow
difficult. Second, the analysis of conventionality issues in them does require a
far more extended research and survey than it has been possible to include in
this work. I acknowledge that the present paper has been unable to deal with
many aspects of the topic in question, but at least it could be an initial attempt
for me to take further this study in the future works. For all these reasons, I am
making only a short summary of what has been discussed here rather coming up
with any conclusions about this topic.

The question of the conventional aspects in performing speech acts and
particularly illocutionary ones has been defended by Austin and Searle in SAT.
The claim is that these acts are regulated and constituted by four conditions:
propositional content, preparatory, sincerity and essential, which once are met
they are regarded as rules (standards or norms) for producing and interpreting
communicative acts. This interpretation has come across some criticism by
various scholars, who believe that although some aspects of conventionality
may apply to language, they are far from influencing the overall communicative
system of people verbal interactions.
Wilson and Sperber with their RT have been one of the most influential
scholars who have completely excluded the possibility of conventions in these
acts. As it was said, RT relies on its two principles. The cognitive one is that
human cognition tends to be geared to the maximisation of relevance. The new
input is relevant when it interacts with the appropriate context and yields
cognitive effects, namely strengthens an assumption, eliminates it, or constructs
a contextual implication with the minimal processing effort. Thus, utterance
interpretation is affected by cognitive factors, among others. The communicative
one is that every utterance creates expectations of optimal relevance. Our
cognitive system is relevance oriented and it is easy to predict what contextual
assumptions are retrieved. Ostensive-inferential communication shows speakers
intentions which help the hearer to identify them. This last one expects optimal
relevance enough cognitive effects and low processing efforts.
References:
Austin, L. John. How to Do Things with Words. Eds. J. O. Urmson and Marina
Sbisa Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1975.
Corpus of Contemporary American English. 06.02.2013
http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/.
Dominicy, Marc, and Nathalie Franken. Speech Acts and Relevance Theory.
Essays in Speech Act Theory. Eds. Daniel Vanderveken and Susumu Kubo.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001. 263-283.
Green, M. Georgia. Pragmatics and Natural Language Understanding. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1996.
Kearns, T. John. Meaning, Structure and Speech Acts. Foundations of Speech
Act Theory: Philosophical and Linguistic Perspectives. Ed. Savas L.
Tsohatzidis. New York: Routledge, 1994. 50-79.
Marmor, Andrei. Social Conventions. From language to Law. New Jersey:
Princeton UP, 2009.
Searle, R. John. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language.
Cambridge: CUP, 1969.

Strawson, Peter. Logico-Linguistic Papers. London: Methuen, 1971.
Wilson, Deirdre, and Dan Sperber. Relevance theory. The Handbook of
Pragmatics. Eds. Laurence Horn and Gregory Ward. Blackwell: Oxford,
2004. 607-632.
KONVENCIONALITETI N AKTET ILOKUCIONARE DHE TEORIA E RELEVANCS

Konvencionet n gjuh zakonisht quhen ato standarde apo norma t
pranuara nga ana shoqrore apo gjuhsore t cilat jan prdorur gjat kohrave
si praktika pr t lehtsuar ndrveprimin gjuhsor dhe shoqror midis
antareve t nj komuniteti fols. Ndrtohen n mnyr shoqrore dhe
riprodhohen nga individt e komunitetit fols si dhe jan t lidhura me
kontekstin gjuhsor si dhe at kohor apo hapsinor. Disa shembuj t ktyre
standardeve mund t prfshijn sistemet ortografike, fonologjike, morfologjike,
kuptimin e fjalis apo interpretimin e saj.
S pari, ky artikull trajton shkurtimisht shtje t konvencionalitetit n
prmbushjen e akteve ilokucionare nprmjet disa kushteve dhe rregullave
duke u mbshtetur n Teorin e Akteve t t Folurit, t ciln e zhvilluan Austin
(1975) dhe Searle (1969). Pr t kryer nj akt ilokucionar premtimi apo krkese,
pr shembull, nevojitet q t ndiqen dhe njihen katr rregulla kryesore pra,
rregulli themelor, i sinqeritetit, prgatitor dhe propozicional, t cilt sillen si
udhzues pr folsit n mnyr q t mundsohet komunikimi i suksesshm.
S dyti, ky artikull flet pr Teorin e Relevancs (Wilson & Sperber 2004)
dhe dy principe t saj: nj Princip Konjitiv (q sistemi konjitiv priret t oj n
rritjen e relevancs), dhe nj Princip Komunikativ (q do pohim krijon pritje t
relevancs optimale). Ky trajtim teorik i relevancs prshkruan se far ngjet kur
folsit prodhojn dhe interpretojn t folmen dhe prjashton aspekte t
konvencionalitetit n t. Jemi mbshtetur n teorin e relevancs n kt
artikull pr t shpjeguar q aktet ilokucionare dhe forca e tyre komunikuese fare
mir mund t ndikohet nga efektet konjitive dhe jo vetm nga konvencionaliteti
gjuhsor.
Fjal kyce: konvencionaliteti, Teoria e Akteve t t Folurit, aktet
ilokucionare, Teoria e Relevancs.

UDK: 81'271.1(047.31)
RHETORICAL CONVENTIONS IN WRITTEN DISCOURSE:

FOCUSING ON COHERENCE
Emilija Sarzhoska-Georgievska
Ss. Cyril & Methodius University, Skopje
Abstract: The paper will present the results of a study which consisted of three textbased analyses of Groups student argumentative essays written on the same topic. The
aim was to identify text-based features of coherence in L1 and L2. The analyses were
carried out on essays written by first and third year undergraduates at the Department of
English Language and Literature, Faculty of Philology Blazhe Koneski at the Ss. Cyril
and Methodius University in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia who wrote in their first
language Macedonian, L1, and in English as a foreign language, L2. The goal was to
recognise the importance of discourse organization in academic writing in L1, and to
examine factors which may affect second language learners competence in the
organisation of written discourse in English as a foreign language, L2. The paper points
out the differences in the rhetorical models in Macedonian and English written discourse
and how these differences may have an impact on writing assessment and the teaching of
writing at university level.
Keywords: Coherence, organizational patterns, topical structure analysis, rhetorical
models, teaching writing
1.
Introduction
Writing is embedded in culture and since there are differences from one
culture to another, there are differences as to the accepted or preferred
rhetorical norms and conventions from one culture to another, from one
written discourse to another (Connor 1996).
Successful writing does not just mean adhering to the rules of grammar
and vocabulary. It means following a whole range of other written discourse
norms or conventions. Students should be taught strategies to improve their
writing in line with the English speaking academic discourse conventions.
Students need to be sensitized to the differing organizational patterns and
discourse styles and how they affect communication. Writing instruction should
prepare students to take internationally recognized language tests, and to
enable students to develop competence in argumentation, persuasion and
critical thinking.

Text analysis research has shown that clear higher-order rhetorical
structure with appropriate transitions or discourse markers, aids the reader in
understanding the text. The implication is that we, as teachers and researchers,
should aim to train students to use top-level rhetorical strategies/models in
order to improve their writing quality (Connor, Schneider 1990). Both
researchers and teachers insist that if the linguistic features of effective texts
can be identified, they can be taught to students (ibid.). Important cohesion
analyses based on sentence-level features and inter-sentential relations,
drawing on the work of Halliday and Hassan (1976) have not been able to
describe important coherence relations on the level of whole discourse (Connor
1984b; Evensen 1990; Wikborg 1985, 1987). L2 writing research has clearly
demonstrated that a text may be cohesive but not coherent.
The present paper will report on results of three text-based analyses of
groups of argumentative essays written on the same topic by first and third year
undergraduates who wrote in Macedonian, L1, and in English, L2. The
motivation for the research has been the need to be able to teach students how
to write effectively, as well as to initiate contrastive and comparative research
in writing between Macedonian and English. The focus of the research was on
coherence, more precisely the study attempted to find out how the student
writers achieve coherence in their writing in Macedonian and in English and
whether systematic writing instruction at university level helps students focus
on the discourse level of texts.
2. Defining Coherence
Coherence is generally accepted as a sine qua non in written discourse
(Bamberg 417); writing that does not achieve coherence will certainly fail to
communicate the intended message to the reader. Knowledge of what
constitutes coherence is particularly important in writing since the concept of
coherence is different in L1 and L2. Writing instruction has recognized that
students have problems at the level of whole discourse, not just sentence level
connectivity. On the other hand, students focus on sentence-level connectedness
and understand coherence narrowly. In order to be able to help students develop
coherence in their writing, it is essential that teachers have a thorough
understanding of what makes a stretch of writing coherent. It is necessary to
define coherence in broader terms, on the level of whole discourse (Lee, 2002).
From a linguistic point of view, coherence can be said to be internal to
the text coherence is defined in terms of the formal properties of the
text.

The non-linguistic aspect, that is, coherence as an internal feature of the
reader focuses on the role of the reader in creating coherence.
Coherence is a characteristic of the mind, the intellect and this is what
enables interpretation of the text. Coherence is not a feature of the text
itself. Modern reading comprehension theories assert that text
processing is an interaction between the reader and the text and that
readers employ their knowledge of the world content schemata and
knowledge of text structures formal schemata to make sense of a text
(Carrell 1987; Bamberg 1983).
Whether coherence is regarded as text-based or reader-based it is important
that the writer, the text and the readers all interact in the construction of
coherence.
Based on studies by Lee (1998, 2002), and the literature review,
coherence can be described as including the following features:
Connectivity of the surface text with cohesive devices (Halliday & Hasan,
1976)
An information structure which guides the reader through the text and
contributes to the topical development of the text (Connor,
Farmer,1990; Firbas, 1986; Lautamatti, 1987); In other words how
information is distributed (e.g. old before new) to contribute to topical
development.
Connectivity of the underlying content evidenced by relations between
propositions. A proposition is an assertion. It is through the
relationships between propositions that global coherence is established
(Kintsch & van Dijk ,1978).
Macrostructure with a characteristic pattern and shape appropriate to
its communicative purpose and context (Hoey, 1983, 1991);
Metadiscourse features as signalizers of coherence relations (Cheng &
Steffensen, 1996; Crismore et al., 1993); This includes, logical
connectors, sequencers, hedges (Lee, 2002).
As shown earlier, knowledge structures play an important role in the
construction of coherence, reader-based features such as purpose, audience and
context should be taken into account in the execution of the research and also
in teaching (Lee, 1998).

Rhetorical Models for Organizing Information in Argumentative Essays in
Macedonian and English
According to findings of contrastive research in other languages,
namely, Bulgarian, German and English (Clyne 1987; Dimitrova-Gjuzeleva 2002),
as well as based on the descriptions of organizational and compositional
structure of the essay by Macedonian scholars (Minova-Gjurkova 2003; Pandev,
2004; Duchevska 2005), we could summarize certain salient features of the
differences in the rhetorical models of the argumentative essay as a genre both
in Macedonian and English. These stereotypical rhetorical models are used in
the process of composing and writing argumentative essays in English and in
Macedonian, and also they exist as mental constructs in native speakers of
Macedonian, and English. Following are some of the characteristics of the norms
and conventions of written discourse in English (Anglo-American) contrasted
with Macedonian rhetorical conventions:
The purpose of the essay, that is, the thesis statement and elaboration
should be elicited from the topic of the essay which is already conceived
to enable such processing. The writers purpose is indicated at the very
beginning of the essay in the introduction. In contrast, the Macedonian
model of organizing the flow of ideas the topic allows the writer more
freedom, it is regarded as a stimulus for free expression.
relevance is considered to be a key component of good, acceptable
writing and is the most important virtue (Clyne, 1987:74) in English
written discourse;
each paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a transition
leading on to the next paragraph, so that linear progression is achieved.
If facts, or new ideas are introduced which are not relevant, and do not
contribute to the overall unity of the text, then these digressions are not
tolerated and are unacceptable. Conversely, the Macedonian style of
writing is characterized by unclear division of paragraphs and free
compositional structure;
Coherence is explicit and the text is audience friendly, audience
oriented. The writer/author has a high level of awareness of reader
expectations regarding the discourse. Contrary to this, the Macedonian
model relies on the intelligent reader demanding wide knowledge from
the reader since s/he has to decode the underlying messages
encoded by the author of the text. Coherence is implicit and
associative;
According to the English written discourse conventions, the
argumentative essay belongs to the genre of academic discourse,

demanding clear, relevant arguments and a clear structure. In contrast,
in the Macedonian language, the essay is classified as belonging to the
sub-genre of journalistic and literary-artistic prose, the main features of
which are complex, individualistic thoughts, creative expression and
elegant style;
The brief contrastive analysis of the essay as a genre in the Macedonian
language and in English, simply confirms the intuitive reflections of teachers of
writing that there are serious differences as to what constitutes a well written
essay in the understanding of native speakers of the two languages (DimitrovaGjuzeleva, 2001;). It could be safely said that Macedonian students who study
writing in English encounter problems in the domain of the rhetorical
organization of their written products, due to the interference, and to a certain
extent, negative transfer of mother tongue writing norms.
4. The Study
The classroom study involved three text-based analyses of groups of
argumentative essays written on the same topic in order to identify text-based
features of coherence, as well as to distinguish between groups of varying
degrees of writing proficiency. The aim was to recognize the importance of
discourse organization in academic writing and most importantly, to examine
factors which may affect second language learners competence in the
organization of written discourse in English as a foreign language.
The analyses were carried out on compositions written by first and third
year undergraduates at the Department of English Language and Literature,
Faculty of Philology Blazhe Koneski Skopje, Ss. Cyril & Methodius University,
majoring in English who wrote both in their first language, Macedonian, L1 and
in English as a foreign language, L2. The topic was: More severe punishments
and more prisons will reduce crime. Do you agree with this statement? All three
analyses focused on coherence, i.e. attempting to identify unity and logical
connectivity of the written compositions, but each analysis concentrated on a
different aspect of coherence. The first analysis made comparisons of 60 (30
written in L1 and 30 written in L2) compositions in terms of organizational
patterns, organization scores and overall quality. Based on empirical studies
carried out by Sasaki & Hirose (2001), Connor & Schneider (1990), similarities
and differences regarding the choice of organizational structure in
argumentative student essays written in their mother tongue, Macedonian L1,
with argumentative essays written in English L2 by the same students were
investigated. It focused on the rhetorical structure of the whole text, the
position of the main idea, type of organizational structure: deductive or
inductive and the presence or lack of a summary/conclusion. The types of

organizational patterns were coded with numerical values to enable statistical
processing. The compositions were also graded by two independent raters.
The second analysis investigated in what way first year and third year
undergraduates logically connect ideas. To this effect, research carried out by
Witte (1983b), Connor & Schneider (1990) was replicated using topical structure
analysis on three groups of compositions (total of 90 compositions written by
first and third year undergraduates) based on Lautamattis taxonomy (1987)
which reveals the internal topical structure through the repetition of key words
and phrases. This type of text analysis follows the flow of information structure
of the text, and as such, offers an overall model of coherence for the written
composition. Lautamattis, model is based on the Prague linguistic school and
concentrates on the semantic ties between the topics of sentences and their
relationship with the main, discourse topic. The progression of subtopics is
called topical progression. Sequences of sentences were examined by looking at
the sentence topics and how these topics work through the text to progressively
build meaning. Based on previous research (Connor, Farmer 1990; Connor
Schneider, 1990; Witte 1983b) three progression types have been identified:
Parallel progression the subtopics of several sentences remain the
same (the subtopic in S1, S2, S3 is the same). A parallel topic is
commonly a repetition, a pronominalized form, or a synonym of the
preceding topic (Connor, Farmer 1990).
Sequential progression the comment (the new information) or
rheme in the sentence becomes the topic (given information, or old)
in the following sentence. Comment of S1 = topic of S2). A
sequential topic is different from the immediately preceding topic.
Witte (1983b), associated a greater proportion of sequential topics
in lower rated essays with less coherent writing. The introduction of
too many new sentence topics may obscure the discourse topic of
the essay, or result in fragmented and not adequately developed
writing (Connor, Schneider 1990).
Extended parallel progression the topic is repeated after several
sequential progressions.
In relation to the criteria for coding the topics in the essays, BardoviHarligs notions of topic and focus was used. The topic was identified, which
may or may not be the same as the grammatical subject of the sentence.
Namely,
Topic: What the author is writing about. It is context dependent, it may
be given information and is probably definite (Bardovi-Harlig 1990).

Focus: Rest of the sentence that provides new information, part of the
sentence which most advances communication, context-independent
and may be indefinite (Bardovi-Harlig 1990).
Following are sample passages showing types of progressions and
coherence diagrams:
Parallel progression
(1) Chocolates are a national craving. (2) Records show that they are sold in
huge quantities. (3) Designer chocolates often sell for nearly $30/lb. (4) It is
obvious that these candies are Americas number one choice.
1. Chocolates
2. they
3. Designer chocolates
4. these candies
Sequential progression
(1) Computer interviews are used by market researchers to assess product
demand. (2) Using these, many different products are analyzed. (3) For example,
people may be asked about detergents.
1.Computer interviews
2. products
3. detergents
Extended parallel progression
Body language varies from culture to culture. (2) To say yes, Americans nod
their heads up and down. (3) Japanese and Italians use the same nod to say no.
(4) Body language is an important skill for international managers.
Finally, the third analysis focused on investigating the important role that
discourse markers have in pointing towards coherence of the text. The aim of
the last analysis was to determine the frequency of usage of certain discourse
markers, as well as to attempt to define and classify these DMs based on their
functions in the corpus of written compositions.
5.
Results
The results of the first analysis of choice of organizational patterns,

revealed that there were more similarities than differences in the
argumentative compositions written in L1 and L2. The highest scoring essays

used the inductive organizational pattern (33% of the essays written in English,
and 16% in the essays written in Macedonian), which could mean that leaving
the main idea at the end of the essay, in the conclusion is valued in Macedonian
writing and is allotted a greater number of points. Of course , the results clearly
demonstrated that the choice of organizational pattern is not the only factor
that contributes to the overall quality of the written product. Coherence on the
level of whole discourse plays an important role, connectivity between
paragraphs, relevance of ideas and the appropriate use of discourse markers.
The majority of students (50% of the essays written in Macedonian, and 46,67%
of the English essays) used the deductive organization. More precisely, they
treated the essay topic as if it were a question that had to be answered. They
stated their opinion and main idea at the beginning of the essay. The discourse
features of the compositions consisted of general, neutral declarations that simply
gave a response to the for or against question. There was no attempt at
taking up a stance, defending ones position and persuading the reader. The
compositions written in L1 had greater variety regarding the use of organizational
patterns, most certainly due to the spontaneity of writing in L1. Also, the level of
literacy in L1 had exerted influence. The students had not yet developed a
sufficient level of competence in L1 regarding the discourse organization of their
compositions in order to surpass their level of organizational competence in L2.
Regarding the results of the second analysis, the use of progression types
revealed that sequential progressions abound in the first year L2 compositions,
resulting in low-quality essays without much topical depth. Mann-Whitney
(Wilcoxon) test confirmed differences between the first year L2 compositions,
where only 21,43% used over 5 parallel progression, whereas 53% of the third
year group used 5 or more parallel progressions resulting in better quality essays
without frequent diversions from the main topic. The better quality essays by the
third year group were to be expected, since the students had already had five
semesters of systematic writing instruction (see Appendix).
The results of the third analysis which focused on calculating the frequency
of discourse markers as signals of coherence relations, clearly demonstrated that
discourse markers were not used as often as they should have been. Thus, the
analyzed corpus of compositions revealed insufficiently signalized relations both
between sentences, and on the level of the whole discourse which resulted in a
high level of implicitness. This in turn, rendered the written composition less
comprehensible to the reader. In addition, the low frequency of causal discourse
markers denoted that the quality of argumentation was not up to level. 1
- , . (2010) . , .
36, (115-131). . .

Even though text-based analyses have their limitations, the present study
attempted to describe student writing by going beyond the sentence to the
discourse level.
6.
Implications of the Study for the Teaching and Assessment of

Writing
Due to the differences in the rhetorical models for organizing information

in English and Macedonian, some implications can be drawn as to what should
be given emphasis in teaching writing and in the assessment of writing
competence.
Writing instruction should include sessions of teaching explicitly the basic
characteristics and aspects of coherence in the English language as well as in
Macedonian. This means teaching coherence creating devices based on the
features of what constitutes coherence described above. Instructors could use
specific comments when giving feedback to the students, such as: under use of
meta-discourse features, inappropriate use of discourse markers. Students can
self-edit and review their peers performance. Coherence need not be an
abstract theory that is remote from practice. It can be a concrete concept that
can be described, taught and learnt in the classroom (Lee I. 2002).
Having in mind that the study carried out analyses on argumentative
essays, the results clearly demonstrate the need for devising an appropriate
method of assessment of essays at a more advanced level of linguistic and
writing competence. This new analytical model of assessment would take into
account and identify the elements of persuasion, and argumentation. In other
words, in addition to the linguistic, the rhetorical component in written
discourse should be included in the assessment of the essay.
Due to the fact that there are differences in the understanding of the
concept of coherence, as well as differences in the rhetorical models in
Macedonian and English written discourse, there are also differences in the
criteria for assessing essays between native English speakers and Macedonian
teachers. More precisely, according to Anglo-American textual and rhetorical
norms, the most important criteria for assessment of argumentative essays is
sociolinguistic competence, in other words, explicit coherence and clear
expression, conciseness and fulfilling reader expectations. This is followed by
assessing the appropriateness of the overall organizational structure of the
essay, including the correct choice of rhetorical norm (macrostructure) which
should be in line with the purpose of the essay. These features are followed by
evaluating the content, the intended message of the essay, the persuasive force
it possesses together with the quality of argumentation (Dimitrova-Gjuzeleva, S.
2001). After these criteria have been fulfilled, the final stage of the assessment
involves looking at the grammatical accuracy of the essay. Conversely, in the

Macedonian assessment model, performed by Macedonian native speakers, the
emphasis is on grammatical precision and vocabulary, followed by examining
the organization and content, and finally discourse level competence is assessed
(the logical flow of ideas, coherence at a deeper level of text).
7.
Conclusion
As a result of the three analyses, we can conclude that coherence

determines the semantic relations which enable the understanding of a certain
text so that it could be adequately used. This entails that certain conditions have
to be fulfilled in order for coherence to be realized. These are: the purpose the
author wants to achieve, the expectations of the audience, conveying the
intended message. The performed analyses in the study could be termed
explorative, nevertheless they have shown that there are certain aspects of
student writing which can be measured, or assessed, however some cannot.
Focusing on improving the syntactical component will not result in better quality
essays, neither will the narrow sentence level cohesive devices improve the
quality of the written text. Bearing this in mind, teaching writing should include
explicit teaching of coherence creating elements and raise students awareness of
the need to focus on whole texts, on the level of discourse beyond the sentence
level. Students have to be sensitized to the important role that the reader plays in
creating coherence. The first module in the writing syllabus should consist of
teaching the following aspects of coherence: Purpose, audience and context of
situation. Coherence cannot be achieved without a clearly defined purpose.
Teaching coherence creating devices could be carried out in two phases: the first
section would include the macro-elements purpose, audience and context,
choice of macrostructure, followed by the second section consisting of teaching
the micro-level elements internal cohesion, sentence level connectedness and
meta-discourse markers (Lee I. 1998).
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Bardovi-Harlig, K. Pragmatic word order in English composition. In U.Connor &
A.M. Johns (Eds.) Coherence: Research and pedagogical perspectives (pp.
43-65). Washington, DC: TESOL, 1990.
Brown, G. and Yule, G. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
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Cheng, X., & Steffensen, M. S. Metadiscourse: A technique for improving
student writing. Research in the Teaching of English, 30(2). 1996. 149-181.
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Discourse Across Cultures: Strategies in World Englishes. New York,
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Connor, U. A study of cohesion and coherence in English as a second language
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Connor, U. Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-cultural Aspects of Second Language
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Connor, U. and Farmer, F. The teaching of topical structure analysis as a revision
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Connor, U. and Lauer, J. Understanding persuasive essay writing: linguistic
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writing: A study of texts written by American and Finnish university
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Dimitrova-Gjuzeleva, S. Argumentative essay writing in English what should we
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Halliday, M.A.K., & Hassan, R. Cohesion in English. London. Longman. 1976.
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References in Cyrillic Alphabet:
, . .
. . ,
. . 2005.
- , . .
, . 36, (115-131).
. . . 2010.

-, . 1 2. .
, . 37.
. . . 2011.
-, .
. . 1997.
-, .
.. . 2000.
-, . .
, 2003.
, . : . .
. . 2004.

. ,
(1), (2).

1 2.

.
: , , , , .
Appendix :
Sample diagram of a topical structure analysis of an essay written in
Macedonian by a first year student
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
The diagram shows that the T-units T1-T5, T 10-T11 and T 15-T17 represent
sequential progressions. However the subtopics are related to the previous
topics and the overall topic of the essay, thereby coherence is maintained.
Diagram of a topical structure analysis of an essay written by a first year
student:
1. Crime
2.
measures
3. Juvenile crime
4.
Both cases
5.
authorities(getting richer)
6.
They
7.
criminals
8.
this
9.
10.
11.
the government
poverty
poor people

12.
taste of crime
13.
criminals (poor people)
14.
this
15.
money
16.
our society
17.
education
18.
politics
19.
irrelevant issues
20.
severe and harsh measures
21.
political authorities
22. crime (vandalizam)

23. crime-free societies
The sample diagram shows that the sequential progressions develop the
relevant topics by adding more information and details. The author of the essay
returns to the topic which was introduced in the beginning of the essay (T-20; T21: T-22; T-23;) contributing to its coherence
Percentages in
relation to the
total number of
progressions
Parallel
progressions
Sequential
progressions
English language first

year
English language
third year
acedonian
language first year
25,52%
36,34%
31,46%
38,91%
36,13%
35,29%
35,56%
27,53%
33,25%
Extended parallel
progressions
Total number of
t-units
100,00%
100,00%
100,00%
(total number of
progressions)
Table 1: The percentages of the type of progression in relation to the total number of
progressions
Parallel
progressions
English
language
first year
1
2
3
4
5
Total of 5
6
8
11
12
Total above
5
Frequency
of parallel
progressio
ns
Percentage
in relation
to the total
number of
parallel
progressio
ns
2
1
4
9
3
5
24
3
1
1
1
3,57%
14,29%
32,14%
10,71%
17,86%
78,57%
10,71%
3,57%
3,57%
3,57%
21,43%
Parallel
progression
s English
language
third year
Frequency
of parallel
progressio
ns
1
2
3
4
5
Total of 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Total above
5
2
2
1
5
4
14
5
5
2
2
1
1
Percentag
e in
relation to
the total
number of
parallel
progressio
ns
6,67%
6,67%
3,33%
16,67%
13,33%
46,67%
16,67%
16,67%
6,67%
6,67%
3,33%
3,33%
16
53,33%
Table 2.

UDK: 811.111'367.4
NOMINAL COMPOUNDS AND NOMINAL PHRASES A LOOK

FROM ENGLISH INTO SCMB2
Vesna Bulatovi
University of Montenegro
Abstract: This paper discusses nominal compounds and nominal phrases in English on
the one hand and in SCBM on the other on the basis of recent linguistic literature and
research. Comparison is relevant since these nominal structures originate from analytic
languages, of which English is a representative. It is a significant contributor, particularly
in more recent history of the two languages. On this basis, implications are drawn with
respect to word formation rules that apply to relatively new loan nominal phrases in
SCBM.
Key Words: compounds, noun phrases, lexicalisation, calque
1. Introduction
Ever since Bloomfield (1933:228) established the division between
nominal compounds and nominal phrases3 along the lines of stress illustrating it
with the fore-stressed compound ice cream and the end-stressed nominal
phrase ice cream, there has been constant debate on the origin, structure, and
semantics of these structures in English. The paper will mention briefly some of
the reasons for the confusion surrounding these issues and continue to
introduce some more recent views.
The paper will then briefly present how nominal structures are classified
in the linguistic literature on SCBM. The key source is Klajns in-debth analysis of
SCBM is used in this paper to collectively refer to languages now spoken on the territories of the
states that now exist as independent states and were part of former Yugoslavia, when they were
covered by the term Serbo-Croatian. Today, these languages are recognized by the constitutions
of respective states as Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin. The author uses mainly
literature by authors from Serbia and Croatia and makes comments based on her own linguistic
competence. The author has no knowledge of any recent research that focuses on potential
differences among these languages at this level of linguistic analysis. There is some research,
however, on the orthographic rules, see Drai, J., Vojnovi, J. (2008). Future research is invited
into the current state of play of the subject in the respective languages listed above.
3
In this paper, the focus is strictly on nominal compounds and nominal phrases whose both
elements are nouns.

word formation processes (2002), the bigger part of which is devoted to
compounds and semi-compounds.
On this basis, suggestions are made on how some new loan nominal
phrases can be formed in SCBM.
2. Nominal Compounds and Nominal Phrases in English

The prevailing position in English linguistics has been that nominal
compounds (hair net) originate in the lexicon and nominal phrases (steel
bridge)4 in the syntax. Their surface structure is identical, with one noticable
difference - while nominal compounds may be written as duckfoot, giraffe-cow,
and pumpkin bus5, nominal phrases are always written as two separate words,
steel bridge. The syntactic relations between their constituents vary, but
identical patterns may appear in both categories, e.g. sunrise6 and tooth decay7.
The former is analysed by Querk and Greenbaum (1973:444-447) as follows:
subject+verb (sunrise ~ the sun rises), and the same description can apply to the
nominal phrase tooth decay (tooth decay ~ a tooth decays). The meaning of a
compound (windmill)8 is not the sum of meanings of its constitutent elements
(wind+mill), and is therefore less transparent and less productive, while the
meaning of the latter (steel bridge) is considered to reflect the individual
meanings of its constituents (steel+bridge), i.e. a bridge made of steel. It must
also be noted that the same semantic structure is classified by one author9
under compounds (stone furniture) and by another10 under nominal phrases
(steel bridge). In addition, not only nominal phrases are endocentric, e.g.
swimming pool is a pool, and a windmill is a mill. To complicate things further,
Giengrich uses bread crumb to illustrate examples of fore-stressed nominal
phrases (Gingrich 2004: 9).
This confusion is often elegantly avoided. Finin uses the term nominal
compound as an umbrella term to replace complex nominals, nominal
phrases, and noun-noun modification and defines it as the concatenation of
any two or more nominal concepts which functions as a third nominal concept
(Finin 1980:2). She even includes in her analysis the nominal phrases with more
than two elements, e.g. aircraft flight arrival, aluminum water pump, and even
hair net and steel bridge are examples from Giegerich (2004: pages 8 and 2 respectively).
duckfoot, giraffe-cow, and pumpkin bus are examples from Downing (in Finin, 1980:35).
6
sunrise is taken from Querk and Greenbaum (1973:444-447).
7
tooth decay is an example of nominal phrase used by Giegerich (2006:2).
8
windmill is taken from Querk and Greenbaum (1973:444-447).
9
Downing (in Finin, 1980:35) classifies stone furniture as a nominal compound.
10
Giengrich (2004:2) classifies steel bridge as a noun phrase.
5

U.S. naval navigation equipment acquisition cost estimates.11 Modern grammars
of English do not devote much space to the distinction. Querk and Greenbaum
have two separate sections, one on compounds (1973: 444-447), the other on
comlex noun phrases (395-403). Swan (2005: 385) gives both structures the
same name (noun+noun) and distinguishes between those with two nouns
(horce race, sheepdog, army officers) and those with more than two nouns
(oil production costs, road accident research centre), with a note that this
second structure is very common in newspaper headlines because it saves
space (2005: 357).
This brings us to three important considerations. First, nominal
compounds are generally seen as less transparent, and are less productive than
nominal phrases. Maybe the distinction is artificial. Maybe we tend to describe
the former in this way just because they have been lexicalised for much longer.
Maybe this is another proof of mans tendency to neatly delineate categories of
knowledge at all cost. The best solution to this may be Levis (1979) interesting
scale of productivity, where it is shown that the productivity of nominal
compounds is in converse proportion to their idiomacity, with mountain village
on the one end, and honeymoon on the other. Levis use of mountain village to
illustrate a productive compound shows that the author focuses on the
semantics of these structures and not on their formal signs of distinction. The
author of this paper believes that most linguists would agree that in the
traditional sense mountain village is a proper nominal phrase and not a nominal
compound and is a perfect example of modification, the focus of much of the
discussion on nominal phrases.
This brings us to our second consideration, i.e. admitting nominal
phrases to the class of nominal compounds would mean opening the door to a
huge class with almost no borders. This may lead to the addition of multi-word
expressions or structures with more than two nouns. The discussion on such
longer nominal phrases focuses on modification (see Querk and Greenbaum,
Swan), in particular on modification patterns in the string (e.g. (A(BC)), ((AB)C)),
or (ABC) (cf. Finin 1980: 23), but they are essentially very similar to any of the
more transparent or less idiomatic member of the class of compounds.
Third, most nominal compounds are from general English, while a broad
category of nominal phrases would also include technical vocabulary. However,
the question remains of where one draws the line between general and
technical English today, and whether it can be drawn at all.
More recently, some significant work has appeared that challenges the
clear cut distinctions. Bauer (1998:65) explains that
11
It must be noted here that Finin deals with the semantic interpretation of nominal compounds
for the purpose of programming computers to understand nominal compounds.

[S]ometimes it is assumed that there are two distinct classes, which can
be neatly distinguished. [...] it is argued that the criteria which are
usually assumed to distinguish between these two construction types
do not draw a clear and consistent distinction between a syntactic and a
morphological construction.
Giengrich (2004, 2006) tests the long established criteria for noun plus
noun constructions, lists many examples that prove that the distinction is not
absolute and eventually takes the view that the existence of borderline cases
does not provide a reason for abandoning a distinction that can be recognised in
a great range of clear cases. (2004:5).
A conclusion may be drawn that although some compounds are
transparent, are not fore-stressed, and may behave syntactically like nominal
phrases (for discussion and examples, see Giengrich (2004, 2006)), the majority
of examples still fit nicely into one of the two categories. However, the question
is whether this disctinction is relevant at all. They may best be seen as a
continuum, very similar to the one suggested directly by Levi and more
indirectly by modern English grammarians mentioned above.
3. Nominal Compounds and Nominal Phrases in SC

There is extensive literature12 on compounding as a word formation
process in SC. Because these are synthetic and not analytic languages, most
nominal compounds are composed of two elements. The elements may both be
bound morphemes ( e.g. glavobolja headache) or one may be bound and the
other a free morpheme (e.g. ribolov fishing or hidrocentrala hydro power
plant). They create a new meaning, their first element is not declinible, and
they have a single accent.
A distinction is made in literature between compounds as the ones above
and semi-compounds. Semi-compounds (Klajn 2002) or nominal collocations
(Hlebec 1996) are nominal expressions composed of two words of which the first
one (on the left) is not declinible and serves to modify the other. They differ from
compounds in that they do not form a new meaning and that their both elements
maintain their basic meaning. A lot of discussion on semi-compounds is related to
a recent impact of foreign languages on their creation but there is substantial
evidence that shows that they are not newcomers13 (e.g. duvan kesa tobacco
bag, spomen-dan memory day, sahat-kula clock tower, blickrig blitz krieg,
automehaniar auto-mechanic, radio emisija radio programme, etc). Klajn
12
13
Beli (1933, 1950), Stevanovi (1954), Nikoli (1995), Klajn (2002) among others.
See, for example, Kapetanovi (2007).

(2002: 46) presents a long list of semi-compounds that have come from English
(e.g. boks-me box match, ofsajd-pozicija offside position, top-lista top list,
dez pjeva jazz singer, with some originating from French or Italian, but
imported through German (e.g. ele-bombone jelly toffee, iro-raun giro
account) as well as from Latin or Greek. Technical vocabulary is mentioned as a
source for many nominal expressions (e.g. rezus-faktor rhesus factor, metilalkohol methyl alcohol, etc).
Nominal compounds and nominal phrases from foreign languages have
served as models for the creation of similar structures in these languages in which
both elements are domestic. Some are classified as nominal compounds
(uvarkua houseleek, trnboba gooseberry, babadjevojka spinster,
babaroga bogey(wo)man) and some as semi-compounds: div-junak gianthero, uzor-majka model-mother, biser-zubi pearl-teeth, izvor-voda springwater. Klajn (2002:48) mentions that these semi-compounds are seen as
stylistically marked and somewhat archaic today. The following are mentioned as
regularly used today and not stylisticaly marked: rak-rana sore place, poklonpaket gift package, leptir-mana bow tie, lutka-film puppet movie, muvakategorija fly (weight) category, griz-knedle semolina dumplings, kristal-eer
granulated sugar, kakao-mlijeko cocoa milk). It is questionable, however,
whether rak-rana sore place belongs to the class of semi-compounds. It fails the
transparency criterion and should rather be classified under compounds.
As seen in the examples above, most semi-compounds are written with
a hyphen, just like the name of the category itself. Klajn explains (2002:29) that
the hypen in semi-compounds serves to show that both elements maintain their
meaning and their accent but also warns (ibid) that elements with a hyphen
need not necessarily be semi-compounds. He also claims that semi-compounds
may not appear in writing as two consecutive words without a hyphen, which
has probably already changed in contemporary usage (e.g. top lista top list,
me lopta match ball and many others are probably as frequent as top-lista or
me-lopta. The reason for this could be that the longer the semi-compound has
been part of our active vocabulary the more flexible we are with the writing
rules. With more recent imports, it seems to be safer to use a hyphen, which
then serves as a unifying element, or a marker to show these structures are
formed according to foreign word formation rules. Among such more recent
imports are blog-klijent blog client, veb-dizajner web designer, spem-filter
spam filter and many others, mainly related to information technology.
Like in English, the distinction into compounds and semi-compounds is
not always clear in SCBM languages either. One indication of this is the fact that
Klajn, for example, often speaks of (semi)compounds instead of semi-compounds.
Further, Klajn classifies paradajz-orba tomato soup as a compound (Klajn 2002:
25) and paradajz-sos tomato sauce as a semi-compound (2002: 48), which is

unusual not because of the same ingredient but because of their identical
semantic structure.
The argument that a compound creates a new meaning and that in a
semi-compound constituent elements maintain individual meanings is not
strong either. For example, ribo- fish- in the compound ribolov fishing
modifies the noun lov catching in much the same way as the noun boks box
modifies the noun me match, which is a semi-compound. Their internal
syntactic relations are different, but it is true to say that ribolov is a kind of lov,
and that boks-me is a kind of me. Their endocentricity leads to a transparency
of their meanings. Another difference is the fact that the first element in ribolov
is a bound morpheme, and that the entire compound is well established and has
long since been lexicalised.
It is worth noting that in the past there was much resistance to
compounds and semi-compounds as unnatural and even barbaric14 structures.
Beli (1936: 163-164) protested against such imports and suggested that
drvored tree line was formed wrongly and that its meaning was not line of
trees but a place with trees in a line, which from this point in time only
reminds us of the fact that languages change and that it takes a while before
new lexical items become established and accepted by the majority of their
speakers. Even today, some of the contemporary authors (Turk 2001:269)
express fears that these imported word formation processes pose as a threat to
domestic word formation rules.
3. Analysis and Suggestions

Based on the above, the following two conclusions may be drawn:
(1) in both English and SCBM, the distinction between nominal
compounds and nominal phrases is not absolutely clear. The confusion seems to
be caused more by the category of compounds, of which some members are
closer to the other category (stone furniture). Some have simply been items in
the lexicon for too long to apply for the change of the category now (waiting
room). From the point of view of SCBM, this distinction does not bear much
relevance. Both structures can be viewed as N+N, which is of foreign origin. The
corresponding structures in SCBM are of different composition. For stone
furniture, SCBM have Adj+N: kameni namjetaj, for waiting room, they have a
lexeme with just one word, in this case a noun: ekaonica, and for top list, they
have a N+N structure, a semi-compound in which the first nominal is an
anglicism: top-lista, written with a hyphen.
14
See Kapetanovi (2007:238). The dicitionary Renik Matice Srpske also refers to them as
barbarizmi barbaric words.

(2) although of foreign origin, nominal compounds and nominal phrases
have formed part of the SCBM lexicon for a very long time. Most of their
speakers are probably not aware of their presence in spite of their regular use.
That is why whenever there is an attempt to introduce a new nominal phrase in
which both elements are nouns, the arguments used are that N+N structures
are of foreign origin, do not sound natural, and should be avoided.
What is forgotten is that with the exception of idiomatic nominal
compounds, all nominal compounds and nominal phrases were probably
created in their source languages for reasons of language economy. For
example, thanks to N+N modification pattern, the following long structures are
grammatically and semantically correct, but are most often avoided:
mill which uses the energy of the wind (=windmill)
trajniji osjeaj bola u glavi (persistent pain in the head) (=glavobolja
headache)
mana u obliku leptira (=leptir-mana butterfly tie Eng. bow tie )
knedle od griza (=griz knedle semolina dumplings)
There seems to be a general understanding that these importation processes
are now over and that languages should be protected and preserved. It is worth
mentioning again here Belics resistance to the word drvored (tree line). No one
questions the word now, which reminds us of the fact that languages
necessarily change and that there is no such thing as a pure language. So, why
prevent new nominal phrases from being established when they enrich a
language and help its speakers avoid unnecessarily long phrases.
For example, why not accept a semi-compound program-menader
programme manager or internet lingvistika Internet lignustics15? Although
they are similar in structure to the already established leptir-mana or paradajzorba, they are avoided and replaced by the structures programski menader
and internetska lingvistika respectively, for example, in which initial nominals
are replaced by their adjectival forms. It seems that semi-compounds whose
initial nominals do not have adjectival forms are accepted better by SCBM
speakers. Although adjectives in SCBM languages are used in both their
ascriptive and associative (cf Giegrich 2006) senses, the ascriptive sense is
stronger. For example, in programski menader (ADJ+N), SCBM speakers may
feel that the adjective programski (adjectival form of the noun programme) may
be interpreted as depicting the qualities of the manager in question, rather than
the object of his/her activity. That is why ADJ+N structures are often replaced by
the structures in which the initial nominal is shifted back to the position after
15
For analysis of some of the latest calques and their translation see Bulatovic (2012)

the head nominal, in the genitive case, e.g. menader programa manager of
the programme.
Another reason why foreign structures such as program menader for
programme manager are rejected is that it is difficult if not impossible to
establish clear criteria on which N+N should be allowed and which rejected.
Some potential semi-compounds sound better and less intrusive than others.
For example, there would probably be absolute resistance, for a good reason, to
zemlja-direktor (=country director). In the absence of clear rules, it is obviously
easier to reject them all. The solutions mentioned above are acceptable and
safe. However, there is a need to do more research on new N+N structures. If
defining clear rules is too ambitious, research could at least suggest guidelines
on when it is acceptable to keep some N+N structures in SCBM. Speakers of
these languages would feel safer and eventually use these structures more.
5. Conclusion
The paper is an attempt to show that the distinction between nominal
compounds and nominal phrases is not always neat in either of the languages
discussed. More importantly for the present paper, the distinction is not
particularly relevant for SCBM given that neither of the two structures originate
in these languages and that with the exception of idiomatic nominal compounds
they undergo similar translation procedures when imported. It is pointed
further that imported nominal compounds and semi-compounds have long
since been established in SCBM and that domestic structures have been formed
on the model of imported ones. It is the presence and regular use of domestic
semi-compounds in particular that serves as an argument that this word
formation process may and should continue and that there is no reason to
reject all attempts to create new binominal semi-compounds beforehand. They
should be carefully analysed in the hope to establish a set of rules on when they
may be retained in their original form, and when they should be subject to
adaptation. This calls for more research into the issue.
References:
Alanovi, M. Antepozicija determinatora imenikog tipa. Prilozi
prouavanju jezika. 36: 147-155. 2005.
Beli, A. O stvaranju novih rei. Na jezik I, 1933.72-76.
Beli, A. O graenju novih rei. Na jezik IV, 1936. 129-131, 161-165, 193-197,
225-232, 256-264.
Beli, A. O sloenicama. Na jezik I, 1950. 169-177.

Bauer, L. English Word-formation. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics.
Cambridge: CUP. 1983.
Bauer, L. When is a sequence of two nouns a compound in English? English
Language and Linguistics 2: 1998. 65-86.
Bloomfield, L. Language. Chicago: Holt. 1933.
Bulatovic, V. Engleska imenska atribucija u prevodu na crnogorski. Lingua
Montenegrina, asopis za jezikoslovna, knjievna I kulturna pitanja, V-2,
Br. 10, 2012. 7-22.
Drai, J., Vojnovi, J. Problemi u pisanju sloenica i polusloenica u srpskom i
hrvatskom pravopisu. u Toovi Branko (ur.) Die Untershiede swicshen
dem Borsnischen/Bosniakischen, Kroatischen und Serbischen / Razlike
izmeu bosanskog/bonjakog, hrvatskog i srpskog jezika, Graz, 2008.
513-525.
Finin, T.W. The Semantic Interpretation of Compound Nominals, PhD thesis,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 1980.
Giegerich, H.J. Compound or phrase? English noun-plus-noun constructions
and the stress criterion, English Language and Linguistics, 8, 2004. 1-24
Giegerich, H.J. Attribution in English and the Distinction Between Phrases and
Compounds. In Englisch in Zeit und Raum - English in Time and Space:
Forschungsbericht fr Klaus Faiss, Petr Rosel (ed.). Trier:
Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier. 2006.
Hlebec, B. Principi formiranja binominalnih sloenica i sintagmi u srpskom
jeziku. O leksikim pozajmljenicama Zbornik radova sa naunog skupa
Strane rei i izrazi u sprkom jeziku sa osvrtom na isti problem u jezicima
nacionalnih manjina, Subotica Beograd, 1996. 139-145.
Kapetanovi, A. Jesu li endocentrine imenike sloenice tvorbena inovacija u
hrvatskom jeziku 19. stoljea? u Rasprave Instituta za hrvatski jezik i
jezikoslovlje, 33: 2007. 235-243.
Klajn, I. Tvorba rei u savremenom srpskom jeziku. Beograd: Zavod za udenike i
nastavna sredstva: Institut za
srpski jezik SANU; Novi Sad: Matica
srpska. 2002.
Knig, Lj.S. Problemi u prevoenju sloenih imeninih struktura u engleskom
jeziku struke. Prevoenje: Suvremena strujanja i tendencije. Ur.
Mihaljevi Dijuginovi Jelena, Neda Pintari Zagreb: Hrvatsko drutvo za
primijenjenu lingvistiku,1995. 149-156.
Levi, J.N. The Syntax and Semantics of Complex Nominals. New York: Academic.
1979.
Nikoli, M. Jedan ekspanzivan tip novih imenikih sloenica (Beobanka i sl).
Na jezik XXX, 1995. 82-87.
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum A University Grammar of English. Addison Wesley,
Longman. 1973.

Sharoff, S., Babych, B., Hartley, A. Using collocations from comparable corpora
to find translation equivalents. In Proc. of LREC2006, Genoa, May, 2006.
465-470.
Stevanovi, M. (1954) O sloenicama tipa narodnorepublikanac i povodom
njih. Na jezik VI: 153-159.
Swan, M. (2005) Practical English Usage. Oxford: OUP.
Turk, M. (1993) Tvorbene znaajke kalkova. FLUMINENSIA, god. 14, br. 1: 47-66.
Turk, M. (2001) Tvorbene znaajke kalkiranih imenica. Rasprave Instituta za
hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje, 27, Zagreb: 267-280.
Sources:
Advanced Learners Dictionary of English. Oxford: OUP (ALDE)
Renik srpskohrvatskoga knjievnog jezika (drugo fototipsko izdanje 1990). Novi
Sad: Matica Srpska, 1976 (Renik Matice Srpske)
NOMINALNE SLOENICE I POLU-SLOENICE POGLED IZ ENGLESKOG U SHBC16
Rad razmatra nominalne sloenice i polu-sloenice u engleskom s jedne
strane i SHBC s druge strane na osnovu novije lingvistike literature i
istraivanja. Poreenje je relevantno zato to pomenute nominalne strukture
potiu iz analitikih jezika, iji je engleski jezik predstavnik. Engleski je znaajan
izvor, naroito u skorijoj istoriji dva jezika. Na osnovu ovoga se izvode implikacije
za pravila graenja rijei koja se odnose na relativno nove polu-sloenice u
SHBC.
Kljune rijei: sloenice, polu-sloenice, leksikalizacija, kalk.
16
Srpskom, hrvatskom, bosanskom i crnogorskom

UDK: 811.111'242
WHAT STANDARD WRITTEN NORMS OF ENGLISH DO IN THE

CURRENT U.S. COMPOSITION CLASSROOM?
Duka Vladimira
Singidunum University, Belgrade
Abstract: This paper presents the ways in which our conception of Standard Written
English can be challenged due to the increasing influx of non-native English speakers,
and the effects of globalization on Composition studies. My main line of inquiry will be
how the field of Rhetoric and Composition has responded, or eventually can respond to
the following research problem: How should participants in college Composition classes
handle the tension between the narrow and stable conception of Standard Written
English, and the increasing global diversification of the English language? Cameron
argues that the global spread of English has had a two-fold impact: It promoted English
language teaching globally, and influenced what is perceived as the ideal way of
communicating in ones native language (67). Consequently, my research problem arises
as a response to the increasing trend of the presence of the writers who speak English as a
second language (ESL) in the Composition classroom.
Key words: Globalization, Standard Written English, Composition classroom, native,
non-native English speakers
Our conception of Standard Written English can be challenged mainly

due to two major factors: the increasing diversity of both students and teachers
recruited at American colleges, and the fact that English has been expanding
into various Englishes that various students and teachers bring into the writing
classroom. Pennycook argues that recent trends in Composition scholarship on
how to handle linguistic differences may be understood at least in part as
effects of globalization (196). The increasing influx of the students is a logical
result of the globalization. Moreover, globalization has been a crucial factor for
the diversification of English into various Englishes. The very fact that non-native
English speakers like myself are assigned to teach First Year Composition is the
result of globalization.
Yet, globalization both complicates and facilitates our understanding of
Standard Written English. For example, Schneider argues that English is
regarded in two-fold terms: On the one hand, it is the worlds leading language,
while on the other hand it has been damned as a killer language (233).
Globalization connects and disconnects the differences at the same time. Still,
Schneider explains that two seemingly contradictory perspectives we see still

have one attitudinal feature in common: They both look at English in an
idealized, homogeneous, standardized form (233). The conflux of influences
happens because globalization can be regarded as a force for the recombination
and redistribution of populations, while English can be seen a link between
differences. For example, English is the link between native English students and
non-native English students or teachers in the classroom. The question, of
course, is what the outcome of redistribution will be, and this may well be
determined by the versions of English that retain power.
English diversifies globally and challenges the standard norms of
Written English. Jenkins argues that English pluralization into various Englishes
has problematized treatment of any one set of conventions as posing a universal
definition of English (142). Because of the fact that globalization poses new
challenges to us, the paper pinpoints the need for colleges to reconsider the
implications of their institutional practices for students who come from various
ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. This need is necessary due to
demographic and cultural shifts currently happening. Consequently, it is upon
the institutions to increase diversity-related awareness. Teachers will foster
better Composition education for students through the development of a
definition of the norms of Standard Written English which accounts for the
increasing globalization of the language. In order to address this research
problem, I relate to my own unique position as a non-native English speaker,
and the international graduate student who teaches first year Composition in a
U.S. English department.
A Brief Background to the Research Question

Historically looking, however, tendencies to standardize the norms of
Standard Written English are not new. Similarly, Lu explains that the efforts to
standardize English have been around since the beginning of American
nationhood (605). If we trace back those tendencies, we see that John Adams
proposed that an institution be formed and charged with two responsibilities: To
prescribe a language standard and to consider political and economic forces
critical to the international spread of English (Heath 220). In such a scenario,
English had to have a prescribed norm. However, Horner defines what a norm is
today, and concurrently tells us that we need to view the norm as being made of
multiplicities: The norm assumed the context of writing, and writing itself is
imaged to be monolingual, a monolingual native-English speaking writer who is
writing only in English to an audience of English-only readers (569). However, we
need to challenge the monolingual tendencies created by the global spread of
English.

Since the writing classroom is pluralistic, we need to adopt new ways to
teach writing that correspond to the new environment. By the same token,
Horner says that in such a complex multi-lingual landscape, attempting to teach
students to reproduce a single standardized version of English in their writing is
both futile and inappropriate (571). The current U.S. Composition classroom is
multilingual and polyvalent as opposed to monolingual. It illustrates that we
need to recognize that the proper definition of the norm of Standard Written
English involves polyvalent environment. We need to accept the new
environment if we seek for a relevant and current definition of the norms. A
new definition of the norm applies to the new classroom we see today.
Because of globalization, it is significant that Composition teachers
recognize the presence of various Englishes in the classroom. Kachru and Smith
say in their elaborate study on world Englishes that different varieties of English
are closely related to the whole idea of native speaker (5). Namely, they stress
that the whole idea of native speaker has to undergo drastic revisionwe
need to think not in terms of the binaries between the native and non-native
speakers of English, but of native users of different world Englishes (5). As we
see, the presence of the students who speak different varieties of English calls
for a revision of how we can view the traditional binaries between the native
and the non-native in the Composition classrooms today. Englishes change
the ways in which we view the norms of the language in a post-colonial setting
because varieties significantly complicate the definition of the norms.
Thus, the misunderstanding on where to place ESL students is a product
of the academic schism between Composition and the field of English as a
Second Language dating from the past. I question what kinds of shifts have been
made as a response to the globalization of English. Moreover, I am looking at
the new models for the division of labor of teaching writing. This incorporated
knowledge will serve me as the base to draw further implications to challenge
the definition of the fixed norms of Standard Written English.
The Origin of the Academic Division between the Two Interrelated Fields
I pinpoint the importance of addressing my research question of the
norms of Standard Written English in U.S. English departments. In the past,
English departments were traditionally regarded as the places occupied mostly
by native speakers of English. English departments were regarded as the places
where predominantly native-English teachers teach native-English students.
However, globalization has been changing the structure of the English
departments and Composition classrooms. Singh and Doherty say that
education is a good example of this with students moving in increasing numbers
to take up educational possibilities elsewhere resulting in changing practices in

the new educational contact zones and new, appropriated knowledges
travelling across borders (9). Students change their places globally taking up
new learning opportunities. Therefore, even geographical spaces problematize
our understanding of the norms of the Standard Written language as well. There
are more and more diverse students at the English departments who both teach
and are taught.
First-year Composition classes are no longer monolingual places
whatsoever. It is due to a demographic shift that has included the everincreasing influx of international students on American campuses. In the late
nineteenth century and throughout the twentieth, colleges and universities
opened their doors to a wider variety of students. According to the Institute of
International Education, as of 2004, over a half million international students
were studying at American colleges and universities, and many still do continue
to recruit internationally. Second language writers include the international visa
students, permanent residents, as well as naturalized citizens of the U.S. and
Canada. For them, English may be their third or fourth language.
One of the radical changes recently adopted has been the integration of
ESL students into mainstream Composition classes. Writing courses in English
departments in the U.S. have traditionally been taught by native speakers of
English, which again implies the strict division between the native and the nonnative. Actually, there was misunderstanding at the English departments on
how to treat students who speak English as a second language. Before the
1960s, writing was neglected in second language studies because of the
dominance of the audio-lingual approach, focused exclusively on the spoken
language. However, during the 1960s, the fall of the audio-lingual approach, and
the sudden influx of international students at the American universities made
writing an important agenda in second language studies.
However, there are growing numbers of bi- and multi-lingual students
raised in the U.S. for whom traditional ESL programs and courses, often
designed for international students, may be ill-suited. Furthermore, Horner
underlines that it is increasingly inappropriate to make simple identifications of
students languages and to categorize and place them in courses of instruction
purely according to their native linguistic factor as the main point (571). This
dichotomy can be further challenged due to the changing demographic
environment in Composition classes. The dichotomy includes not only the
distinction between the labels of the native and non-native, but also our
understanding of what these labels imply for Composition teachers. Again, we
do not want to apply clear-cut dichotomies but to recognize a whole spectrum
of factors that can help us facilitate the teaching process for different students.
And yet, even if we place ESL students into mainstream classes, we still
need to be careful about possible problems. Silva remarks that the unreflective
adoption of mainstream Composition materials may seriously disadvantage ESL

writers by assuming knowledge they do not possess (155). Because of the
complexity of the matter, various different factors need to be taken into
account. We cannot assume that the mere inclusion of the ESL learners into the
mainstream Composition classes resolves the problem on how ESL students
actually learn to write, and which norms they are to comply with. For example,
Silva says that ESL writers rhetorical differences may be manifestations of their
cultural backgrounds rather than cognitive or educational deficiencies (155).
Students errors can be attributed to differences in culture. If the students are
put in the mainstream Composition classroom without adequate methodology,
the effect may be counter-productive. The question of the standard norm
becomes debatable again. If we ask them to comply with the norm, we actually
ask them to silence. Lu stresses ESL students are forced to silence themselves
instead of speaking aloud: Speakers lacking the legitimate competence are de
facto excluded from the social domains in which this competence is required, or
are condemned to silence (438). They are told to imitate the ideal model,
which obviously some cannot.
Socio-political Impact of the Academic Division between the Two Fields

Again, the changes in attitudes need to be placed in a broad sociopolitical context. Even the individual motives to study the language need to
undergo the attitudinal change. Again, Lu reminds us on the importance of
understanding the fact that even the individual motives to study English are
related to broad socio-political factors:
People from all strata of the world are living under exponential pressure
to use English, and use it only with the kind of demeanors accent,
lexicon, grammar, rhythm, pitch that appeal to the few with the
cultural, political, and economic capital to dispense job and
educational opportunities. (607)
Students want to learn proper English hoping to become part of English sociopolitical and cultural environment that actually imposes standard norms. By the
same token, Lu says that we need to resituate the position and status of English
related to linguistic background of our students: We frequently examine the
individual students languages for whether it hinders or helps their mastery of
academic English (608). We look whether other nonEnglish languages
students know could help them to acquire English more easily. The language
emphasis has been shifted in accordance to the broad world picture to
produce the pure and ideal version of the language.

Instead of focusing on what we can do with the language, we
concentrate on asking the students to comply with the norms. Lu and Horner
explain that even students desires are to become more marketable by acquiring
commodified skills in producing Standard Written English (148). The
Composition classroom cannot be a site where a particular, standardized variety
of English continues to be reproduced because there are multi-cultural learners.
We need to embrace a radical shift from the static policy of mono-lingualism to
an explicit policy that embraces multilingual, cross-language and cultural
varieties as the norm for our teaching and research. This change in attitudes is
time-consuming. But the field of Rhetoric and Composition is at the forefront of
that change because we work with a huge majority of the college students.
Although international variations of English tended to be presented as
inferior compared to the native English, language variations still perform an
active role. It is primarily because of the language users who shape the
language. In his discussion of Englishes, Schneider argues that there have been
tendencies to regard and portray native English countries as the centers thus
entitled to establish the norms of correctness. Conversely, New Englishes
were presented as peripheral, deviating from these norms. Schneider says that
present day English as a predominant means of communication is being
appropriated by local speakers, diversifying and developing new dialects called
New Englishes (233). New Englishes are the logical result of communication and
contact between various speakers.
In the teaching process, we want to connect rather than disconnect the
differences via English. The differences are perpetuated by the ways in which
we employ the native and non-native labels that have separated diverse
students for a long time. Moreover, the labels change the ways in which we can
regard the current trends happening. For example, Lu says that we need to use
English as a way to connect or reconnect, rather than separate: To use English
to blur the border protecting the division and hierarchy of competing languages,
Englishes and its discourses, borders that are actually patrolled by labels such as
foreign vs. native (27). In one wayto bridge the differences that look difficult
to bridge. Users of Englishes erase the difference between foreign and native.
The labels like foreign and native have done a great harm to the students who
start learning the language across the globe. The difficulties arise because
students are taught to imitate the imposed standard model. For example, Lu
says that in the teaching process the students are taught to imitate the standard
written norms of English in order to imitate native: The pressure to acquire
and use English is increasingly becoming a lived reality for peoples stratified by
labels such as native-speaking, educated, developed countries, or democracy
and their others (20). Since there has been an imposed norm to write properly,
it is incumbent upon the teachers to change the ways in which they treat the
norms of the Standard Written language.

The line between the native and non-native English becomes blurred, so
too does the line between second-language writing, and Composition
pedagogies. Additionally, Kachru reminds us that most users of English are in
fact non-native speakers of English (242). Lines and labels that separate the
speakers evaporate in the current environment. However, Chiad and Schmida
conclude that categories like ESL, bilingual, and linguistic minority do indeed
serve to delineate some students, but these categories are inadequate when it
comes to capturing the literacy journey of students whose lived realities often
waver between cultural and linguistic borderlands (94). We cannot use the
labels to assess students individual language performance. The labels align
students with complex cultural and linguistic realities they belong to, or they are
supposed to belong to. In that way, labels stigmatize students. Students can be
presented as being superior or subordinate to other students present in the
classroom. Spack has noted that the terms like foreign, international, and Other,
used to identify ESL students, assume specific socio-cultural identities for the
students and their languages and posit English, and English speakers, as the
norm against which the other, the different is measured (766). The categories
that have long separated the students have dominated the ways non-English
students are represented. Also, the categories influenced how the programs
were institutionalized in both ESL and mainstream Composition classes.
The labels that tended to separate the students cannot be divorced
from power relations in the classroom. Since the structure of the classroom has
been changing almost on a daily basis while constantly adapting to the emerging
needs of students, we can say that power relations played out are dynamic.
Cameron further argues that power relations are influenced by politics and
international relations of power, which construct discourses about which
language should be the model to emulate for effective communication (199).
We see that the question of the norms is a political issue. A teachers open and
tolerant attitude can largely influence how to negotiate the underlying power
relations in the classroom. The ways in which we treat differences in writing can
speak as well how we address the underlying power relations. Similarly, Purves
tries to explain the reasons why ESL students have different rhetorical patterns
from their native English counterparts, and how ESL students view what
Standard Written English is. His results show that the fact that the
compositions come from good students suggests that these students have
learned and are applying the norms of their rhetorical community (12). The
students tend to relate to the norms of their native communities.
If we require the students to comply with the standard norms of the
language, Composition may turn into colonization. At a certain point, instruction
in Composition becomes colonization:

By asking these students to use our signals according to our expectations,
we are not taking language to be a system of abstract grammatical
categories; Instead, we are at least implicitly understanding languages
conceived as ideologically saturated, language as world view. (Bakhtin
271)
Power relations are at played out in the classroom among the participants
because we require our students to share and reproduce in their writing
Western world view. Also, power relations call us to shift our pedagogy
emphasis in order to de-territorialize the institutional practices.
We want to use the classroom territory to de-territorialize ourselves
and our students. In this context, the resolution we want to adopt encompasses
a whole range of the social background the students bring into the classroom.
By the same token, Purves says that in demanding that ESL students write
Standard Written English, and use a deductive, linear argument, we are asking
them to situate themselves within a particular sociopolitical context (10).
Moreover, we respond to their writing according to how accurately they are
able to do so. As we see, the U.S. Composition classroom does reflect the
ongoing political implications of the English diffusion globally.
The current classroom does make us reconsider what we want to think
about the standard norms. Bourdieu observes that linguistic competency is a
political judgment about legitimacy (28). However, speakers lacking legitimate
competence are excluded from the social domains in which this competence is
required, or are condemned to silence. It is incumbent upon the teachers to be
aware of the ways in which position the students in the classroom. It means that
we want to evade positioning the social in monolithic terms, but always through
pluralistic and heterogeneous perspectives. We need the classroom in which, as
Pratt observes, cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often in
contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power (34). It is the classroom that
actively engages in the clash of cultures. Significant as cultural perception is, we
cannot align a-historical, fixed and simplistic definitions with it.
The model of the division of labor discussed above that clearly
classified the native and the non-native students has been changing the ways in
which we view ESL students. Matsuda further explains that during the 1990s,
Composition teachers considered themselves as first language composition
teachers by default regardless of the fact that international students were
constantly finding their way into mainstream Composition classrooms (15).
Teachers assumed the reality is homogeneous. Matsuda calls the labels
inaccurate. I would call them vague or even imprecise due to the fact that the
structure of the current American Composition classroom can serve me as the
foundation to test the validity of divisions and labels. The CCCC Statement on
Second Language Writing and Writers from January 2001, revised November

2009, officially confirms the fact that ESL students are part and parcel of the
mainstream Composition classrooms at the English Departments: Secondlanguage writers have become an integral part of higher education, including
writing programs (10). This is the official recognition of the presence of ESL
speakers in Composition classrooms (including instruction, assessment, and
class size, teacher preparation, and support for writing instructors who have
second language writers among their students). CCCC document is the call for
the teachers to apply appropriate methods that correspond to the new reality.
Both the teacher and the student change in terms of the ways in which
they view each others differences. For example, native English students can
view their non-native English peers and teachers in a static and deterministic
light, which can be unacceptable in a changing environment. The new approach
affirms a multiplicity of languages within the framework of cultural pluralism.
The shifting and pluralistic nature of the language and rhetoric is particularly
significant in an age of globalization. Otherwise, globalization can create global
homogenization of language and culture. We need to take all these factors into
account while evaluating students papers. More importantly, while responding
to homogenization trends, Lu pinpoints that we need to refocus the goal of the
English language teaching: Students need to become adept at learning to use a
plurality of target languages, rather than attempting to imitate a target
(512). All the participants, including the native English ones need to start getting
used to the varieties of English. Even more importantly, native English students
learn to expect that their teacher may speak some variety of English.
Future Directions
Many disciplinary shifts have been made, and many are still being made.
The integration of ESL students has arisen as a reaction to pedagogical concerns of
the time. Matsuda explains that second language writing issues are much better
suited in broader programs or departments, such as Composition studies, or
applied linguistics (15). Instead of placing second-language issues in specially
designed programs per se, the field can benefit more if seen as a symbiotic field.
We need to position the issues in various institutional contexts to negotiate the
differences in theoretical, ideological, and methodological perspectives. We
cannot compartmentalize second-language writers and their issues in a separate
field. My understanding of the word symbiotic that pertains to my research
question encompasses different levels of integration: To integrate secondlanguage students and their linguistic issues with second-language teachers
teaching Composition classes within the English departments. And yet, the very
integration of the second-language students into the mainstream Composition
classes itself does not resolve the underlying issues still present in the classroom.

The model of division cannot be divorced from the tendencies to standardize and
homogenize English. The model of division of labor does a disservice to teachers
and students because it disregards a true picture of the Composition classroom
that is multicultural and multi-linguistic. It is the classroom that is the mosaic of
differences.
Composition teachers do not want to cure ESL, but to tackle the issue by
meeting the needs of the diverse group of students. The Statement does not
imply that Composition teachers are not trained enough to tackle the language
issues ESL students may face. The emphasis is on the teachers openness
towards diverse students issues, and the teachers readiness to accept the fact
that learning is a mutual process. Namely, ESL students help teachers by
pointing to the issues they may have. Learning to write in a second language is a
complex process. Matsuda explains that this is not to say that writing in second
language is essentially the same as in the first language (19). After all, even
native speakers and writers come from diverse cultural, educational, and
sociolinguistic backgrounds. I would not call the treatment towards ESL students
special in any way, but rather integrated because we try to build the new using
the old. Some conscientious teachers felt unprepared to teach the ESL students
because of the historic, all-inclusive disconnection of Composition from secondlanguage teaching. A gradual reversal of this disconnect is reflected through the
slow influx of the international students into Composition classrooms.
Moreover, we understand that there is no one-size-fits-all model. Lu
says that what constitutes acceptable language is neither fixed nor determined
but negotiated instead (150). A proficient user of English is someone who, as
Widdowson says, treats English as an adaptable resource for making meaning,
possesses it, makes its own, bends it to ones will, asserts oneself through it
rather than simply submitting to the dictates of its form (384). On the other
hand, if we disregard the current social picture of the classroom that invites
variety and the inevitable clash of the differences, we can implicitly have
assumption of the superiority of the native English rhetoric. This superiority can
lead us to be embedded in cultural essentialism, which leads to language and
cultural colonialism. Colonialism draws binary oppositions between the superior
and the subordinate underlying unequal power relations. Finally, the definition
of Standard Written English is sensitive to the changing environment. Moreover,
it is ready to integrate vibrant participants in the dynamic social process. The
ideal or proficient user is someone who has been living via English.

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KOJI JE UTICAJ STANDARDNIH NORMI PISANOG ENGLESKOG JEZIKA NA
SADANJU AMERIKU UIONICU?
Ovaj rad predstavlja mogue naine putem kojih se naa koncepcija o
pojmu standardnog pisanog engleskog jezika moe izmeniti. Novonastale
izmene se javljaju usled sledeih faktora: Na amerikim univerzitetima, dolazi do
poveanog priliva studenata kojima je engleski jezik drugi strani jezik, kao i zbog
uticaja globalizacije u amerikoj uionici. Moje glavno pitanje e biti kako profesori i studenti mogu da odgovare na novonastale sociolingvistike izazove: Kako
studenti i profesori treba da prevazidju granice izmedju uske i fiksne koncepcije
standardnog pisanog engleskog jezika, i sve veeg globalnog grananja i irenja
engleskog jezika? Kameron (Cameron) tvrdi da globalno irenje engleskog jezika
ima dvojaki efekat: Dolazi do globalnog irenja trenda uenja engleskog jezika, i
istovremeno se time utie na nau svest o idealnom modelu komunikacije engleskog jezika (67). Stoga, i moje glavno istraivako pitanje predstavlja odgovor na
sve vei trend uea govornika kojima je engleski jezik drugi strani jezik u amerikim uionicama.
Kljune rei: globalizacija, standardni engleski jezik, amerika uionica,
izvorni, ne-izvorni govornici engleskog jezika

UDK: 821.163.4(497.16):338.48
THE DISCOURSE OF PROMOTIONAL TOURIST LITERATURE IN

MONTENEGRO
Marina Rmu
University of Montenegro
Abstract: Sociolinguistics and discourse analysis have recently recognized the domain of
tourism as an important context for investigation. This study examines the development
of language and discourse in tourism literature, with special emphasis on the insights
gained into the promotional practice in Montenegro. The current thesis studies language
as a driving force in the field of tourism and points out its pragmatic power which comes
to the fore in promotional literature. The research procedure is based on the contrastive /
comparative analysis of tourist guidebooks and magazines issued by the National
Tourism Organisation, MAPA of Montenegro and Montenegro Airlines. The analysis of
lexical, syntactic and textual features of the material was carried out within the
framework of contemporary discourse analysis theory with the aim of showing to what
extent the language of tourism is specialized. Tourist promotional literature must fulfill
three basic functions - to inform, to promote and to persuade. Consequently, the main
characteristics of the discourse in such material is the use of poetic language, with
prevailing figures of speech and exaggerated language, along with other stylistic devices
and structured grammatical units. It is the purpose of this thesis to establish to what
extent these are also the characteristics of the promotional texts published in Montenegro.
Further, the schematic and thematic organization of the texts used for promotional
purposes in tourism will be discussed within the framework of macro-level analysis.
Key words: promotion, discourse, tourism discourse, genre, the language of tourism,
microstructure, macrostructure
1. Introduction
Montenegro is a small Mediterranean country which was declared an
ecological state in 1991. The rich cultural heritage and preserved natural
wealth form the basis for sustainable tourism as an important contributor to the
Montenegrin economy. Aware of its potentials, Montenegro has focused on the
development of all kinds of tourism and is already considered one of the fastestgrowing destinations in the world.
The political situation has not been favourable for Montenegrin tourism.
The wars in the neighbouring countries during the 1990s imposed sanctions to
the country, which was eventually followed by a period of recovery at the
beginning of the 2000s. The situation affected tourism as a phenomenon which

mirrors the current situation of a country and sent the message accordingly. The
media image of the very country as politically unstable was hard to replace since
the prejudices about the place had been created. The process of tourism
development started with aggressive promotion showing that Montenegro as a
destination has a lot to offer and is still active. The foreign market soon began to
respond.
The end of the union of Serbia and Montenegro on 21st May 2006 was a
turning point for the Montenegrin tourism industry. Not only has it had an
impact on the economic growth and led to infrastructure improvements, but
international investors have since shown considerable interest especially in the
coastal part of Montenegro.
1.1. The Act of Promotion
Popularization of the capacities started through the most powerful factor
in the field of tourism the informative-promotional activity of tourism
information services. The responsibility falls on the tourist organizations NTO
(National Tourist Organization) and The Ministry of Tourism and the Environment.
The quality of the whole Montenegro product depends on the success of the
launched projects and campaigns as part of the promotional policy, which help
the development of the tourism industry in general. The objective of Montenegrin
tourism promotion is to target foreign tourists through different media and to find
its place in the international market.
Tourism cannot be separated from promotion and therefore this
instrument needs to be improved from a linguistic perspective. Good and
efficient promotion depends on many factors, but the most important is the
message it carries and is passed to potential tourists in the form of spoken and
written texts accompanied with audio or visual content. The communication it
realizes in the act of promotion seems to be of interest to many scholars who
support the idea that tourism has a discourse of its own. The purpose of this
study is to highlight all the linguistic features of the promotional discourse to
prove that good and effective promotion depends on the language of tourism
and is relevant to the process of tourists decision making when choosing among
various holiday destinations.
The criteria for choosing the samples of promotional materials are as
follows: type of tourist texts and their availability; text length; and variety of
topics. The study is conducted by means of different methods combined, which
leads to the comparative/contrastive analysis, upon which the overall empirical
investigation is based. The first method used is the abstract theoretical method,
which consists of selecting and examining the tourism literature and the
promotional materials for the study (with emphasis on the language of tourism,

its function and text analysis). The descriptive method is then applicable to data
analysis and is tightly connected with an empirical investigation of lexical,
syntactic and textual features of tourist texts.
The comparative / contrastive analysis focuses on both the micro- and
macro-level, and highlights the heterogeneous nature of tourism products
employed in the promotional materials. and textual features of tourist texts.
Van Dijk (1988a) believes that microstructure and macrostructure play an
important part in text understanding.
The analysis of microstructure in this paper is based on the linguistic
aspect including lexical and syntactic features, whereas the analysis of
macrostructure deals with the thematic and schematic organization of a text.
2.Theoretical Issues
2.1. Defining Discourse and the Study of Tourism Discourse
The field of discourse covers a broad range of subject matter and it is
difficult to provide an adequate definition to convey its exact meaning.
Definitional criteria have been discussed among linguists. Jaworski and
Coupland (1999: 1-3) studied definitions from a wide range of sources and
concluded that discourse can be defined in three ways: (1) anything beyond the
sentence, (2) language use, and (3) a broader range of social practice that
includes non-linguistic and non-specific instances of language. (cited in Schiffrin
et al, 2001: 1) Discourse analysis involves investigating texts (i.e. language in
use) of different domains of interest in order to isolate common features that
mark a certain type of discourse.
The notion of specialized discourse refers to the specialist use of
language in context. The language is typically used by a specialized discourse
community which shares a particular vocabulary, particular grammatical
structures and particular register and style.
If we start from the premise that tourism is grounded in discourse
(Dann, 1996: 2), we will have to acknowledge that tourism in the act of
promotion creates the link between language, text and social relations to
constitute a discourse of its own. Tourism discourse essentially refers to the
language which is conventionalized through certain practices, values and norms
in order to talk about tourism matters. The language of tourism is used within a
particular discourse community in order to describe and talk about issues
related to this area of interest, shared not only by a restricted group of
specialists but also usually addressed to non-specialists (i.e. the general public).

2.2.
Communicative Purpose of a Genre
Swales (1990) sees genre from four different perspectives linguistics,

literature, folklore studies and rhetoric and provides a broad definition of
genre as a recognizable, communicative event characterized by a set of
communicative purpose(s); it is often highly structured and conventionalized
and exploited by the expert members of the discourse community.
Fox has coined the expression public discourse, which is seen as a
system and consists of communicative events involving an event itself, the
events participants (employees in tourism, visitors to a destination) and the
environment of the events production and reception (traditional printed /
visual media, internet). (Fox 2008: 14) The public discourse constituents
correspond to Hallidays categories of register: field, tenor and mode
respectively and indicates that the terms register and genre can be used
interchangeably, even though some scholars believe that the one either
encompasses the other or that they are two independent notions. Guidebooks,
travel articles, trip reports, business letters, advertisements, destination
brochures/videos, a destinations webpages are all types of genre.
The communicative purpose is the primary factor which determines the
schematic structure and contents of a genre. There are two communicative
purposes of a genre: general and specific. The general communicative purpose
refers to the objective of the communicative event and, as such, is common to all
communicative events of a tourist destination, whereas the specific
communicative purpose relates to the events content and varies from event to
event. For example, the general purpose of a destination brochure is to
institutionalize the ideology of a destination, whereas the specific purpose varies
from one brochure to another depending on the content the authors want to
emphasize (natural beauty, cultural-historical heritage, gastronomy, etc.)
2.3 The Language of Tourism
The complex relationship between language and tourism has been
thoroughly examined by Dann (1996) in his book The Language of Tourism: A
Sociolinguistic Perspective. His comprehensive analysis sheds light on the
importance of the language as a creator of identity, power and social differences
in the context of tourism. Through pictures and written texts, the language of
tourism tends to persuade, lure, woo and seduce actual clients (2).
Among tourism linguists there has been a growing awareness of the
sociolinguistic view of tourism which highlights the identification and verbal
representation of the functions that the language fulfills. The language used in
tourism belongs to the group of languages for special purposes, which are used

to talk and write about specialized fields of knowledge with certain grammatical
rules and specialized vocabulary. It is language-like in its properties, conveys
messages and operates through a conventional system of symbols and codes
and it adopts a special register (Dann 1996: 28).
For the purpose of this study, we have examined Danns sociological
perspectives on tourism and Roman Jakobsons functions of verbal
communication in tourism. The perspectives of authenticity, strangerhood (a term
coined by Dann (1996), play and conflict through certain words and linguistic
structures aim at creating a rhetoric effect. The words of authenticity and new
experience reflect the first two perspectives and are the most frequently
encountered in tourist texts. Based on Jakobsons linguistic framework, Febas
Borra arrived at the pattern of communication which is the same for all
promotional material. The expressive function in print material includes usage of
the personal pronouns we and you, suggestions, epithets and superlatives. Vague
imperatives for people in general to see and do things are employed in materials
and fulfill a cognitive function. Since the objective of tourism language is in the
first place to inform, the referential or informational function is the most
important in this type of communication. The poetic function in tourism language
is evident in the message transmitted through figures of speech. In addition, there
are words and expressions frequently encountered in tourism language which aim
to fulfill poetic functions but are considered as redundant (e.g. incomparable
beauty, enormous variety), hackneyed (e.g. Segovia is like a beautiful symphony of
form and light) and clich (e.g. marvelous, magnificent).
3. Data Analysis
In this section, we present the results of the analysis of micro- and
macro-structure of tourist texts in an attempt to support the facts from the
theoretical issues. The data analysis is based on extracting lexical, syntactic and
textual features from tourist texts taken from three kinds of promotional
material, issued in Montenegro.
Montenegro Explorer has been published by the Ministry of Tourism and
NTO since 2005. There are summer and winter editions of the magazine, in
which the tourist offer of Montenegro is presented with plenty of current
service information and attractive photos with Montenegrin motives. For the
purpose of this study, we have analysed 5 Montenegro Explorers of the
following available editions: 2006, 2007/08, 2009, 2010 and 2011. Inflight
Magazine is a free magazine published two or three times a year by
Montenegro Airlines and distributed free to all passengers on board their
airplanes. Since May 2006, thirteen editions have been published, out of which
ten have been analysed. The nature of the texts within Inflight Magazine is

primarily commercial, as there are advertisements, texts and photos on
Montenegrin tourist attractions, articles on other destinations hallmarks as well
as the latest news concerning the Montenegrin tourism industry. Tourist Guide
is the most informative piece of promotional material. Information about
Montenegro nature and heritage, as well as accommodation and restaurants
are indispensible parts of the guidebook. It has been published by MAPA
Montenegro since 2003 in different language editions.
3.1. Lexical Features
Lexical specialized items are distinctive and meaningful signs (Cabre et
al, 1999: 30) which set apart the specialized language from the general and
other specialized languages. The lexical features that can be applied in the field
of tourism emphasize the specificity of the language as such, sharing the same
traits of other disciplinary fields and developing features of its own.
The language of tourism can be characterized as precise and
transparent as its primary attempt is to pass a clear and accurate message to
(potential) tourists. Precision and transparency of language is achieved through
avoiding vague words and ambiguity. Words which are information carriers
should reduce the likelihood of misinterpretation and redundancy. Language
should be free from constant word repetition and semantic instability which
lead to verbosity and complexity.
Travel advertizing enhances its persuasive power so as to attract
tourists through the choice of words and hyperbolic language. Words get
engraved in the mind deeper than a colourful photo and the authors seem to
play with readers shaping the identity of a destination by means of words
denoting new experience, uniqueness, perfection and even magic. The frequent
use of figures of speech suggests that the Montenegrin language is rich and
poetic, but sometimes they may seem overused in promotional materials.
3.1.1. Words of Authenticity
Every country has a unique culture and history. It is just a matter of
emphasizing the authentic and traditional values and customs of a region for the
benefits of tourists. Having in mind that travelers search for authenticity in the
place they visit, the authors of tourist texts in the promotional material try to
offer an unforgettable experience rooted in unique heritage, landscapes or even
spirit of a given tourist destination. Their aim is to lure potential tourists by
means of lexical devices, mostly adjectives, which serve to intensify the
uniqueness and authenticity of every aspect of Montenegrin tradition.
Promotional material in Montenegro enhances the impression of
authenticity through the presentation of many natural contrasts in a very small

territory reminding the readers that Montenegro is an ecological state. Beside
markers that convey messages to tourists about the natural beauty of
Montenegro, there are markers of cultural and historical heritage, testifying to
the mix of civilizations, cultures and religions. The most frequently used
adjectives are: typical, authentic, original, true, unique and traditional.
(1) you might want to drop by the authentic fishing village of Prno (ME,
2011, p. 45);
(2) Literary works of Njegos, with the original manuscript of The
Mountain Wreath. (IFM, winter 2008/09)
Gastronomy is also an indispensable asset in the identity of every tourist
destination. A country is recognizable by its food and it is very important to
intensify its authenticity by means of adjectives.
(3) traditional Boka cuisine (ME, 2010, 117)
3.1.2. Words of New Experience
Headlines in the tourist texts indicate that the tourism industry in
Montenegro is based on the natural heritage unspoiled by human touch, usually
awesome and intriguing. Their catchy message contains key words which attract
adventurers, novelty seekers and explorers. Unity with an intact nature,
Astonishing but at the same time awe-inspiring nature, The peace of a hidden
oasis, A different colour of sand and sunset are samples of headlines written
by crafty authors to launch Montenegros offer as a completely new and
different experience.
Montenegro is presented as a country with natural beauty in its every
part. Nature is most frequently depicted as intact, wild, unspoiled, untouched,
exotic, picturesque, colourful and breathtaking in an attempt to enchant nature
lovers. Montenegros tourism industry also presents some unusual attractions
to enhance the difference between Montenegro and other destinations.
(1) the opportunities for an active holiday in an untamed nature (ME,
2010, 66)
(2) The traces of glacial activity, represent an extraordinary aesthetic
attraction. (IFM, summer 2010, 73)
A still undiscovered country, its wild beauty frightens and invites at the
same time, appealing to all those in search of exciting discovery and adventure
Newly discovered sights in Montenegro, mostly found in the north and known

for their inaccessibility, are depicted with various adjectives which emphasize
the harshness of its landscape, and sometimes even its cruelty.
(1) cruel and inaccessible nature, harsh mountain, with sharp peaks
(ME, winter 07/08, 15)
Active holiday enthusiasts can be easily attracted with frequently used
nouns: such as discovery, adventure, dream and escape.
(2) in search of new discoveries (ME, 2009, 40)
3.1.3. Magical Words
Words of magic are often presented in tourist text types. The concept of
the magical world is created in the minds of tourists through language
associated with fantasy, mystery, fairy tales and legends. The word magic
encompasses mystical, unreal and extraordinary powerful perception of things
and spark the readers vivid imagination about the tourist product luring them
to experience the magical world. Apart from the most commonly used
adjective charming and the noun magic, here are some other examples of
magical words:
(1)
(2)
(3)
The splendour of the landscape is further enhanced by the forests

that surround it (IFM, winter 2008/09, 34)
places full of magical history (ME, 2007/08, p. 13)
the Castle of King Nikola has an air of mysticism (ME, 2009, 41)
3.1.4. Exaggerated Language
Tourism promotion is essentially about creating a positive impression of

a country. This is achieved by creating an image in the minds of tourists as a
perfect place for holiday, relaxation, new experience and entertainment. The
tendency to exaggerate in travel advertising is recognized through different
lexical devices such as superlative adjectives and absolute adjectives.
The analyzed promotional materials Montenegro Explorer, In-flight
Magazine and Montenegro tourist guide use a wide range of superlatives trying
to promote Montenegro as the best and perfect. Tourist materials attempt to
convince the consumer that a particular resort is superior to other similar
resorts in the Mediterranean, in the Adriatic, in the Balkans, in Europe and even
in the whole world.

(1) The most contemporary wellness and spa centre on the
Mediterranean. (ME, 2007/08, 58)
(2) The hilliest road in the hilly Balkans (ME, 2009, 66)
(3) Ulcinj is one of the oldest and most beautiful towns of the entire
Adriatic (IFM, 2009, 44)
The choice of words and phrases in tourist texts demonstrate that the
discourse of tourism is a form of extreme language (Febas Borra, 1978, cited in
Dann 1996: 65). The absolute adjectives reflect the exaggeration through
inherently superlative connotation, fulfilling an expressive function. Examples of
absolute adjectives are: magnificent, marvelous, inexhaustible, exquisite and
exceptional.
3.1.5. Figures of Speech
Montenegrin tourist materials are sometimes too literally translated,
which may seem unusual and inappropriate in comparison to idiomatic English.
A characteristic of Slavic languages in general is the usage of poetic language to
influence the readers attitude toward travelling and to create an air of
familiarity. In this regard, different figures of speech are used in text types out
of which metaphors, similes and personifications are the most commonly used.
Montenegrin tourist materials are abundant with metaphors in the first
place. The most frequently found metaphors are those referring to jewels and
oasis. Montenegro and its sites are usually compared to a pearl, a diamond and a
crown. The word oasis denotes a place that is much more dense, pleasant and
peaceful than the place around it. However, the key metaphor is gateway, which
enhances the connection to Europe to show the political aspirations of
Montenegro.
The metaphors which have been stable and even used by foreign travel
writers when describing the beauty of Montenegro are Tara the tear of Europe
as well as Mountain eyes - the Poscenjska lakes, Nevidio and Skakavica.
Personification shows a particular quality of inanimate objects in the
form of a person. The instances of the figure of speech are numerous and very
often associated with nature, while the similes are very often associated with
anecdotes and legends concerning Montenegrin sites.
(1) nature has played rare tricks in pushing out the ground some forty
steep mountain tops (ME, 2007/08, 14)
(2) The pirate queen as beautiful as a fairy, wiser than a snake and
braver than a lion (ME, 2010, 78)

3.2. Syntactic Features
The discourse of tourism largely shares the syntactic features of English
specialized discourse. Conciseness and transparency are the criteria that are
achieved in the process of nominalization, pre-modification and lexical density.
Sentence complexity involves fewer subordinate clauses and more non-finite
clauses which influences sentence length. Beside complex sentences, use of the
passive and depersonalization is also not favoured in this type of discourse,
whereas the imperative, suggestions and the usage of present simple tense are
distinctive traits of syntax in tourist texts.
3.2.1. Mode
Imperatives and directives are an inevitable tool for making the tourist
destination an absolute must for visiting. The positive and negative imperatives
have the same function, i.e. that of urging would-be tourists to do something in
the promoted country. Frequently encountered positive imperatives in
Montenegrin promotional materials are: beware, buy, choose, climb, come,
discover, enjoy, go, look, shop and taste, whereas negative imperatives are:
miss, pass and worry. The latter ones are fewer but their urge is stronger
especially if it is followed with an exclamation mark.
(1) Just buy it! (ME, 2006, 64)

(2) Choose a mountain, a lake or a plateau (TG, 2009, 180)
(3) Do not pass up Berane just in the main street, you will find
over twenty pubs ( ME, 2007/08, 67)
Giving directions causes the reader to feel directly involved in the
journey as he/she has to follow the authors instructions. Which way to go is the
tourists major concern and by creating the path they are supposed to follow in
their minds, the potential or on-trip tourist will find themselves caught in the
promotional trap they do not want to get away from.
(1) So go Come. Up north, you do not need a compass (ME,

2007/08, 68)
3.2.2. Suggestion
The act of suggestion implies the change of someones beliefs, ideas and
opinions under the influence of someone elses attitude. Applied to the
discourse of tourism, the suggestion followed with positive evaluation tries to

invite readers to choose and experience the place, or even overcome some
possible prejudice about it. The suggestion is manifested through advisability
and issuing commands achieved by different push factors, such as negated
interrogative, the word should and conditional sentences, which in a subtle
way persuade the potential clients and make them feel immersed in the very
process.
(1) There are many reasons why you should visit Kolasin (ME, 2007/08,
67)
(2) Isnt a modern tourist, accustomed to looking at the out-side world
ready to stop, relax and enjoy the last oasis of intact beauty? (70)
(3) If your appetite was stirred by the fresh mountain air, you should
proceed directly to Cetinje. (ME, 2009, 73)
3.2.3. Tense
According to Cohen (1986) tourism represents not only travel through
space, but also travel through time as it is frequently a journey from the
everyday present into the past, and more rarely the future (Dann 1996: 49). In
tourist texts these three main tenses (present, past and future tenses) are used
in an attempt to include a potential tourist into the virtual trip, which may
seem timeless.
The use of the present indicative tense suggests the time of holiday as
standing still. The verbs used in the tourist text types emphasize that the major
concern of the promotion is to present the destination which has a lot to offer,
guarantees a good time and warmly welcomes visitors to experience its charms.
In this regard, the verbs commonly encountered in the texts are offer, boast,
enjoy and testify.
Beside the present indicative tense, the past indicative tense is used to
express the actions within a historical framework. Its narrative function is
fulfilled through verbs denoting the turbulent history of Montenegro, which
affected its traditions and culture. Since the magazines primarily fulfill a
persuasive function, they do not deal with the historical events as they are far
from impressive.
The future indicative tense (active/passive) is evident not only in the
prevailing conditional sentences, but also in sentences concerning the plans for
the future development of Montenegro. The usage of the future tense indicates
that this tiny country with a great potential is ready to make progress in many
segments of its tourism industry.

3.2.4. Depersonalization
In tourism discourse, the tendency toward depersonalization is mostly
evident in texts which consist of facts and information about the destination.
Depersonalization is used when it is not necessary to state who the doer of the
action is. The passive voice entails the exclusion of personal pronouns, thereby
creating a distance between the text and the reader. In this regard, applied to
the discourse of tourism, depersonalization tends to be neglected in favour of
the direct involvement of the potential tourists in the imagined journey.
Therefore, the active voice is usually preferred to the passive in tourism text
types.
The commonly used indefinite pronoun in Montenegrin tourist types is
one, which is usually followed by can. Personal pronouns, on the other hand, are
used to create an air of intimacy with readers. The use of you and we is found in
persuasive tourist texts as a helpful device, which make tourists feel like being
singled out from the crowd.
(1) One can go down the Tara by wooden rafts (ME, 2010, 107)
(2) a great comfort that will bewitch you completely (IFM, spring,
45)
3.3. Textual Features
Concerning the structure of a text, Van Dijk (1985: 69) argues that there
are thematic and schematic organizations for each type of discourse. The
thematic structure characterizes the meaning of the text as it represents the
content of a text or a discourse. Schemata, on the other hand, are used to
describe the overall form of a discourse and have a conventionalized nature for
each type of text. The theoretical term used to describe schemata is
superstructure, whereas thematic analysis is known as macrostructure. The
schematic superstructures very often influence the thematic macrostructure,
which indicates the close relation between these two phenomena.
3.3.1. Thematic Organization
The theme of tourist texts is usually interwoven in headlines. As a very
important tool for grabbing the readers attention, headlines tend to be easily
understood and their catchy message is usually poetic, filled with emotional
tone, or even humour. The authors of Montenegro tourist texts may resort to
word play, a literary technique which makes the text interesting at first glance.
However, this method is not advisable as it may lose its meaning and even
sound ridiculous when it is translated into other languages.

In Tourist Guide headlines are simple and precise, consisting of a single key word
or more key words which carry the main theme. Even though such headlines may
seem monotonous, they avoid ambiguity and lead to transparency. Montenegro
Explorer boasts a wide range of poetic headlines, whose theme cannot be fully
predicted. This method arouses the readers curiosity and invites them to read
through the text, very often letting pictures speak for themselves. In In-flight
magazines word play is skillfully used by authors who pay close attention to
sentences sounding truly English. The most interesting headlines with word play
are The Stones are Rolling into Montenegro and The Best of the Best.
There are five typically used topics in Montenegro promotional
material: natural beauty, cultural-historical heritage, gastronomy, sports and
entertainment and accommodation.
The theme of natural beauty takes up a lot of space in promotional
materials. Pure sea, clean beaches, natural parks, and beautiful canyons with
speedy rivers, mountain and hill springs amazing lakes, wild forests and
spectacular countryside are the framework of Montenegros ecological life.
Proud of its rich cultural-historical heritage, Montenegro tends to cherish
and preserve the traces of both western and eastern civilization. The history of
Montenegro and the Montenegrin people is left out in promotional materials,
whose function is primary persuasive. The informative promotional materials, on
the other hand, include basic historical facts dating back to prehistoric times. The
common feature of the texts concerning the cultural-historical heritage is the
foundation of monuments and archaeological findings during the reign of
different conquerors the Illyrians, Romans, Venetian Republic, Turks and
Austrians. Even though the history of Montenegro is characterized as turbulent,
the author of promotional material does not give the real picture of the country
and its people at the time. The Montenegrins are portrayed as brave and loyal
people ready to fight for their freedom and existence, neglecting the sufferings
they endured under various conquerors. In the analyzed materials the situation in
Montenegro during the First and the Second World War and its involvement
during the recent wars is deliberately left out, as it is not relevant to the
promotional policy. In addition, the monasteries, churches, cathedrals and
mosques are the trademark of Montenegro as a multi-religious country. The
dominant religion is Orthodox Christianity and in terms of architecture the
heritage of Orthodoxy is most commonly presented. In this regard, the authors of
promotional material tend to show that the Montenegrins respect sacred places
for their true religious value, not for a commercial purpose.
Gastronomy has emerged as a tourist attraction and is recognized as a
powerful tool to promote and identify particular regions or the entire country.
Food and beverage are markers of authenticity, often creating a brand of the
place due to domestic (usually local) products. Consumers are motivated to travel
to a destination which offers healthy and delicious homemade food. Such

experience might subtly force tourists to return to the same destination to enjoy
its unique gastronomy. Taking the essence of culinary tourism as a starting point,
promotional materials include gastronomy as an indispensible topic in every
edition. The Montenegrin authors of tourist texts boast the cuisine which is
specific for its traditional way of preparing food. Montenegros gastronomy is rich
and varies in its different regions south, central and north.
The Montenegrin tourism industry invests a lot in sports and
entertainment projects, as they significantly improve tourism in general. Today
more and more resorts begin to construct sports facilities, such as golf courses,
tennis courts and water sports grounds, as well as ski slopes for the winter
season. Furthermore, many cultural events, which involve tourists as observers or
direct participants, intentionally shape their image of a destination as lively,
exciting and youthful.
The accommodation options play an important part in tourists decisionmaking when visiting a destination. The Montenegrin tourism industry pays close
attention to providing information about appropriate board and lodging, which is
suitable for tourists individual budgets and boasts five-star hotels with European
standards on the one hand, and typical Montenegrin ethno villages, on the other.
3.3.2. Schematic Organization
The field of genre analysis endeavours to distinguish texts according to
their structure. Paltridge (1997) explains that genre analysis examines the ways
in which language varies according to particular contexts of use in particular
cultures (26). The analysis of a particular genre reveals the strategies used for
sequencing information, which are shaped by a specific communicative
function. These segments of text are known as moves and are key concepts of
examination when the schematic structure of a text is concerned.
Mason (2004) researched of text structures in tourism discourse analyzing
a corpus consisting of tourist brochures. The schematic superstructure displays
an almost fixed set of moves which may be applied to other tourist text types.
For the purpose of our research we used Masons pattern to prove that the
organizational principles of tourist texts impose a certain schematic pattern the
authors follow in most cases.
Each move corresponds to usage of sets of language features, fulfilling its
own communicative function. The evaluative claim is achieved through present
indicative tense, the use of superlative forms, absolute adjectives and catchy
words. The first sentence or introductory paragraph contains a positive evaluation
of a destination. Past tense and thematization of adverbials of time are typical for
brief history move + legends, while the use of imperative forms and prevalence of
personal pronouns characterizes guided tour. Practical details move is not often
found in the analysed texts, which is partially amended by the fact that there is a

separate section of the Montenegrin tourist magazines and the tourist guides.
Regulations are included in the texts on sports and entertainment as a single
sentence only.
The story of the icon Our Lady of Filerimos, believed by many Christians all
over the world to be one of the most important miraculous relics, shows that it
has been constantly on the move Evaluative claim
According to pious tradition, it was painted by St Luke Evangelist in Jerusalem,

working with a live model. The written record of the Our Lady of Filerimos
th
starts as late as the 11 century, when members of the Hospitaller Order of
Saint John of Jerusalem brought it to Mount Filerimos in Rhodes. It remained
there until 1522, when Rhodes was conquered by the Otoman Turks. It is
believed that the magical powers of the icon helped its holders escape their
enemies and certain death. The icon was later moved to the Italian cities of
Messina and Bari, then to Nice, France in 1530. .. The Serbian Princess Jelena,
together with her cousin, the Italian Queen Jelena Petrovic, sent the icon to the
Ostrog Monastery, where it was kept until the end of World War II, when the
Montenegro state authorities took it over. In 1978 our lady of Filerimos was
donated to the National Museum of Cetinje, with two precious stones missing.
Brief history
Since 2002, it has been publicly exhibited at the Blue Chapel of the National
Museum of Montenegro. Whether the magical icon has lost its miraculous
powers or not, nobody knows. Guided tour
It is exhibited in the Blue Chapel, a specially designed area of the Art Museum
of Montenegro. During the summer season of 2010, it will be possible to see it
every day from 9 am to 5 pm. During the off season, the museums are closed
on weekends, except for special, previously arranged visits that cost over 100.
Guides are available in Montenegrin, French, German, Italian and Russian.
Practical details
4.
Conclusion
The image of Montenegro mainly depends on the presentation

launched into the target market through different media: audio, visual and
written forms of communication. Similar to other tourism-based countries,
Montenegro has invested in its development in terms of promotional activities.
Audio, visual and written forms of communication carry a positive evaluation of
the destination establishing norms and standards for a tourism discourse. The
purpose of this master thesis was to examine the use of language devices in the

promotional material published in and about Montenegro and estimate how it
can affect consumers attitude towards a tourist product.
In this study we have analyzed lexical, syntactic and textual features with
an emphasis on their applicability in tourist text types with different functions:
informative and persuasive. The mutual characteristic of every promotional
material is a positive evaluation within a text. Lexical and syntactic features are
used from a moderate to high extent and it proves that Montenegrin authors
have a good command of writing these kinds of literature. However, the figures of
speech are sometimes overused which may seem redundant when translated into
some other language. In line with that, the metaphors are applied to many
Mediterranean countries, indicating that the text authors lack creativity and
innovation.
In terms of textual features, we have presented a schematic structure
aimed at helping tourist text writers to achieve coherence and conciseness within
paragraphs. The thematic features of a text are also thoroughly examined in each
material. The diversity of a small area is emphasized in every promotional
material. Montenegro Explorer insists on gastronomy, music, entertainment and
mentality of Montenegro, implicitly describing the Montenegrins as a typical
Balkan nation: passionate and hedonistic, likely to spend a lot of spare time
visiting local cafes or clubs and always having a reason to party. Tourist Guide pays
a lot attention to accommodation and restaurants to present Montenegro as an
elite destination, which preserves its traditional values. In-flight magazine gives an
insight into the most current of Montenegros achievements, especially in sport
and in the arts. Interwoven with natural beauty and cultural-historical heritage,
these topics are the most frequently used in different tourist text types.
The function of the language in Montenegrin promotional materials has
shown that it plays an essential role in the process of imposing opinion on the
consumers who intend to visit our country. In combination to visual effects, the
rhetoric is prior to any travel and sightseeing. That is the reason why the
linguistic devices have to be carefully chosen when it comes to establishing the
discourse of promotion in tourism.
References:
Bhatia, Vijay. Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. Longman,
London. 1993.
Brown, Gillian and George Yule. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: CUP. 1983.
Cabre, M. T., H. Sager and Decesaris, J.A. Terminology: theory, methods and
applications. John Benjamins, Amsterdam. 1999.
Cappelli, Gloria. Sun, sea, sex and the unspoilt countryside: How the English
language makes tourists out of readers. Pari, Pari. 2006b.

Dann, Graham M.S. The Language of Tourism: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. CAB
International, Wallingford. 1996.
urii, Silvana. Turistika putovanja, CID, Podgorica. 2008.
Fairclough, Norman. Discourse and Social Change. Polity, Cambridge. 1992.
Filipovi, R.(ur.). Englesko-hrvatski ili srpski rjenik. 14th edition. kolska knjiga,
Zagreb. 1988.
Fox, Renata and John Fox. Organizational discourse: A Language-Ideology-Power
Perspective, Praeger, Westport, CT/London. 2004.
Gotti, Maurizio. Investigating Specialized Discourse. European Academic, Bern. 2008.
Halliday, M. A. K. Language as a Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of
Language and Meaning, Edward Arnold, London. 1978.
Halliday, M. A. K. and Ruqaiya Hasan. Cohesion in English. Longman (English
Language Series 9), London. 1976.
Hasan, R. Grammatical Cohesion in Spoken and Written English, Part One. London:
Longman (Programme in Linguistics and English Teaching, No. 7). 1968.
Jaworski, A. & N. Coupland, The discourse reader. Routledge, London. 1999.
Jaworski, A and Annette Pritchard (eds) Discourse, Communication and Tourism,
Channel View Publications, Clevedon. 2005.
Laki, Igor. Analiza anra: Diskurs jezika struke, Univerzitet Crne Gore,
Podgorica. 1999.
Leckie-Tarry, Helen. The Specification of a text: Register, genre and language
teaching, (in M. Ghadessy), Pinter Publishers, London. 1993.
Lee, David. Genres, Registers, Text Types, Domains and Styles: Clarifying the
Concepts and Navigating a Path through the BNC Jungle, Lancaster
University, UKM. 2001.
McCarthy, Michael. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, Cambridge: CUP. 1991.
Mihajlovi, Boo. Marketing u turizmu. CID, Kotor. 2008.
Reed, Jeffrey. A discourse analysis of Philippians: method and rhetoric in the
debate over literary integrity. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield. 1997.
Schiffrin, D., T. Deborah and H.i E. Hamilton. The Handbook of Discourse
Analysis. Blackwell, Oxford. 2001.
Swales, John. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings.
Cambridge Applied Linguistics, Cambridge. 1990.
Van Dijk, Teun. Handbook of discourse analysis, Vol. 4: Discourse analysis in
society. London: Academic Press. 1985.
Van Dijk, Teun. News Analysis: Case Studies of International and National News
in the Press. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J. 1988a.

Internet Resources:
Anon, Tourism as Specialized Discourse, Available from:
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/3812574/TOURISM-AS-SPECIALIZEDDISCOURSE . Web. 21st September 2010.
About Montenegro. Available from: http://www.visit-montenegro.com/. Web.
21st March 2011.
The Official Website for tourism in Montenegro. Available from:
http://www.montenegro.travel/. Web. 4th April 2011.
Corpus Sources:
MAPA Crne Gore. Tourist Guide: Montenegro, Lazi Beograd. 2009.
National Tourist Organization and Ministry of Tourism of Montenegro
Montenegro Explorer Magazine, AMC Communications, Beograd. 2006,
2007/08, 2009, 2010, 2011.
Montenegro Airlines, Marketing & Corporative Communications Department:
In-flight Magazine, 15 editions from summer 2006 to winter 2010/11
National Tourist Organization: Annual Reports 2006 2010
DISKURS PROMOTIVNE TURISTIKE LITERATURE O CRNOJ GORI
Sociolingvistika i analiza diskursa su od skora prepoznali domen turizma kao
znaajan kontekst za prouavanje. Razvojni put u lingvistikim pogledima na diskurs
turizma i na funkciju jezika u turistikim tekstovima prikazan je u ovom radu, sa
posebnim naglaskom na postizanje uvida u promotivnu praksu u Crnoj Gori. Ova
master teza prouava jezik kao pokretaku silu na polju turizma i uka-zuje na
njegovu pragmatiku mo koja dolazi do izraaja u sferama promocije. Istraivaka
procedura se bazira na kontrastivnoj / komparativnoj analizi korpu-sa koji se sastoji
od turistikog vodia i lanaka u asopisima o Crnoj Gori koje izdaju Nacionalna
turistika organizacija, Mapa Crne Gore i Montenegro Airlines. Analiza leksikih,
sintaksikih i tekstualnih osobina ima za cilj da potkrijepi teorijske okvire koji istiu
da je jezik turizma specijalizovan, kao i da vri tri osnovne funkcije da informie,
ubijedi i nagovori. Poetian jezik sa puno stilskih figura i rijei preuveliavanja,
drugih stilskih sredstava i strukturiranih gramatikih jedi-nica, karakteristika je jezika
u promotivnom diskursu, a na zadatak bio je da utvrdimo koliko je on prisutan i u
materijalu koji se objavljuje u Crnoj Gori. ematska i tematska organizacija
potpadaju pod analizu na makro nivou i o njima e se takodje raspravljati u radu.
Kljune rijei: promocija, diskurs, diskurs turizma, anr, jezik turizma,
mikrostruktura, makrostruktura.

UDK: 373.54:371.279.6
WASHBACK OF STATE MATURA EXAMINATION ON ENGLISH

LEARNING IN PERCEPTION OF ALBANIAN STUDENTS OF HIGH
SCHOOLS
Jaup Zenuni, Shqiponja Dautaj
The Academy of the Albanian Armed Forces, Tirana
Abstract: The fact that public exams have a great influence on teaching, learning,
curriculum, feelings and attitudes of teachers and learners is strongly supported by a rich
scientific contribution of many prominent scholars of the field. This influence, otherwise
known as washback or backwash is examined from different viewpoints. Literature
strongly indicates that the washback of public examinations is a complex concept that
becomes even more intricate under a great number of interpretations on language
teaching and learning.
It is nowadays accepted that washback effect on learning and learners is less examined if
compared to teaching and teachers. This paper tries to add in this area by focusing on
public Albanian high schools referring to the washback effect of State Matura Exam
(SME) on learning. This examination, introduced in 2006 with the goal of reforming
English education in the Albanian high schools, has had implications for English
learning. Through some empirical data collected from 401 students of different high
schools by a questionnaire prepared and administered for this purpose and through
interviews with 75 students, the paper attempts to examine how and to what extent SME
influences learning and learners.
Key Words: Washback, State Matura Exam, learning, students, teaching materials.
Introduction
State Matura Exam is a final test that young adults take in the end of
their high school education in Albania. It was created by the Albanian Ministry
of Education and Science (MES) in 2006 as part of new curriculum which is
based on Common European Framework of Reference for languages (CEFR). The
intention was: to improve the quality of English education in high schools and;
avoid corruption, lack of control and favoritism during the process of students
university entrance. Through this new examination system policy makers
wanted to achieve: 1. Certification issuing a maturity diploma, which certifies
that the student has finished high school education; 2. Selection-selecting top
students to enter university based on the scores; 3. Monitoring-monitor the
implementation of education standards and ensuring the quality of education;

4. Informing-inform the policy makers and stakeholders for the quality of high
school education and for students performance. State Matura as a testing
system, consists of two compulsory exams (written Mathematics and written
Literature) and two other exams. These two last exams are chosen by the
student from a pool of subjects (Chemistry, Biology, Physics, English, HistoryGeography and Sociology-Economy-Philosophy). From this pool of subjects
students can choose two in order to express their university preference. Every
student can choose university faculty based on his own preferred profile
(scientific or social) and his own preferred subjects.
Since the very first steps in the implementation of this new system
English has been one of the preferred subjects by students who take SME. For
instance, for 35% of the students that took SME in 2011, English was their
preferred subject while for 2012 this figure goes to around 50% or 12500
students of the 12th grade. According to the policy of Ministry of Education and
Science, from 2013 English is foreseen to be a compulsory examination.
Therefore, English is rising into prominence. For the first time in the
history of education in the country it is considered as one of the most important
subjects with repercussions in the future of thousands of young people. Hence,
some questions arise: Has SME in English had any influence on learning? If so,
how much has it influenced? How has the students attitude towards English
changed under the influence of SME? How is the examination reflected in the
classroom activities and work? This paper will try to give a modest contribution
in examining these concerns through some empirical findings.
Learning process is very complex. It involves educational, psychological
and social components. All reforms in educational systems have improving
learning process as a final goal. Anyway, new systems have their own advantages
and disadvantages. To approach to the washback effect of SME on learning first it
is necessary to consult the literature on it.
Literature Review
There are numerous definitions referring to washback depending on the
approach of different authors to this phenomenon. Some of them take a narrow
focus on teachers and learners in classroom contexts. Others refer to washback
as the influence of tests on wider contexts such as educational systems and
even society in general.
In their paper Test impact revisited: Washback effect over time Shohamy
et. al. (1996) defined washback as the connections between testing and
learning. Buck (1988) explained the concept as a natural tendency for both
teachers and students to tailor their classroom activities to the demands of the
test, especially when the test is very important to students.

Wiseman (1961) claimed that the classes which were intended to
prepare students for exams were not a good use of the time, because students
were practicing exam related techniques rather than language learning
activities. Alderson and Wall (1993) defined negative washback as the
undesirable influence of a particular poor test on teaching and learning. For
Alderson and Wall, the word poor means something that the teacher or
learner does not wish to teach or learn. In fact, tests may be unable to reflect
the learning principles or the course aims to which they are supposedly related.
Furthermore, teachers and learners may end up teaching and learning toward
the test, regardless of whether or not they support the test or fully understand
its rationale or objectives. Smith (1991) and Bailey (1999) argued that in order
to maximize test score for learners, teachers would be forced to deliberately
focus on the limited content that the test covers. That in turn would result in
throwing away the curricula and teaching to the test, thereby leading to less of a
focus on education.
Cheng (1998) concludes that washback effect seems limited in the sense
that it does not have any significant impact on students learning. The students
perception according to her is that their motivation for learning English and
learning strategies remain the same. The facts presented by Weir and Green
(2002) showed that students do not always share the same opinion with
teachers in regard to what the test requires from them and to what really
happens in class.
According to Green (2007) the individual students reaction towards test
requirements influence on the test scores much more than the choice of the
course or the content of the English classes. This issue might require further
examination based on individual students, on their learning goals and on their
understanding of the test requirements.
One of the preoccupations that Shih (2007) had was associated with
some elements categorized as test factors and which have some certain
similarities. Among such factors we can mention the content, test structure, the
skills tested by a certain test and another variable which Shih highlights is the
'nature of the skills tested'.
Ying (2010) found that washback of the English Test for Colleges (ETC)
on various learning aspects appeared to be of different nature. The
distinguishing feature is that the five cases that the study took into
consideration, mostly tried to change what they learned instead of the way they
learned. This kind of washback in the literature is described as superficial
washback (Cheng, 1988) or 'quantitative washback (Andrews, 1995).

Data and Methodology
Participants: Students who were the target population of this study are
all from the high schools of four districts in Albania (Shkodr, Fier, Tirana,
Elbasan). In order to create a clearer picture on the washback effect of SME on
learning a rather big number of students became the target population. Thus,
through a questionnaire prepared only for students 401 participants from 17
high schools of the country expressed their opinion on washback effect of SME.
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
109
98
194
Table 1: The number and grade of respondent students.
A group of 75 students from six high schools of Tirana city (Qemal

Stafa, Ismail Qemali, Arben Broci, Sinan Tafaj, Petro Nini Luarasi and
Avdulla Keta) contributed to this research through two interviews conducted
with them in May 2012. The first interview was conducted with 35 students and
contained 14 questions related to: the influence of SME on learning; classroom
activities; teaching methods and their influence on students learning strategies;
the pressure exerted on students due to introduction of SME and; tailoring of
teaching and learning according to SME content and format. The second
interview was conducted with 40 students and designed with two sets of
questions. The first set intended to collect data about students opinion on SME
mainly on such issues: students likes and dislikes about SME; students
perception on the level of difficulty of SME and; the importance of SME score
for their future. The second set aimed at investigating SME washback on
teachers and students as perceived by students and concentrated on: the
influence of SME on students learning; what is required from students to
achieve good results in SME; how teachers prepare their students for SME; how
students get to know the mechanisms of SME and; materials used to prepare
students for SME.
Total
number of
students
35
Gender
Males
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
Females
3
32
_
1
Table 2: Participating students in the first interview.
34

Total
number of
students
40
Gender
Males
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
Females
10
30
_
_
Table 3: Participating students in the second interview.
40
Instruments The instruments used for this study were a questionnaire for
students designed according to close-ended types of questions (multiple-choice,
categorical, Likert-scale, ordinal and numerical) and two interviews conducted
with 75 students from six high schools in Tirana. The answers to the questions of
the questionnaire offered a great amount of information on the overall
influence of SME on teachers, students, teaching and learning. Anyway, only the
information related to learning and learners is used in this paper.
The design of the questionnaire was a process which required a careful
work. I was aware that my long teaching career was not sufficient so I studied
the related literature on the methodology of research, especially that related to
the techniques and principles of proper question development. The first draft of
the questionnaire was carefully examined by a group of experienced teachers in
my workplace. Based on their remarks several modifications were made to the
original version: five items were dropped out on the grounds of being of little
relevance, the wording of seven items was modified, and around four items
were reordered to enhance the validity of responses.
Another helpful instrument was the interviews with students and
teachers. Two sets of standardized open-ended interview questions were
designed for students. These interviews were conducted in schools, so the
conditions could not allow me to record them. Hence, they were conducted in
paper and pencil.
Procedures In compliance with the Albanian law I required the support of
MES to collect data from high school students throughout the country. They
authorized me to collect empirical data through questionnaires and interviews
in all high schools of the country. After this step I designed and delivered the
questionnaire. MES authorities supported me to send questionnaire to different
high schools and collect the answers from them. In November 2011 all the filled
up questionnaires were sent to MES so I had most of the empirical material in
my hands. During December 2011, January and February 2012 I processed all
the data from the questionnaire and prepared the final summative table.
Having the permission of MES to enter into different high schools of the
country, in May 2012, I conducted the interviews with students in 6 high schools

of Tirana city. Following this, I processed the information collected through
interviews and created the summative tables.
As it is usually the case with washback studies, descriptive statistics,
comparison and correlations were used to analyze the data. However, it is
necessary to clarify that not all the data collected and processed are going to be
used for this paper. Only the relevant items about washback on learning and
learners are used.
Empirical Analysis
Perception created by students on a certain test depends on a number
of variables which do not relate with the test only. Some of these factors
include: the psychological condition of the students; how important the test is
for the future of the students; how much the students know the purposes,
content, and format of the test; the attitude and perception that teachers have
about the test; the pressure exerted on students by teachers, parents and
authorities and; the way English classes are organized. Other actors in the
learning process as teachers, authorities, parents and society have their own
role. However, the students are the pivot of all this complex challenge. For this
reason, their perceptions, along with other learning aspects, have an important
role and are paid a considerable attention in research on 'washback'.
In this context, this paper addresses students perception on SME to see
how much the students perceive it as part of the reform that MES is undertaking
through SME. Empirical data collected through questionnaires and interviews
intended to investigate this issue in the Albanian high school context.
In students questionnaire, question number 10 required them to
choose in a checklist of variables in order to see the variables most influenced
by the introduction of SME in English. Out of 401 students 392 responded to this
question. The picture gained from the responses is: 306 feel that 'students
motivation' has changed; 170 think that the way English classes are organized
has changed; 165 share the opinion that teachers teaching method has
changed; 157 state that the ways of knowledge assessment have changed and;
119 students think that textbooks and other teaching materials have changed.
Question: In your opinion the introduction of SME in English has
changed (In the checklist tick the one you think has changed):

The changed variables
Number of
responses
a. Teachers attitude towards English.
82
b. Teachers teaching method.
165
c. The way English classes are organized.
170
d. Students attitude towards English.
116
e. Students motivation.
306
f. The ways of knowledge assessment.
157
g. The way the school is managed.
49
h. Textbooks and other teaching materials.
119
i. None of them.
1
Table 4: Variables mostly affected by the introduction of SME in English.
The data from the above table (table 4) express that the most
influenced variable from 'washback' of SME is students' motivation. Regarding
value this kind of 'washback' is positive because it expresses a significant
increase in students' motivation to learn English. The fact that according to
students' perception this variable is associated with significant changes in the
way English classes are organized, in teachers teaching method, in the ways
of knowledge assessment and textbooks and other teaching materials, once
again proves the thesis that the greatest amount of 'washback, is produced in
teaching-learning-assessment triangle. Figure 1 that follows expresses in
graphical form the sides of this triangle where the learning side appears to be
the largest one.
Figure 1: The rapport among sides of the triangle Teaching-Learning-Assessment in

washback of SME.
During the second interview with students, question b in section II, they
were asked to express their views on the extent of SME influence on learning.
Responses indicate that out of 40 interviewed students 32 think that the
introduction of SME in English has affected their learning whereas 8 students do
not feel the influence of SME in their learning strategies.

Question: Has SME influenced your learning?
Figure 2: Students opinion on the influence of SME on learning.
The empirical data show that learning components mostly influenced by

the introduction of SME are: time allocated for English learning; the system of
work with English; the elements of the learning content; priorities students
establish for subjects; the pressure exerted on students. Table 5 below
describes these empirical data in a more detailed way.
Question: Which learning components are mostly influenced by
introduction of SME in English?
No
Learning components
1.
2.
Now we work more systematically with English.

4
Now we are more pragmatic in prioritizing the subjects at
3
school.
Now the intensity of work with English is greatly
8
increased.
Now we review more the knowledge acquired through
4
school years.
Now we pay much more attention to tasks and exercises
6
that are similar to those of SME.
Now we feel a higher pressure for the score in SME.
4
Now we attend private courses on SME in English.
3
Table 5: Students opinion on the learning components mostly influenced by
introduction of SME.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Number of students
Approaching the problem from the perspective of 'washback created by

SME on the above mentioned components in terms of the dimension of value,
'washback' is positive on such components like: intensity of work with English;
the system of work with English and; revision of the knowledge acquired

through high school years. Nevertheless, there are components that indicate a
negative washback of SME on learning such as: the attention paid to tasks and
exercises that are similar to those of SME test variants; the pressure exerted on
students for the score; prioritization of subjects according to their being part of
SME or not. Focusing students learning on tasks and exercises that are similar
to those of SME test variants in the past is an expression of curriculum
narrowing which results in learning for the test. The increase of the pressure for
the score forces students to concentrate their learning only on those language
skills and activities that are part of SME.
In students perception SME is an examination that tests their English
knowledge in an objective way. It has avoided some unfair and corruptive ways
of assessment that existed prior to the introduction of SME. The administration
rules and scoring criteria are welcomed by students and are considered as good
stimuli for English learning. In the second interview, first section, students were
asked to express their opinion if they liked or disliked SME scoring criteria. Their
responses indicate that out of 40 students 38 like the administration rules and
scoring criteria applied in SME.
Question: Do you like the scoring criteria applied in SME?
Figure 3: Students perception on the scoring criteria of SME.
Washback effect in this case is positive because students believe that

their knowledge is scored fairly. In this way they increase their trust on the
system and work harder to improve learning outcomes. From the point of view
of specificity dimension this kind of washback is general because 95% of the
students like the assessment system established by SME.

Another aspect that influences students learning is how they perceive
SME in English regarding the level of difficulty. In the second interview, first
section, question c, required them to express their opinion if SME is an easy, of
average level or a difficult test. In general students perceive this examination of
an average level of difficulty, because out of 40 students 4 think it is an easy
examination, 5 think it is a difficult test and 31 consider it a test of average level.
Question: Do you think SME is an easy, average level or a difficult test?
Figure 4: Students perception on SME level.
Perceived in this way SME helps students learning because

psychologically they are much more relaxed. They consider it as a test which
might really measure their level of English knowledge and every student
according to this level can get the intended score. Washback produced in this
case is positive and almost general as 77.5% of the students regard this
examination of an average level.
Question 14 in students questionnaire, intended to investigate the
stimuli that drive students English learning. As indicated by the responses to
the question: What are some of the stimuli that drive your English learning?,
(see figure 5), studying for a good score in SME places second, after learning
English as a helpful means in life. The number of responding students in this
case is 396. Data show that out of this number 298 students learn English as a
helpful means in life; 92 to get a good score in SME; 6 state that they are under
parents pressure; 13 are under teachers pressure and 34 under social pressure.

Question: Which of the following stimuli drive your English learning?
Teacher's
pressure
3%
Parents'
pressure
1%
A good
score in
SME
21%
Social
pressure
8%
As a helpful
means in life
67%
Figure 5: Stimuli that drive students English learning.
Even though the dominant stimulus is studying English as a helpful

means in life, it is apparent that the second stimulus is learning English to get a
good score in SME. In this case washback produced by SME is negative.
Nowadays this washback effect on stimuli is not so strong because English is
one of the subjects that students can choose from a pool of subjects but MES
plans to make English a compulsory examination at the end of high school. This
will increase the pressure on students for a better score and washback of this
examination might become stronger.
Question No.7 in students questionnaire aimed at probing students
perception on the level of attention teachers pay to language skills, tasks and
exercises that prepare them for SME. Out of 396 students who responded to the
question: Do you think that your English teacher pays much more attention
during the lesson to language skills, tasks and exercises that prepare you for
SME, 338 think YES and only 58 NO. Based on the indications given by the
data collected through this question it can be confirmed that SME has produced
negative washback which results in curriculum narrowing through
discrimination of skills and teaching activities that are not part of SME. On the
other hand this kind of washback affects students learning because it drives it
only towards those language skills, tasks and exercises that are supposed to be
tested in SME. The data expressed in Figure 1.6 below illustrates the general
perception students have concerning the weight of language skills, tasks and
exercises during English classes. In addition, Figure 7 that follows Figure 6
expresses the balance among language skills in English classes.
Question: Do you think that your English teacher pays much more
attention during the lesson to language skills, tasks and exercises that
prepare you for SME?
Figure 6: Students perception on the attention paid by teachers to language skills, tasks
and exercises that prepare students for SME in English.
In case the answer to the above question was YES the students were
asked to explain what language skills were dominant. Students who responded
YES, (309 in total), could tick more than one skill in the list of language skills.
The picture gained in this case shows that out of 736 responses 248 consider
writing as dominant, 238 reading, 85 listening and 165 speaking. These
responses indicate that writing and reading comprehension, the skills that are
tested in SME, have the lions share. Washback effect of SME in this case is
negative in two aspects: first, it narrows the curriculum and; secondly, it drives
students learning only on those language skills that are tested by SME.
Question: If the answer in question 7 is Yes in which language skills do
they focus more?
Figure 7: Students perception on the balance among language skills in English classes .
Those students who answered Yes to question No.7 above were

required to specify what tasks and exercises the teachers develop more during
English classes. Table 6 below creates a full picture on this aspect. The answers
confirm that types of tasks and exercises mostly used are those found in SME.
To illustrate this, the answers given by the students were compared with the
SME 2011 versions A and B. In these test versions, 2 tasks are designed based on

multiple choice techniques, 1 task is based on answers to questions on a text, 2
are based on gap-filling technique, 1 is formal letter writing and 1 is essay
writing. In this respect another aspect of negative washback is evident, teaching
to the test, which results in learning to the test and eventually in curriculum
narrowing which results in lower language proficiency.
Question: If the answer in question 7 is Yes in what tasks and exercises
do they focus more?
Kinds of exercises
Number of responses
a. Multiple choice exercises.
130
b. Answer the questions on a text.
144
c. Gap filling.
179
d. Grammar exercises.
252
e. Matching exercises.
84
f. True-false exercises.
149
g. Correct the information.
94
h. Letter/essay writing.
228
Table 6: Students perception on types of tasks and exercises teachers use in English
classes.
In students perception some aspects of SME need to be improved in

order to minimize negative washback. These steps might have good impact on
students learning as well because they will make SME a more reliable test.
Question 18 in students questionnaire intended to collect data for this purpose.
Students were given a checklist and they could tick the aspects they think
should be improved in SME in English. Out of 401 students only 344 preferred to
answer this question. They were free to tick more than one aspect. The picture
gained in this case is reflected in table 7 that follows.
Question: Which SME aspects do you think should be improved? (tick in
the following checklist).
Aspects to be improved
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Number of
responses
Format.
77
Kinds of tasks and exercises.
91
The amount of tasks and exercises.
201
Language skills it tests.
83
Administration rules.
72
Assessment criteria.
159
Table 7: Aspects of SME in English that need to be improved.

In the second interview with students when responding to question b, 25
students have expressed some remarks about the assessment made by SME.
These remarks consist in:
SME tests only two language skills (reading and writing).
Writing has prominence in the overall score of SME.
Scoring in writing sometimes is not balanced and objective.
SME zeroes teachers assessment during high school years.
There are cases when SME administrators exert pressure on test takers.
The answer key in some cases is not accurate.
SME contains many multiple choice tasks.
Conclusions
A considerable number of scholars have focused their attention on
washback effect on learning and learners. They have mainly concentrated on
the consequences of high-stakes examinations, like SME, on learning at macro
and micro level (Alderson & Wall 1993; Bachman & Palmer 1996; Biggs 1995;
Messick 1996; Shohamy et.al. 1996; Cheng 2005; Taylor 2005; Green 2007; Shih
2008, and Ying 2010).
This paper, which tries to give a modest contribution to the issue,
revealed that SME in general is a good attempt to reform the Albanian
Education System. As indicated by students perception it has brought about
drastic changes regarding English language learning. Making English as one of
the subjects that students can choose (from a pool of subjects) to undergo as a
university entrance exam, it increased the interest and motivation of students.
This is almost unanimously expressed by responses of students in the
questionnaire and interviews. As indicated by the data collected, out of 401
students from 17 high schools of Albania 306 stated that 'students motivation'
has changed; 170 think that the way English classes are organized has changed;
165 share the opinion that teachers teaching method has changed; 157 state
that the ways of knowledge assessment have changed and; 119 students think
that textbooks and other teaching materials have changed.
It is apparent that the variable mostly affected by introduction of SME is
students motivation for English learning. As this was one of the main purposes
of MES reform by introducing SME, it is obvious that such a reaction of students
towards this high-stakes examination has had a positive washback effect on
learners and learning. Students responses about the stimuli that drive their
English learning show that they learn English as a helpful means in life,
whereas learning for a good score in SME places the second, but too far from
the first stimuli. It is true that the negative washback effect on the stimuli to

learn English is not so strong nowadays but in the future it might become very
strong as MES foresees to make SME a compulsory test. Thus, future research is
necessary to investigate students reaction after this examination has become
part of the compulsory test package.
In general students think that the introduction of SME has influenced
their English learning. Responses in the interview with students indicate that out
of 40 interviewed students 80% of them think that the introduction of SME in
English has affected their learning components. The learning components
mostly influenced by the introduction of SME are: time allocated for English
learning; the system of work with English; the elements of the learning content;
priorities students establish for subjects; the pressure exerted on students.
Approaching the problem from the perspective of 'washback created by SME
on the above mentioned components in terms of the dimension of value,
'washback' is positive on such components like: intensity of work with English;
the system of work with English and; revision of the knowledge acquired
through high school years. Nevertheless, there are components that indicate a
negative washback of SME on learning such as: the attention paid to tasks and
exercises that are similar to those of SME test variants; the pressure exerted on
students for the score; prioritization of subjects according to their being part of
SME or not. Focusing students learning on tasks and exercises that are similar
to those of SME test variants in the past is an expression of curriculum
narrowing which results in learning to the test. The increase of the pressure for
the score forces students to concentrate their learning only on those language
skills and activities that are part of SME.
The fact that according to students' perception their learning motivation
and learning components as the most affected variables are associated with
significant changes in the way English classes are organized, in teachers
teaching method, in the ways of knowledge assessment and textbooks and
other teaching materials, once again proves the thesis that the greatest amount
of 'washback, is produced in teaching-learning-assessment triangle. An original
finding in this case is that the learning side in this triangle is the most affected.
In students perception SME has produced positive washback in
assessment. It has avoided some unfair and corruptive ways of assessment that
existed prior to it. The administration rules and scoring criteria are welcomed by
students and are considered as good stimuli for English learning. Students
responses in the second interview indicate that out of 40 students 38 like the
administration rules and scoring criteria applied in SME. This is an intentional
and general washback of SME in English which also shows that this is a reliable
examination.
According to students perception since the introduction of SME in
English in 2006 teachers focus more during English lessons on language skills,
tasks and exercises that are supposed to be part of the final examination. This is

expressed by 85% of the responding students. Responses show that SME has
produced negative washback which results in curriculum narrowing through
discrimination of skills and teaching activities that are not part of SME. On the
other hand this kind of washback affects students learning because it drives it
only towards those language skills, tasks and exercises that are supposed to be
tested in SME.
Students perceive SME in English as a dynamic examination which
requires improvements in some aspects like: the amount of tasks and exercises;
assessment criteria; kinds of tasks and exercises and; language skills it tests.
Students have also remarked that in SME writing has prominence in the overall
score; scoring in writing sometimes is not balanced and objective; that SME
zeroes teachers assessment during high school years; there are cases when
administrators exert pressure on test takers; the answer key in some cases is
not accurate and; SME contains many multiple choice tasks.
References:
Alderson, J. Charles., & Wall, Dianne. Does washback exist? Oxford: Applied
Linguistics, 14, 1993. 115-129. Print.
Andrews, J. Stephen. In Ying, Zhan. Washback and possible selves: Chinese nonEnglish- major undergraduates English learning experiences. The HKU
Scholars Hub, the University of Hong Kong. 2010. Print.
Bachman, F. Lyle & Palmer, S. Adrian. Language testing in practice. Oxford: OUP.
1996. Print.
Bailey, Kathleen. Washback in Language Testing. New Jersey, Princeton:
Educational Testing Service. 1999. Print.
Biggs, B. John Assumptions underlying new approaches to educational
assessment. Hong Kong: Curriculum Forum, 4(2), 1995. 1-22. Print.
Buck, Gary. Testing listening comprehension in Japanese university entrance
exams. JALT Journal 10: 1988. 15-42. Print.
Cheng, Liying. How does washback influence teaching? Implications for Hong
Kong. Routledge: Language and Education 11(1). 1997. Print.
---. Impact of a public English examination change on students perceptions
and attitudes toward their English learning. Elsevier Ltd: Studies Educational
Evaluation, 24 (3). 1998. Print.
---. Changing language teaching through language testing: a washabck study.
New York; Cambridge University Press. 2005. Print.
Green, Anthony. Washback to learning outcomes: a comparative study of IELTS
preparation and university pre-sessional language courses. Assessment in
Education, 14 (1). 2007. Print.

Messick, Samuel. Validity and washback in language testing. Language Testing,
1996: 241-256. Print.
Shih, Chih-Min. How tests change teaching: a model for reference. English
Teaching Practice and Critique: 8 (2). 2009. Print.
Smith, L. Mary. Put to the test: The effects of testing on teachers. Educational
Researcher: 20. 1991. 8-11.Print.
Shohamy, Elana, Donitsa-Schmidt, Smadar & Ferman, Irit. Test impact revisited:
Washback effect over time. Language Testing: 13. 1996. 298-317. Print.
Tashi, Jonida. The new law for education is passed with consensus. MAPO
newspaper 25 June 2012. Web. 28 June 2012.
Taylor, Lynda. Washback and impact. 2005. Web. June 2012.
Watanable, Yoshimori. Methoddology in washback studies. In Cheng, L.,
Watanable Y., & Curtis (Eds.), Washback in Language testing: Research
contexts and methods. Mahwak: New York; Lawrence. Erlbaum. 2004.1936. Print.
Weir, J. Cyril & Green, Anthony. The impact of IELTS on the preparation
classroom: stakeholder attitudes and practices as a response to test task
demands. In Green, A. Washback to learning outcomes: a comparative
study of IELTS preparation and university pre-seasonal language courses.
Assessment in Education: 14 (1). 2007. 75- 97. Print.
Wiseman, Stephen. Examinations and English education. Manchester:
Manchester UP. 1961. Print.
Ying, Zhan. Washback and possible selves: Chinese non-English-major
undergraduates English learning experiences. The Scholars Hub: The University
of Hong Kong. 2010. Print.
WASHBACK E LESAME STATALE DI MATURIT PER LAPPRENDIMENTO

DELLA LINGUA INGLESE NELLA PERCEZIONE DEGLI STUDENTI DELLE
SCUOLE SUPERIORI
Il fatto che gli esami pubblici hanno una grande influenza sull
insegnamento, lapprendimento, il curriculum, I sentimenti e gli atteggiamenti
degli insegnanti e studenti fortemente sostenuto da un contributo scientifico
ricco di molti studiosi di spicco del settore. Questa influenza, altrimenti
conosciuto come 'washback' o 'backwash' viene esaminato da diversi punti di
vista. La letteratura indica fortemente che la washback di esami pubblici un
concetto complesso che diventa ancora pi intricato sotto un gran numero di
interpretazioni su insegnamento e apprendimento.
Esso oggi accettato che leffetto washback sull'apprendimento e
discenti meno esaminata rispetto alla didattica e insegnanti. Questo
documento cerca di aggiungere in questo settore, concentrandosi su pubbliche

scuole albanesi alti riferiti all'effetto washback di Stato Esame maturit (SEM)
sull'apprendimento. Questo esame, introdotto nel 2006 con l'obiettivo di
riformare l'istruzione inglese nelle scuole superiori albanesi, ha avuto
implicazioni per imparare l'inglese. Attraverso alcuni dati empirici raccolti da
401 studenti di diverse scuole superiori da un questionario preparato e
somministrato per questo scopo e attraverso interviste con 75 studenti, il lavoro
cerca di esaminare in che modo e in che misura influisce SEM apprendimento e
discenti.
Parole chiavi: washback, Stato d'esame di maturit, di apprendimento, gli
studenti, materiale didattico.

UDK: 811.111'367.634
811.133.1'367.634
THE RELEVANCE OF DISCOURSE CONNECTIVES IN ENGLISH

AND FRENCH ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DISCOURSE
Milo D. uri, University of Belgrade
Marija Pani, University of Kragujevac
Abstract: This paper reconsiders the question of English and French discourse
connectives in electrical engineering discourse, taking into account the relevancetheoretic distinctions and unitary accounts explaining these distinctions. The paper is
built around four parts. The first one is theoretical in orientation. The second one describe
some unitary accounts. The third part is empirical in nature, while the fourth one outlines
certain concluding remarks.
By way of illustration, our paper examines discourse connectives behaviour in English
and French electrical engineering discourse. We are concerned with establishing how
these linguistic items contribute to utterance interpretation of electrical engineers. We
hope that implications of our investigation might also be significant for a plausible
account of discourse connectives in General French and General English.
Keywords: Discourse Connectives, English, French, Electrical Engineering Discourse,
Relevance Theory
1. Un peu de pertinence At the Crossroads of Semantics, Syntax and

Pragmatics
Before embarking on our joint undertaking, we feel that we should
clarify certain general issues related to Relevance Theory. According to
Relevance Theory, the human cognitive system is geared towards the
maximisation of relevance. This is advocated by the first, i.e. Cognitive
Principle of Relevance, according to which [h]uman cognitive processes are
aimed at processing the most relevant information available in the most
relevant way (Sperber and Wilson 1995: 260). In addition to this, the
Communicative Principle of Relevance governs verbal communication as a
form of ostensive behaviour. The second, i.e. communicative, principle of
relevance asserts, [e]very act of ostensive communication conveys a
presumption of its own optimal relevance (Sperber and Wilson 1995: 260).
Taking these principles of relevance into consideration, interlocutors
are said to engage and follow a specific comprehension strategy in such a
manner that they employ a path of least effort in considering interpretive
hypotheses in their order of accessibility. The interlocutors engage such a

strategy primarily guided by the presumption of optimal relevance, and they
stop as soon as an adequate interpretation meeting their expectations of
relevance is ultimately attained and arrived at. We should like to add that
the ostensive stimulus is pertinent enough to be worth the addressees
attention. Suffice it to say that the ostensive stimulus seems to be the most
relevant one, at least according to the speakers/interlocutors abilities and
preferences.
Taking into account the semantics-pragmatics interface in the
context of relevance theory, it might be stated that the relationship between
linguistic form and pragmatic interpretation is fundamentally observed as a
sort of input, which linguistic competence hands over to cognitive
performance. In a few words, the kind of linguistic parser, fused with
perceptual and conceptual sources, produces the output of linguistically
determined semantic representations. Moreover, these semantic
representations are computed by means of certain inferential mechanisms
in order to bring forth certain conceptual representations pertaining to the
speakers communicative intention.
Generally speaking, within the relevance-theoretic framework a
linguistic form might map onto two types of cognitive information: 1.
Concepts, and 2. Procedures, respectively. Lexical items equipped with
conceptual meaning, such as English items flower and numismatics and
French items fleur and numismatique, are actually constituents of mental
representations. Nevertheless, these items need not contribute to the truthconditional content of the proposition expressed by an utterance. By
contrast, lexical items with procedural meaning, such as English items or
and but and French items ou and mais, explicitly instruct us how to
manipulate these mental representations. In other words, procedural items
instruct us how to constrain the process belonging to their pragmatic
inference. Accordingly, procedural items might affect the truth conditions of
the propositions expressed by an utterance.
We ought to accept that both explicatures and implicatures are
ostensively communicated assumptions. In other words, provided a
prepositional form is inferentially developed from a logical form encoded by
an utterance, it will certainly be explicitly communicated, and it will be
labelled as explicature. Provided the derivation of a propositional form rests
solely on pragmatic inference, it goes without saying that it will be
implicated, at least conversationally implicated, and thus, it will be entitled
implicature. For the most part, calculating and computing implicatures and
explicatures may be a time consuming activity, which is, therefore,
constrained by considerations of loss and gain. On the one hand, the more
processing effort an utterance incurs, the less relevant it is. On the other
hand, the more cognitive effects an utterance generates, the more relevant it
becomes.

Conventionally, while constructing an interpretation of an utterance
of the speaker, the addressee actually establishes an act of ostensive
communication for which linguistic meaning serves as a clue to the speakers
intentions. Simultaneously, the addressee follows a path of least effort by
selecting and adopting the most accessible interpretation, which satisfies
his/her expectation of relevance. Since we follow the relevance-theoretic
framework generated by Sperber and Wilson (1995), we are inclined to take
as a point of departure the fact that the addressee is directed by the
assumption that the utterance is not only pertinent enough to merit the
expenditure of his/her processing effort, but also that it is the most relevant
one with regard to the speakers abilities and preferences.
What is more, utterance comprehension is not a sequential process.
In other words, rather than occurring in sequences, utterance
comprehension involves backwards and forwards adjustments of content
until the addressees expectations of relevance, brought about by an
utterance, are met or deserted. So, let us consider one example, which might
illustrate the point under discussion. Namely, the French word dormir might
mean coucher, dormir profondment, dormir comme un sabot, dormir la nuit,
etc. Similarly, the English word sleep might mean to be asleep, to slumber, to
be inactive, to lie dormant, etc. Notwithstanding, the linguistically encoded
meaning of both dormir and sleep are to be adjusted in the given context so
that they lead to implications, which will satisfy the expectation of relevance
created by an utterance.
So, like we said, two relevance-theoretic distinctions have emerged
as essential and indispensable in answering the question of how
linguistically encoded meaning can contribute to the utterance
interpretation. The first, a pragmatic distinction, deals with the manner in
which assumptions are ostensively communicated (thus, we have the
opposition: explicature vs. implicature). Bearing that in mind, we understand
that regular content words affect the explicit content of an utterance. On
the other hand, some other discourse components constrain the derivation
of implicatures.
It seems to us even more pertinent to shed light on the other
distinction the cognitive one. This cognitive distinction refers to the ways
in which linguistic form contributes to the inferential processes involved in
utterance comprehension (thus, we have the opposition: conceptual vs.
procedural). The latter opposition/distinction may be regarded as rooted in
the relevance-theoretic computational and representational view of the
mind.
Since conceptual encodings contribute concepts to the logical form of
an utterance, they can be ingredients, i.e. components, either of the baselevel explicature, or of a higher-level explicatures. Rather than map onto
representation, procedural encodings predispose and influence computation

itself. Simply put, these procedural encodings impose and encode
constraints on pragmatic inference by means of providing conceptual
representations manipulation so as to arrive at the interpretation, which is
at best, speaker-meant. It seems to us that the prime examples illustrating
the above said processes and phenomena are discourse connectives. That is
the main reason why we dedicated our joint investigation to these linguistic
items.
But, before we proceed with concrete examples we should like to
highlight just one more finding concerning pertinence in the light of
relevance theory. Not surprisingly, within this framework, relevance is seen
as a cost-benefit system (see, for example, uri 2008: 56). According to
his/her abilities and aiming at optimal relevance, the speaker will not
fabricate an utterance in such a manner so as to impose an unwarrantable
processing effort for a modicum of contextual effects. Suffice it to say that
distance from the focus is an inevitable corollary in terms of conveying a
specific prepositional attitude.
It seems to us then that discourse connectives might reduce the
addressees processing effort since they direct him/her to the conclusion
that the host-utterance is loosely and/or literally communicated. In this
sense only, it seems to us also that relevance ought to be defined as a sort of
trade-off between cognitive effects and processing effort. According to
Sperber and Wilson (1995), relevance increases with the cognitive effects
and decreases with the processing effort.
What seems pertinent to us is the question of linguistic expression
relations in terms of their host utterances. In this sense, we assume that this
question might be resolved within the relevance-theoretic framework. Like
we said, this issue can be tackled bearing in mind three basic aspects. Firstly,
one has to compute whether an expression affects the truth-conditions of
the host. Secondly, one has to calculate whether an expression encodes
conceptual or procedural information. Ultimately, one has to assess whether
an expression constrains explicitly and/or implicitly communicated
information.
We shall address all these issues in turn as we discuss how certain
English and French discourse connectives contribute to relevance. In order
to show that the characterisation of the status of discourse connectives is far
from being settled, we shall briefly present some examples from our
electronic corpus.
2. Towards Unitary Accounts
Our analysis has been informed by the following unitary accounts, as
well as the studies that implement a general treatment to some of our

concepts, which have undergone our rigorous analysis. More precisely, we
have been informed by the following general titles: Robert de Beaugrande
and Wolfgang Dressler (1983), Regina Blass (1990), Gillian Brown and
George Yule (1984), M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan (1976), Vesna
Polovina (1987, 1992, 1996, 1999), Luis J. Prieto (1975), Villy Rouchota
(1996), Svenka Savi (1993), Deborah Schiffrin (2006), Dan Sperber and
Deirdre Wilson (1995), and Deborah Tannen (1989).
More specifically, we have taken into account Yael Zivs (1998)
unitary account of Hebrew kaze as lexical hedge and discourse marker, then
Shelley Shloushs (1998) unified account of bekicur, and Yael Maschlers
(2001) account of kaze and keilu. In addition to this, we have been informed
by the following studies: Milo D. uris (2007) account of the relevance of
discourse markers in electrical engineering discourse, Milo D. uris
(2008a) study of relevance of certain discourse markers in the discourse of
electrical engineering, Milo D. uris (2008b) unitary account of discourse
connectives as transitional markers in the discourse of electrical
engineering, Milo D. uris (2009) study on distribution of discourse
connectives in the discourse of electrical engineering, and, ultimately, Milo
D. uris and Marija Panis (2009) study on the identity of English and
French discourse connectives in the discourse of electrical engineering.
In this part we shall not address specific theoretical issues in
connection with discourse connectives. Rather, we should like only to
highlight that we fully follow Wilson and Sperber (1993: 6) who assert that
[d]iscourse connectives are notoriously hard to pin down in conceptual
terms and then they point out that [a] procedural analysis of discourse
connectives would explain our lack of direct access to the information they
encode.
In the next section we explore some concrete examples from our
corpus.
3. Relevance Theory at Work in the Discourse of Electrical Engineering:
The Case of French and English Discourse Connectives
We propose one simple, though not simplistic definition of discourse
connectives: Discourse connectives are particles whose main function is to
connect discourse. In our paper, we have focussed on French discourse
connective mais, and English discourse connective but in the discourse of
electrical engineering17.
17
In no way does our investigation rule out the possibility of English and French discourse
connectives occurrence in other discourse types. Nor does it claim that the analysed discourse
connectives display the described behaviour patterns only in English and French electrical

Taking into consideration the relevance-theoretic cognitive semantic
distinction between conceptual and procedural meaning, as well as the
pragmatic distinction between explicit and implicit communication, our
discussion will focus on the role discourse connectives possess in utterance
interpretation. In other words, we have tried to compute how discourse
connectives contribute to relevance in the discourse of electrical engineering
(in English and French).
We have already pointed out that only three distinctions are
pertinent for the evaluation of how a linguistic item affects an
utterance/discourse in which it occurs. In the analysis anchored in
Relevance Theory we have to implement these three distinctions. The first
distinction is established between two types of linguistically encoded
meaning (conceptual meaning vs. procedural meaning), the second
distinction being the one depending on whether an item affects the truthconditionality of its host utterance (truth-conditional vs. non-truth
conditional). And finally, the third distinction is connected with the way an
item restrains and limits the communicative content of its host utterance
(explicatures vs. implicatures).
We shall now confine our discussion to the relevance-theoretic
approach to expressions like French mais and English but using discourse
connectives as a convenient cover term for labelling these linguistic
phenomena in both English and French. Nevertheless, we use this label or
cover term without any prescriptive intention. Also, we propose that in this
type of analysis, the interlocutor Y (the addressee) be regarded as the
beneficiary and the interlocutor X (the speaker) be regarded as the provider.
Now, let us, for instance, consider French discourse connective mais
and English discourse connective but in the following examples, excerpted
from our electronic corpus of electrical engineering discourse:
(1X) X: Selon les modles et les conditions de fonctionnement, les
microcontrleurs peuvent avoir besoin de quelques composants
externes,
(1Y) Y: Mais ceci reste trs limit.
(2X) X: Depending on the optics and the laser tube a different
number of lines is usable.
(2Y) Y: But the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and
514.5 nm.
First of all, these are not loosely used utterances. Strictly speaking, in
conceptual analysis (1X,Y) and (2X,Y) would be interpreted as
engineering discourse. Nevertheless, this discourse is at our disposal, given the fact that the
authors come across these linguistic items as English and French teachers, respectively.

communicating the information that (1Y) and (2Y) are an explanation of the
state of affairs represented in (1X) and (2X), respectively. On the other hand,
the provider is instructing the beneficiary to interpret (1Y) and (2Y) as a
conclusion (at least when it comes to procedural analysis). These
expressions seem to be the likely candidates for a certain type of discourse
connectives.
In this sketchy analysis, mais and but have been regarded as
semantic synonyms. However, certain discursive differences ought not to be
ignored, and these differences merit further examination. Our impression is
that the core instruction is, on the whole, weaker without these discourse
connectives. Briefly, the gap between the encoded and communicated
concept seems to be bigger without these connectives.
Now, let us see how these linguistic items are treated in some
dictionaries. Mais is glossed as conjunction in Clifton and McLaughlin (1904:
401) equivalent to English but and why. But is glossed as conjunction and
adverb in Clifton and McLaughlin (1904: 84) equivalent to French mais,
neque, seulement and except18. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:
237) [t]he word but expresses the relation which is not additive but
adversative.
It seems to us that in our examples (1Y) and (2Y) connectives mais
and but directly encode the respective three ways in which new information
Z in a context Q enhances the addressees representation of the world. It may
either lead to a contextual implication19, or strengthen an existing
assumption20.
Now let us consider some examples taken from our electronic
corpus:
(3X) X: Ils sont bass sur la mme puce que la version UV-EPROM, se
programment avec le mme matriel.
(3Y) Y: Mais, le botier nest pas quip de la fentre qui permet
leffacement.
(4X) X: Il suffit alors d'un simple programmateur dEPROM pour
raliser la programmation.
(4Y) Y: Mais, des broches du microcontrleur sont requises pour la
communication avec la mmoire externe, et ne peuvent donc pas
tre utilises pour les entres-sorties.
18
It seems to us also that the analysis pertaining to the diachronic development might be
interesting in the context of discourse connectives mais and but. Unfortunately, the diachronic
development of mais and but, the topic no less interesting, might not be accounted for in this
paper due to spatial limitations. Nevertheless, the reader may wish to refer to the proposed
literature and the bibliographies found within the literature.
19
It may lead to an assumption that results from a deduction which involves the synthesis of Z and Q.
20
Namely, an assumption in Q is independently derived from a new set of premises that include Z.

(5X) X: The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through
it, regardless of direction.
(5Y) Y: But only the photons aligned with the cavity manage to pass
more than once through the medium and so have significant
amplification.
(6X) X: Bad designs have intermittent problems such as glitches, that
is, vanishingly-fast pulses that may trigger some logic.
(6Y) Y: But, not others, runt pulses that do not reach valid threshold
voltages, or unexpected combinations of logic states.
According to the linguistic literature on the subject, procedures do
not encode representational entities and are, therefore, not easily
accessible to consciousness. What is accessible to consciousness is the
representational output of the pragmatic interpretation, which a particular
procedure constrains. However, if we take into account the speakers
utterances in the examples (3X), (4X), (5X) and (6X), then the addressee, or
better still, the interlocutor, for that matter, simply fills the
syntactic/semantic slot, and somehow attaches to the previously generated
utterance. Simply put, our starting assumption is that if a discourse
connective (French mais and/or English but) is used in speech at all, then
this discourse connective must mean something to its users/interlocutors,
i.e. provider and beneficiary. Whatever this use may be, it certainly deserves
descriptive consideration.
However, our approach is more concerned with establishing how
discourse connectives contribute to utterance interpretation in English and
French discourse of electrical engineering. It goes without saying that
specific discourses seem to be coherent. In addition to this, the recovery of
coherence relation is essential for utterance computation and
comprehension. Therefore, utterances might be rendered explicit by means
of certain discourse connectives. We have seen this mechanism at work in
our examples (3Y), (4Y), (5Y) and (6Y). It seems to us that these utterances
complement utterances (3X), (4X), (5X) and (6A). The question we would
like to pose is whether these discourse connectives may function as fillers of
some sort21.
A sketchy answer we are suggesting at this point might be found in
the assumption that discourse connectives actually constrain the hearers
and/or interlocutors choice of context. This would explain why these
discourse connectives are used discourse-initially, at least in our corpus. But
then, can we call them metatextual markers? It seems to us then that some
21
Distributional and sociopragmatic properties lie outside of our joint investigation. Nonetheless,
it would be stimulating and amusing to see what further analytical results these properties would
give.

future higher-level procedural analyses show to be more promising.
Therefore, our assumptions merit further elaboration.
The remainder of our paper represents a perfunctory and sketchy
descriptive exercise in the semantics of French discourse connective mais
and English discourse connective but, respectively.
In order to illustrate whether an item affects the truth conditions of
its host utterance or not, let us consider now the following examples from
our corpus
(7X) X: Les ports supportent la connexion chaud.
(7Y) Y: Mais, les priphriques peuvent tre branchs.
(8X) X: After these steps, the execution step is performed.
(8Y) Y: But, it can perform the desired operation.
In the non truth-conditional approach mais and but indicate that
(7X) and (8X) should be processed in a context containing the information
given in (7Y) and (8Y), respectively. Both (7X) and (7Y) are analysed as
entailing simply that les priphriques peuvent tre branchs, parce que les
ports supportent la connexion chaud. Both (8X) and (8Y) are analysed as
entailing simply that various CPUs perform the operation which is a desired
one.
Generally speaking, we may treat discourse connectives mais and but
as cue phrases and signposts pertaining to certain cognitive effects. French
mais, on the one hand, and English but, on the other hand, encode certain
piece of information thereby instructing the interlocutor and/or the
addressee to take up an inferential path, which will hopefully eliminate a
contextual assumption. Furthermore, the given discourse connectives
encode the information that the intended inferential process will result in
the derivation of a contextual implication.
In addition to this, if we take into consideration the framework
proposed by Basil Bernstein (cf. Bernstajn 1979), bearing in mind his
distinction between elaborated and restricted codes, then we may freely
conclude that these types of English and French discourse connectives are
primarily (and more frequently) used within the elaborated code discourses,
the representative of which certainly might be the discourse of electrical
engineering.
Another question we would like to pose is the following one: Can
English and French discourse connectives be used to determine the
rhetorical relations and discourse segments, which are connected by such
relations in the discourse of electrical engineering? We are of the opinion
that discourse connectives (both English and French) are ambiguous with
respect to the size of the spans that they connect and the rhetorical relations
they signal. It seems to us that connectives might be used to determine

certain (though not all) types of rhetorical relations and the elementary
units and discourse segments connected by such relations, at least when it
comes to the discourse of electrical engineering which was under our
investigation. Also, we concluded that certain discourse connectives signal a
topic shift, sometimes even unambiguously.
Additionally, adding the discourse connective to an utterance does
not make a crucial difference to its interpretation. In other words, an
utterance simply conveys additional pieces of information if we use a
discourse connective. Simply put, in our examples, analysed so far, the
utterance hosting the connective is added as a premise which is used
together with the previous proposition to provide further evidence for the
same conclusion.
Discourse connectives simply constrain the interpretation of the
utterance they preface by limiting inferential calculations into which the
propositions may enter. It seems to us that discourse connectives indicate to
the hearer what contextual assumptions the speaker intends the hearer to
recover in order to process an utterance in an optimally relevant way.
We are aware of the fact that we have to check whether an item has
conceptual or procedural meaning. In order to see what kind of meaning
discourse connectives excerpted from our corpus of electrical engineering
encode we have had to recourse to two most widely used tests: 1.
metalinguistic negation and 2. semantic compositionality. We are fairly
familiar with the empirical evidence according to which the connective will
display conceptual properties, if it can be negated metalinguistically. Of
course, due to spatial limitation imposed upon papers in this collection of
papers, we certainly cannot be expected to report on our empirical results.
However, we might freely say that we have concluded so far that
discourse connectives mais and but do have pertinent position in a discourse
hierarchy at least in the discourse of electrical engineering22. Following the
observation found in the linguistic literature that utterance computation is a
two-phase process, consisting of a modular decoding phase and a central
inferential phase, we should like to metaphorically depict this two-phase
process as the profit and loss account, at least when one deals with
discourse connectives in the discourse of electrical engineering, which is not
to say that these connectives behave in a different way in general discourses.
It seems to us, however, that discourse connectives sometimes
function within our corpus as negative polarity items. This is mainly so
because of the finding that connectives are not epistemically neutral in the
22
By no means do we claim that these discourse connectives behaviour and/or characteristics are
typical of electrical engineering discourse only. Nevertheless, since we use this discourse type
material, our observations pertain to electrical engineering discourse. The behaviour of discourse
connectives mais and but in General French and General English discourses could not be taken in
our paper, given the nature of our corpus.

discourse of electrical engineering. Rather, they sometimes even encode the
speakers negative epistemic stance vis--vis the proposition. Sometimes
discourse connectives even encode this interlocutors negative stance
compared to the speakers interpretation of another speakers epistemic
stance. Therefore, discourse connectives in the discourse of electrical
engineering are said to denote a certain propositional attitude. Of course,
this empirical finding of ours is certainly not exhaustive, and may serve as a
basis for further investigation and further elaboration.
In fact, we might go even further and state that discourse
connectives indicate that the electrical engineering discourse material under
the scope is more apparent than real. However, we think that this should be
further investigated in order to lend credence to our assertion.
4. Concluding Remarks
Given the pervasiveness of discourse connectives in ordinary
electrical engineers interaction, we should like to pose the following
question: Why do we need then such discourse connectives at all in the
discourse of electrical engineering? It seems to us that our answer is fairly
simple. First, we have taken into consideration parameters such as the
interlocutors capabilities and preferences, then the nature and constraints
of human communication. In addition to this, we have also included the
reality of lexically encoded concepts as actualised parts of a considerably
well-off all-embracing potential pertaining to the human conceptual
repertoire. Simply put, we have included in our analysis the presumption of
adequate effects for the minimal necessary effort.
We have also arrived at a conclusion pertaining to the behaviour of
the discourse connectives that we analysed. It was claimed elsewhere, and
accepted in our research also, that discourse connectives [should be]
syntactically peripheral and mobile sometimes, though not always (uri
2008: 61) and that they improve [t]he inter-sentence connectivity.
Furthermore, these linguistic items [m]ay take initial, final and midsentence position (uri 2009: 199), and [t]hey seem to take the whole
clause [/utterance] they accompany into their scope, which may be
accounted for in terms of their commenting function [] within this
particular discourse (uri 2009: 199).
In the course of our analysis of French discourse connective mais and
English discourse connective but we encountered the possibility of locating
the propositional meaning of an expression in certain examples from our
corpus. Based on our eclectic framework and backed by our analysis, we
propose accepting that French and English discourse connectives might not
be semantically opaque in the discourse of electrical engineering, especially

if we compare them with expressions that have conceptual content.
Additionally, we believe that French and English discourse connectives in
the discourse of electrical engineering do not seem to lend themselves easily
to semantic modification.
Backed by our corpus analysis we fully agree with Villy Rouchota
when she claims that procedural linguistic items may enter unidirectional
and multidirectional syntagmatic relations and yet leave the host sentence
unaffected in terms of redundancy or contradiction. This is the case also
with the discourse connectives analysed in our corpus. Nevertheless, this
case is hardly surprising considering the fact that procedures do operate
quite independently on the proposition23. We have also noticed that certain
discourse connectives, which lie out of the scope of this paper but have been
analysed, may be characterised as linguistic items utilised for comparison,
hedging, approximation, tentativisation and minimisation.
In our investigation, we have also proposed a reanalysis of French
discourse connective mais and English discourse connective but in
relevance-theoretic terms. In other words, in this paper we have reexamined
the notion of the two French and English discourse connectives in the
electrical engineering discourse from a fresh and innovative relevancetheoretic perspective. Additionally, we have devoted our attention to the
reality consisting of conceptual and procedural types of information
encoded in linguistic semantics.
In an attempt to support our claims, we have analysed the meanings
of French discourse connective mais and English discourse connective but in
the electrical engineering discourse. It seems to us that their similarity lies
in the fact that both French mais and English but are all non-truthconditional linguistic items which semantically constrain the derivation of
implicatures. This contrastive study of such linguistic items might
significantly contribute not only to our understanding of discourse
connectives in general, but also to computing similarities and differences of
English and French discourse connectives in the discourse of electrical
engineering.
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Blass, Regina. Relevance Relations in Discourse: A Study with Special
Reference to Sissala. Cambridge: CUP. 1990.
23
But like we said, this observation and similar observations, however, merit further empirical
investigation.

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Benjamins, 1998. 203-221.
LA PERTINENCE DE CONNECTEURS DE DISCOURS DINGENIERIE
ELECTRIQUE EN FRANAIS ET EN ANGLAIS
Le but de notre tude est dexaminer certains connecteurs de discours
dans le discours de lingnierie lectrique. Nous utilisons le cadre de la Thorie
de la pertinence, ainsi que les comptes unifis qui utilisent la Thorie de la
pertinence.
Notre tude comprend quatre parties. La premire est thorique en
orientation, la deuxime partie dcrit la littrature existante sur le sujet. La
troisime partie est de nature empirique, tandis que le quatrime nonce
certaines conclusions.
Notre tude examine le comportement des connecteurs de discours de
lingnierie lectrique en anglais et en franais titre dillustration. Nous
sommes proccups par ltablissement comment ces lments linguistiques
contribuent linterprtation de lnonc des ingnieurs lectriciens. Nous
esprons que les implications de notre tude pourraient galement tre
importantes pour une explication plausible des connecteurs de discours en
gnral en franais et en anglais.
Mots-cls : connecteurs de discours, anglais, franais, discours
dingnierie lectrique, la Thorie de la pertinence

UDK: 308:159.96
ANKSIOZNOST U TEKSTU
Emir Muhi, Dalibor Kesi
Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci
Apstrakt: Morfologija marginalizacije i izolacije opcrtava sociokulturoloku pandemiju i

njen zahvat u odnosu na drutvo i kulturoloke posljedice koju takva pojava moe
prouzroiti. Etiologija ove diskurzivne bolesti druveno je generisana dok primarni
propagator pokreta i dominantnog diskursa koji neku pojavu igoe kao nepodobnu,
nepozvanu, drugaiju, prijeteu, stranu, jednom rijeju, epitetizira ju kao fenomen
Drugosti, suava i regulie njenu egzistenciju u okvire klaustrofobinog diskurzivnog
prostora lei u domenu dominantnih centara moi. Reiteracija ve pomenutog binarnog
odnosa periferije i centra u kojem periferija neprestano gravitira pod uticajem drutvenih
relacija ka centru u inherentnom centripetalnom kretanju iz stanja u koje je diskurzivno
ukalupljena, pokuavajui iz njega metamorfozirati na vii stepen i centrifugalna
rezistencija centra da periferiju zadri na distanci i van domaaja pozicije subjekta. Prema
shvatanjima nekih teroretiara diskursa kao to je Fairclough (1989), doi do pozicije
subjekta ekvivalentno je pozicioniranju na taku moi. Tu se, prirodno, dolazi do pitanja
da li subjekatska pozicija zaista reflektuje istinskog realizatora moi ili iskljuivo
semantikog oznaitelja. Pitanje ovog tipa uveliko zavisi od etnografske strukture
odreene skupine ili drutvenih struktura.
Kljune rijei: tekst, diskursni konstrukti krize i anksioznosti, drugost, multimodalni
interpretativni obrasci.
Mo, uticaj, kontrola i mehanizmi nadzora variraju od zajednice do zajednice i nije mogue uspostaviti uniformni obrazac hijerarhijskih odnosa.
Stvarnost je relativan pojam i, ako posmatramo neku pojavu, moramo uzeti u
obzir da njezina pojavnost zavisi od naeg sopstva ili linog mentalnog i
inetrpretativnog sistema, temperamenta, karaktera i magnitude psiholokih determinanti. Vei dio stvarnosti je skriven, a manji prikazan i uokviren kao de
facto neosporna vrijednost koju jedino moemo konzumirati i usvojiti kao
faktum. Tu se namee jo jedno pitanje, a tie se sutinske elje recipijenta da
sadraje koje prima dekonstruie i analizira sa ciljem dekodiranja esencije njihovog sadraja i ideoloko-hegemonijskih intencija. Pasivnost primalaca odaslanih poruka predstavlja injeninost koja, u jednu ruku, ini analitiki instrumentarij sazdan od transdisciplinarnih naunih polja redundantnim i dovodi u pitanje potrebu sutinskog shvatanja sutine. Fowler (1991) izraava neslaganje sa
ovakvim tumaenjem i smatra da je pasivnost auditorijuma samo prividna
pojava i da primaoci imaju neogranienu interpretativnu mo. Slijedi jo jedno

pitanje. ta je interperetativna mo? Da li ona kao takva ima ikakvog uticaja van
dijapazona akademske rasprave i preciznog tumaenja svih slojeva datog
diskursa? Ovakav negativistiki i nihilistiki stav samo je jedan eho promiljanja
unutar krugova i teorijskih rasprava o tumaenju svijeta u kojem ivimo, bilo da
se radi o istoj lingvistici ili komplementarno-interdiciplinarnim matricama. Sljedea prepona koju analitiar mora da preskoi jeste definisanje predmeta istraivanja, odnosno da li je ono to istrauje zaista kategorizacijski klasa eljenog
korpusa. Primjer je istraivanje u domenu kulturolokih studija. ta je kultura?
Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Balzac, Mozart, Iggy Pop ili najnoviji MTV-jev projekat
The New Paris Hiltons Best Friend Forever?
Odgovor na ovo pitanje je nemogue dati, jer kulturu ine ljudi koji su
istovremeno njeni konzumenti, a uveni latinitet de gustibus non est diputandum24 razoruava nas od prijekora i kritike afiniteta drugih. Sistemi vrijednosti
u 21. vijeku neuporedivi su sa onim sa poetka 20. vijeka ili, dijahronijski dalje gledajui, 19. vijeka. Sinhronijska slika, ipak, pokazuje da je taj odmak evolucionarno
prirodan i da razvoj ne mora uvijek znaiti korak naprijed. To je oksimoron, jer
semantiki gledano razvoj implicira progresiju ka boljem, no praksa esto pokazuje
suprotno odnosno da je progres bolje posmatrati kao kretanje iz jednog u drugo,
ne nuno bolje, stanje. Dakle, kultura je varijabilna kategorija kao i identitet koji je
diskurzivno konstruisan i samim tim se mogu relativno lako mijenjati.
Geneza sentence Beauty is in the eye of the beholder25 ostaje kriptina i provokativno neuhvatljiva, poput iskre ljudskog uma. Prema nekim izvorima, prvi aproksimat njene upotrebe zabiljeen je u 3. vijeku prije nove ere i to
na grkom jeziku, no tek u 19. vijeku nove ere pojavila se prva tampana verzija.
Sline sinonime ovog diktuma upotrebljavali su engleski dramatiari John Lyly,
William Shakespeare, a pojavljivala se i u djelima Benjamina Franklina i Davida
Humea.26 Upravo je on ovaj uveni poslovini konstrukt kontekstualizovao pod
kupolu kognitivne lingvistike napisavi: Beauty in things exists merely in the
mind which contemplates them.27 Time je nesvjesno potvrdio postulate kognitivno-lingvistike teorije ije je sjeme, 1976. godine 20. vijeka, posadio Ronald
W. Langacker.
To je bio zaetak neponovljivo prirodne teorijske matricu po kojoj lingvistika analiza ne predstavlja izvjetaenu monstruoznost lapurlartistike28 provenijencije odsjeene od bitka jezike svrsishodnosti, ve prenos informativne
24
Latinski O ukusima ne vrijedi raspravljati.

Ljepota je u oku posmatraa; vp.
26
Sampson, George (1970) The Concise History of English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
27
Ljepota stvari postoji samo u umu koji o njima sniva. vp.
28
Sampson, George (1970) Estetski smjer koji je baziran na premisi da su stil i umjetnika djela
samosvrsishodna i da su pravila ili dodati ekspilati viak u leksikom smislu interpretacije. vp.
25

sadrine po principima komunikacijske etike i humane putanje jasnog i nepolivalentnog domena jezikog ustroja.
Nivo transparentnosti vis-a-vis uzronosti i posljedinosti atributizacije
karakteristika nekoj pojavi je ogranien i do dubinskih rezultata dolazi se kombinatornom analizom koja obuhvata aparaturu humanistikih i drutvenih naunih
spojeva. Kritika analiza diskursa zalazi u domen ideoloke matrice i vri pokuaj
eksplikacije geneze nekog hegemonijskog ustroja i spleta drutvenih mikro i makrouzronika koji su do njega doveli. U metaforikom smislu radi se o sistematskom procesu brisanja pozitivnih atributa i gradacionom pridavanju negativnih svojstava nekom diskurzivnom fenomenu, ime on interpretativno postaje
izvorite straha i prijetnja postojeem stanju stabilnosti. Postojee stanje ne
mora nuno biti stabilno, ali takav diskurzivni konstrukt, sa tendencijama materijalizacije u stvarnom svijetu, predstavlja indikaciju promjena koje su diskurzivno najavljene kao negativne i zloudne, pa postojea situacija dobija status
uporita koju neka pojava, sila ili grupacija namjerava naruiti. Ova perceptivnomanipulativna igra evidentirana je u diskursu svjetske ekonomske krize i diskursu pandemijskog virusa H1N1 koji za potrebe paralelizacije slinosti tih dvaju
fenomena slui kao poredbena taka. Sistematsko brisanja pozitivnih atributa i
gradaciono konstruisanje negativnih, ini morfologiju brisanja koja se medicinskim rjenikom moe tumaiti kao svojevrsna sociokulturoloka poast u okvirima sociokulturoloke epidemiologije koja prouava intenzitet i rairenost odreene bolesti u nekom drutvenom okruenju i mogue posljedice koje takva
materijalizovana pojava ostavlja na percepciju zbilje date zajednice. Marginalizacija, izoptavanje, izolovanje i animozitet ka nekoj pojavi razvijaju se i putem
metode indukovanja osjeaja straha, o kojem je ve bilo govora, koji hipotetiki
potie od ciljanog fenomena.
Ameriki psihijatar i teoretiar kognitivne terapije Aaron Temkin Beck
postavio je osnov sistema mjerenja osjeaja beznadenosti, suicidalne ideacije,
inventar anksioznosti i depresivnosti29 koji slue kao prediktori mogueg opsega
reakcija koje individua internalizuje i, naposljetku, eksternalizuje odreenim
vidom ponaanja. Beznadenost, po Becku, predstavlja sistem negativnih predikcija i oekivanja terminalnih ishoda koje individua formulie o sebi i svojoj budunosti. Ovaj sistem ukljuuje brigu za vlastito dobro, preciznije, zdravlje i
finansijsku stabilnost. Beckova skala beznadenosti produkt je istraivanja na
polju faktora koji rezultuju depresijom, anksioznou, strepnjom za sopstveno
dobro i sopstvo kao takvo. Kumulativna rezultanta je ideacija, odnosno promiljanje o suicidalnim koracima koji su doveli jedinku ili cjelokupno drutvo do
prekretnice i kognitivnog preoptereenja koje produkuje liminalne prekretnice
koje oznaavaju drastinu promjenu dosadanjeg modusa vivendi i modusa ope29
Keller F. i Wolfersdorf M., 1993: 173-177. Beck Scale of Hopelessness, Beck Scale for Suicidal
Ideation, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory.

randi, ili ak obustavljanje i jednog i drugog. Beckova skala beznadenosti nosi i
generiki nazivnik kognitivna shema negativnih predikcija. Beznadenost je
esto percipirana kao manifestacija depresije, ali moe indicirati i neko drugo
psiholoko stanje koje nije nuno izranjanje depresivnog agregata na povrinu i
eksternalizaciju u vidu odreenog oblika ponaanja. U psihologiji postoji evidentirana poveznica beznadenosti i suicidalnih ideacija kao drastinog i terminalnog ina koji predstavlja izlaz iz beizlazne situacije. Takoe postoji empirija
koja potvruje postojanje korelacije izmeu beznadenosti i fizikog slabljenja
organizma koji esto rezultira smrtnim ishodom. Beznadenost se manifestuje
kroz razliite kanale, a neki su vidljivi kao znaajan odmak od uobiajenog ponaanja individue kao to je osjeaj nedostatka motivacije i demoralizacije, narueno duhovno blagostanje i mir, kao i cjelokupna redukcija nivoa kvaliteta ivota. Istraivanja su ukazala i na pojaanu simptomatologiju kada su u pitanju pacijenti koji boluju od terminalnih bolesti ili od akutnog ekonomskog beznaa.
Za ovaj rad zanimljiva je kao jo jedan u nizu eksplikativnih obrazaca koji
olakavaju tumaenje datog diskursa. Diskurzivne tvorevine ne mogu se posmatrati iskljuivo lingvistiki, ukoliko elimo potpuno shvatanje i preciznu analizu ciljane leksike grae. Beckove postavke zanimljive su i iz perspektive, kako ontogenetskog, tako i filogenetskog razvoja perceptivnih matrica. U sluaju diskursa
svjetske ekonomske krize i poredbenog i vremenski podudarnog fenomena pandemijskog virusa H1N1 znaajni su diskurzivni instrumentariji koji se mogu posmatrati iz ugla psiholingvistike i psihologije. Jo jedna od Beckovih matrica, koja
se nadovezuje na njegovu skalu beznadenosti, je Beckov inventar depresivnosti
koji ima nekoliko podudarnosti sa skalom beznadenosti, pa se ta dva psiholoka
stanja mogu staviti na istu ravan. Prema inventaru depresivnosti, ispitanik ima
negativne misli o svijetu, svojoj budunosti i, naposljetku, samoponiavajui
stav. Zakljuak ovog dijela rada, kao i dio zakljuka cjelokupnog istraivanja u zavrnoj diskusiji jeste da socio-ekonomski uslovi, diskurzivne prakse zajednice
kojoj neka grupa ljudi pripada, a u sluaju diskursa svjetske ekonomske krize
globalizovanom svijetu utiu na perceptivni sklop i stvaranje povratne sprege
koja rezultira ili otporom prema odaslanom diskursu ili povinovanjem i osjeanjem zebnje i pokornosti usljed povienog nivoa anksioznosti. Manipulativnost
diskursa i dalekosene posljedice koje takva praksa moe da izazove izvorite su
kako moi stvaranja tako i nesagledivog destruktivnog kapaciteta.
Pomenuto da je diskurs produkt drutva, ali da ga, kao takvog, i sam oblikuje. Rastrojsvo i nemir izazvan multititudom i magnitudom diksursa svjetske ekonomske krize i diskurzivno-virtuelni pandemijski virus H1N1 pokazuje utemeljenost Foucaultove tvdnje da je diskurs eho materijalnog svijeta. No, ta tvrdnja u
svjetlu moi diskursa ipak zahtijeva modifikaciju sa ciljem jasnijeg vienja pojma
diskursa. Nije realno oekivati da sve to postoji jeste diskurzivni konstrukt, kao
to tvrde Laclau i Mouffe, ali ni Foucaultova eksplikacija nije u skladu sa intenzitetom odreenih diskurzivnih pojava u neokontekstu medijskih konglomerata 21.

vijeka. Opseg uticaja materijalnog svijeta na diskurs i vice versa predstavlja prepreku pri odreivanju preciznih parametara po kojima bi bilo mogue neupitno
prihvatiti bilo koji eksplikat kao istinit i logiki neoboriv. Vodei se ovim pristupom,
namee se zakljuak da ni Laclau i Mouffe, kao ni Foucault, nisu postavili vrste
teorijske temelje, ve siluete hipoteza ija se istinitost, zavisno od kontekstualnog
specifikuma, moe dovesti u pitanje i oboriti cjelokupnu premisu na kojoj poiva
vjerovanje u jednu ili drugu misaonu tradiciju. Kontekst je sutinska determinanta
diskursa. Zavisno od kontekstualnih stega, vri se preciziranje odreenog diskurzivnog fenomena, a uz pomo hipoteza koje su postavili neki od navedenih teoretiara.
Ovim se ne negiraju vjerodostojnost i logika argumentativnost premise
da je sve diskurs ili pak da je diskurs eho realije, ve se pristupa diskursu iz multispektralne dimenzije koja doputa odstupanja od iskljuivosti jednog hipotetizovanog pravca. Istinitost neke tvrdnje nije mogue uspostaviti bez procedure,
ali je usmjeravanje proceduralnog hodograma prvi i najtei korak koji predstavlja inicijaciju misaonih, analitikih i teorijskih mainerija koje nee dati relevantne rezultate, ukoliko prvobitni parametri nisu adekvatno postavljeni. Upitna
je i sama tvrdnja da je neka skupina znanja koja produkuju hipoteze, teorije i
eksplikate nauka. Naime, znanje nije nauka. Nauka se izgrauje na oblasti znanja, a put do naunosti nije zagarantovan kvantumom prikupljenih informacijskih jedinica. Aristotel navodi tri principa miljenja koja smo kratko pomenuli
u prethodnom dijelu rada, a koja su, po njemu, inherenta naoj spoznaji realnosti, ali ne da i nuno autentino oslikavaju realnost per se. To su mehanizmi kojima ovjeanstvo pribjegava u procesu suoavanja sa spoljanjim stimulansima
tim principima napada pojavnost oko sebe. Radi se o sljedeim principima:
1. Identifikacija
2. Kontradikcija
3. Ekskluzija ili iskljuivanje
Znanje kao spiritus movens30 civilizacije i temelj nauke nije lako filtrirati i
pretoiti u jasno formulisan sistem koji je primjenjiv za ciljanu segmentalizaciju
nekog domena cjelokupnog znanja i saznanja. Diskurs stvara znanja, a mehanizmi diskursa i znanja su istovjetni sa razlikom da diskurs ulazi u govor i postaje
eksternalizacija sveobuhvatnijeg sistema. Ovakav pristup evidentan je i Hallidayovoj sistemsko-funkcionalnoj gramatici koji govori o sistemu kao sveobuhvatnoj kategoriji i tekstu koji je shvaen na hallidayanski nain u drugom svjetlu, za
razliku od uobiajne definicije te lekseme, kao fizike manifestacije navedenog
sistema. Chomsky ili preciznije autori koji su prihvatili njegove smjernice i sutinski razradili sistem transformaciono-generativne gramatike, poput Radforda i
30
Latinski: pokretaka sila, generator, duh ivosti.

dijelom Aartsa koji je nakon transformaciono-generativnih voda uplivao u mirne
vode korpusne lingvistike, govore o dubokoj i povrinskoj strukturi kao manifestaciji esencije lingvistikih zbivanja pri realizaciji i eksplikaciji jezikih pojavnosti. Ovo sve upuuje da, uprkos naizgled nepremostivim razlikama izmeu
odreenih lingvistikih kola misli, postoji intrinzina crta koja je neizbjena, a
tie se filozofsko-logikog pristupa i procesa seciranja jezikih sistema koji se u
znaajnom kvantumu oslanjaju na ustaljeni sistem redukcionizma i organizacije
po principu deduktivno-induktivnih ili induktivno-deduktivnih matrica koje podrazumijevaju postojanje sistema koji je sveobuhvatnije prirode i njegovog
eksponenta koji taj sistem materijalizuje i fiziki reprezentuje. Selekcionisanje
eljenog i suvinog kvantuma podataka je proces redukcije odnosno iskljuivanje
one koliine podataka koja bi vodila do entropije i pogrene interpretacije.
Dakle, jedan od inherentnih misaonih procesa ljudskog roda je iskljuivanje sa
ciljem kristalisanja semantiih sklopova. Postoji slina, ali za nijansu drugaija,
vrsta iskljuivanja kojoj ljudi esto pribjegavaju. Ta praksa relevantna je kada je
u pitanju diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize i stvaranje mita o drugom. Znanje o
drugom najee se generie redukcionim procesima koji prate odreenu
etnografsku matricu, te se na taj nain dolazi do zakljuka da neka pojava ne
spada u kategoriju veine ili da na neki nain svojim devijantnim karakteristikama ugroava homogenost dotine zajednice.
Strah od naruavanja od uspostavljenog ekvilibrijuma i perceptivna matrica o onome ta je za neku zajednicu drugo, strano i prijetee zavisi od
mnotva varijabli i okolnosti koje su oblikovale drutvenu uobiajenost ljudskih
grupacija odnosno sociolokih okvira u kojima su se razvijale. Te perciptivne
matrice nisu uniformne i svaka zajednica u manjoj ili veoj mjeri razliito mjeri
vrijednost ili nedostatak iste po svojim mjernim jedinicama. Barometar kulturoloki specifinih okvira svojstvenih nekoj zajednici ravna se po kulturolokoim
shemama (eng. cultural schemata). One se razvijaju pod uticajima geografskih i
istorijskih faktora, a nae sveukupno znanje o svijetu je obavijeno kulturolokim
okvirima nae ue zajednice. Ovo je bitna stavka iz perspektive pragmatike, jer
shvatanje diskursa svjetske ekonomske krize i njegovog leksikog uoblienja nee imati jedinstvenu interpretaciju, bar kada se radi o nijansama i specifinim
aspektima druva koje prolazi kroz ovaj diskurzivni proces. Iako je globalizacija
znaajno doprinijela uniformizaciji tumaenja, jake kontekstualno usidrene
kulturoloke sprege ostaju i dalje znaajne determinante u procesu dekonstrukcije date pojave. 31
Diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize, pandemijski virus H1N1, kao i mnoge
druge globalizovane diskurzivne i materijalno utemeljene tvorevine usljed magnitude globalizacije i globalnih medijskih konglomerata koji vre diseminaciju
informacija u skladu sa svojim svjetonazorima, rue pojedinane etnografske ka31
Yule, 1996: 87.

lupe interpretacije i stvaraju globalni sistem razmiljanja. Ne bi bilo tano tvrditi
da su svi recipijenti irom planete podjednako dekodirali i doivjeli diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize primarno zbog pomenutog jakog lokalnog konteksta. Tu se
postavlja pitanje koliko je lokalni kontekst ostao i opstao etno-specifian, a do
koje mjere se modifikovao i prerastao u verziju globalizacije prilagoene nekoj
zajednici zarad lakeg procesa interpretacije. Antropoloka i istorijska istraivanja e zasigurno sugerisati odgovor na ovo pitanje. Causa mali32 kao diskurzivna
pojava u 21. vijeku pristie do recipijenata rapidnim digitalizovanim metodama.
Na drutvenim zajednicama i samom pojedincu kao lanu specifinog kulturolokog okruenja i globalizovanog svijeta ostaje da promiljaju o mehanizmima
tumaenja i odravanja interpretativne ravnotee. Ovid33 je opisao proces vjerovanja u izreeno kao naivnu praksu, dok su drugi filozofi smatrali da u neto treba povjerovati upravo zato to je apsurdno (lat. credo quia absurdum est).
Kognitivni proces ekskluzije ili iskljuivanja kao mehanizm eliminacije
entropije i sistematizovanje kvantiteta informacija koji konstantno ulazi u nau
aparaturu lingvistikog dekodiranja i razlaganja na razumljive sklopove, Beckova
skala beznadenosti i Beckov inventar depresivnosti uspostavljaju interdisciplinarni okvir u kojem diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize predstavlja centralni
generator odnosno aktivacioni materijal koji pokree cjelokupnu kognitivnu maineriju koja na specifian nain reaguje na takav diskurs. Beckove skale opisuju
psiholoka stanja koja se gradaciono ugrauju diskurzivnim suficitom odreene
pojave, a ekskluzija kao inherentna interpretativna matrica pokuava, poput
imunolokog sistema, zatititi organizam od tetnih i nepoznatih nuspojava prijeteih diskurzivnih fenomena.
iek (2006) navodi populistiku doktrinu iji je zaetnik Laclau po kojoj
se populistiki diskurs oslanja na dislokaciju eksplicitnog antagonizma prema
nekoj pojavi, a istovremeno konstruie ili, da se pozovemo na teoriju
performativnosti iz domena kulturolokih studija, oblikuje neprijatelja ili drugog.
U sluaju svjetske ekonomske krize koja slubeno poinje u 2009. godini,
diskurzivna mainerija pribjegla je reifikaciji odnosno metodi transformacije
apstraktnih pojmova u materijalizovane manifestacije i na taj nain ne samo
pokrenula povratnu spregu straha i zebnje, ve i neprijateljski zadojen stav i
diskurs prema svjetskoj ekonomskoj krizi koja, iako u domenu hiperrealnosti
postoji kao diskurzivna tvorba, pretvara se u pojavu sa gotovo biolokim i
humanoidnim karakteristikama i na taj nain, ontoloki gledano, predstavlja neprijateljsku silu koja ima ne samo diskurzivne atribute, ve ostavlja i materijalizovane posljedice, to takvu pojavu ini jo opasnijom. iek takoe tvrdi da
populistika retorika ide u smjeru uvjeravanja da unitenje takvog neprijatelja
vodi ka povratku u boljitak i vraanje poremeene ravnotee koja je nepravedno
32
33
Izvor zla
Publius Ovidius Naso, pjesnik drevnog rima i autor Metamorfoza.

oduzeta. Ovdje se uvodi i moralno-etiki element koji diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize oslikava kao nemoralnu i neetinu monstruoznost koja ima samo
jedan cilj, a to je ugroavanje i unitenje naeg dosadanjeg naina ivota. Ako
posmatramo diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize i antidiskurs kao antipod takvom
diskursu, moemo lako zakljuiti da se konstantno odvijaju diskurzivni ratovi. No
ono to je teko determinisati je - ko su propagatori tih istih ratova? Spekulacije
i teorije zavjere su jedan domen razmiljanja, ali dekonstruisanje istine je sasvim
drugi pa stoga odgovor na ovo hipotetiko pitanje ostaje u domenu spekulacija.
Diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize nije jedinstven po svojoj strukturi i
pojavnosti. Dijahronijski gledano, uvijek je postajala neka vrsta diskurzivne
prijetnje ili preciznije fenomena koji je prijetio da izae iz leksiko-diskurzivnog
domena i nastani se u materijalnu stvarnost. Strah od straha je integralni element koji se uvijek javlja kao propratna pojava takvih diskurzivnih konstrukata.
Zanimljiva je korelacija diskursa svjetske ekonomske krize sa istorijski distantnim
lovom na vjetice koji je zahvatio period od 1480. do 1700. godine. Lov na
vjetice oznaio je poetak diskurzivnih praksi koje su tipizirale masovna histerija
i pojam moralne panike. Taj termin oznaava intenzitet omasovljenog uasavanja usljed pojave koja prijeti opstanku drutvenog reda i poretka. Prema teoretiaru Stanlyju Cohenu, neke od karakteristika moralne panike su:
1. Zabrinutost i stanje anksioznosti (Beckova skala anksioznosti poblie
objanjava nivo zebnje produkovane spoljnim stimulansima)
2. Neprijateljski nastrojeno ponaanje prema datoj pojavi. iek (2006)
navodi da se u ovakvim sluajevima jasno vidi demarkacija izmeu nas i
njih, odnosno drugog.
3. Konsenzus. Ta je pojava evidentirana u diskursu pandemijskog virusa
H1N1 i diskursa svjetske ekonomske krize kao elja za zdruenim poduhvatom u borbi protiv globalnog i zajednikog neprijatelja. Ovo je
rijedak primjer homogenizacije ovjeanstva.
4. Neodmjerenost kontramjera preduzetih od strane ugroenih grupacija.
5. Nepredvidljivost reakcija ugroenih grupacija kao i nemogunost
odreivanja trajanja stanja moralne panike.34
Moralnu paniku izazivali su kroz istoriju i neki od poznatih diskurzivnih
fenomena poput McCarthyizma odnosno diskursa kojeg je propagirao ameriki
senator Joseph McCarthy, a koji je bio usmjeren protiv potencijalnih komunistikih djelovanja protiv interesa Sjedinjenih Amerikih Drava i pojedinaca za
koje se sumnjalo da su dio komunistike sprege. McCarthyijeve metode najee
nisu imale uporite u dokaznom materijalu, pa su tim postupcima mnogobrojnim graanima Sjedinjenih Drava nanesene nepopravljive duevne i fizike
34
Cohen, 1973: 9

boli. To je primjer lova na vjetice koji je obuhvatio period izmeu 1940. i 1950.
godine prolog vijeka poznat kao drugi talas crvenog straha (eng. Second Red
Scare). Pored senatora McCarthyja, znaajnu ulogu u lovu na potencijalne
komuniste odigrao je i direktor Federalnog biroa za istrage (eng. FBI35) u tom
periodu J. Edgar Hoover. Termin McCarthyizam je metonimijski preao u optiju
upotrebu, oznaavajui demagoke i lane optube kao i politika proganjanja,
te, naposljetku, cjelokupan diskurs prisile i nepravde.36
U novijoj istoriji prisutni su diskursi moralne panike tematizovane kroz
prizmu Sjeverne Koreje i anitizapadno orijentisanog reima koji na raspolaganju
ima arsenal nuklearnog oruja. Diskurs prijetnje teroristikim napadima na tlu
Sjedinjenih Drava i zapadne Evrope (eng. Post-9/11 Discourse, Terrorist Threat
Discourse), posebno prominentan u periodu mandata 43. predsjednika Sjedinjenih Drava, George W. Busha koji postao poznat i po svom diskursu tzv. Bushova doktrina, a koja se vezuje za teroristike napade 09. septembra, 2001. Godine koji su se desili u New Yorku, Washingtonu, DC. Tokom tog dana, avion prevoznika United Airlines na letu 93 takoe se sruio na teritoriji savezne drave
Pennsylvania. Sa filozofskog stanovita, moglo bi se postaviti pitanje da li su,
dijahronijski gledano, navedeni sluajevi concursus Dei37 ili su produkt djelovanja
ljudskog, svjesnog faktora koji ima iskristalisanu intenciju svog djelovanja.
Ono to pak jeste jedinstveno kada je u pitanju bilo koji diskurs vezan za
ekonomsku dobrobit jeste shvatanje ekonomske sigurnosti kao osnovne poluge
stabilnosti drutva, te da se radi o najranjivijem i najizloenijiem aspektu bilo koje drutvene zajednice koji se prvi nalazi na udaru antagonistikih sila.38 Poveznica navedenih primjera iz distantnije i recentnije istorije jeste svakako navedena moralna panika, strah i masovna histerija koja se vremenom transformie u
reakcionistiki bijes koji mora biti kanalisan ka nekom pseudokonkretnom entitetu. U populistikoj praksi, kako navodi iek, vri se konstruisanje objekta animoziteta ka kojem su usmjerena sva nasilna i neprijateljska osjeanja. Diskurzivnim djelovanjem neka pojava postaje neprijatelj, a njegova fizika manifestacija
se pokuava na svaki nain zaustaviti ili se sa zebnjom iekuje.
Na taj nain odreeni diskursi postaju kategorija izgnanika, nepoeljnog,
jednom rijeju, drugog. Drugost, meutim, nije samo kategorija odbojnosti, ve i
privlanosti. S jedne strane, postoji iskonski strah od nepoznatog, prijeteeg a s
druge doticaj i bliski susret sa mortalnom prijetnjom privlai ovjeka da se upusti
u adrenalinsku igru sa potencijalnim neprijateljem, bio on diskurzivna tvorevina
ili fizika, realna manifestacija. Strah od kontaminacije je ujedno i izvor privla-
35
Federal Bureau of Investigation. www.fbi.org

Zinn, 1994.
37
in Boiji
38
iek, 2006.
36

nosti. To je dio nae linosti, na Id koji nas tjera da se stopimo sa nepoznatim,
metaforiki reeno, da izvrimo fuziju prvosti i drugosti.39
Diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize nalazi se na poziciji koju je mogue
multifaktorno ispitivati. Limerencija (eng. limerence) se nadovezuje na perceptivnu sliku koju stvaramo o fenomenima koji su nam, s jedne strane, odbojni i
utjelovljuju izvorite strahovanja a, s druge strane, emituju stimulativne signale
koji nas toj pojavi privlae. Na taj nain nastaje repulsivno-opsesivna petlja koja
iz perspektive lingvistike i diskurzivne analize predstavlja bogato analitiko tlo.
Limerencija je psihiko stanje potaknuto kompulsivnim magnetizmom prema
nekome ili neemu. Najee se koristi kao deskriptivni termin za opsesivna
osjeanja razvijena prema ljudima, ali ekstenzija ovog termina ukljuuje i bioloki definisano neive pojave poput diskursa. Limerencija je kognitivno stanje
snanih osjeanja privlanosti koje osoba uronjena u lemerenciju ne moe
obuzdati. Navedeno stanje moe prouzrokovati intenzivne manifestacije sree ili
oaja, zavisno od toga da li se deava dvosmjerni reciprocitet na relaciji osoba
koja je limerentna (eng. limerent) i osobe ili fenomena koji predstavlja objekat
interesovanja. Limerenciju je mogue uporediti sa osjeanjem patoloke ljubavi i
privlanosti koju karakterie izuzetno visok nivo intruzivnog razmiljanja (eng.
intrusive thinking), koje je usmjereno ka ciljanom predmetu ili osobi i koje je
eratino, nepopustljivo i nekontrolisano. Limerentna osjeanja su usidrena u domenu stvarnog svijeta, a na osobu koja je pogoena ovim stanjem utie nepredvidljivo, to se na povrinskom nivou moe detektovati kroz uestale
promjene ponaanja koje variraju od intenzivne sree do strmoglavog pada u
ponor oaja.
Limerencija je, u jednu ruku, bipolarni poremeaj poznatiji kao manina
depresija. Limerentne reakcije jo ukljuuju strah od odbacivanja, iracionalan
naboj nadanja, a postoje i fizike manifestacije koje su primjetne u funkcionisanju kardiovaskularnog sistema, kao i izvjesnog broja neurolokih simptomatologija.40 Filozofsko-psiholoki tretman ove tematike spada u djelokrug naunih
oblasti poput psihologije i psihijatrije, te je za dublju analizu potreban podroban
instrumentarij iz njihovih teorijskih rakursa. Budui da je interdisciplinarnost
ovog rada jedna od temeljnih analitikih odrednica, pominjanje prethodnih
terorijskih postavki iz domena psihologije i psihijatrije slui kao dekonstrukcijski
element u analizi korpusa svjetske ekonomske krize i njegovog multiteorijskog
opisa. Limerencija je, svakako, jednan od elemenata ovog pristupa. Limerencija i
Beckove skale slue kao eksplikativni instrumentarij putem kojeg je lingvistika
analiza uveliko olakana u procesu dobijanja odgovora na pitanja koja morfoloki, sintaksiki i instrumentariji ostalih tradicionalnih lingvistikih grana nisu u
39
EcKert i McConnell-Ginet, 2003.

American Association of Behavioral and Social Sciences. www.aabss.org. Pristup stranici izvren
20.12.2009.
40

stanju produkovati. Pitanje je veoma esto jednostavno, a glasi Zato?. Zato
je svjetska ekonomska kriza i slini globalni fenomeni diskurzivno znaajni i zato
imaju takavu magnitudu uticaja na recipijente? Odgovor je ponekad nedokuiv,
ali se analitikim djelovanjem mogu detektovati tragovi objanjenja. Potpunost
objanjenja zavisi od aplikacije raspoloivog analitikog fonda i umreavanja
naunih oblasti u interpretativnu matricu koja e iznjedriti traene odgovore na
kompleksna pitanja, poput diskurzivnog udaljavanja i pribliavanja, odnosno
stvaranje mita o drugom i onom koji se sa tim mitom suoava.
Da bi neto bilo prvo ili drugo mora na neki nain biti tematizovano u samom diskursu. Pri analizi tematizacije diskursa svjetske ekonomske krize koristili
smo dva obrasca. Prvi je klasina shema tematskih uloga (eng. theta roles), a
druga je djelimina i prilagoena verzija hallidayanske metafunkcionalne tematske strukture jezika. Kognitivno-lingvistiki pristup tematskim ulogama
polazi od arhetipskog klasifikovanja po kojem takve semantike uloge ne
proizilaze iz lingvistiki dodijeljene funkcije, ve su usidrene u svakodnevnim
iskustvima. One su konceptualizacije gramatiki statikih mjesta ili sidrita koje
vre semantiku kodifikaciju dogaaja. Koncept slijeda radnje (eng. action
chain)41 predstavlja strukturu gramatiki kohezivnog i semantiki koherentnog
uvezivanja i pozicioniranja participanata ili tematskih uloga u logiku sekvencu.
Ovaj konstrukt korisna je alatka kojom se oslikavaju sintagmatska i
klauzalna struktura.42 Kognitivno-lingvistika nomenklatura prepoznaje sljedee
arhetipske tematske uloge:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Vrilac radnje ili agens (eng. agent)

Primalac radnje ili trpna tematska uloga (eng. patient)
Sredstvo (eng. instrument)
Iskustvena tematska uloga (eng. experinecer)
Dislokativna tematska uloga (eng. mover)43
Hallidayanski sistem tematske strukture obuhvata dva koncepta nepoznata ostalim lingvistikim pravcima. Razlika je, po nekim lingvistima, sutinska i
duboko ukorijenjena, dok se miljenja o sutinskoj razlici, po miljenju teoretiara lingvistike koji naginju interdisciplinarnim izuavanjima jezika, svode na
nivo nomenklaturne demarkacije, a ne esencijalne razlike ustroja tematske
strukture. Funkcionalno-sistemska gramatika posmatra tematsku strukturu iz
dva ugla klauzalnog ustroja. Bilokacija sistemsko-funkcionalne gramatike oslanja
se na metafunkcije i razdvaja klauzalnu sekvencu na temu (eng. theme) i remu
(eng. rheme). Tema je idejni konstituent koji se nalazi na inicijalnoj poziciji u
41
Evans, 2007: 4.
Langacker, 1991: 282-283.
43
Langacker, 1991: 285.
42

klauzalnom nizu. Halliday smatra da je tema polazna taka komuniciranja poruke u klauzalnom konstruktu (eng. the point of departure of the message).44
Tema moe biti markirana (eng. marked) i nemarkirana (eng. unmarked). U
srpskom jeziku postoji problem nepostojanja jedinstvenog stava po pitanju
prevodilakih ekvivalenata pa se korise anglicizmi, iako bi u slobodnijoj verziji
markirana tema mogla nositi oznaku oznaene, a nemarkirana neoznaene
teme. Oznaena tema podrazumijeva prisustvo klauzalnog konstituenta odnosno funkcionalne kategorije koja nije subjekatska. Ukoliko se na subjekatskom
leitu unutar klauzalnog konstrukta nae neka druga funkcionalna kategorija,
takva tema je oznaena ili u anglistikoj lingvistici markirana. Zakljuak je da
jedino u sluaju sekvence u kojoj je subjekatska funkcija na prvom mjestu u
klauzalnom nizu, takva tema nosi oznaku neoznaene ili nemarkirane teme. Ovo
se odnosi na izjavne ili potvrdne reenice, dok logiki slijedi da su preostali
reenini tipovi markirani po hallidayanskoj tematskoj strukturi.
Tema se u nekim gramatikim krugovima poistovjeuje sa poznatom
informacijom (eng. given information). Takva tvrdnja je donekle tana, ali,
budui da postoji znaajan broj izuzetaka, ovakvo poistovjeivanje treba uzeti sa
rezervom. Ono to ostaje od funkcionalnog materijala, a nije ulo u domen
teme, spada u remu. Rema, za razliku od teme, najee sadrava novu informaciju (eng. new information), ali, kao u sluaju teme, i ovdje postoje izuzeci
koji ne dozvoljavaju sinonimiju ovih termina.45 Dakle, temu treba posmatrati kao
poetak poruke, a remu kao ostatak. Tematska struktura slui kao organizacijski
mehanizam, a sama tema ima informativnu ulogu uvoenja u materiju o kojoj e
biti rijei. U sluaju diskursa svjetske ekonomske krize, baziraemo se na imeniku sintagmu u tematskom leitu. Budui da je diskurs svjetske ekonomske
krize frekventno predstavljen kao subjekat, tema je neoznaena, a reenini
sklopovi pozicioniraju krizu kao personifikovani agens koji zauzima poziciju moi
u kritiko-analitikom smislu, osim u jednom primjeru (reenica 5) gdje se kriza
kroz leksiku manifestaciju recession nalazi u poziciji oznaene teme.46
THEME RHEME47
THEMATIC CHAIN ACTION48
Tematska struktura hallidayanske kole znaajna je kao dopuna kognitivno-lingvistikom sistemu jer prati hodogram prirodnih sekvenci ordo
naturalis i uklapa se u sveoptu doktrinu kognitivne lingvistike koja propagira
44
Bloor i Bloor, 2004: 71.

Bloor i Bloor, 2004: 228-229.
46
Vidi Fairclough, 1989.
47
Sistemsko-funkcionalna terminologija.
48
Kognitivno-lingvistiki koncept tematske strukture.
45

komunikativnu stranu jezikog sistema koji nastaje longitudinalnom i dugoronom upotrebom. Naglasak je na sticanju sposobnosti putem razvijanja sinaptikih sklopova i graenja poveznica koje tvore jezike resurse. Jezik je neodvojiv
od procesa razmiljanja, kao to ni razmiljanje nema drugi, ili bar precizniji,
sistem artikulacije od jezike grae. Tematska struktura uvijek poinje od teme i
kree se ka remi, to je preslika jezika realis koji u svom inherentnom sistemu
sadri mehanizme komunikativnosti odnosno informativnosti na koherentan i
kohezivno povezan nain. Putanja poruke u metafunkcijskom smislu prati
linearnu sekvencu Shannon/Weaverovog modela, no kao to i sam naziv ove
sistemsko-funkcionalne kategorije govori, radi se o kategorijski transcedentnom
sistemu koji obuhvata ideaciona, interpersonalana i tekstualna iskustvena polja
komunikacije.49 Analizirajui korpus, dolo se do kvantitativnog zakljuka da diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize odnosno leksika manifestacija najee realizovana imenskom sintagmom (srp. imenski izraz, eng. noun phrase) ili nefinitnim
klauzalnim sekvencama u neznatno veem postotku zauzima poziciju subjekta, a
manje leite objekatske funkcije. Kada se diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize ponaa kao subjekatski faktor, kontekst ga ini aktivnim antagonizatorom. Objekatska pozicija navedenog diskursa dovodi do homogenizacije i zdruene borbe
protiv zajednikog neprijatelja pa se diskurzivno ini da je globalizovani svijet u
21. vijeku na trenutak zdruen i jednoglasan u naporu prevazilaenja prijetnje
koja nije zaobila nijedan kutak planete.
Tekstulano konstruisanje je kompleksan proces a postizanje kohezije i
koherencije predstavlja ne samo teorijsku prepreku, ve i realizaciju hipotetizovanih ruta uspostavljanja tekstualne logine povezanosti (eng. connectednes)
koja se rava na koherenciju i koheziju. Kohezija se odnosi na lingvistike alatke
posloene po loginom i gramatiki tanom slijedu kako bi govornik mogao
signalizirati sljedei korak u procesu kodiranja i dekodiranja, koherentnost.
Koherentnost je interpersonalni odnos i mentalna kategorija koja se manifestuje
u misaonim procesima govornika ili pisca i recipijenta date poruke. Dok je kohezija tekstualni fenomen, koherencija je interpretativno-mentalna kategorija, a
jedna i druga ine nerazdvojivu logiku cjelinu. Tekstualna kohezija zavisi od
reference i povezivanja (eng. conjunction) na prelomima misaonih procesa i
povezivanje misli koje su pretoene u poruku tekstualnog ili verbalnog tipa u
razumljivu mreu semanticiteta. Amorfnost teksta se izbjegava dosljednom
primjenom konvencija komuniciranja i na taj nain se postiu Griceova maksime:
1. Maksima kvantiteta: (i) Sadrajnost doprinosa treba da bude u skladu sa
potrebama kontekstualnog domena, a informativni karakter ne smije
prelaziti potrebni kvantitet. (ii) Unos ne treba prekoraivati potrebni
kvantitet
49
Vie u Marjanovi, 2009.

2. Maksima kvaliteta: (i) Ne treba iznositi ono za ta postoji opravdan
razloga da bude neistinito. (ii) Ne treba iznositi informativne konstrukte
bez relevantnih dokaza.
3. Maksima relevantnosti: Odravati nivo relevantnosti u odnosu na temu.
4. Maksima modalnosti: (i) Jasno i saeto izlaganje. (ii) Nejasne strukture
treba izbjegavati. (iii) Treba izbjegavati dvosmislenot. (iv) Teiti ka
kratkom i saetom modusu izlaganja. (v) Organizovati leksiki sadraj
tako da reflektuje jasnou i dosljednost.50
Kvalitetna interpretacija zavisi i od pragmatikih mehanizama deikse
(eng. deixis) i distance (eng. distance). Yule (1996) deiksu opisuje kroz vizuru
njene etimologije koja vue korijenje iz starogrkog i oznaava ukazivanje, pokazivanje putem jezikih sredstava. Izrazi koji spadaju pod kupolu deikse dijele
se na deiksu lica, prostornih odnosa, vremenskih relacija, dok neki semantiari
uvode i deiksu diskursa. Zanimljiv segment za ovo istraivanje je deiksa lica koja
se oslanja na drutvene mehanizme klasifikacije i na uvenu T/V demarkaciju (fr.
tu ti, vous vi). Ova demarkacija rava se na poznati i najee neprijetei
komunikativni okvir (T), dok drugi krak zadire u domen nepoznatog i potencijalno nesigurnog (V). Ovdje se ne radi samo o klasinoj podjeli na TI i VI u
kontekstu kurtoazije, ve se odnosi na prihvatanje ili distanciranje neke pojave
putem diskursa. Drutvena deiksa postavlja diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize na
diskurzivno udaljenu taku razliitim leksikim reazliacijama koje jasno pokazuju
ne samo strah, ve i odbojnost prema toj pojavi. Ako bismo se na trenutak vratili
na Beckov inventar anksioznosti, mogli bismo zakljuiti da se radi i o svojevrsnoj
psiholokoj distanci kao sredstvu odbrane od prijeteeg diskursa.51 Diskurs
svjetske ekonomske krize iz ugla tematske strukture zauzima subjekatsku poziciju kada aktivno i gotovo humanoidno napada ekvilibrijum diskursa ekonomske
stabilnosti.
U sluajevima kada se planetarni napori pokuavaju prikazati kao zdrueni i koordinisani pokuaj suzbijanja nastale krize, svjetska ekonomska kriza
repozicionira se na mjesto objekta ili, u rjeim sluajevima, priloke odredbe.
Sintaksiki zauzima i mjesto subjekta u trpnim reenicama.
Diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize po svojoj tematskoj strukturi, strukturi
kulturoloke sheme, psiholokom uticaju, magnitudi medijske panje i trasiranju
sadraja relevantnog za ovaj fenomen spada u jedan od najdominantnijih i
intenzivnijih diskurzivnih produkata u 21. vijeku. Traumatini dogaaji imaju
tendenciju zaokupljanja panje irokih masa u vikarioznom smislu, no u sluaju
svjetske ekonomske krize koja je poela da buja 2008 i nastavila da sve vie
zaokuplja ne samo diskurzivni, ve i materijalno-fiziki prostor, situacija je sa50
51
Grice, 1975: 5 u Verschueren, 1999: 32.

Yule, 1996: 9-16.

svim drugaija. Strah od prijetnje ili informisanost o nekom disruptivnom fenomenu nije jednak sa istinskim doivljavanjem kalvarije u domenu vlastite
realnosti. Diskurs svjetske ekonomske krize nije samo zamimljiv kao lingvistiki
korpus za analitiku obradu, ve i kao socioloki fenomen koji je najvea
ekonomska prijetnja od 1929. godine 20. vijeka. Ekonomija se uruava, a diskurs
raste i razvija se. Lingvistika analiza ovog fenomena dobra je prilika da se
postave i interdisciplinarne matrice interpretacije i da se teorijski dovedu u
poveznicu konstrukti srodnih humanistikih i drutvenih nauka. U sluaju ovog
rada, pokuaj je napravljen da se navedu mogue putanje analitikog djelovanja
iz razliitih rakursa koji su teorijski i logiki srodni. Rain Boiangles je jednom
prilikom izjavio: Ako ne mogu progutati injenice, neka se slade fikcijom.52
Nauka je sigurno dola do tog stepena jasnoe i raspoloivih instrumentarija da
fikcija moe i treba da ostane stvar izbora, a ne interpretativne nemogunosti.
Literatura:
Barker, C. Cultural Studies Theory and Practice. London: Sage Publications,
2000.
Benwell, B.i Stokoe, E. Discourse and Identity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Bloor, T. i Bloor, M. The Functional Analysis of English: A Hallidayan Approach.
London: Hodder Arnold, 2004.
Brown, G i Yule, G. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Chilton, P. Analysing Political Discourse Theory and Practice. London:
Routledge, 2004.
Eggins, S. An Intorduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. New York:
Continuum, 2004.
Fairclough, N. New Labour New Language. London: Routledge, 2000.
Fairclough, N. Language and Power. London: Longman, 1989.
Foucault, Michel. The Archeology of Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1972.
Fowler, R. Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press.
London: Routledge, 1999.
Halliday, M. i Matthiessen, C. Construing Experience through Meaning: A
Language-based Approach to Cognition. Berlin i New York: Walter de
Gruyter, 1996.
Halliday, M. An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd Ed. London: Edward
Arnold, 1994.
Laclau, E. i Mouffe, C. Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical
Democratic Politics. London: Verso, 2001.
52
Rain Boiangles: If they cant swallow facts, let them eat fiction.

Stefflre, B. Theories of Counselling. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, 1978.
Taylor, J. Linguistic Categorization. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
Van Dijk, T. Discourse and Power. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008.
ANXIETY IN TEXT
The paper aims to elucidate a battery of text-based analytical
expedients from a preponderantly cognitive standpoint. It is primarily
theoretical in nature and underpinned through a descriptive portrayal of the
dominant discursive phenomena in the years 2009 and 2010. The weight is
attached to a selected batch of parsing apparatuses used in Cognitive
Linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis and Systemic-Functional Grammar. The
centrality of meaning is the loadstar navigating this small-scale survey as well as
the entirety of constructive and deconstructive mechanisms in both Cognitive
Linguistics and lexically-geared subdomains of science in general.
Key Words: text, discursive constructs of crisis and anxiety, otherness,
multimodal interpretative patterns

UDK: 811.163.4'366.54:162.6
DIJALEKATSKE ODLIKE PROZNOG DISKURSA STEFANA

MITROVA LJUBIE
Miodarka Tepavevi
Apstrakt: U ovom radu e biti rijei o dijalekatskim odlikama koje nam pruaju djela
Stefana Mitrova Ljubie u padenom sistemu. Pokuaemo da ukaemo u emu se njegov
jezik razlikuje od standardnog knjievnojezikog uzusa, a u emu se ogleda podudarnost
sa govorom njegovog zaviaja odnosno dijalekatskim idiomom kada je rije o padenoj
problematici, i koliko je taj dijalekatski sloj zastupljen u njegovom jezikom izrazu.
Kljune rijei: padeni sistem, crnogorski narodni govori, knjievnojeziki standard,
dijalekatski oblici.
Stefan Mitrov Ljubia, kao vrsni poznavalac jezika, ivota, obiaja, crnogorskog narodnog duha, tradicije i istorije ljudi Crnogorskog primorja svoga vremena, ostavio nam je dosta jezikog materijala u svom knjievnom djelu koji je
interesantan za lingvistika istraivanja, za prouavanje ondanjeg jezikog
standarda, kao i za prouavanje dijalekatskih osobina. Ljubiine rijei iz ivotopisa
Oplijeni me i zaari bogastvo i izvorna mudrost narodnijeh umotvorina,
pak neto iz vukovijeh zbirka, neto svagdanjim saopenjem narodom
crnogorskim i primorskim, izuim maternji jezik, omili mi se i uljubim se
u ono to sam prije mal ne prezirao (ivotopis 34)
navode na razmiljanje o odnosu dvije komponente standardne i dijalekatske,
odnosno vukovske, s jedne strane i crnogorsko-primorske, s druge strane. Izmeu knjievnih i dijalekatskih oblika Ljubia je esto posezao za ovim drugim elei
da to vjernije predstavi bogatstvo crnogorskih narodnih govora, prije svega patrovskog, pa je i sam isticao da su mu pripovijesti omilile s istoe jezika, s narodnijeh oblika, stoga to su ogledalo naroda naega i to ih je uo iz ustiju naroda naega na jugu, gdje je matica i kovnica pukih umotvorina (ivotopis, 35).
Ljubia time nije naruio cjelishodnost knjievnog jezika, i svakako je tim dijalekatskim oblicima ostavio dragocjen izvor za sva budua lingvistika istraivanja.
Iako u strukturi Ljubiinog knjievnojezikog izraza dominiraju osobine
knjievnog jezika, njegova pisana rije uva i govorne pojedinosti iz patrovskog
podruja i susjednih crnogorskih govora, s jedne strane, i primorskih crnogorskih

govora i govora hrvatskog primorja, s druge strane. Prisustvo tih dijalekatskih
crta u Ljubiinom stvaralatvu prua nam sliku stanja crnogorske govorne zone u
vremenu koje je pratilo proces knjievnojezike standardizacije. U jeziku Stefana
Mitrova Ljubie ukrtaju se razliiti jeziki slojevi, kao i jeziku drugih crnogorskih
pisaca njegovog vremena.
S obzirom na to da je nemogue za ovu priliku dati i opisati sve jezike
nivoe, ovdje e biti rijei o dijalekatskim odlikama koje nam pruaju njegova
djela i to u padenom sistemu. Zapravo, u ovom radu pokuaemo da ukaemo
u emu se jezik Stefana Mitrova Ljubie razlikuje od standardnog knjievnojezikog uzusa, a u emu se ogleda podudarnost sa govorom njegovog zaviaja
odno-sno dijalekatskim idiomom kada je rije o padenoj problematici, i koliko
je taj dijalekatski sloj zastupljen u njegovom jezikom izrazu. Analizu smo izvrili
na rukopisnom i tampanom materijalu.53
U namjeri da ispitamo koliko tu imamo onovremenog jezikog standarda
vrili smo poreenja sa ispitanim crnogorskim govorima, kao i sa starijim crnogorskim piscima i Ljubiinim savremenicima sa crnogorskog govornog podruja
pa i ire, kao i prema Vukovom jeziku uopte, budui da se on u nekim crtama
razlikuje od standardnog jezika.
U strukturi njegovog djela preovladavaju padene konstrukcije svojstvene knjievnom jeziku, ali nam Ljubiin jezik na dijalekatskom nivou nudi obilje
elemenata karakteristinih za crnogorske narodne govore, prije svega govor Patrovia, kao i mnotvo dijalekatskih crta koje njegov jezik povezuje sa crnogorskim primorskim govorima i govorima susjednog hrvatskog primorja, to je i razumljivo budui da je Ljubia veliki dio vremena proveo u Zadru.
A Ukazaemo prvo na dijalekatske osobine po kojima se jazik naeg pisca razlikuje od savremenog knjievnojezikog uzusa. U padenom sistemu Ljubiinog jezika i narodnim govorima kao i jeziku starijih crnogorskih pisaca zajednike su sledee crte:
1. Oblici genitivne konstrukcije od imenice u pluralu sa predlogom o u
funkciji oznaavanja vremena, u kojima se ogleda veza sa narodnim govorima
crnogorskim, zabiljeeni su u primjerima54: Doao mi je glas iz Kotora jo o
53
Podaci o svim Ljubiinim autografima nalaze se u naoj knjizi: Jezik Stefana Mitrova Ljubie,
CANU, 70, Podgorica, 2010, str. 1632. Za ovaj rad pored autografa koristili smo i tampana djela:
PCP Pripovijesti crnogorske i primorske. Skupio, sloio i pregledao Sepan Mitrov Ljubia. U
Dubrovniku, nakladom tiskarne Dragutina Pretnera, 1875; PVDPrianja Vuka Dojevia. Skupio i
sloio S. M. LJ. Prvo izdanje pojavilo se u Srpskoj zori 1877, 1878. i 1879. Drugi put su publikovana
u posebnim sveskama, koje je Urednitvo Srpske zore izdavalo 1877. i 1878. godine u Beu:
Prianja Vuka Dojevia. Skupio i sloio Stjepan Mitrov Ljubia. Izdaje Urednitvo Srpske zore. U
Beu (tamparija Janka S. Kovaeva), 1877; BPoemu Boj na Visu, Spjevao St. Lj, U Zagrebu 1866.
Brzotiskom Ante Jakia; Pprevode; lanke; Ggovore; kao i tampana pisma P.
54
Isp. ovakve i sline primjere u Crmnici o sveeva, o posta, o Cvijeta, o poklada (Mileti 1940:
496).

poklada boinijeh PCP135, blago je dolo u arapama govegjijema jo o poklada
PCP144.
2. Genitivne sintagme sa predlogom od u Ljubiinom jeziku odlikuju se
frekventnou upotrebe i semantikom izdiferenciranou i imaju oslonca u
crnogorskoj narodnoj tradiciji govorenoj i pisanoj55. Biljeimo primjere u kojima
bi se po pravilu upotrebila genitivna konstrukcija sa predlogom iz ili zbog: pak
ovi mlagji od zavisti i bracke nesloge, pribjegne su nekolika Crnogorca u Carigrad
PCP170, Ubih brata Patrovia, odgovori Vuk, ne od kakve obijesti, no od viteke
nevolje PCP174, Niko se ne predava turinu od obijesti PCP181.
3. Svakako je neobina i genitivna konstrukcija sa predlogom iza, koja se
u sledeim primjerima javlja u znaenju za vrijeme ivota, dok je otac bio iv i
sl., a zabiljeena je i u jeziku Petra I i Vuka Popovia, kao i jeziku narodne poezije (Ostoji 1976: 208; Piurica 1969: 184; isp. Stevanovi 1974: 269): tijelo mu
sveano sahrane u zemlji Mitrovici, u grobu to je sebi iza ivota ogradio PCP84,
Mene je otac iza iva obeao onome djetiu PCP78, uh da je tu djevojku
mauha obeala, iza iva oca, nekaku kovau PCP54. Ogranienost upotrebe ove
osobine na jezik pisaca iz Boke, Crne Gore i Hercegovine govori o njenom
dijalekatskom karakteru56.
4. Umjesto dativa, biljeimo veoma osobenu konstrukciju genitiva sa
predlogom u: Dobro jutro u kuma Marka, na dobro mu boi i badnji dan
PCP134.
5. Predlog skraj koji je ablativnog karaktera oznaava udaljavanje od
pojma s imenom u genitivu57. Danas bi se u toj poziciji upotrebio oblik od +
genitiv: Hajte s kraj mene da neprevjerim M40, pri kretanju s kraj pae Skender
obustavi staroga Igumna PCP86, Ja sam sad s kraj Gruja PCP150, sudnik ga
izadene s kraj sebe PVD27,153.
6. a) U nekim primjerima genitiv s predlogom vrh upotrebljava se umjesto na + L ili nad + I: Zarecimo se junaki, i zakunimo vrh oruja, da im dati ne
emo do kamenja nita PVD16,91, ubije oeka, od nevolje, vrh sebe PVD14,78.
b) Za izraavanje cilja kretanja umjesto akuzativa sa predlogom na Ljubia upotrebljava navedenu predloku vezu: a vi svojta ubijenoga turite s mosta
brata mu vr Novaka PVD5,27, a Bistra vrh njega da mu ne da, dok ne kae gdje je
blago PCP149.
7. Ljubia koristi i arhaini oblik predloga preo sa genitivom: Vidji tamo
preo vrha M6, roblje da neslazi preo vrha M30, trei preo jezera na Crmniku i
55
Detaljnije o ovome isp. rad prof. Ostojia, Distribucija padenih formi s uzronim znaenjem u
jeziku crnogorske pripovjedake proze od Njegoa do 1918, 169185.
56
Stevanovi smatra da je predlog iza nastao najvjerovatnije od veznika i i predloga za (Stevanovi
1974: 269270).
57
Isp. Stevanovi 19331934: 100. Ovaj predlog se danas smatra dijalektizmom (Stevanovi 1974:
324).

rjeku Nahiju M31, to odgovara stanju u crnogorskim narodnim govorima
(Peikan 1965: 193; upi 1977: 141).
8. a) U upotrebi genitivne konstrukcije sa predlogom prama Ljubia se
djelimino slae sa stanjem u jeziku starijih crnogorskih pisaca i narodnih govora
(Ostoji 1976: 212; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 221; Piurica 1969: 196; Za govore isp.:
Vujovi 1969: 297; Mileti 1940: 519; Peikan 1965: 19; Stevanovi 1934: 109;
upi 1977: 157), gdje se ovaj predlog javlja iskljuivo sa genitivom. U jeziku
naeg pisca upotrebljava se i sa lokativom, kao i u jeziku Nikole I (Nenezi 2010:
295). U Vukovom jeziku njegova upotreba je neuporedivo ea sa genitivom
nego sa lokativom (Stevanovi 1987: 138139; Popovi 1964: 108110). Predlog
prama oznaava mjesto na suprotnoj strani koje neko ili neto zauzima i danas
se njegova upotreba smatra arhainom58: boi se okrenuti pram tolike osobe
S48, zazrie oeka gdje pram njega upravo konja jezdi PCP259, popne se na
uznosito mjesto pri poljani, a pram njega obrati se skup da vidi i uje PCP272.
b) Ljubia upotrebljava predlog pram/a i sprama pored dativa i sa genitivom u slubi oznaavanja namjene i upravljenosti: M nismo ot rili odnoae vnog prava nae kralvine Dalmace spram naih kralvinah G1,1,
dok se Ngovo Veliestvo ne udostoi riti odnoen vnog prava Dalmace
pram Hrvacke i Slavone G1,4, nepovierenje prama sadanje Vlade ukazati
G5,342. Primjeri upotrebe prema sa genitivom nezavisno od znaenja koji ima
zabiljeeni su kod Vuka, i u jeziku vojvoanskih pisaca59. Ovakva upotreba sa
genitivom je zastarjela i ima dijalekatski karakter (Stevanovi 1974: 354355).
9. Upotreba posesivnog dativa je takoe esta u jeziku naeg pisca, pogotovo kad se radi o enklitikim oblicima dativa linih zamjenica: ja sam ti odgovorio isto kako mi dua sea P6, da vidi od kud mu gosti GO1, blago ti zdravlju i
starosti GO3, smiri uzburkanu mi duu GO8, vjena ti muka M7, snaha mu epuka M9, do njega sin mu jedinac Stevan PCP25, pa se on rugae materi mi
PCP31, mile mi domovine 3.
Registrovali smo manji broj primjera posesivnog dativa od imenica: da
ne piem svecu ime PVD9,41, da budemo kui domaini PCP16. Prenaglaena
upotreba posesivnog dativa u Ljubiinom jeziku u potpunosti odgovara stanju u
crnogorskim narodnim govorima i jeziku pripovjedaa sa tog podruja60. Danas
bi se prije upotrebili oblici prisvojnih zamjenica ili pridjeva.
58
Predlog prema i pored sve nekadanje irine upotrebe s oblikom genitiva, danas sa smatra
zastarjelim (Stevanovi 1974: 353356).
59
Isp. za vojvoanske pisce: Heriti 1983: 280, napomena 1151. Za Vuka vidi: P. Ivi 1964: 147;
Stevanovi 1987: 138.
60
Za govore isp.: Vujovi 1969: 298; Mileti 1940: 522; Peikan 1965: 188; Piurica 1981: 192;
Piurica 1967: 155. Za crnogorske pisce vidi: Mladenovi 1973: 170; Vuovi 1930: 5152; Stevanovi 1983: 303; Gluica 1997: 273; Piurica 1969: 197; Ostoji 1989: 158159; Ostoji 1989a: 9596;
Nenezi 2010: 301. Prof. Ostoji za jezik Petra I ne nalazi posesivni dativ (Ostoji 1976: 217).

10. U Ljubiinim tekstovima, dodue rijetko, nalazimo primjere vremenske upotrebe dativa sa predlogom k, u znaenju ispred vremena koji je
oznaen imenom u dativu: K veeru se nebo od svukud zatuti PVD13,72, a no
prevali k drugoj polovini PCP196, Pa kad doba k jeseni obrate/ Te se stabla okite
PR1,145. Ovakvi primjeri javljaju se u jeziku nekih starijih crnogorskih pisaca,
takoe u Vukovom jeziku, kao i u rovakom govoru61.
11. Ljubia ponekad upotrebljava i predlog protiv/u u slubi oznaavanja
stava prema pojmu ije ime stoji u dativu (Stevanovi 1974: 379): nastavio rd
sa dravom u ime propagande i protiv interesu ali e ga prevariti P17, ujem da
oe da potrai protivu Boki iznimno stanje P70, kad jih nema ko voditi na
pljenove i ajduiju protivu nekrstu M7, general Marmont nije nikad vojtio
protivu Grblju G19. Vrlo rijetko se javlja u Njegoevom jeziku sa dativnim
znaenjem (Stevanovi 1983: 191).
12. Akuzativ bez predloga ponekad se upotrebljava u funkciji uzronika
stanja, gdje bi se kao semantiki sinonim prije upotrebio oblik genitiva sa
predlogom zbog: tu korei im lnost S27, A ti isti dava im povoda / Da te
plau, po ustiju vuku PR2,165.
13. Vremenska odredba akuzativa sa predlogom uz zasnovana je na irokoj narodnoj upotrebi, a karakteristina je i za jezik Vuka Karadia (Stevanovi 1974: 407. Za govore isp.: upi 1977: 155; Piurica, 1981a: 205): uz Petrov
post P9, Jedno vee uz Boitnje poste M1, Uz duge zimnje veeri Vuk je priao
mladom gospodaru PVD3, uz poste jeli u manastiru svaki dan boba PVD1,13.
Specifinost akuzativne veze sa predlogom uz koja oznaava vremensko trajanje
jeste u tome to se uglavnom javlja sa odreenim imenicama, kao npr. post.
14. Glagoli koji imaju semantiko znaenje glagola udati u jeziku S. Ljubie imaju dopunu u akuzativu sa predlogom za, pored instrumentalnih sintagmi
sa predlozima za ili s: Ona ne e poi nego za crnogorca GO6, moe li mimo
crkovne, poi hrianka za latinina GO11, hoeli uzeti za mua onoga momka
PVD8,34, Bolje da sam udovala do groba nego ti dola za oca PCP62.
15. Predloko-padena veza na + akuzativ u funkciji odreivanja naina
pokazuje u jeziku S. Ljubie mnotvo transformativnih mogunosti i potencijalnih alternativnih konstrukcija:
a) Paralelno sa instrumentalnim sintagmama: narod vrvi od svudkud na
opore PCP22, Ne moe se takvi grad na juri uzeti PVD34,209, te bonici stanu
rjevati na jata u Mahine M2.
Umjesto po + lokativ: prodati jedno dobro paripe na jevtinu cijenu
PCP168, svakoga je dopalo na glavu po tridest pleta PCP67.
Ovakve konstrukcije vezuju jezik naeg pisca za govorni idiom i za
crnogorsku tradiciju uopte (Mileti 1940: 483; Piurica 1981a: 204; upi 1977:
61
Stevanovi 1974: 376. Isp. u Vuka udau se k jeseni (Vuk Stef. Karadi 1964: uz rije oaf, 537).
Zabiljeen je u jeziku A. Zmajevia (Piurica 1981a: 345). Vidi Piurica 1967: 157.

131; Stani 1974: 8081). Raznolikost akuzativnih konstrukcija sa predlogom na
zabiljeena je i u jeziku Marka Miljanova, Vuka Popovia i Lazara Tomanovia
(Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 253; Piurica 1969: 205; J. Suboti 1981: 208209).
b) U primjeru akuzativne veze sa predlogom na biljeimo socijativno
znaenje, tj. u drutvu sa... zajedno sa...: Rua Mrkonjia ostala bez oba
roditelja na zlu mauhu PCP75.
v) Neobina je upotreba predloga na sa akuzativom u znaenju namjene
umjesto dativa bez predloga ili sa predlogom k/a, koja je narodnog karaktera, a
zabiljeena je i u jeziku Vuka Popovia62: jeli prije svog kretanja poslao te karte
na Rendia P43, jutra dan doe carski brzojav na zapovjedajueg generala
11,15, Ona je na tebe okrenuta P70.
g) Akuzativna sintagma sa predlogom na javlja se u kvalitativnoj funkciji:
cura na izbor i po rodu i po djelu i po divoti PCP35, etnici vrue krvi i na zor
PCP195.
Kvalitativno znaenje akuzativne sintagme sa predlogom na koje bismo
u savremenom jeziku prije zamijenili oblikom instrumentala imamo u sledeim
primjerima: Neko bi htio popa domaa, neko stranca, neko udovca na siroadi
PVD6,28, zame nam plijen iz aptine, sto koza, dvanaest govedi, i kravu
muzovnicu na tele PCP160, u kojima se ogleda uticaj narodnih govora63.
d) Neki glagoli kao zahvaljivati, mrziti, teiti, napasti, vjerovati, ostati i sl.
imaju dopunu u obliku akuzativa sa predlogom na, koja je neobina za dananje
jeziko osjeanje: Hvala vam na govor namjesnik P12, Ovi mrzei na Turke, i na
tursk zulum 1,127, On je teio na to 2,210, Vi ste na mene napali P90, Ja
sam na tvoje pismo povjerio P72, to me prije smrt ne ugrabi no ostah na izroda
PCP36.
) Za odreivanje odnosa zamjene Ljubia upotrebljava predloke izraze
u ime, u njegovo ime, u tue ime i sl. kao i na ime esto i u kombinaciji sa
genitivom, koji se javljaju u jeziku starijih crnogorskih pisaca i u nekim narodnim
govorima64: i da na ime trgovaca i puanstva ti protestira P49, pak bi pritravao
na Cetinje da na ime Vladike sudi i miri zemlju M16, koji su na ime vladiino
govorili PVD34,210.
16. a) Sintagme sa predlogom o u Ljubiinom jeziku oznaavaju zavravanje kretanja neega po bilo kom dijelu povrine pojma ije se ime nalazi u
akuzativu, odnosno zavretak pomjeranja neega to se vezuje i vjea za pojam s
imenom u akuzativu. U jeziku starijih crnogorskih pripovjedaa i narodnih govo-
62
Isp. za jezik V. Popovia (Piurica, 1969: 204). U crmnikom govoru uz ime nekog trgovca pored
predloga kod, u upotrebljava se i predlog na (Mileti, 1940: 525).
63
Isp. On prodao kravu na mlijeku u govoru sjeverozapadne Boke (Pavlovi 2000: 132).
64
Miljanov upotrebljava oblike mjesto, na mjesto, u ime (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 266), V. Popovi
mjesto, namjesto, na mjesto, na ime (Piurica 1969: 187). Za govore isp. upi 1977: 153.

ra predlog o kombinuje se samo sa lokativom65, mada se u pojedinim crnogorskim govorima istina rjee upotrebljava i sa akuzativom (Mileti 1940: 484; upi 1977: 153), to odgovara stanju u jeziku Stefana Ljubie. Meutim, u sledeim primjerima danas bi prema savremenom knjievnojezikom uzusu prije dole neke druge predloke veze:
1. akuzativna sa predlogom za: bolje mast o sukno prione PCP26,
2. akuzativna sa predlogom od: udari zub o zub PCP195, Ili loncem o
kamen, ili kamenom o lonac PVD5,27. Ovakvi primjeri sa predlogom o javljaju se
i u govoru sjeverozapadne Boke66.
b) Neuobiajeni su sa stanovita savremene norme primjeri ove
predloko-padene veze sa predlogom o uz glagole govorenja: tu ne moe biti
govora o kakvoj praksis P26, nema dana to o tebe ne zborimo P1.
17. Za izraavanje namjene kod Ljubie sreemo konstrukciju akuzativa
sa predlogom u, koja je neuobiajena u savremenom jeziku, umjesto akuzativa
sa predlogom za: Kad roditelj nee da d komu ker u enu, ovaj je zajmi PCP8,
Ivanbegom udovcem, osvati se gospotina, davi mu vladiku Katu Oria u enu
PCP64, ona me je izbavila i primila u ker PVD13,75, ono siroe uzme u enu
PVD15,85, Ako mi dade gazda ker u enu PVD30,7.
18. Konstrukcija meu sa akuzativom javlja se u primjerima u kojima je u
slubi predikata medijalni glagol praen mofremom se: Dok ree jedan od njih,
poto se neto meu se porazgovore PCP19, Znam da se vi Patrovii enite
meuse PCP42, Kad bili u vee na konaku, dogovarali se Spiani meu se kako bi
kletvom Pastroviima okrnuli od granice PCP162.
Mihailo Stevanovi smatra da je ovo jedan od onih sluajeva u kojima
imamo remeenje utvrene zakonitosti prema kojoj bi morao doi oblik instrumentala, kao to i dolazi kad se upotrebljava puni oblik zamjenice sebe. Ona se
javlja u mnogim narodnim govorima i u jeziku pisaca i dijalekatskog je karaktera
(Stevanovi 1974: 423).
19. U Ljubiinom jeziku evidentna su i neka odstupanja od norme savremenog jezika, kao u primjeru instrumentala bez predloga: ivjeti u ovako bogatomu i pravednomu carstvu, gdje je Bog stolom sio PCP15. Milka Ivi navodi sline primjere instrumentala u znaenju obinog mjesnog padea statiki komponovanog, tj. bez dinaminosti koja mu je svojstvena (M. Ivi 1954: 123).
Pribiljeili smo i primjer koji oznaava zauzimanje prostora, koji bi se
mogao predstaviti genitivnom sintagmom sa predlogom sa (sa zapadne strane
sela): Humska granica protee se zapadom sela PVD24,133. I u sledeem primje-
65
Predlog o upotrebljava uz lokativ Petar I (Ostoji 1976: 218), Miljanov (Bigovi-Gluica 1997:
226), Popovi (Piurica 1969: 208), Tomanovi (J. Suboti 1981: 227228). Za govore isp.: Vujovi
1969: 324; Peikan 1965: 92; Stevanovi 19331934: 110.
66
Isp. Zamlati njim o zemlju (Pavlovi 2000: 24).

ru umjesto instrumentala danas bismo upotrebili oblik genitiva sa predlogom iz:
tako da mu pue krv grlom i nosom PCP216.
20. Zabiljeili smo i primjere koji su neobini sa stanovita savremene
knjievnojezike norme, ali ne i nekih crnogorskih govora67: Da te nove knjige
svijet ugledaju novom kolskom godinom P82, hodila bih barem mrakom da mu
nazovem dobru no GO20, nastave putovanje subotom PCP194, Novom
godinom prekini mu davanje PVD19,105, umre danom 19. listopada 2,211.
U primjeru: povede me djed jo djetetom u Bubia da me ia PCP132,
imamo vremenski period posredno identifikovan uzrastom. Ovaj instrumental
apozitivnog tipa je karakteristian kod imenica koje oznaavaju ovjeka u
odreenom dobu starosti, da bi se pokazao vremenski period paralelan sa trenutkom vrenja glagolske radnje (M. Ivi 1954: 146). Zabiljeen je i u crnogorskim govorima, mada ee kao dopuna glagolu biti (Mileti 1940: 530; Peikan
1965: 189; upi 1977: 115; Piurica 1967: 167).
Iako je temporalni instrumental uglavnom izgubio dinamiki karakter
svog vremenskog znaenja i poeo da se gubi kao posebna padena kategorija,
primjeujemo da je polje upotrebe temporalnog instrumentala dosta iroko u
Ljubiinom jeziku u odnosu na savremeni jezik.
21. U jeziku naeg pisca evidentirani su i primjeri instrumentala uzroka,
odnosno izazivaa kojim se obiljeavaju apstraktne ili konkretne imenice sa
znaenjem kakve pojave ili predmeta koji su po svojoj prirodi takvi da sami od
sebe, samom prirodom svojom, izazivaju datu akciju (M. Ivi 1954: 72): Drugo
nalo me je u postelji kostoboljom P15, Ja sam se bio zabunio mojim zdravljam
P61, Ja mislim da emo mi izgubiti dosta udinim zatvorom P68, Jesenskom
poplavicom nabreknu Zetica i Moraa PCP30, nadme se vodom i crkne nadut
PVD32,130, Jer ako se razlogom tuguje PR3,375. Dok je njegova upotreba u
starom jeziku bila veoma iva, u savremenom je obino zamijenjen drugim
konstrukcijama68. Ovakva upotreba odgovara stanju u jeziku pisaca sa
crnogorskog govornog podruja iz predvukovskog, vukovskog i postvukovskog
perioda (Ostoji 1989: 182183; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 248; J. Suboti 1981: 215;
Nenezi 2010: 318319), kao i stanju zabiljeenom u crnogorskim narodnim
govorima (Mileti 1940: 532; upi 1977: 115; Piurica 1967: 167).
22. Znaenje sredstva i drutva u jeziku S. Ljubie uglavnom se vee za
instrumental koji pokazuje izvjesna odstupanja od stanja u savremenom jeziku.
Ta odstupanja od norme savremenog jezika ogledaju se u tome da se socijativ i
instrumental orua mogu iskazivati na dva naina u jeziku naeg pisca ili
instrumentalom bez predloga ili instrumentalnom sintagmom sa predlozima. Pojava morfolokog izjednaavanja instrumentala i socijativa u korist instrumenta67
Isp. mrakom, neeljom u crmnikom govoru (Mileti 1940: 534).

Isp. M. Ivi 1954: 99. Ovaj oblik se ne nalazi u dobrom narodnom govoru, a u knjievnom se
javlja katkad (Mareti 1963: 595596).
68

la nije u jednakoj mjeri obuhvatila sve crnogorske govore i crnogorske pripovijedae69. U Ljubiinom jeziku registrovali smo prilian broj primjera sa upotrebom
instrumentala bez predloga umjesto predloke konstrukcije.
a) Najei su primjeri instrumentala bez predloga umjesto predloke
konstrukcije uz socijativne glagole u tipinoj socijativnoj funkciji: Onomadne sam
se Mijom u debele raztavio P6, da traimo uniu Ungarskom P6, Javljam Vam da
sam se stao Knjazom Crnogorskim P12, odma zbori Iovom P45, Nije ala Radom
ratovati PCP45, Mi se sudili Patroviima kao dvije raje PCP167, Ko djavolom
tikve sadi, o glavu mu se lome PCP277.
b) U jeziku S. Ljubie est je i socijativ bez predloga kada odreeni
predmet upotpunjuje predstavu o datom licu (Piurica 1969: 221): koje povjest eka biem u ruci P5, Stojei u dubak, kapom na glavi, bodboio se maem
M20, Kad li zbilja Furlan paloinom o pasu PCP20, oba gologlavi runikom o
ramenu PCP33, svaka kolijevkom na glavi PCP164, ta e Mletaka gospoda
topom PVD21,114, Al se bori orlom velikijem B23.
v) Instrumental orunik Ljubia upotrebljava i sa predlogom sa, kao u
sledeim primjerima: mi emo sa zlatnim slovima na njoj napisati P7, da se moje
pripovijesti pretampaju sa irilicom P63, rastvorene knjige sa slovima kao zrno
boba PVD31,90, Nek me naspe sa srebrom i zlatom PR2,165, Vezenijem sa
zlatom i svilom PR2,165.
Ova dijalekatska osobina Stefana Ljubie narodnog je karaktera, jer je
rasprostranjena u svim crnogorskim govorima (Jovanovi 2005: 249; Vujovi
1969: 300; Mileti 1940: 527528; Peikan 1965: 189; Stevanovi 19331934:
108; Piurica 1981a 187; Vukovi 19381939: 83; upi 1977: 119; Stani 1977:
64). Pojava socijativne konstrukcije u orunikoj slubi prisutna je i u jeziku
starijih crnogorskih pripovjedaa, kao i vojvoanskih70, i dio je opte tendencije
69
Zastupljen je u izvjesnom broju primjera u crmnikom govoru (Mileti 1940: 531), u

istonocrnogorskim obuhvata zetskopodgorike i kukobratonoike govore (Stevanovi 1933
1934: 109), u starocrnogorskim govorima obuhvata Zetu i Ljekopolje (Peikan 1965: 190). U
ostalim crnogorskim govorima kategorija socijativa u obliku instrumentala bez predloga skoro da i
ne postoji (upi 1977: 115; Piurica 1981a: 187; Vuovi 1927: 67). Vujovi za govor Mrkovia
konstatuje da je oblik instrumentala bez predloga s preovladao u svim kategorijama socijativu,
oruniku, prosekutivu, instrumentalu naina. Jedino se predlog s upotrebljava uz oblik zamjenice i
to uglavnom pokazne (Vujovi 1969: 300). Ova pojava rijetka je u jeziku Petra I, Petra II, V.
Popovia, L. Tomanovia (Ostoji 1976: 222; Vuovi 1930: 59; Piurica 1969: 220; J. Suboti 1981:
221), dok je sasvim uobiajena u jeziku M. Miljanova, A. Dakovia i Nikole I (Bigovi-Gluica 1997:
258; Ostoji 1989b: 164; Nenezi 2010: 314).
70
Crnogorski pripovjedai u veoj ili manjoj mjeri upotrebljavaju i instrumental bez predloga i sa
predlogom s isp.: Ostoji 1976: 222223; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 257; Ostoji 1989b: 164; Nenezi
2005: 96; Piurica 1969: 235; Suboti za jezik Tomanovia biljei samo jedan primjer prodora
socijativne konstrukcije sa predlogom sa (J. Suboti 1981: 215). Za vojvoanske pisce isp.: Kuna
1970: 198; LJ. Suboti: 1989, 179; Jerkovi 1972: 245.

karakteristine za ostale slovenske jezike jo iz doba opteslovenske zajednice
(Ivi 1954: 234).
g) I u sledeim primjerima sa starim instrumentalnim nastavakom -i
biljeimo predlog sa u znaenju socijativa ali i orunika: dogju poklisari s darovi
M25, poalje 600 momakah s mazgi M43, evo me da se s Vami pismeno
porazgovorim P16, / da su Bokeska sela spaljena sa raketi G19.
Uz brojeve umjesto instrumentala orua Ljubia upotrebljava predlog su
kao padeni znak71: pak se dovati su obije ruke za sjeru i dugu bradu M19, Tu
iskrcaju Stevana poto ga Bembo daruje su dva dukata PCP57.
d) Arhainost instrumentala u Ljubiinom jeziku potvruje se instrumentalom bez predloga umjesto instrumentala s predlogom s u atributskoj
funkciji, koji su u njegov jezik mogli ui iz narodnih govora (Pavlovi 2000: 130;
Vujovi 1969: 306): a nae hiljadu akova po crnojgori, Boki i Bukovici nemaju
knjiga dobrom prozom P63, jede dva starca gologlava, bijelima kosama do
pojasa PVD20,112, Megju ovijem kalugjerima bijae starac sijedom bradom do
pojasa PCP86.
23. U sledeim primjerima instrumentalom sa predlogom pod oznaava
se vremenski period naporednosti vrenja glagolske radnje. Navedeni primjeri
mogli bi danas glasiti za vrijeme Duana, za vrijeme Stefana ili u vrijeme Duana,
Stefana: to mu je pradjed dao prababi kad se vjerivali iot pod Duanom
PVD22,121, koi o pod Stefanom kralm Srbskim odobren bo
1,125. Ovakve konstrukcije karakteristine su i za jezik starijih pisaca predvukovskog i vukovskog perioda s crnogorskog govornog podruja (Stevanovi
1983: 55; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 236; Nenezi 2010: 326), kao i za narodne
govore (Pavlovi 2000: 66). U Ljubiinom jeziku predloko-padena veza pod +
instrumental leksikalizuje se nazivom vladara ijom vladavinom je determinisan
neki vremenski period.
24. Temporalna upotreba instrumentala sa predlogom pred poznata je i
Ljubiinim prethodnicima i savremenicima (Stevanovi 1983: 132; BigoviGluica 1997: 240; Nenezi 2010: 326327), a u dananjem knjievnom jeziku
prije bi se upotrebila predloko-padena veza ispred + genitiv: Kao pred nekijem
udom nijesam nikad u svom danu tvrgje usnuo PCP189, kad bilo pred zorom,
snijeva mu se PCP271, Polji vi ja popa pred zorom PCP2,380, Kad se trgnem od
sna pred svanuem PR3,376.
25. Upotrebom konstrukcije pri + lokativ u oznaavanju dospijevanja do
predmeta, Ljubia se slae sa stanjem koje je zabiljeeno u jeziku crnogorskih
pripovijedaa i narodnih govora (Ostoji 1976: 224; Stevanovi 1983: 156;
Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 227; Nenezi 2010: 327; Mileti 1940: 534), ali ne i sa
savremenim knjievnim jezikom poto se takva upotreba smatra dijalekatskom
(Stevanovi 1974: 520521): odvede ga pri samoj obali jezera GO2, Dogji pri
71
M. Ivi 1954: 231. Isp. isto i u jeziku Tomanovia (J. Suboti 1981: 220).

Bojani da mi vida rane PCP60, dogju na uglavljeni sastanak pod Vjetrnijem
guvnom, ba pri samoj megji PCP156.
U sledeem primjeru umjesto Ljubiine lokativne veze sa predlogom pri
danas bismo upotrebili konstrukciju za + akuzativ: knez dohvati rukom za
birnicu, to je ukovana pri vratnicama crkvenijema PCP189.
Lokativ sa predlogom pri javlja se i u znaenju posjedovanja ega od
strane lica ili kolektiva sa imenom u ovom padeu (Stevanovi 1974: 521). Kao
njegov sintaksiki ekvivalent u ovim primjerima javlja se genitiv sa predlogom
kod: Listovi ostanu razdvojeni jedan pri popu, a drugi pri Mireti PCP164, da
predam pokojnikovu ocu to mu je sinovljega ostalo pri meni PVD1,12.
26. Karakteristina je u Ljubiinom jeziku i upotreba predloga po sa
genitivom plurala u znaenju lokativa, a to je osobina crnogorskih govora: sve
po ulicah propadne elom na zemlju M5, Za takve sitnarije ne kuju se ljudi po
galij PCP54, sluaju lelek gjakov po elija PCP77, Nakom dvanaest satih hoda
po lomin i plotin PVD13,71, Razturio vojsku po anevih B14, Svojim plugom
ore, brazde dube,/ Po dolinah mile otabine PR1,145.
27. U savremenom knjievnom jeziku izvrena je znaenjska reparticija
predloga u, na sa oblicima akuzativa i lokativa i njihova upotreba je strogo razgraniena (Stevanovi, 1974: 408412; 414415; 488492; 496498). Drugaiju
situaciju pokazuju u ovom pogledu crnogorski govori i pisci s crnogorskog govornog podruja predvukovskog i postvukovskog perioda. Naime, u crnogorskim
govorima obino su u upotrebi predlozi u, na s oblicima akuzativa i u lokativnom
znaenju (Vujovi 1969: 310; Mileti 1940: 499; Peikan 1965: 189; Stevanovi
19331934; 104; upi 1977: 131132; Piurica 1981a: 185). Takva situacija
zabiljeena je i u jeziku starijih crnogorskih pisaca, mada se ova dva predloga
upotrebljavaju ponekad i sa lokativom72. I u jeziku Stefana Ljubie nalazimo neke
specifinosti u pogledu upotrebe ovih predloko-padenih oblika. One se sastoje
u sledeem:
1. Uz glagole kretanja i neke druge glagole koji bi u savremenom jeziku
zahtijevali akuzativnu dopunu u jeziku naeg pisca biljeimo i oblik lokativa.
u
U sriedu istu polazim u Beu P15, Kad proe odavde u Gracu P22, I
recevitur Kotorski ide u pensiji P24, Bio sam pozvan u Beogradu P71, u
72
U jeziku vladike Danila prisustvo lokativa narueno je upotrebom akuzativa u znaenju ovog
padea (Mladenovi 1973: 170171). I u jeziku Petra I poremeen je odnos upotrebe padea
mjesta i padea pravca u korist akuzativa, tj. akuzativ se javlja s predlozima u i na umjesto lokativa
(Ostoji 1976: 226227). Predlozi u, na najee stoje uz oblike akuzativa i kad imaju lokativna
znaenja (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 227228). Ova dva predloga se sasvim rijetko javljaju s lokativnim
oblicima predlog u neto ee a na sasvim rijetko (Ostoji 1989b: 168170). Pored zamjene
lokativnih konstrukcija ciljnim u jeziku V. Popovia zabiljeena je i obrnuta zamjena (Piurica 1969:
225). Upotreba predloga u, na sa lokativom u jeziku L. Tomanovia uglavnom odgovara stanju u
savremenom jeziku, osim nekoliko izuzetnih odstupanja kod zamjene ciljnih konstrukcija sa
lokativnim (J. Suboti 1981: 222223). Za jezik Nikole I karakteristina je naporedna upotreba ovih
predloga sa A i L uz glagole mirovanja i kretanja (Nenezi 2010: 331).

tomu polagahu veliko ime S7, tamo ga zatvori u mranoj kuli M5,
Poetkom XI. ljegla u primorju 11,5,
na
da pogje ivjeti na Cetinju M26.
Ova dva predloga javljaju se i u konstrukcijama sa lokativom. esto se
javljaju sa znaenjima kao u savremenom jeziku, mada biljeimo i primjere ovih
predloga sa akuzativom u lokativnom znaenju.
u
Istina da u ovu knigu ne pie P1, Ovamo u nae Carstvo P2, jadikuje u
pjesme na svoj poloaj P8, da ga traimo u vodu egom GO20, Etika i
estetika vladaju u Ljubiina pisma 11,35, da se postave kotarski sudovi
u Biograd i Tiesno G23,
na
Na njega stoji to P40, ostala bi na nas sumnja i grdilo GO4, uje... na
guvna M4, a na prsi okruglo obiljee kao sunce M14, opet Tanovi
prihvati, rukom na prsi M22, srela se ba na granicu PVD24,131, da se s
Lepetana kokot uje na Kamenare 7,4.
Ovako donekle poremeena upotreba predloga u, na sa akuzativom i
lokativom vjerovatno je posledica uticaja narodnih govora u kojima je ograniena upotreba lokativnih oblika, a i pisaca sa ovih prostora kod kojih je evidentno nerazlikovanje padea mjesta i padea cilja.
Ponekad Ljubia umjesto konstrukcije kod + genitiv ili konstrukcije sa
dativom upotrebljava akuzativnu sintagmu sa predlogom na: Tetka odredi Ruu
da ljegne u Budvu na mastioca PCP79, ime se slae sa jezikom svojih savremenika Marka Miljanova i Vuka Popovia (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 229; Piurica
1969: 204). Zabiljeili smo i jedan primjer upotrebe predloga na sa lokativom u
znaenju upravljenosti, u kojem bismo oekivali ka + dativ: prekrsti ruke i
pogleda vrh sebe na nebu PVD13,72.
28. Predlozi meu, nad, pod, pred u jeziku Stefana Ljubie upotrebljavaju se uz akuzativ i instrumental. Meutim, njihova upotreba ne odgovara u
potpunosti stanju u savremenom knjievnom jeziku, jer je izgubljeno osjeanje
razlike u vezi sa glagolskom rekcijom. Takva situacija zabiljeena je i u crnogorskim govorima (Mileti 1940: 486; Peikan 1965: 192; Stevanovi 19331934,
105106; upi 1977: 137), kao i u jeziku starijih pisaca s crnogorskog govornog
podruja (Mladenovi 1973: 175; Ostoji 1976: 227; Vuovi 1930: 61; Piurica
1969: 224225; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 229232; Nenezi 2010: 335).
Konstrukcija meu sa instrumentalom pojavljuje se i u funkciji odreivanja mjesta zavretka kretanja, gdje bi se u knjievnom jeziku upotrebio oblik
akuzativa: Debelja zagrli enpfluga i poljubi meu plavijem oima GO9, sjedne za
sto, barem meu kumovima GO12, pozovnu ga da megju njima dogje M19,
peraka strana zasagjena megju njima kao klin PCP3, Dogje megju nama hri-

anska svetinja PCP150, da se megju nama stani PCP135. Ovakvo stanje zabiljeeno je u crnogorskim govorima73.
Zabiljeili smo i neke malobrojne primjere u kojima bi se umjesto akuzativnih sintagmi sa predlogom pod upotrebio instrumental, ime se Ljubia slae
sa jezikom starijih crnogorskih pripovijedaa (Ostoji 1976: 228; Bigovi-Gluica
1997: 230231; Ostoji 1989b: 171; Nenezi 2010: 338): Krilu pod Zadar pue zli
glas P9, Ovaj se rt i dan dananji zove Skoigjevojkom, i ko se gogj prvom podanj
vozi, uje mrnare PCP80, Ostadoe Mleci pod hara PCP12, pui kao orah pod
zube PVD,9, Sutradan opet kolo pod jablan na okup PCP163.
Instrumentalna veza sa predlogom pod zabiljeena je i u primjerima gdje
je u knjievnom jeziku obavezna konstrukcija sa akuzativom, a to odlikuje i jezik
Petra I, Marka Miljanova, Vuka Popovia, Nikole I (Ostoji 1976: 230; BigoviGluica 1997: 232; Piurica 1969: 225; Nenezi 2010: 338339): Ne emo bogme
nikad ivi pod porezom PVD17,99, kad bili pod atorom Seraskiera M38.
Frekvencija pravilne upotrebe akuzativno-instrumentalnih sintagmi sa
predlogom pod evidentna je u jeziku naeg pisca. Meutim, u rijetkim primjerima sa istim ili slinim znaenjima primijetili smo njegovu kolebljivost u upotrebi
jednog ili drugog oblika: ja sam isto drao da je V. ve pod zatvor P25, ako su
ve bili pod zatvorom P25. Danas bismo u ovim primjerima upotrebili lokativ sa
predlogom u.
Interesantan je i primjer upotrebe genitiva umjesto akuzativa sa predlogom pod: dok mu je ispoteu do pod ije GO24.
Pored primjera pravilne upotrebe akuzativa sa predlogom pred, koji
oznaava mjesto zavretka kretanja ispred pojma s imenom u akuzativu, biljeimo i rijetke primjere sa neknjievnom upotrebom, koja je poznata narodnim
govorima (Vujovi 1969: 312; Mileti 1940: 488489; Peikan 1965: 190;
Stevanovi 19331934: 106; upi 1977: 150; Piurica 1981a: 186): igra konja
pred Budvu PCP50, da se ne vidi prsta pred oko PVD1,9.
I kod ovog predloga registrovali smo akuzativnu i instrumentalnu dopunu sa glagolom koji zahtijeva rekciju u instrumentalu: Ako i nas objesi pred
Kotor M28, oni da ikako mogu objesili bi me pred Kotorom PCP259.
Sasvim rijetko instrumental sa predlogom pred javlja se u slubi akuzativa: Kad Sepan stade pred narodom M20, u emu se ogleda uticaj narodnih
govora (Vujovi 1969: 312; Mileti 1940: 488489; Peikan 1965: 190;
Stevanovi 19331934: 107108; upi 1977: 151; Piurica 1981a: 208).
B Ljubiin jezik karakteriu i neke osobine koje su arhaine ili ih je vrijeme potisnulo, ali kojima se ne spori knjievni karakter. One nam svjedoe o
bogatstvu njegovog knjievnojezikog izraza. Mnoge od tih osobina specifine su
i za Vukov knjievnojeziki model. Izdvajamo sledee:
73
Isp.: Mileti 1940: 495; Peikan 1965: 190; Stevanovi 19331934: 106; upi 1977: 145;
Piurica 1981a: 186. U govoru Mrkovia odstupanja su rijetka (Vujovi 1969: 319).

1. Za razliku od savremenog knjievnog jezika i nekih crnogorskih govora, u jeziku Stefana Ljubie biljeimo veoma estu upotrebu slovenskog genitiva74: Mudrokosi nisu iot ni gniezda savili P7, kad dinara nije P44, Jot neznam
uzroka P69, ne e s vjerenikom hljeba jesti GO12, nije ponjelo ni zrna ita
M41, tebi ve ne trebuje ni unja ni konja PCP21, Da su ljudi dobri nebi suda ni
trebalo PCP53, Tebi tu nije nikakve grehote ni sramote PCP78. I kod drugih
starijih pisaca sa crnogorskog podruja, kao i u jeziku Vuka Karadia sasvim je
obi-na upotreba genitiva uz odrine glagole, pa je razumljiva njena frekventnost u ispitivanom jezikom korpusu Stefana Ljubie75.
2. Jedna vrsta poredbenog odnosa iskazuje se i eksplikativnim genitivom
koji je unekoliko dijalekatskog karaktera, jer je u svakodnevnom jeziku vie
rasprostranjen genitiv sa predlogom od (Stevanovi 1974: 201212): kakva rpa
ljudetine to bijae PCP132, nije tu bila vojsci ala natezati se onom hrpom zvona
niz one prodoli PCP189, od kojega se jedva izvue potocima krvi svojijeh
vitekijeh sinovah M12. U ovim primjerima upravna rije objanjava pojam sa
imenom u genitivu rpa, tj. gomila ljudetine znai ljudetinu koja lii na rpu, hrpa
zvona znai zvono koje lii na hrpu, potoci krvi oznaavaju krv koja poput potoka
tee. Ovakvi primjeri zabiljeeni su u jeziku starijih crnogorskih pripovijedaa
(Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 264265).
3. esti i sasvim obini su i primjeri genitiva sa predlogom od sa znaenjem pripadanja, odnosno drutvene funkcije, ime se Ljubia slae sa jezikom
Petra I i Vuka Popovia (Ostoji 1976: 204; Piurica 1969: 191): da joj povrati
glavu od zakona M30, ree glava od bira PCP10, Pa naredi agi od strae da ih
izvedu PCP186, Dogju iz Kotora ljudi od suda PCP276, stari svat od doma izvede
mladu PVD8,34.
Genitivne sintagme sa predlogom od u znaenju pripadanja vrlo su iva
kategorija u narodnim umotvorinama, kod Vuka Karadia i starijih pisaca (Stevanovi 1987: 139141; Ostoji 1985: 9295; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 273; Ostoji
1989b: 150; Piurica 1969: 191; Nenezi 2010: 266). Danas se, meutim, vie u
ovom znaenju upotrebljava genitiv bez predloga, ali kad je neophodno istai
ablativnu nijansu, upotrebie se i predlog od (Stevanovi 1974: 227).
74
Darinka Gortan-Premk: 1962, 136. U savremenom jeziku obinija je upotreba akuzativa, dok se
slovenski genitiv u veini sluajeva osjea arhainim (Stevanovi 1974: 204206). U crnogorskim
govorima zabiljeena je sledea situacija: U crmnikom govoru osjea se jaka tendencija da se
genitiv uz negaciju zamijeni akuzativom (Mileti 1940: 501). Za SK-LJ govore Peikan konstatuje da
se genitiv koristi jedino uz glagole nemati i ne biti (Peikan 1965: 188). Ni upi za govor
Bjelopavlia ne biljei primjere slovenskog genitiva (upi 1977: 112). Upotreba slovenskog
genitiva zabiljeena je u kolainskom, uskokim i susjednim hercegovakim govorima (Piurica
1981a: 193; Stani 1977: 66; Peco 1964: 167).
75
Vidjeti: Piurica 1981b: 332; Mladenovi 1973: 169; Ostoji 1976: 199; Bigovi-Gluica 1997:
207; Piurica 1969: 179; Ostoji 1989b: 146147; J. Suboti 1981: 194; Nenezi 2005: 99. Za Vuka
isp.: Stevanovi 1987: 146147; M. Ivi 1957: 120.

4. U obliku konstrukcije od + genitiv ponekad se u Ljubiinom jeziku javlja dopuna glagolima uiniti, dogoditi, umjesto konstrukcije sa instrumentalom
kao u savremenom jeziku: ta od mene siraka inite PCP214, A to bi od granice
PCP166, a to je poznato i jeziku Petra II, M. Miljanova, V. Popovia76.
5. Karakteristina osebenost jezika S. Ljubie jeste ivo prisustvo genitivne konstukcije s predlogom sa/s za oznaavanje uzroka. Primjeri: Trpim Sultana
s nevolje GO15, Rekao bi da su te pripovijesti s njihove izvornosti mnogijem oslaale PCPI, s njega i nose Krtoli ime PCP2, Dojilje s gladi obezmlijeene PCP52,
Sve se bojim da je poginuo s vjeridbe PCP54, da se nam trag ne utre s rave
endbe PVD24,133.
Ovakva upotreba genitiva sa predlogom s/sa esta je u jeziku crnogorske
pisane rijei (Mladenovi 1973: 167168; Ostoji 1976: 206; Vuovi 1930: 48;
Ostoji 1989b: 151; Piurica 1969: 195; J. Suboti 1981: 199; Nenezi 2010: 270
271), dok je u jeziku Vuka Karadia manje obina (Gortan-Premk 196364: 446;
Popovi 1964: 99). Uzrona znaenja ove predloko-padene konstrukcije vezuju
se i za crnogorske narodne govore, neke vie, a neke manje77. Ova konstrukcija
je vrlo esta u jeziku narodnih umotvorina i narodne knjievnosti uopte. Nalazi
se i u veem dijelu narodnih govora, a funkcionie i u jeziku starijih i novijih
pisaca, pa je razumljivo to joj se ne spori knjievni karakter (Stevanovi 1974:
252253; Stevanovi 1965: 7274; Mareti 1963: 576).
6. Poznato je da se predlozi u i kod mogu javiti naporedo za oznaavanje
ega u vlasnitvu, u domenu, u granicama pojma. Ljubia upotrebljava obje
predloko-padene veze, s tim to se vezom u sa genitivom ogleda vjernost vukovskoj normi zasnovanoj na irokoj upotrebi ove konstrukcije78. Veza genitiva
sa predlogom u nosi stilsku obojenost i u nekim sredinama se osjea pomalo
arhainom, pa ak i nepoznatom (Stevanovi 1974: 312313):
kod + G imaemo konferenciju kod Ministra P8, bio sam kod Zanella P15, i
premda ja imam kod prizivnog suda P33, bio je kod Rodia P34, Ja bih
kod Putice P50, da potrai zajma kod drave P68, Jue sam bio kod njega
P70, pribavi on kod sebe M47,
u + G eto ga u mene P57, isto rodoljubije u vas die P69, u mene je srce
prozeblo GO3, Ja sam se nadao nai u tebe staro srce GO4, ja u
prenoiti u vas GO20, da mu je u nas uzak stan GO23, Ja sam lani vidjela
u susjeda Milana grob PCP26.
76
Isp. za Njegoa to ognjeni grom uini od mletake vojske tune; to bi od nas Pejo uinio; ni od
Gaa to se uinilo; to pogani od ljudi inite i sl. (Stevanovi 1983: 458459); Piurica 1969: 190;
Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 208.
77
U Crmnici, SK-LJ, Bjelopavliima ovakva upotreba je sasvim rijetka (Mileti 1940: 513; Peikan
1965: 193; upi 1977: 118), dok je obina u istonocrnogorskim govorima, Kolainu i Rovcima
(Stevanovi 19331934: 101; Piurica 1981a: 199; Piurica 1967: 146).
78
Sintagme u + genitiv i kod + genitiv sinonimne su kad oznaavaju da se radnja vri u sferi pojma
oznaenog ovim padeom (Popovi 1964: 85). Isp.: Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 211; Ostoji 1989b: 156.

7. Genitivnim sintagmama sa predlogom za se oznaava da se neto vri
u toku trajanja vremenskog termina oznaenog samostalnom rijeju: ne ete
podii za vaega vijeka od srca poroda PCP199, Bilo je u Spiu, za moje mlado
doba, sedam brata u jednoj istoj kui PCP242, / zapie se caru vojnik za dovijeka
PCP66, vi me redovnici za mlada ne uili PCP226, on je osugjen za dovijeka plau
i krgutanju zubova PCP273, Za Dukljana i Vukana bivala je zecka granica na
bijelome Drinu PVD24,134. Upotreba ove predloko-padene konstrukcije u vremenskom znaenju svojstvena je narodnim govorima (Pavlovi 2000: 61; Piurica 1967: 148; upi 1977: 121), jeziku starijih crnogorskih pisaca (Piurica
1981b: 339; Stevanovi 1983: 220; Ostoji 1989b: 157; Nenezi 2010: 294), kao i
Vuku Karadiu (M. Ivi 1957: 120121). Danas se njena upotreba osjea pomalo
neobinom i arhainom, i obinije se javlja veza za vrijeme s oblikom genitiva
8. Konstrukcija za + akuzativ esto se javlja u funkciji oznaavanja uzrono-ciljnih znaenja. Znaenjske kategorije ovih sintagmi u Ljubiinim tekstovima
su raznovrsne, kao i u jeziku njegovih prethodnika i savremenika79. Ovakva upotreba odlika je jezika Vuka Karadia (Gortan-Premk 19631964: 447449; Stevanovi 1987: 147148).
a) Pojam u akuzativu obino je uzronik radnje iskazane glagolom, kao u
primjerima: Za tako uasne posljedice mora neko Bogu raun platiti P26, Za
moju kuu ja sam na devet jada P59, Obea Luki Bogdanovu... da e prodati
gosta za pare PCP150, ek se okumi s ljekarem za nevolju PVD20,112, Sprva se
podie el za novac, pa za carstvenost S10.
b) Uzrono znaenje vezuje se za glagole odreenog semantikog
znaenja, kao to su glagoli koji oznaavaju zahvalnost, nagraivanje, molbe,
kanjavanje i sl.: korite za brzi zaborav P15, ti mi pomozi, ne mene za mene to te
nemolim, no za narod P58, Zaboga podhvati se iz petnih ila za moju kuu P58,
Katilina u prvo mladosti b okrvln i za podobne prestupke S15.
v) Namjensko-uzrono znaenje biljeimo u sintagmama u kojima je u
funkciji upravnog lana neka od leksema sa znaenjem portvovanja, stradanja i
sl. (Gortan-Premk 19631964: 448449): Ko pogine za vjeru i otadbinu ne
umire nikad GO3, kao svaki drugi narod to vojti za slobodu M18, sveta
Varvara muenica, koja je svoju krv za vjeru prolila PCP25, Kad radim za slavu
boju, tu mi nema ni grijeha ni uda PCP191, Moj narod svaki dan gine i zlopati,
borei se za krst asni i svoj opstanak PCP230. Svim ovim sintagmama osnovno
znaenje je namjensko, dok je uzrono samo implicitno prisutno.
g) Posebnu nijansu znaenja imaju primjeri u kojima je uzrono znaenje
podstaknuto nekim unutranjim pobudama: Onda Vladislav za prkos uini i
79
I u jeziku drugih crnogorskih pripovijedaa ova predloko-padena veza javlja se u uzronom

znaenju isp. Ostoji 1976: 219; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 246247; Piurica 1969: 201; J. Suboti
1981: 214; Nenezi 2005: 99.

mir sa turinom PCP84, zato bi se poturio Marko? Za nikakvo blago, no za inat
6.
9. Posteriornost u jeziku Stefana Ljubie naroito je izraena lokativnim
konstrukcijama sa predlogom po, kao u primjerima: Molim po proitanju spaliti
P17, koje mi je stiglo po njegovu u Trst polasku P53, a po ruku odprati do prve
strae Crnogorske M40, Po liturgiji izagje iguman krstom u ruci PCP272, Jedne
godine po Boiu sretoh PVD27,149, Po njegovoj smrti odmijeni ga sinovac mu
Sava Ljubia 11,6. Upotreba lokativa sa predlogom po u oznaavanju posteriornosti frekventna je i u jeziku starijih pisaca sa crnogorskog prostora, kao i u
narodnim govorima, tako da ova veza u jeziku naeg pisca nije drugaijeg ve
narodnog karaktera80. Upotreba lokativa sa predlogom po u ovom znaenju u
savremenom jeziku je sve manje u upotrebi i umjesto nje se upotrebljava
predlog poslije (M. Ivi 1951192: 192193).
10. Lokativne sintagme s predlogom o sa funkcijom obiljeavanja uzrono-ciljnih znaenja nalazimo u sledeim Ljubiinim primjerima: O tomu poslu
dolazio je jedan brzojav P31, oprijonuo bi o gostu srcem i duom GO1, drugo se
ali o krivomu dijelu PCP36, ni dvojica od njih ne mogahu se sloiti o jednomu
nainu PVD7,31. Lokativna sintagma sa predlogom o s uzronim znaenjem dosta je rijetka u knjievnom jeziku, i u ovakvim primjerima obinija je neka druga
predloko-padena veza (genitiv sa predlogom zbog ili akuzativ sa predlogom za)
11. Konstrukcija u + lokativ u uzronom znaenju zabiljeena je u sledeim primjerima iz Ljubiinog jezika, koji su odlika i Vukovog jezika (Ostoji 1989:
184): ali u hitnji ostadoe doma P7, Ja bih mnogo rad da u ovome poslu uspijem
P56, da je to pogrijeio u ludosti i neznanju PCP55, Daskale ili se pomeo u
radosti da prije paru stisne PVD9,36. U ovim sintagmama naglaeno je i znaenje
okolnosti u kojima se neto deava, ali te okolnosti su upravo uzrok radnje,
stanja ili zbivanja, pa bi se u ovakvim primjerima mogao kao sintaksiki sinonim
upotrebiti i genitiv sa predlogom zbog.
V Oslukujui crnogorske narodne govore, prije svega govor Patrovia,
Ljubia je oblikovao svoj jezik. U njegovom jeziku ukrtaju razliiti jeziki slojevi,
kao i u Vukovom jeziku i jeziku drugih pisaca njegovog vremena. U strukturi Ljubiinog djela preovladavaju padene konstrukcije svojstvene knjievnom jeziku,
ali je opet, sa druge strane, njegov padeni sistem donekle je sauvao govorne
pojedinosti iz nepresunih jezikih izvora patrovskog podneblja.
Pridrava se tradicije Stefan Ljubia kada upotrebljava npr. konstrukcije
s predlozima na, u, meu, nad, pod, pred. Ovako donekle poremeena upotreba
80
Vidi: Stevanovi 1974: 510. Isporedi iroku upotrebu ove konstrukcije u jeziku Petra I (Ostoji
1976: 225); M. Miljanova (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 238); V. Popovia (Piurica 1969: 227), Nikole I
(Nenezi 2010: 329330). Za narodne govore isp.: Mileti 1940: 498; upi 1977: 136; Stani 1977:
81.

predloga vjerovatno je nastala kao posledica uticaja narodnih govora, kao i starijih crnogorskih pisaca. Karakteristina je u Ljubiinom jeziku i upotreba predloga po sa genitivom plurala u znaenju lokativa, a to je osobina crnogorskih
govora.
Za oznaavanje naporednosti od arhainijih oblika izdvojili smo genitivne konstrukcije sa predlogom za, iza, akuzativne sa predlogom uz, instrumentalne sa pod, tipine za jezik starijih pisaca i narodne govore. U sistemu
padenih oblika za oznaavanje posteriornosti i anteriornosti ukazali smo na
primjere genitivne konstrukcije od imenice u pluralu sa predlogom o u funkciji
oznaavanja vremena koji su odlika narodnih govora, kao i na upotrebu dativa
sa predlogom k koji se javlja i u Vukovom jeziku i nekim crnogorskim govorima.
U vezi sa upotrebom instrumentala bitno je istai da su odstupanja od
norme savremenog jezika vezana za pojavu mofrolokog mijeanja socijativa u
uem smislu i orunika. U Ljubiinom jeziku registrovali smo prilian broj
primjera upotrebe slobodnog instrumentala u socijativnoj funkciji umjesto
predloke konstrukcije, kao i instrumentala orunika sa predlogom sa.
Ljubiin izraz karakteriu i osobine koje su arhaine, ali kojima se ne
spori knjievni karakter. Istiemo estu upotrebu slovenskog genitiva, genitivnih
sintagmi sa predlogom od u znaenju pripadanja, genitivne konstukcije s predlogom sa/s za oznaavanje uzroka, konstrukcija za + akuzativ u funkciji oznaavanja uzrono-ciljnih znaenja, kao i lokativne sa predlogom o i sl. Od genitivnih
sintagmi sa znaenjem prostornih odnosa, tipinih za Vukov jezik i pisce sa
crnogorskog podruja, izdvojili smo upotrebu predloga kod u funkciji odredbe
zavretka kretanja, naporednu upotreba kod i u u slubi prostornih znaenja (uz
glagole kretanja, pri emu ove veze oznaavaju cilj tog kretanja) i znaenja koja
su se razvila iz njih.
Narodnou karaktera jezika kojim je pisano, s jedne strane, i misaonou i poetinou s druge strane, Ljubiino djelo, snano je potvrdilo ivotnost
i ivotvornost njegovog knjievnojezikog izraza. Ljubia je donekle sauvao specifine pojedinosti padenog sistema svojstvene crnogorskim narodnim govorima prije svega patrovskom, koje ne naruavaju cjelishodnost njegovog knjievnog jezika i svakako je tim dijalekatskim oblicima ostavio dragocjen izvor za sva
budua lingvistika istraivanja.
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upi, Drago. Govor Bjelopavlia, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, XXIII, Beograd,
1977.
Gagovi, Svetozar. Iz leksike Pive (selo Bezuje), Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, LI,
Beograd, 2004.

Gortan-Premk, Darinka. Pade objekta u negativnim reenicama u savremenom
srpskohrvatskom knjievnom jeziku, Na jezik, n. s. XII, sv. 36, Beograd,
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Gortan-Premk, Darinka. Padene i predloko-padene uzrone konstrukcije kod
Vuka, Junoslovenski filolog, XXVI, 12, Beograd, 19631964: 437458.
Heriti, Piter. Knjievni jezik Emanuila Jankovia, Novi Sad, 1983.
Ivi, Milka. O predlogu po u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, Junoslovenski filolog, XIX,
knj. 14, Beograd, 19511952. 173212.
Ivi, Milka. Znaenja srpskohrvatskog instrumentala i njihov razvoj (Sintaksikosemantika studija), SAN, Posebna izdanja, knj. CCXXVII, Beograd, 1954.
Ivi, Pavle. O Vukovom Rjeniku iz 1818, Pogovor uz fototipsko izdanje Rjenika,
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Jerkovi, Jovan. Jezik Jakova Ignjatovia, Novi Sad, 1972.
Karadi, Vuk Stefanovi. Srpski rjenik, istolkovan njemakim i latinskim
rijeima, Srpska gramatika, Be, 1818 (Priredio Pavle Ivi), Beograd, 1964.
Kuna, Herta. Jezike karakteristike knjievnih djela Dositeja Obradovia,
Sarajevo, 1970.
Mareti, Tomo. Gramatika hrvatskoga ili srpskoga knjievnog jezika, Zagreb,
1963.
Mileti, Branko. Crmniki govor, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, IX, Beograd, 1940.
Mladenovi, Aleksandar. Jezik Vladike Danila, Novi Sad, 1973.
Nenezi, Sonja. Dijalekatsko i normativno u jeziku Nikole I Petrovia, esti
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knj. 23, Podgorica, 2005. 91103.
Nenezi, Sonja. Jezik Nikole I Petrovia, Crnogorska akademija nauka i
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Ostoji, Branislav. Jezik Memoara Vojvode Anta Dakovia, Niki, 1989b.
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knj. 1, Titograd, 1976.
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Peco, Asim. Govor istone Hercegovine, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, XIV,
Beograd, 1964.
Peikan, Mitar B. Starocrnogorski srednjokatunski i ljeanski govori, Srpski
dijalektoloki zbornik, XV, Beograd, 1965.

Piurica, Mato. Govor okoline Kolaina, CANU, knj. 12, Odjeljenje umjetnosti,
knj. 2, Titograd, 1981a.
Piurica, Mato. Jezik Andrije Zmajevia, CANU, knj. 22, Odjeljenje umjetnosti,
knj. 2, Titograd, 1981b.
Piurica, Mato. Upotreba padea u govoru Rovaca, Prilozi prouavanju jezika, 3,
Novi Sad, 1967. 143176.
Piurica, Mato. Upotreba padea u jeziku Stefana Mitrova Ljubie i Vuka
Popovia, Prilozi prouavanju jezika, 5, Novi Sad, 1969. 177237.
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XIV/23, Beograd, 1964. 108110.
Stani, Milija. Uskoki govor I i II, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, knj. XX i XXII,
Beograd, 1974, 1977.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Istonocrnogorski dijalekat, Junoslovenski filolog, XIII,
Beograd, 19331934.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Jezik u Vukovu delu i savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik, Vuk u
svome i naem vremenu, Matica srpska, Novi Sad, 1987.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Renik jezika Petra II Petrovia NJegoa, Beograd, 1983.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik II, Sintaksa, Beograd, 1974.
Suboti, Jelisaveta. Jezik Lazara Tomanovia u njegovim naunim spisima s kraja
XIX vijeka, 1981.
Suboti, LJiljana. Jezik Jovana Hadia, Matica srpska, Novi Sad, 1989.
Vujovi, Luka. Mrkoviki dijalekat, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, XVIII, Beograd,
1969.
Vuovi, Danilo. Prilozi prouavanju Njegoeva jezika, JF, IX, Beograd, 1930.
Vuovi, Danulo. Dialekat Istone Hercegovine, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, III,
Beograd, 1927.
DIALECTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STEFAN MITROV LJUBIAS PROSE

DISCOURSE
This paper deals with dialectical characteristics in the works of Stefan
Mitrov Ljubia concerning the case system. We will try to point to the exact
aspects in which his language differs from the standard language norm, as well
as to his use of the colloquial speech of his home region, particularly where
dialectical idiom and the case issues are concerned. The paper also tries to
assuage the extent to which the colloquial speech is represented in his work.
Key Words: the case system, Montenegrin vernaculars, standard literary
language, dialect forms.

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SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS OF VERBS IN CONSTRUCTIONS
WITH ADVERBIAL SUPPLEMENTS
The paper deals with the verbs whose semantic content condition the
formation of supplementary adverbial units. They can be placed in four major
semantic categories: the verbs with spatial, temporal, qualificative and
quantificative semantics. Particular emphasis is paid to their other possible
semantic types, which exact supplements of simultaneously lexical and grammatical
nature. The syntaxic-semantic analysis of corpora in our language showed that each
semantic type of verbs uses a particular type of adverbial supplement.
Key Words: verbs, incomplete, spatial, temporal, quantificative,
qualificative, adverbial supplements.

UDK: 811.111'367.622
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car manufacturer ( . 1985: 1334).

85
, TT The Times, TG
The Guardian, NYT The New York Times.
86
(1996) . (1985).

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Watergate tapes affair.

(, - 2009: 220).
, (, - 2009: 220-221)
weapons purchases
.
2.1.

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, 87:
: /
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, . war fund
:
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. exam papers
1:
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2:
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[...] seen as essential to prevent weapons smuggling, and said all cargo
bound for Gaza by sea would continue to be [...] (NYT 20.688)
Victims groups said they were still waiting for concrete action more than
words [...] (NYT 11.5)
The drugs shop will mean farmers can buy medicines for their animals
locally. (TG 2.6)
Dr Hasan said the burns unit at the hospital was already overcrowded
with patients before the fire. (TG 4.6)
"Lorry drivers, truck drivers, farmers, woodsmen, events planners: these
men don't usually work together [...] (TG 23.5)
At the activities tent, Mukhlisa Mashirapova, 15, said many children were
upset because their fathers were in Kyrgyzstan and in jeopardy. (NYT 21.6)
[...] and said that Australia did the right thing to have arrested a war
crimes suspect (in order) to extradite him to the state that has indicted
him". (TT 13.5)
Investigators for both the Kimberley Process and human rights groups
have gathered (NYT 21.6)

(9)
(10)
The Dui Hua Foundation, a San Francisco-based group that follows human
rights issues in China [...] (NYT 5.7)
[...] when Jobs delivers his keynote address at its developers conference in
San Francisco. (TG 2.6)

( . 1985: 1335).
,
. , ,
.

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( . 1999: 594)
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burns unit, events planners human rights groups.

victims groups, burns unit,
human rights groups events planners, 1 .
, .
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( . 1985: 1334).

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, . weapons smuggling, drugs shop, activities
tent, human rights issues, war crimes suspect developers conference.
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1 weapons smuggling , drugs shop ,
, human rights issues
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:
Biber, Douglas, et al. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow:
Pearson Education Limited, 1999. Print
Biber, Douglas, Jack Grieve, and Gina Iberri-Shea. Noun phrase modification,
One Language, Two Grammars? Differences between British and American
English. Eds. Gnter Rohdenburg Julia Schlter. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2009. 182-193. Print
Blaganj, Dana and Ivan Konte. Modern English Grammar. Ljubljana: Dravna
zaloba Slovenije. 1979. Print
Greenbaum, Sidney. Oxford English Grammar. New York: Oxford University Press
Inc. 1996. Print
Greenbaum, Sidney and Randolph Quirk, A Students Grammar of the English
Language, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. 1990. Print
Quirk, Randolph, et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
Harlow: Longman. 1985. Print
:
www.thetimes.co.uk [ 2010. ]
www.theguardian. co.uk [ 2010. ]
www.nytimes.com. [ 2010. ]
NUMBER OF PREMODIFYING NOUNS AS A MEANING CHANGING INDICATOR
IN A NOUN PHRASE
One of the most important characteristic of English premodifying nouns is
that they become singular, even those that do not have a singular form, for example
(Greenbaum and Quirk 1990: 388) leg of the trouser the trouser leg. On the other
hand, the increase of number of plural premodifying nouns becomes an even more
present trend (Quirk et al. 1985: 1333) because the ambugity of the noun phrase is
eliminated in this way. The main aim of this paper is to show in what way the use of
plural premodifying nouns helps the avoidance of misunderstanding in interpreting
the meaning of the noun phrase. Examples taken from the newspaper register and
the use of descriptive and analytic methods lead us to a conclusion that plural
premodifying nouns are useful signals that help the readers to understand
sometimes complex semantic relations in the noun phrase. However, the use of
plural premodifying nouns requires certain rules since we cannot use these nouns
every time we do not understand the meaning of the noun phrase.
Key Words: number of nouns, premodifying nouns, semantic relations.

UDK: 811.133.1'366.582.4
811.163.4'366.582.4
AORIST U SRPSKOM I FRANCUSKOM JEZIKU 89 (SINTAKSIKA

ANALIZA UPOTREBE OVOG VREMENA U ROMANU JEDAN IVOT
G. DE MOPASANA I NJEGOVOG PREVODNOG EKVIVALENTA NA
SRPSKOM JEZIKU)
Marija Glii, Milica Milainovi
Univerzitet u Kragujevcu
Apstrakt: U ovom radu baviemo se sintaksom aorista u francuskom i srpskom jeziku i

njihovim meusobnim uporeivanjem. Na osnovu primera iz romana Jedan ivot
francuskog pisca Mopasana, uporediemo francuski i srpski aorist, ali ukazaemo i na
prevodne ekvivalente francuskog aorista u srpskoj verziji romana. Vano je napomenuti
da se sinbgtaksika analiza aorista ne moe strogo odvojiti od semantike, budui da
upotreba kako francuskog aorista tako i srpskog u znatnoj meri zavisi od njihovog
znaenja. Na taj nain, razmatrajui sintaksika svojstva oba vremena ukazaemo na
slinosti i razlike u njihovoj upotrebi u jeziku knjievnosti.
Kljune rei: sintaksa, francuski aorist, srpski aorist
1. O aoristu u francuskom i srpskom jeziku

1.1. Francuski aorist
Aorist ili prosti perfekat (le pass simple) predstavlja prosto prolo glagolsko vreme koje se upotrebljava samo u pisanoj naraciji. Praktino je nestalo iz
govorne upotrebe u francuskom jeziku, jer je narativnu funkciju u govoru potpuno preuzeo francuski perfekat (le pass compos). Ipak, moe se susresti i pomalo uti u jeziku starijih lica na jugu Francuske koji neguju tradiciju oksitanskog
govora.
Pass simple je iroko prisutan u pisanom jeziku: knjievnom jeziku, jeziku
tampe, mada ga i u modernom knjievnom jeziku sve vie zamenjuje francuski
perfekat. Iz tog razloga, sasvim je opravdano to ga neke francuske gramatike
(Baylon & Fabre, 1978, Dubois & Lagane, 1973) oznaavaju kao le temps du rcit
des vnements passs (vreme pripovedanja prolih dogaaja).
89
Ovaj rad je deo projekta Dinamika struktura savremenog srpskog jezika 178014 koji finansira
Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnolokog razvoja republike Srbije.

Ovako narativno upotrebljen francuski aorist uvodi dogaaje koji su se
izvrili u prolosti znatno pre momenta govora (E<S)90, tako da je "proces u
aoristu u potpunosti odseen od momenta govora, to znai da nijednim svojim
delom ne moe biti aktuelan u S" (Stanojevi i Ai, 2006: 67). Na taj nain,
dogaaj u aoristu se uvek posmatra iz prolosti, iz momenta koji funkcionie kao
R (E=R)91. Upravo je odsustvo efekta rezultativnosti92 ono po emu se aorist
razlikuje od francuskog perfekta (pass compos-a). Dakle, Rajhenbah je temporalno definisao aorist sledeom kombinacijom vremenskih koordinata: E,R-S
(Reichenbach, 1947)93. Budui da je dogaaj u aoristu nuno lokalizovan pre momenta govora, aorist daje instrukciju svrenosti u prolosti odnosno aorist dogaaje uvek predstavlja globalno tj. kao zavrene celine. Meutim, ovo ne znai
da se aorist moe kombinovati samo sa leksiki perfektivnim glagolima. Naime,
francuski imperfektivni glagoli tj. glagoli aktivnosti i stanja se mogu uvesti aoristom, ali tada dolazi do konflikta izmeu gramatikog aspekta (aspektualne instrukcije koju daje glagolsko vreme) i leksikog aspekta (situacije opisane predikatom) koji se razreava perfektivizacijom imperfektivnog glagola. Ovakav
konflikt je poznat kao aspektualna koercija tj. koercija nad aspektualnim klasama (videti Swart, 1998, Stanojevi i Ai, 2006) to pokazuje da je aspektualni
zahtev aorista jai od leksiki izraene aspektualne informacije. Upravo je
perfektivizacija oblik aspektualne koercije i sa aoristom mogue su dve perfektivne interpretacije u zavisnosti od konteksta: inkoativna interpretacija odnosno
poetak vrenja procesa (En 1903, Petar I Karaorevi fut roi94) i globalna
prezentacija procesa (Hlne lut tout laprs-midi/deux heures95).
U pogledu diskurzivnosti, aorist, prilikom saoptavanja prolih dogaaja,
dolazi u nizovima, tako da iskazuje sukcesivne radnje, to uzrokuje pomeranje
vremena unapred, ostvarujui tako efekat vremenske progresije96 (videti Petrovi, 2002):
90
E je moment dogaaja, a S je oznaka za moment govora, dok znak " < " oznaava vremensko
prethoenje. Dakle, u ovom sluaju E vremenski prethodi taki S.
91
R je momenat na vremenskoj osi iz kojeg se sagledava neka radnja. Znak "= " upuuje na
poklapanje dveju taaka, tj. u ovom sluaju dogaaj u aoristu se smeta u proli momenat, a iz tog
momenta se dati dogaaj posmatra.
92
Rezultativnost podrazumeva aktuelnost stanja u nekom momentu na vremenskoj osi, pri emu
stanje proizilazi iz predikatom uvedenog dogaaja.
93
U svim definicijama koje je Rajhenbah dao za glagolska vremena simultanost izmeu dva
vremenska momenta (u ovom sluaju E i R) belei se zarezom: E,R, dok se anteriornost jedne take
u odnosu na drugu (u ovom sluaju anteriornost E u odnosu na S) belei crticom: E-S.
94
Godine 1903. Petar I Karaorevi postade/je postao kralj.
95
Jelena je itala celo poslepodne/dva sata.
96
Ovo vremensko nizanje dogaaja u aoristu, tj. obeleje vremenske progresije (+OT) govori da je
odnos izmeu dogaaja En i En-1 iskljuivo odnos posteriornosti.

(1)
(2)
(3)
Le vicomte s'inclina, dit son dsir ancien dj de faire la connaissance de

ces dames et se mit causer avec aisance, en homme comme il faut,[...].
(Maupassant, 1883: 51)97
Jeanne et Julien traversrent le bosquet, puis montrent sur le talus, et,
muets tous deux, se mirent regarder la mer. [...] (Maupassant, op.cit.:
70)98
Il tendrit sa gorge, souriant, la tte en arrire, les bras ouverts; et il but
d'un trait cette source de chair vive qui lui versa dans les entrailles un
dsir enflamm. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 87)99
1.2. Srpski aorist
U gramatikama srpskog jezika (Stevanovi, 1979, Tanasi, 2005) stoji da

je aorist prosto prolo vreme koje oznaava radnju, stanje ili zbivanje koji su se
vrili, odnosno izvrili u odreenom vremenu u prolosti odnosno pre momenta
govora. Iako se u svim definicijama navodi da se aorist moe graditi sa glagolima
oba vida, aorist nesvrenih glagola ne samo da je redak u savremenom jeziku,
ve je i njegova upotreba u novijoj literaturi znatno svedena. S druge strane,
aorist perfektivnih glagola jo uvek je iva kategorija u knjievnom jeziku, naroito u umetnikoj knjievnosti.
U savremenom srpskom standardnom jeziku aorist ima dve sintaksike
funkcije: iskazivanje prolih radnji koje su se izvrile neposredno pre momenta
govora (indikativni aorist) i radnji koje su se izvrile znatno pre tog momenta
(relativni aorist) (videti Tanasi, 2005). Budui da je aorist u francuskom prisutan
samo u pisanom jeziku i da francuski i srpski aorist razmatramo u Mopasanovom
romanu u originalnoj i u prevodnoj verziji, ovde emo ukazati samo na svojstva
relativnog odnosno narativnog srpskog aorista, koja su potrebna zbog uporeivanja sa francuskim aoristom.
Dakle relativno upotrebljen aorist izraava radnju koja se vrila, odnosno
izvrila u odreenom vremenu u prolosti koje je izvan momenta govora (S). U
ovakvoj upotrebi, dogaaj u aoristu je znatno odseen od momenta govora (od
sadanjosti), ali neposredno prethodi tzv. tuem momentu govora (bilo da je to
junakov ili naratorov momenat sadanjosti), koji se obeleava sa S*, pa se
samim tim razlikuje od stvarnog itaoevog (naeg) momenta govora (S* S).
Dogaaj u aoristu se posmatra iz S*, koji je smeten u prolost, pa bi u tom slu97
Na prevod: Vicegrof se pokloni, ree da ve odavno eli da se upozna sa gospoama, a zatim s

lakoom zapoe razgovor, poput pristojnog oveka.
98
Na prevod: ana i ilijen prooe kroz umarak, potom se popee na padinu, pa oboje utei
poee da posmatraju more.
99
Na prevod: On otvori usta, smeei se, zabacivi glavu i rairivi ruke, pa popi na iskap vodu s
tog ivog izvora od pluti, koji ispuni celo njegovo bie poudom.

aju Rajhenbahova temporalna definicija za relativni aorist bila: E-R,S* (Stanojevi i Ai, 2006):
(4) [...] U tom trenutku se i ona pope na koijako sedite pored iaSimona, pa se uvi u jedan veliki pokriva koji joj sasvim zakloni glavu [...].
(Mopasan, 1957: 12)
(5) [...] Baron poljubi erku, pa ode u svoju sobu. Onda ana lee sa
aljenjem [...]. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 18)
(6) Jedno poslepodne, dok su se odmarale na klupi na kraju vrata,
odjednom ugledae nekog debelog svetenika koji je iao ka njima [...].
(Mopasan, op.cit.: 30)
Kao to se vidi i u navedenim primerima, radnja u aoristu se vremenski
odreuje ne prema vremenu govorenja, ve prema nekom drugom trenutku u
prolosti. Na taj se trenutak moe ukazati prilokim odredbama kao to su tada,
onda, odjednom, jue, u tom trenutku, onda kada i sl. Narativni aorist se esto
javlja sa perfektom za saoptavanje prolih dogaaja:
(7) [...] On joj ne odgovori, ve joj uze obe ruke, pa ih zadra u svojima. Nisu
izgovorili nijednu re do kue. Ostatak toga popodneva uini im se dug.
(8) Pred jutro je ipak zaspala. Probudie je huka i glasovi. Ona prodrma
svoga mua koji je nepomino spavao, pa oboje ustadoe. (Mopasan,
op.cit.: 71)
Pri takvom saoptavanju prolih dogaaja, relativni aorist dolazi u nizovima
u kojima iskazuje sukcesivne radnje, a koje u priu unose i dinaminost. To znai
da se, za razliku od srpskog perfekta, koji iskazuje prolu radnju, ali pritom ne
daje nikakve podatke o vremenskom razmaku izmeu njenog vrenja i momenta
govora, relativno upotrebljenim aoristom iskazuju doivljene radnje ogranienog
trajanja ili predstavljaju kao takve. Na ovo svojstvo doivljenosti koje karakterie
srpski aorist ukazala je veina naih lingvista (Vukovi, 1967, Stevanovi, 1979,
Tanasi, 2005, Kovaevi, 2005 i drugi). Dakle, aorist ima izvesne specifinosti u
odnosu na perfekat u sintaksikom, ali i u stilistikom pogledu. Naime, aorist je
stilistiki markiran u odnosu na njegovog konkurenta, perfekta, jer njegovom
upotrebom "dogaaji su, budui doivljeni, predoeni kao emocionalni i/ili
ekspresivni" (Kovaevi, 2005: 10). Drukije reeno, upotrebom relativnog aorista, govorno lice tj. narator pribliava itaocu radnju, predstavlja je kao doivljenu, a iznosi se kao da se odigrala pred oima govornog lica. Upravo svojstva
doivljenosti i emotivnosti, koja nai lingvisti obino pripisuju aoristu, proizilaze
iz njegovog semantizma (E-R,S*). Najzad, aoristom se u naraciji, za razliku od

srpskog perfekta koji je takoe narativno vreme, istie sam dogaaj, a ne njegove posledice. Ovu odliku poseduje i francuski aorist.
Na kraju, pored svojstva doivljenosti, ukazaemo na jo jedno sintaksiko
svojstvo aorista u naraciji. Naime, aorist je markiran obelejem temporalne
progresije i ima funkciju sredstva za pomeranje toka prie. S obzirom da se
radnje sukcesivno niu, italac stie utisak da vreme napreduje pa se time i pria
pomera u vremenu, te iz tog razloga sa srpskim aoristom imamo vremensku i
tekstualnu progresiju. Ovo ukazuje na jo jedno svojstvo srpskog aorista
(svojstvo dinaminosti), kome e posebna panja biti posveena prilikom analize
primera aorista u francuskom i aorista u srpskom jeziku.
2. Primeri francuskog aorista u delu Une vie100 (Maupassant, 1883), njegovi
ekvivalenti u srpskom prevodu i analiza navedenih primera
2.1. Korpus
U ovom poglavlju emo navesti samo nekolicinu od mnogobrojnih
primera francuskog aorista iz Mopasanovog dela Une vie i njegove ekvivalente u
srpskoj verziji romana101, koji e nam biti reprezentativni za sintaksiku analizu.
Kroz ove primere, videemo kako je aorist u originalnom delu na francuskom
preveden na srpski jezik i razmotriemo pritom sintaksika svojstva francuskog i
srpskog aorista. Najpre emo dati primer sa francuskim aoristom, a potom
njegovu prevodnu verziju na srpskom jeziku. Navodimo primere od (9) do (25):
(9)
100
101
Sans quelle et entendu monter lescalier, on frappa trois coups lgers

contre sa porte. Elle tressaillit horriblement et ne rpondit point. On
frappa de nouveau, puis la serrure grina. Elle se cacha la tte sous ses
couvertures comme si un voleur et pntr chez elle. Des bottines
craqurent doucement sur le parquet; et soudain on toucha son lit. Elle
eut un sursaut nerveux et poussa un petit cri; et, DGAGEANT sa tte,
elle vit Julien debout devant elle, [...]. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 75)
Iako nije ula bat koraka na stepenicama, neko zakuca na njena vrata.
Ona strahovito uzdrhta i nita ne odgovori. Kucanje se ponovi, a zatim
kripnu brava. Ona uvue glavu pod pokriva, kao da je neki kradljivac
upao u njenu sobu. Duboke cipele zakripae po podu, a neko se dotae
njene postelje. ivci joj odjednom ustreptae, te ciknu, a kad OTKRI
glavu, vide ilijena kako stoji pred njom, [...]. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 63)
Naslov romana u originalu.

Radi se o prevodu izalom u izdanju izdavakog preduzea Rad, Beograd, 1957.

(10) Son mari se pencha vers elle et posa doucement, [...], un petit
portefeuille en cuir. Ce toucher la rveilla; et elle considra l'objet d'un
regard noy, [...]. Le portefeulle tomba, s'ouvrit. De l'or et des billets de
banque s'parpillrent dans la calche. Elle s'veilla tout fait et la
gaiet de sa fille partit en une fuse de rires. Le baron ramassa l'argent
et le lui posa sut les genoux. [...]. Elle compta six mille et quatre cents
francs et les mit tranquillement dans sa poche. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 35)
Njen mu se nae prema njoj i blago spusti mali koni novanik [...]. Ona
se probudi od tog dodira, pa pogleda u tu stvar mutnim oima, [...].
Novanik pade i otvori se. Zlatnici i novanice rasue se po kolima. Onda
se ona sasvim probudi, a veselost njene keri planu kao raketa. Baron
pokupi novac, pa joj ga metnu na krilo. [...]. Ona izbroja est hiljada i
etiri stotine franaka, pa ih mirno metnu u dep. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 14)
(11) Et, les nuages STANT FONDUS, le fond bleu du firmament parut; puis
la dchirure s'agrandit comme un voile qui se dchire; et un beau ciel
pur d'un azur net et profond se dveloppa sur le monde. (Maupassant,
op.cit.: 35)
A kad SE RAZIOE oblaci, pojavi se plavo nebesko dno; zatim se prodor

proiri kao pocepano platno, a lepo i jasno nebo razastre se nad svetom.
(12) Un aprs-midi, comme elles se reposaient sur le banc du fond, elles
aperurent tout coup, au bout de l'alle, un gros prtre qui s'en venait
vers elles. Il salua de loin, prit un air souriant, salua de nouveau quand il
fut trois pas et s'cria: [...]. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 49)
Jedno poslepodne, dok su se odmarale na klupi na kraju vrata,

odjednom ugledae nekog debelog svetenika koji je iao ka njima. On ih
pozdravi iz daljine, naini ljubazno lice, pa ih ponovo pozdravi kad im se
priblii na tri koraka i uzvika: [...]. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 30)
(13)
Vers le matin, cependant, elle sassoupit. Des bruits, des voix la
rveillrent. Les matelots, en chantant, faisaient la toilette du navire.
Elle secoua son mari, immobile dans le sommeil, et ils se levrent.
(Maupassant, op.cit.: 81)
Pred jutro je ipak zaspala. Probudie je huka i glasovi. Ona prodrma

svoga mua koji je nepomino spavao, pa oboje ustadoe. (Nopasan,
op.cit.: 71)
(14) Mais, lorsqu'on parvint la pente, le canot tout d'un coup partit, dvala
sur les cailloux ronds avec un grand bruit de toile dchire. Il s'arrta
net l'cume des petits vagues, et tout le monde prit place sur les

bancs; puis les deux matelots RESTS terre le mirent flot. [...] La voile
fut hisse, s'arrondit un peu, et la barque s'en alla paisiblement, peine
BERCE par la mer. On s'loigna d'abord. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 54)
A kad dooe do nagiba, amac odjednom pojuri i strmeknu se s velikom

kripom koja je liila na um to se uje kad se cepa platno. Potom se
zaustavi kao ukopan na sitnim penuavim talasima, a onda svi posedae
na klupe, pa amac gurnue dva mornara koji OSTAE na obali. [...]
Razapee jedro, a ono se zaobli, pa amac tiho zaplovi i more ga POE
neprimetno njihati. Udaljie se od obale. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 37)
(15) Cependant, on arrta. [...] Jeanne rveilla subitement et sauta bien vite.
Pre et Rosalie, [...] portrent presque la baronne tout fait extnue,
geigant de dtresse [...]. Elle ne voulut rien boire, rien manger, se
coucha et tout aussitt dormit. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 36)
Ipak se zaustavie. [...] ana se prenu iz sna i veoma brzo skoi. Njen
otac i Rozalija, [...] gotovo odnee sasvim iznurenu baronicu koja je
stenjala od muke [...]. Ona nije htela nita da okusi, ve je legla i odmah
zaspala. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 15,16)
(16) Jeanne et le baron, le bras dessus bras dessous, visitrent tout, sans
omettre un coin; puis ils se promenrent lentement dans les longues
avenues de peupliers, [...]. Un livre partit brusquement, qui fit peur la
jeune fille, puis il sauta le talus et dtala dans les joncs marins vers la
falaise. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 42)
Idui pod ruku, ana i baron zagledali su sve, ne proputajui nijedan

kutak; zatim se proetae polako dugim stazama oivienim topolama,
[...]. Jedan zec jurnu iznenada i uplai mladu devojku, a zatim preskoi
padinu, pa strugnu u trar na morskoj obali. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 23)
(17) Et elle resta longtemps, longtemps, rvasser ainsi tandis que la lune,
achevant son voyage travers le ciel, allait disparatre dans le mer. [...]
Un coq chanta dans la ferme de droite; dautres rpondirent dans la
ferme de gauche. [...] Un petit cri doiseau sveilla quelque part. Des
gazouillements, timides dabord, sortirent des feuilles; puis ils
senhardirent, devinrent vibrants, joyeux, gagnant de branche en
branche, darbre en arbre. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 41)
I dugo, dugo je tako sanjarila dok se mesec primicao kraju svoga

putovanja na nebu i spremao da iezne u moru. [...] Jedan petao
zakukureka na majuru s desne strane; drugi mu se odazvae s majura na
levoj strani. [...] Odnekud dopre kratak cvrkut neke ptice. Cvrkutanje
upoetku bojaljivo zau se u liu, a zatim postade smelije, postade

treperavo i veselo, prelazei s grane na granu, s drveta na drvo. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 22)
(18) Elle courut son pre, l'embrassa, et en l'treignant dit: [...].
Pritrala je ocu, poljubila ga, pa mu je rekla, grlei ga: [...]. (Mopasan,

op.cit.: 11)
(19) Il prit cong; et son dernier regard fut pour Jeanne, comme sil lui et
adress un adieu particulier, plus cordial et plus doux. (Maupassant,
op.cit.: 53)
Oprostio se s njima, a naposletku je pogledao anu, kao da joj upuuje

naroiti, srdaniji i neniji oprotajni pozdrav. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 37)
(20)
Eut-elle dans les doigts une secousse nerveuse, [...]? Comprit-il, devinat-il, fut-il comme elle envahi par une sorte d'iversse d'amour?
Da li je u prstima osetila ivani trzaj, [...]? Da li je on to razumeo, da li je

to naslutio, da li je i njega obuzelo neto nalik na ljubavnu opijenost?
(21)
Que se passa-t-il ensuite? Elle nen eut gure le souvenir, car elle avait
perdu la tte; il lui sembla seulement quil lui jetait sur les lvres une
grle de petits baisers reconnaissants. Puis il dut lui parler et elle dut lui
rpondre. Puis il fit dautres tentatives quelle repoussa avec pouvante;
et comme elle se dbattait, elle rencontra sur sa poitrine ce poil pais
quelle avait dj senti sur sa jambe et elle se recula. (Maupassant,
op.cit.: 77)
ta je bilo posle toga? Ona se malo ega seala zato to je bila van sebe;
inilo joj se samo da ju je on obasuo kao grad kratkotrajnim poljupcima
punim zahvalnosti. Zatim joj je svakako neto rekao, a ona mu je
svakako odgovorila. Potom je pokuavao da joj se priblii i ona ga je s
uasom gurala od sebe, a dok se otimala od njega, osetila je na svojim
grudima onakvu istu gustu dlaku koju je ranije oseala na svojoj nozi, te
se odmakla. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 66)
(22)
Elle suivit la grande alle, traversa le bousquet, franchit le foss et partit
travers la lande. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 116)
Otrala je velikom stazom, pa je prola kroz umicu i preskoila jarak, a

zatim je pojurila preko pustare. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 116)
(23)
Mais Julien joua l'innocent, nia avec passion, jura, prit Dieu tmoin.
[...] Il menaa d'un procs, [...] (Maupassant, op.cit.: 120)
(24)
(25)
Ali je ilijen izigravao nevinog oveka, pa je sve poricao s uzbuenjem,

kleo se, pozivao se na boga. [...] Pretio je parnicom, [...]. (Mopasan,
op.cit.: 122)
Il retira le bras dont il serrait sa taille, et, EN SE TOURNANT tous deux, ils
se trouvrent face face, si prs qu'ils sentirent leurs haleines sur leurs
visages; et ils se regardrent. Ils se regardrent d'un ces regards fixes,
aigus, pntrants, o deux mes se croient se mler. Ils se cherchrent
dans leurs yeux, derrire leurs yeux, dans cet inconnu impntrable de
l'tre; ils se sondrent dans une muette et obstine interrogation. [...] Et
il leur sembla, tous les deux, qu'ils ne s'taient pas encore vus.
On odmae ruku kojom joj je stezao stas, a kad SE oboje OKRENUE,

naoe se jedno prema drugom tako blizu da osetie kako jedno drugom
diu u lice, te se pogledae. Pogledae se jednim od onih netreminih,
otrih i prodornih pogleda kakvim se gledaju dve due koje veruju da se
spajaju. Traili su se u svojim oima, iza svojih oiju, u onome to je
nepoznato i nedokuivo u svakome biu; odmeravali su se, ispitujui
jedno drugo utke i uporno. [...] I oboma se uini da se dotle nisu videli.
(Mopasan, op.cit., 59)
[...] Or, une fois, comme elle s'veillait, elle aperut Julien, seul prs
d'elle; et brusquement, tout lui revint, comme si un rideau se ft lev
qui cachait sa vie passe. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 118)
A kad se jednom probudila, videla je da je samo ilijen pored nje, te se

odjednom setila svega, kao da se podigla zavesa koja je zaklanjala ceo
njen raniji ivot. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 119)
2.2. Analiza primera iz korpusa
Pri analizi primera iz korpusa, u prvi plan emo staviti srpsku prevodnu
verziju, odnosno prevod francuskog aorista na srpski jezik, budui da je originalno delo na francuskom jeziku, a nas zanimaju njegovi prevodni ekvivalenti.
Vano je odmah napomenuti da primer na srpskom jeziku sadri aoriste koji nisu
rezultat prevoda francuskog aorista (takvi aoristi su naznaeni velikim slovima),
tako da emo analizu najpre usmeriti na prevodne ekvivalente francuskog aorista, a potom na one primere iz srpske verzije u kojima nailazimo na aorist, a u
originalu je upotrebljeno neko drugo vreme.
Iz navedenih primera moemo ustanoviti da se francuski aorist u najveem broju sluajeva na srpski jezik prevodi aoristom. U primerima gde je preveden aoristom, srpski aorist nosi sva ona obeleja koja su mu svojstvena kao

prolom preteritalnom glagolskom obliku. Prevashodno, iznosi radnje koje nam
predstavlja kao doivljene, to se i uoava u ovim primerima (recimo u primeru
(9): Iako nije ula bat koraka na stepenicama, neko zakuca na njena vrata. Ona
strahovito uzdrhta i nita ne odgovori. [...] ivci joj odjednom ustreptae, te
ciknu, a kad OTKRI glavu, vide ilijena kako stoji pred njom, [...]. Pored toga, u
svim primerima u kojima je prisutan, srpski aorist ima funkciju sredstva za
pomeranje toka prie, to je svojstveno i francuskom aoristu u originalnim
primerima. Dakle, on u naraciji iskazuje sukcesivne radnje, koje se niu u
vremenu, to prouzrokuje pomeranje vremena unapred, a koje uz informaciju o
svojstvu doivljenosti, unose u pripovedanje dinaminost. Ovo obeleje
temporalne progresije (+OT) fugurira u veini navedenih primera (na primer u
(10) : Njen mu se nae prema njoj i blago spusti mali koni novanik [...].,
potom u primeru (11), (12), (14)). Najzad, srpskim se aoristom, u primerima
kojima se tako prevodi francuski aorist, uvode dogaaji koji dovode do
preokreta (izdvajamo primer (13): Pred jutro je ipak zaspala. Probudie je huka i
glasovi. Ona prodrma svoga mua koji je nepomino spavao, pa oboje ustadoe,
i primer (14): A kad dooe do nagiba, amac odjednom pojuri i strmeknu se s
velikom kripom koja je liila na um to se uje kad se cepa platno. Potom se
zaustavi kao ukopan na sitnim penuavim talasima, a onda svi posedae na
klupe, pa amac gurnue dva mornara koji OSTAE na obali [...].). Pored toga,
aoristom se oznaavaju i bitni momenti u pripovesti, odnosno predstavljaju se
kao posebno vani za dalji tok naracije, to se u znatnoj meri osea kada se ita
roman u celosti.
Meutim, francuski aorist se u srpskoj verziji esto prevodi i srpskim
perfektom. Postoje primeri u kojima je on u kombinaciji sa srpskim aoristom
(recimo primeri poput (13) i (15): Ipak se zaustavie. [...] ana se prenu iz sna i
veoma brzo skoi. Njen otac i Rozalija, [...] gotovo odnee sasvim iznurenu
baronicu koja je stenjala od muke [...]. Ona nije htela nita da okusi, ve je legla i
odmah zaspala.), ali ima i primera gde je francuski aorist u potpunosti preveden
srpskim perfektom. Naime, poznato je da srpski perfekat poznaje oba vida, tako
da postoje primeri koji su prevedeni perfektivnim perfektom (izdvajamo
primere: (18): Pritrala je ocu, poljubila ga, pa mu je rekla, grlei ga: [...], (19):
Oprostio se s njima, a naposletku je pogledao anu, kao da joj upuuje naroiti,
srdaniji i neniji oprotajni pozdrav, (20), (22) i (25)), ali i primeri u kojima
figurira perfekat nesvrenih glagola npr. (23): Ali je ilijen izigravao nevinog
oveka, pa je sve poricao s uzbuenjem, kleo se, pozivao se na boga. [...] Pretio
je parnicom, [...]. Ovakav perfekat je esto u srpskoj verziji romana u kombinaciji
sa aoristom (kao u primerima (16): Idui pod ruku, ana i baron zagledali su sve,
ne proputajui nijedan kutak; zatim se proetae polako dugim stazama
oivienim topolama, [...]. Jedan zec jurnu iznenada i uplai mladu devojku, a
zatim preskoi padinu, pa strugnu u trar na morskoj obali, (17) i (24) ) ili u
kombinaciji sa perfektivnim perfektom (primer (21): ta je bilo posle toga? Ona

se malo ega seala zato to je bila van sebe; inilo joj se samo da ju je on
obasuo kao grad kratkotrajnim poljupcima punim zahvalnosti. Zatim joj je
svakako neto rekao, a ona mu je svakako odgovorila. Potom je pokuavao da joj
se priblii i ona ga je s uasom gurala od sebe, a dok se otimala od njega, osetila
je na svojim grudima onakvu istu gustu dlaku koju je ranije oseala na svojoj
nozi, te se odmakla.). Francuski aorist je u ovim primerima srpskog prevoda
preveden perfektom, jer je prevodilac upotrebom perfektivnog perfekta eleo
da postigne nefokalizovano pripovedanje kako bi pokazao da se narator ne unosi
emotivno u fabulu (25): A kad se jednom probudila, videla je da je samo ilijen
pored nje, te se odjednom setila svega, kao da se podigla zavesa koja je
zaklinjala ceo njen raniji ivot. Pored toga, perfektivni perfekat slui i za
navoenje naratorovih komentara (primer (20): Da li je u prstima osetila ivani
trzaj, [...]? Da li je on to razumeo, da li je to naslutio, da li je i njega obuzelo
neto nalik na ljubavnu opijenost?, takoe primer (21)). To znai da u primerima
sa perfektom nema doivljenosti koja je prisutna u primerima koji su prevedeni
aoristom, a dogaaji su predstavljeni faktografski (kao injenice). Iako perfekat
ne izraava radnje koje su obavezno sukcesivne, on moe da utie na tok
naracije samo ako su dogaaji u perfektu povezani odgovarajuim konektorima
(pa, a zatim) to ne utie na smisao koju ima originalna reenica na francuskom
jeziku, a ime je ujedno ostvarena temporalna progresija koja postoji u originalu
(u primeru (22): Otrala je velikom stazom, pa je prola kroz umicu i preskoila
jarak, a zatim je pojurila preko pustare.). Iz tog razloga, prevodilac je bez
problema upotrebio perfektivni perfekat umesto aorista. Perfekat nesvrenih
glagola, koji se nalazi u nekim prevedenim primerima, slui takoe za
nefokalizovano pripovedanje, a poput perfektivnog perfekta, upuuje na
stabilnost i neproticanje naracije, na primer u (24): [...] Traili su se u svojim
oima, iza svojih oiju, u onome to je nepoznato i nedokuivo u svakome biu;
odmeravali su se, ispitujui jedno drugo utke i uporno. [...].
Kao to smo ve rekli u uvodnom delu ovog potpoglavlja, postoje
primeri u prevodnoj verziji koji sadre aorist, a da na tom mestu u originalu ne
figurira aorist. Roman obiluje takvim primerima, a ovde emo ukazati samo na
etiri primera, koji nam mogu biti reprezentativni tj. na etiri sluaja koji su u
srpskom prevodu dali aorist :
(9) [...] Elle eut un sursaut nerveux et poussa un petit cri; et, DGAGEANT sa
tte, elle vit Julien debout devant elle, [...].
[...] ivci joj odjednom ustreptae, te ciknu, a kad OTKRI glavu, vide ilijena
kako stoji pred njom, [...].
(11) Et, les nuages STANT FONDUS, le fond bleu du firmament parut; [...].
A kad SE RAZIOE oblaci, pojavi se plavo nebesko dno; [...].

(14) [...] Il s'arrta net l'cume des petits vagues, et tout le monde prit place
sur les bancs; puis les deux matelots RESTS terre le mirent flot. [...] La
voile fut hisse, s'arrondit un peu, et la barque s'en alla paisiblement,
peine BERCE par la mer. On s'loigna d'abord.
[...] Potom se zaustavi kao ukopan na sitnim penuavim talasima, a onda svi
posedae na klupe, pa amac gurnue dva mornara koji OSTAE na obali.
[...] Razapee jedro, a ono se zaobli, pa amac tiho zaplovi i more ga POE
neprimetno njihati. Udaljie se od obale.
(24) Il retira le bras dont il serrait sa taille, et, EN SE TOURNANT tous deux, ils se
trouvrent face face, si prs qu'ils sentirent leurs haleines sur leurs
visages; et ils se regardrent. [...].
On odmae ruku kojom joj je stezao stas, a kad SE oboje OKRENUE,

naoe se jedno prema drugom tako blizu da osetie kako jedno drugom
diu u lice, te se pogledae. [...].
Kada bolje pogledamo ova etiri primera, moe se zakljuiti da su u
originalnoj verziji upotrebljeni nelini glagolski oblici, tanije participi, koji su
prevedeni srpskim aoristom.102 Prvi sluaj (primer (9)) sadri particip prezenta
DGAGEANT. U francuskom jeziku particip prezenta se upotrebljava za
izraavanje temporalne sukcesije, tako da on esto moe da zameni reenicu
koja uvodi dogaaj u aoristu: Elle eut un sursaut nerveux et poussa un petit cri;
et, DGAGEANT [elle dgagea] sa tte, elle vit Julien debout devant elle, [...].
U narednom primeru (primer (11)) prisutan je sloeni particip perfekta STANT
FONDUS. Sloeni particip perfekta oznaava anteriornost u odnosu na radnju
reenice. Stoga, on je pogodan da zameni zavisnu reenicu (u ovom sluaju
vremensku reenicu) koja uvodi dogaaj u aoristu na koji se vremenski nie
dogaaj glavne reenice (parut): Et, les nuages STANT FONDUS [Quand les
nuages fondirent], le fond bleu du firmament parut; [...]. U primeru (14)
upotrebljeni su participi perfekta RESTS i BERCE. Particip perfekta takoe
moe da odgovara nekoj zavisnoj reenici (u ovom primeru re je o relativnoj
reenici) koja uvodi dogaaj u aoristu, a participi imaju vrednost aorista tako da
izraavaju sukcesivnost te su stoga prevedeni aoristom u srpskoj verziji: [...] Il
s'arrta net l'cume des petits vagues, et tout le monde prit place sur les
bancs; puis les deux matelots RESTS [qui restrent] terre le mirent flot.
[...] La voile fut hisse, s'arrondit un peu, et la barque s'en alla paisiblement,
peine BERCE par la mer [que la mer peine bera]. Poslednji sluaj tj. primer
(24) sadri gerundiv EN SE TOURNANT. U francuskom jeziku gerundiv je forma
102
Ovde neemo panju posvetiti aoristu koji je rezultat prevoda, ve onim francuskim glagolskim
oblicima koji su ga uslovili u prevodu zbog svojih vrednosti koji odgovaraju srpskom aoristu.

koja sadri particip prezenta ispred koga stoji predlog EN. Ova forma gerundiva
u francuskom jeziku moe samo da oznai nain i simultanost. U ovom primeru
gerundiv oznaava simultanost, tj. ima vrednost francuskog '' pendant que''
(''dok''). Poto semantika veznika ''pendant que'' zahteva samo upotrebu
imperfekta kada je u pitanju izraavanje prolosti, u ovoj reenici, umesto aorista mora da figurira francuski imperfekat. Meutim, u ovom sluaju upotrebljen
je narativni (tzv. pitoreskni) imperfekat koji dogaaj predstavlja globalno tj. kao
potpuno zavrenu celinu, a ne u toku odvijanja (to je svojstveno imperfektu), te
ima vrednost francuskog aorista, pa je zbog toga ovaj particip (tj. imperfekat)
dao u prevodu srpski aorist: Il retira le bras dont il serrait sa taille, et, EN SE
TOURNANT [se tournaient] tous deux, ils se trouvrent face face, [...].
Dakle, na osnovu prethodno navedenih primera iz korpusa i uraene
analize moemo ustanoviti da su prevodni ekvivalenti francuskog aorista u
srpskoj verziji aorist i perfekat.
3. Zakljuak
Na osnovu svega reenog o francuskom i srpskom aoristu, na osnovu
poreenja primera francuske i srpske verzije romana i njihove analize, moemo
zakljuiti da se njihova sintaksika svojstva u znatnoj meri podudaraju. Naime,
aorist u srpskom i francuskom uvode radnje koje su kompletno zavrene i koje
se niu jedne za drugom u vremenu. Pored toga, analiza upotrebe francuskog
aorista u romanu Jedan ivot G. de Mopasana, pokazala je da se ovo prolo
vreme u srpskom jeziku moe prevesti samo prolim vremenima i to aoristom i
perfektom. Ovi prevodni ekvivalenti su u srpskom jeziku vremena pogodna za
knjievnu naraciju i samim tim odgovaraju francuskom narativnom aoristu.
Primeri u kojima je francuski aorist preveden srpskim perfektom pokazuju da
ovo vreme moe da zameni srpski aorist, a da pritom reenica u kojoj je
upotrebljen ne izgubi svoj smisao. Primeri u kojima su prisutni francuski participi
i koji su u prevodnoj verziji dali srpski aorist svedoe o znatnoj upotrebi participa
namesto linih glagolskih oblika u francuskom jeziku, kako bi duina francuske
reenice bila znatno svedena i kako bi reenica imala tipinu francusku
eleganciju, izbegavajui nepotrebno ponavljanje jednog te istog glagolskog
vremena. S obzirom na to da roman Jedan ivot pripada modernijoj knjievnoj
literaturi, a aorist predstavlja, poput imerfekta, arhaino vreme u srpskom
jeziku, sasvim je logina sve vea upotreba perfekta umesto aorista, jer perfekat
oigledno postaje ozbiljan konkurent narativnom srpskom aoristu i polako
preuzima njegove vrednosti u pripovedanju.

Literatura:
Baylon, Christian & Fabre, Paul. Grammaire systmatique de la langue franaise,
Paris, Nathan. 1978.
Dubois, Jean & Lagane, Ren. La nouvelle grammaire du franais, Paris, Larousse.
1973.
Kovaevi: , . "
",
, . 2005.
Petrovi, Nada. Francuska glagolska vremena II: Imperfekat, aorist, perfekat,
Beograd, Nauna knjiga. 2002.
Reichenbach, Hans. Elements of Symbolic Logic, New York, Free Press. 1947.
Stanoji i Popovi, , , (2000),
, , . 2000.
Stanojevi, Veran i Ai, Tijana. Semantika i pragmatika glagolskih vremena u
francuskom jeziku, Kragujevac, FILUM. 2006.
Stevanovi: , . II:
, , . 1979.
Swart, Henriette de. "Aspect shift and coercion", Natural language and linguistic
theory, 16, 1998. 348-385.
Tanasi,: , " " , ,
: , ,
, ,
, 2005. 345-476.
Vukovi: , . , ,
. 1967.
LE PASS SIMPLE EN FRANAIS ET EN SERBE (LANALYSE SYNTAXIQUE DU

PASS SIMPLE FRANAIS DANS LE ROMAN UNE VIE DE MAUPASSANT ET DE
SON QUIVALENT EN SERBE)
Le sujet de cet article est danalyser le pass simple en franais et en
serbe. Le but de notre travail est de montrer les similitudes et les diffrences
entre ces deux temps en se servant de leurs proprits syntaxiques. En utilisant
des exemples du roman Une vie de Maupassant, on va indiquer aux quivalents
possibles du pass simple franais. Il est important de noter que l'analyse
syntaxique de ce temps ne peut pas tre strictement spare de la smantique,
puisque l'utilisation du pass simple en franais et en serbe dpend de leur sens.
Mots-cls: syntaxe, pass simple franais, pass simple serbe

UDK: 811.163.4'373.21(497.16)
MIKROTOPONIMIJA BARJAMOVICE, MARKOVINE I VELESTOVA

Novica Vujovi
Abstrakt: U prilogu se govori o mikrotoponimima Barjamovice, Markovine i Velestova.

Koriena je graa sakupljena direktno na terenu. Evidentirali smo oko est stotina
pedeset naziva. Cilj rada je da se sagleda tvorbena struktura i osobenosti toponomastikih
jedinica, da se izvri analiza funkcionisanja toponima u komunikaciji, te da se utvrdi
etimologija nekih toponima. Primjeri potvruju nastanak velikog broja naziva
metonimijom.
Kljune rijei: evo, Barjamovica, Markovina, Velestovo, hidronimi, oronimi, zoonimi,
fitotoponimi, antroponimi, motivacija.
Uvod
Kao jugoistoni pojas evske teritorije pruaju se sela Barjamovica,
Velestovo i Markovina. Ovo je najtipiniji predio kra na svijetu (Radojii
2002: 416), koji se odvaja od ostalih crnogorskih terena odsustvom stalnih
povrinskih tokova (Krivokapi 1975: 65). Pripada cetinjskoj optini.
Jo se u XII vijeku u Ljetopisu Popa Dukljanina pominje upa evo
(Cu-ceva, Cuccevi). Pomene bratstva Ozrinia imamo i 1335, odnosno kao
zasebna plemenska zajednica pominju se 1441. godine (Radojii 2002). U XV
vijeku Ozri-nii se pominju () u pismima i poveljama povodom
pljake dubrova-kih karavana ili u mletakim dokumentima gdje se ovaj prostor
odreuje kao katun. Sa sjeditem u centralnom dijelu ove oblasti razvilo se pleme
Ozrinii koje se ubrzo proirilo na okolne nenaseljene predjele. Smatra se da je
jezgro plemena na evu i, jugoistono, u Velestovu i Markovini (Enciklopedija...
594).
Vremenom su paralelno korieni nazivi Ozrinii i Kevo da bi se od
XIX vijeka navodio i oblik evo, koji se ustalio kao jedini. Erdeljanovi u
Zagredi kao izuzetan primjer biljei na evo (Erdeljanovi 142). Za nastanak
toponima pored geogafske uslovljenosti od velikog su znaaja i kulturnoistorijski
faktori, pa se kae kako su toponimi pouzdani podaci o jeziku, nekad i iz
perioda kad drugih jezikih spomenika nije bilo (Gluica 2008: 177). Stoga se
na ovaj dio jezikog inventara mora gledati kao na veliki izazov i obavezu
prouavalaca crnogorskog jezika, u prvom redu istoriara jezika i dijalektologa.
Iz Barjamovice i Velestova (dakle, ovdje ive ili vode porijeklo odavde)
su Abramovii, Miunovii, Mrvaljevii, Mrenovii, Vuinii, Stanojevii,

Katnii, Turinovii, Nenezii, Kilibarde.103 Prema kazivanju Radosava J.
Mitrovia (71) u Markovini ive, ili odavde vode porijeklo, sljedee porodice:
Mitrovii, Vujovii, Perutovii, urovii, Jovovii, Todorovii, Pejatovii,
Mandii, Vukovii, Adii, Gajovii, Pavievii, Vuurovii i stari
Markovljani Nikolii i Markovii. U Gornjoj je Markovini jedna porodica
Bajovia (doselili se iz Bjelica), a u Donjoj Markovini po jedna kua Popovia
(iz Zagrede) i Vasiljevia ( iz Zagaraa).
Ove krajeve zadesile su brojne migracije stanovnitva no tek e elektrifikacija, industrijalizacija, kolovanje, posao i mnogi drugi faktori koji su
motivisali iseljavanje ljudi uiniti da XX vijek, naroito njegova druga polovina,
bude presudan kada je u pitanju naputanje crnogorskih sela. Ostala su rijetka
staraka domainstva uz povean broj onih koji povremeno dolaze iz okolnih
gradova.
evski govori nijesu do sada bili predmet detaljnog naunog prouavanja. Meutim, ako imamo u vidu teritorije, tj. plemena s kojima se ozrinika
sela granie i zbornike radova i monografske studije istaknutih lingvista, nije
teko zakljuiti da su svi susjedni govori detaljno opisani.104 Jedini, nama
poznati, sakuplja mikrotoponima ovoga kraja jeste Petar Pejovi, iji je rad
Mikrotoponimija Ozrinia objavljen u X knjizi Onomatolokih priloga. Pejovi
nas upoznaje s graom koju je najveim dijelom preuzeo iz katarstarskih knjiga i
djelimino dopunio s terena. Publikovana graa nije klasifikovana i lingvistiki
analizirana.
Obilazei evska sela Barjamovicu, Velestovo i Markovinu u periodu jesen 2011 proljee 2012. godine iscrpno smo biljeili sve nazive na terenu i uz
njih navodili osnovne podatke koji se odnose na imenovani lokalite.105 Akcentujui toponime konstatovan je troakcenatski sistem za koji R. Bokovi naglaava,
uz dominantno silazne, postojanje poluuzlaznog dugog akcenta (upi 235). U
obraivanim primjerima duine se uvaju na pozicijama i prije i poslije akcenta.
Dio mikrotoponima (sa d, t) koji potvruju jekavsko jotovanje u govoru stanovnitva ovih sela, i pored oiglednog odstupanja od nekad zvanine srpskohrvatske jezike norme, biljeen je u skladu s pravilima standardizacije geografskih naziva (Vujii 107116). Govorei o primjerima s glasovima i
(prisutni u razgovornoj sferi i toponimiji ali u odnosu na prethodne znatno manji
broj) Asim Peco istie da se odstupanja od fonetskih likova koje nam nudi
dijalekatska realnost ovdje vri iskljuivo zbog nepostojanja grafema za
iskazivanje tih dijalekatskih glasova (Peco 1994: 34). Oni dijalekatski oblici
103
Saoptio informator Vasilije Miunovi (63 godine).

Vidjeti: Mitar Peikan, Starocrnogorski srednjokatunski i ljeanski govori, Srpski
dijalektoloki zbornik, knj. XV, Beograd, 1965. Drago upi i eljko upi, Renik govora
Zagaraa, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik , knj. XLIV, Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti i Institut
za srpski jezik, Beograd, 1997. Drago upi, Govor Bjelopavlia, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik,
knj. XXIII, XI + 226 (sa kartom), Beograd, 1977. Danilo Vuovi, Dijalekti istone Hercegovine,
Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, knj. 170+karta, Beograd, 1927.
105
Evidentirali smo oko est stotina pedeset naziva. Meutim, zbog prostorne ogranienosti ovdje
ne moemo dati kompletnu grau.
104

koje kao takve u toponimiji i antroponimiji s fonetskog i morfolokog aspekta
prihvatamo, opet moraju biti akcenatski prilagoeni standardnojezikom modelu.
Nai primjeri potvrdili su nastanak velikog broja naziva metonimijom.
Za fitonime u toponimiji naglaava se znaaj prouavanja sinonimnih i
homonimnih relacija, s obzirom na upliv termina iz drugih jezika pred kojima
neki domai nazivi uzmiu. Uraenom klasifikacijom naznaena je motivacija
nastanka veine mikrotoponima.
Informatori koji su nam dali dragocjeni materija bili su: Radoje
Mrvaljevi (62 godine) i Gojko Turinovi (68) iz Barjamovice; Vlado
Abramovi (70), Vlado Stanojevi (80), Milovan Stanojevi (53) i Vasilije
Miunovi (63) iz Velestova; Vasilj Mitrovi (82), Radosav Mitrovi (71),
Momir Vujovi (60), arko Vujovi (58), Mili urovi (62), Peko Popovi
(65), Duan Bajovi (57) i Rade Perutovi (63) iz Markovine.
Pjeivci
Pusti lisac
Bijele
Poljane
Bjelopavlii
Cuce
Oegovice
Lastva evska
Ubli evski
Gara
evo
Kopitnik Vui
Markovina Zagreda
Zagara
Bjelice
Velestovo
minnn B
bb B B
B
Komani
Ljeanska nahija
Karta ozrinikog plemena

Ojkonimi
Dio toponima koji se oznakom odnosi na naseljena mjesta, na nazive
malih prirodnih formacija (peine, litice, pilje, krape, bezdani i sl. ) te imena
spomenika jesu ojkonimi (ojkos stan, kua, prebivalite + onim ime)
(ekularac 13). Potrebno je naglasiti da e podjela koju ovdje dajemo biti
podlona izmjenama s obzirom na injenicu da brojni ojkonimi usljed odlaska
stanovnitva sa odreenog prostora dobijaju status mikrotoponima, dok ima
nagovjetaja da e doseljavanjem stanovnitva i gradnjom kua i pomonih
objekata neki mikrotoponimi prei u ojkonime.
1. Barjamovica: Glade, Poljane, Ispod Pjeivca, Miliina Rupa, eklin Do.
2. Gornja Markovina: Zabovanje, Dugako Gumno, Oraje, Lijenice , Caueve
rupe, Crkvina.
Donja Markovina: Krs, Kosmae, Udragovine, Jagnjile, urova Rupa.
3. Velestovo: Donje Lavne, Gornje Levine, Damjanova Rupa, Prigredine,
Mitnjae, Midorovina, Selita, Jabuke, Stranica, Demirovice, Krivaljevine,
Makljen, Vukov Pod, Velja Glavica.
Uoavamo da su imena sela i zaselaka po strukturi jednolana i dvolana.
Prva rije dvolanih naziva je prisvojni pridjev na -in (-a) i -ov (-a), npr. Miliina, Damjanova, eklin,106 Vukov, urova, ili opisni pridjev (Velja, Dugako).
Geografski pojam (Rupa, Do) ili pojam koji se odnosi na lokalitet gdje ovjek
obavlja neke privredne ili drutvene/plemenske aktivnosti (Gumno) se javlja kao
drugi lan ovdje navedenih mikrotoponima. Ojkonim Caueve Rupe je nastao
prema antroponimu dok u primjeru Ispod Pjeivca imamo kombinaciju predloga i
oronima.
Kod jednolanih ojkonima razlikujemo prefiksalne izvedenice
(Zabovanje ovaj zaselak uvuen je pod veliki stjenoviti masiv (bovan), to je
oiglednom motivacijom i na naziv preneeno. Ima isto znaenje kao i balvan:
kip, greda, kamen, pa svakako i stena, stenoviti stub ili vrh, istaknuti kr i sl.
(Erdeljanovi 261262, Prigredine) ili one obrazovane prema fitonimu (Jabuke,
Makljen, Lijenice). Nazivi koji su podstaknuti nekim aktivnostima iz
poljoprivrednog i drutvenog zivota takoe nijesu rijetki (Jagnjile, Selita).
Poljane je primjer gdje se geografski pojam koji se javlja u slubi ojkonima.
Skok glade objanjava kao obansku kolibu od drveta i pokrivena lubom
(1971: 564), pa bismo nastanak ojkonima mogli upravo vezati za period kad su
ovi kraljevi korieni kao katuni.
106
Erdeljanovi daje objanjenje da je na ovim prostorima lino ime Tekla uvijek izgovarano ekla,
dakle postojao je samo ovaj drugi oblik, koji je danas nepravedno potisnut u korist oblika Tekla.
Hidronimi
Hidronim je u lingvistici naziv za ime kakve vode (rijeke, jezera itd.), a
potie od grckog hydor voda + onim (Simeon 471).
S obzirom na velike probleme koje je narod ovoga kraja vjekovima imao
s vodosnabdijevanjem, prisutni su stalni napori da se naine vjetaki objekti koji
bi zadovoljili bar one osnovne potrebe stanovnitva i stoke.
Najstariji ouvani tip vjetakih voda ljevkastog je izgleda, a u narodu je
poznat pod optim imenom dubenica. Samo ponekad manje dubenice
narod naziva imenom lokanj ili lokva. Najei tip vjetakih voda
poznati su pod imenom ublice ili ublovi (Krivokapi 72).
U onomastici se esto dogaa da objekti koji su teritorijalno bliski prenose ime sa jednoga na drugi. Naravno, nekad je i uz pouzdanog informatora i
dobro poznavanje terena teko utvrditi smjer kretanja naziva. Klasifikujui hidronime dolazimo do sljedeih tipova:
a) Nastanak hidronima prema drugim toponimima:
Bojani do (V)107, Gracki do (V), Bjelaki do (V), Zamrten (M),
Dubokae (M), eniine (M), Ledenika ljut (M), Kopitnika lokva (M) termin
lokva koji ini dio ovog hidronima se odnosi na udubljenje u kojem se u ovim
krajevima zadravala voda. Praslovenskog je porijekla: loky (Peco 1990: 151).
b) Nastanak hidronima prema antroponimu:
Gorinov uba (V), Purina peina (B), Nikolia uba (M), Ivovi lokanj (M)
itd.
Navedeni primjeri pokazuju da u dvolanim hidronimima antroponimskog porijekla prvi lan moe imati funkciju prisvojnog pridjeva na -ov (-e) i
-in (-a, -e), ali i atributsku funkciju u vidu posesivnog genitiva, npr. Nikolia uba
(M).
c) Nastanak hidronima prema fitonimu:
Vodna kruka (V), Jabuke (V), Jasika (B), Cerak (M) itd.
d) Nastanak hidronima prema izgledu i svojstvu tla, prema vizuelnoj i
orijentacionoj odredbi ili utisku:
Grbavica (V), Voda pod kr (V), iva (B), Bijele kamenice (B), Pogana
kamenica (M), Padalite (M), Ploa (M), Bijeli kr (M), Velje grede (M) itd.
e) Nastanak prema zoonimu: Meedaa (M).
107
U navoenju primjera iz ispitivanih sela koristili smo skraenice V za Velestovo, M za

Markovinu i B za Barjamovicu.
Oronimi
Oronim je u lingvistici i geografiji opi naziv za ime gore ili za reljefne
karakteristike zemljita (Simeon 994). Ovdje navedene mikrotoponime po
strukturi dijelimo na jednolane i dvolane. U nastavku dajemo klasifikaciju
oronima u zavisnosti od toga ta je motivisalo nastanak naziva ovih djelova
zemljita:
a) Naziv oronima prema antroponimu:
ukanov kr (B), Dobrilov ober (V), epanovi podi (V), Glodov kr
(M), Bein kom (M) i dr. Iz primjera itamo da oronim nastaje kao kombinacija
prisvojnog pridjeva i geografskog pojma kao drugog lana. Tvorbeni sistem oronima poznaje i imenovanje s navoenjem dijela ljudskog tijela u nazivu Lice (V).
b) Naziv oronima prema spoljanjem izgledu mjesta i kvalitetu tla:
Borine (V) uvjerili smo se na terenu da je ovaj mikrotoponim iz grupe
onih koji ne potiu od fitonimske osnove (Pulevi 130), Tvrdo (B), Skoka
strana (B), Kapura (V), Razdolja (V), Otra glavica (V), Goli ober (V), Bovanj
brdo (M), Strmac (M), Ostra glavica (M), Ljuti kri (M), Debeli ober (M) i dr.
c) Naziv oronima prema fitonimu:
Grabova glavica (B), Siljavica (B), Jasike (M), Lipovi kr (M) i dr.
d) Naziv oronima prema zoonimu:
Koa glavica (B), Vua greda (V), Magariine vale (M), Jastrebinje
kose (M) i dr.
e) Naziv oronima prema ulozi u tadanjem poljoprivrednom i
drutvenom ivotu plemena:
Linjikovite (V), Plandita (M), ednik (M), Zborna glavica (M) i dr.
f) Naziv oronima prema poloaju u odnosu na druge mikrotoponime:
Pitenski ober (V), Sintolijska glavica (M), Kaoinski ober (M) i dr.
Fitotoponimi
Fitonimija je nauka o imenima biljaka. Naziv potie od grkog phyton
biljka, raslina + onoma ime, ime biljke (Simeon 343). Nazivi biljaka koje
prepoznajemo u toponimima:
a) Krupno umsko rastinje.
1. lipa ( lat. Tilia platyphyllos):
Lipove doline (M), Lipovi pod (M), Lipovi kr (M), Lipovi lonac (M),
Lipova rupa (M) i dr.
Kada govorimo o mikrotoponimima koje smo upravo izdvojili treba
naglasiti da je ovdje iskljuena mogunost povezivanja fitonima sa linim
imenom Filip, odnosno hipokoristikom Lipo, to imamo u primjeru kolainskog
sela Lipovo.

Navedeni primjeri graeni su od fitonima u osnovi, izraen prisvojnim pridjevom
na -ov (-a, -e, -i), koji se kombinuje sa geografskim pojmom kao drugim lanom
naziva. Mikrotoponime sa osnovom lipa nalazimo samo na prostoru sela
Markovine, i uvijek u dvolanim fitonimima.
2. javor (lat. Abies)
U jednolanim fitonimima javlja se u obliku deminutiva: Javorak (V),
Javrak (M). Fitonimi kreirani od ove osnove, a koji se sastoje od dvije rijei
imaju za prvi lan prisvojni pridjev na -ov (-a, -i), npr. Javorova prodo (B),
Javorovi dolovi (B), Javorovi do (M) i, kao drugi lan naziva, uz njih stoji
geografski termin u nominativu jednine ili mnoine.
3. lijeska ( lat. Carlus avelana)
Fitonim s ovom osnovom se najee javljaju kao dvolani. Naziv
nastaje od prisvojnog pridjeva na -ov (-a, -e, -i), npr. Ljeskovi do (B), Ljeskove
doline (V), Ljeskova dolina (M), i geografskog pojma u nominativu mnoine i
jednine. Zabiljeen je u Gornjoj Markovini primjer jednolanog fitonima
Lijenice.
4. jasika (lat. Populus tremula)
Na prostoru Crne Gore Pulevi, Samardi i Cicmil-Remeti evidentirali
su oko 300 toponima s ovom osnovom (Pulevi 326). Nazivi graeni prema
imenu ove biljke, a koje smo zabiljeeni na prostoru Barjamovice, Velestova i
Markovine, dominantno su jednolani i to u nominativu jednine ili mnoine:
Jasika (B), Jasike (V) i Jasike (M). Pronalazimo i primjer sufiksalnog fitonima s
pridjevom u osnovi: Jasikovac (B). Od dvolanih fitonima iz ove grupe registrujemo u stranama Gara, u Markovini: Jasikova laka.
Primjer ume (M) potvruje da se zemljite moe imenovati i optim
nazivom prema biljnom pokrivau.
b) Sitnije umsko rastinje:
Drenovi (M), Trnova rupa (M) i dr.
c) Nazivi u vezi s voem.
Kruka ini osnovu ak deset mikrotoponima, gdje u jednolanim stoji
nominativ jednine ali i Kruica (V), Krukovac (V). Dvolani fitonimi mogu biti
graeni u kombinaciji sa geografskim pojmom kao drugim lanom: Krukove
rupe (B), Vodna kruka (V), Krukovaka zgrada (M); ili s antroponimom:
Kruka Lalevia (V) i Vukovia kruka (V). Fitonimi s osnovom kruka
zastupljeni su ravnomjerno na terenu sva tri sela, kako u jednolanim tako i u
dvolanim nazivima.
Od voaka iji je naziv posluio za izvoenje fitonima jo su prisutni:
jabuka (Jabuke (V), Jabuka bistijerna (V)), orah (Orah Jovovia (M)) i dr.
d) Nazivi u vezi sa itaricama i industrijskim biljem.
Mikrotoponimi ovoga tipa mogu se graditi i od imena biljke koja se gaji
(itarice i druge kulture) ili pak naziv moe nastati prema mjestu gdje je gajena
odreena kultura. Za nazive izvedene od mjesta gdje je uzgajana neka biljna vrsta
imamo primjere: Konopljite (M), Repljite (V), Repljita (M), Zeljovina (V) i dr.

Fitonim Ovsine (M) je takoe veoma rasprostranjen u crnogorskoj
toponimiji, kao i eniine (M) u toponimiji dominantno prisutan s osnovom
enica (Pulevi 314). Svi pomenuti primjeri po strukturi su jednolani, izuzetak
je evidentiran u Velestovu Lunjaci kod Jagnjila
e) Nazivi u vezi sa korovom i travama.
Ovdje ubrajamo primjer iz Markovine Koprivni do. U Barjamovici je
zabiljeen naziv Siljavica za pogranine strane prema Komanima. Skok za takve
toponime tvrdi da su fitonimskog porijekla, odnosno da su izvedeni od biljke koja raste do metar visine i neprijatnog je mirisa (Skok 235). Rasprostranjenost
ovog a i mnogih drugih naziva na prostoru Crne Gore detaljno je prouavao Vuki Pulevi bavei se problemom homonima i sinonima u fitonimiji i fitotoponimiji (6173, 293331).
Zoonimi u toponimima
Zoonimi su nazivi ivotinja, a primjeri koje obraujemo nude sliku ivotinjskog svijeta prema ijem imenu su izvedeni nazivi nekih djelova zemljita.
Od domaih zivotinja koje su ule u toponimiju ovoga podruja nabrajamo
sljedee: krava, kokoka, maka, magarac. Prisutan je i opsti naziv goveda.
Govea prisoja (V), Maja snijenica (M), Magariine vale (M),
Kokoinja peina (M) i dr.
Spisak divljih ivotinja nesto je dui: lisica, zec, medvjed, vuk, jelen,
jastreb. Ovi nazivi se javljaju kao:
- neizvedeni: Zeica (M);
- izvedeni, i to sufiksalni tip mikrotoponima:
Golubinje (B), Golubinja (V), Meedaa (M)
- dvolani mikrotoponimi, gdje je prvi lan zoonimskog
porijekla, a drugi geografski pojam:
Lisie doline (B), Vua greda (V), Meea laka (V), Jastrebinje kose
(M), Jeljenji pod (M) i dr.
Vizuelno-kvalitativna svojstva zemljita
Nai primjeri omoguavaju podjelu na etiri vee skupine i smatramo da
je ponuena podjela osloboena suvinog, te sasvim odgovara ovako naslovljenom poglavlju.
a) Mikrotoponimi koji nazivom upuuju na sastav i kvalitet tla:108
Kr (B), Trulo (B), Prlina (V), Jalova rupa (V), Borine (V), Gnjile (M),
Ljuti kri (M), Gomila (M), Ostra glavica (M) i dr.
108
Potrebama ovoga poglavlja prilagoen je dio sheme koju je ponudio Ljubisav iri radei
onomastiku analizu belopalanakog kraja.

b) Mikrotoponimi koji nazivom upuuju na boju zemljita:
Bijele kamenice (B), Crna glavica (V), Bijeli kr (M) i dr.
c) Mikrotoponimi koji nazivom upuuju na uzdignuto zemljite:
Visoka glavica (B), Goli ober (V), Sintolijska glavica (M), Viljine
glavice (M), Grgurov kam (M) i dr.
d) Mikrotoponimi koji nazivom upuuju na sputeno, udubljeno
zemljite:
Radonji rupa (B), Gruina jama (V), Koklia rupa (V), Prljucke rupe
(M), Ponor (M) i dr.
Mikrotoponimi kao slika ovjekovog ivota i rada
Ovdje se daje osvrt na nazive koji odraavaju ili su nastali u vezi s:
a) Poljoprivredom ili stoarstvom:
Katunita A. Peco prihvata Skokovo tumaenje osnovnog pojma
katun. Skok konstatuje da je najuvjerljivije objanjenje dao Jokl koji je katun
doveo u vezu s arb. katund-i, Gebiet, Dorf, Stadt, Odatle na ar katundarkatunar (Peco 1990: 120121) (B), Linjikovite (V), Ovsine (V), Jagnjile (M),
Stogovite (M), Uljanik (M), Medne ume (M) i dr.
b) Mikrotoponimi koji nazivom upuuju na antropogene aktivnosti:
Laine lazine (B), utkia lazine (V), Pajunova lazina (M).
Lazine su manje plodne povrine ili panjaci koje je stanovnitvo ovih
krajeva stvaralo krenjem uma. Bajo Krivokapi je prije pedesetak godina na
prostoru Katunskog kra naznaio postojanje 78 lokaliteta s terminom lazina
(Krivokapi 79). Jedna od posljedica tih mjera jeste i unitenje umskog pokrivaa, na nekim djelovima terena toliko da te biljke jo samo u toponimiji opstaju
(npr. bukva u stranama Gara).
c) Mjestima koja simboliu nekadanje plemenske aktivnosti i (su)ivot:
Komunica komanska (B), Staro gumno (V), novi (M), ednik (M),
Zborna glavica (M), Crkvina (M), Crno poivalo (M) itd.
d) Profesijom, zvanjem:
Popova razdolja (B), Popove doline (V), Kozarev tor (M) itd.
Mikrotoponimi obrazovani od vlastitih imena

Mikrotoponimi o kojima je rije, kao to je konstatovano, mogu biti izvedeni prema linom imenu, prezimenu, linom a nekad i porodinom nadimku ili
na osnovu profesije, zvanja i ta osoba je najee vlasnik zemljita. Meutim,
privredne i drutvene aktivnosti uvijek pruaju povod za izmjenu naziva, pa bi se
u sluajevima promjene vlasnitva uzimalo ime prodavca, darodavca i sl. ee
nego novog vlasnika, ali isto tako i osobe za koju je vezano kultivisanje zemljita
(Piurica 104).

Imena ljudi za koje se zna da su nastradali na odreenom lokalitetu,
odnosno, iju smrt predanje vezuje za konkretno mjesto ula su u naziv toga mjesta. Na ovome prostoru nijesu rijetki lokaliteti koji su na taj nain imenovani:
Gikin mramor (M), epanov mramor (M), Gavrilovi mramor (V), Jovanin
mramor (V).
Nai primjeri pokazuju sljedee naine izvoenja mikrotoponima prema
antroponimu:
a) Antroponim u funkciji i formi prisvojnog pridjeva:
eklin Do (B), Voinova laka (B), Gruin do (V), Njegulova peina (V),
Ramov pod (V), epanovi podi (V), Grgurov kam (M), Lakova dra (M), Vuini
doli (M) i dr.
Potvrena je ravnomjerna zastupljenost ovoga tipa gradnje naziva na
cjelokupnom ispitivanom prostoru.
b) Genitivna forma antroponima s posesivnom funkcijom:
Koklia rupa (V), Vukovia kruka (V), Nikolia dolina (M), Prekia dolina (M)
i dr., i svi su izvedeni od prezimena na -i. Oblici posesivnog genitiva od
prezimena na -i za oznaavanje kolektivnog ili porodinog vlasnitva, ali i
individualnog pripadanja, karakteristini su za crnogorske narodne govore i za
pisce koji se na te govore oslanjaju (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 272, fusnota 552).
c) Prezime u nominativu singulara:
Milovi kuite (B), Radonji rupa (B), ator Backovi (M) itd.
d) Mikrotoponimi koji sastavom upuuju na etnike tragove:
Turinova rupa (B), Turski grob (M), Gabeljite (M).
e) Mikrotoponimi koji ukazuju na mogunost graenja naziva dodavanjem apelativa, odnosno geografskog pojma na genitiv sa predlogom iz od
antroponima:
Dolina iz utila (M), Prodo iz umana (M).
Za jednolane mikrotoponime antroponimskog porijekla karakteristian
je sufiksalni tip gradnje. Registrujemo sljedee sufikse:
(-ev-) -ina: Pavievina (M), Markievina (M);
(-ov-) -ica, -ina: uranovica (V), Markovina;
-ov (-o): Glodovo (V).
Prefiksalnosufiksalni tip gradnje javlja se u mikrotoponimu: Udragovine
(M).
Broj dvolanih mikrotoponima je velik, pa s obzirom na to, ovdje e biti
istaknuti samo oni najfrekventniji apelativi:
bori, borovi; do, dolac, doli, doline, dra; glavica, gumno; jama; kam,
kr, kruka, kuite; laka, lazine, lokanj, lonac; mramor; ober; peina, pod, podi,
prodo; razdolja, rupa; torina; uba, zgrade itd.
Toponomastiki materijal obuhvaen ovim poglavljem potvruje da se
antroponim najee javlja kao prva rije u dvolanim nazivima i to u funkciji i
formi prisvojnog pridjeva, gdje je posesivno pridjevsko znaenje izvedeno
sufiksima -in (-a, -e), zatim -ov (-a, -e, -i, -o ) i -ev (-e).

Zakljuak
U semantiki sadraj toponima mogue je zai jedino multidisciplinarnim izuavanjem uz obilazak terena, vitalnost i memoriju informatora kao
prvi i najznaajniji korak istraivakog procesa. Sprovedena analiza potvrdila je
da su nazivi motivisani morfologijom terena, vodom, biljnim i ivotinjskim
svijetom, te proizvodima duhovne i materijalne kulture ljudi koji naseljavaju ili
su naseljavali ispitivano podruje. Prenoenje naziva s jednog toponima na drugi
(metonimija) pojava je prepoznata u grai iz ovog dijela Stare Crne Gore. Nai
primjeri pripadaju tzv. ozrinikom akcenatskom sistemu, koji uz oba silazna
razlikuje i poseban poluuzlazni dugi akcenat, dok se duine mogu nai na
pozicijama i prije i poslije akcenta. Uoeno je da analizirana graa predstavlja
dragocjen materijal za sve koji se bave crnogorskim jezikom (i u dijahroniji i u
sinhroniji), jer nosi informacije o bitnim odlikama naega jezika, koje su i pored
viedecenijskog trajanja srpskohrvatskog jezikog standarda uglavnom opstale u
crnogorskim govorima do naih dana. Nadamo se da e ovaj rad biti podstrek za
dalja prikupljanja toponima i mikrotoponima s obzirom na to da postoje itava
podruja jo uvijek neobraena ili tek uzgredno proarana, to bi stvorilo uslove
za kompletiranje crnogorskoga toponomastikog materijala i uporednu analizu, te
dalo potvrdu o nastanku i semantikim komponentama mnogih crnogorskih
toponima.
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iri, Ljubisav. Onomastika belopalanakog kraja. Poseban otisak iz
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Skok, Petar. Etimologijski rjenik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika. A J, Zagreb:
Jugoslovenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti, 1971.
ekularac, Prof. dr Boidar. Onomastikon Gornjih Sela. Cetinje, 2008.
Vujii, Dragomir. Iz onomastike, leksikologije i dijalektologije. Podgorica: Unireks, 1996.
Mikrotopony of Barjamovica, Markovina and Velestovo

The paper deals with microtoponyms of Barjamovica, Markovina and
Velestovo. The corpus used for this purpose, obtained throught a systematic field
collection, contains 650 terms. The aim of this paper is to examine singularities
of microtoponymic units, to analyze their function in communication, as well as
to determine etymology of certain toponyms. The examples given in the paper
confirm a thesis that a large number of terms in question is created through the
use of metonymy.
Key Words: evo, Barjamovica, Markovina, Velestovo, hydronyms,
oronyms, zoonyms, anthroponyms, motivation
Literary and Cultural Studies

UDK: 821.133.1.09
WHAT MAKES PIERRE FRHAS FRENCH SAHIB A NOVEL OF

GLOBALIZATION?: REFLECTIONS OF A TRANSLATOR
Shonu Nangia
Louisiana State University at Alexandria, USA
Abstract: I recently completed a translation project which involved the crafting of the
English version of Pierre Frhas French novel, Sahib, published in 2006. The English
translation of Frhas book was published, in 2011, under the more expanded appellation
of French Sahib. While this novel -- written by a Frenchman, set in India, and revolving
around a French protagonist -- is a text that brings India closer to France, and France
closer to India in surprising ways that are both comical and profound, it is also a work
that defies characterization into a specific type and evades affiliation with a specific
culture or literary tradition. The work especially reveals elements and influences that
situate it as a product of the global age. Not only does the novel depict characters,
situations, events, places, attitudes and values that can only come together, textually or
otherwise, in an era of globalization, the novel is in itself an instance of globalization at
work. The fictional universe that it depicts, the unchartered territory of its storyline, and
the strands that make up its thematic and stylistic fabric make it so. I see this novel as
first and foremost a novel of globalization. Based on my musings and reflections as the
translator of this piece of contemporary French fiction, I discuss Sahib/French Sahib and
what makes this novel a novel of globalization. I focus my attention on aspects that
reveal why this novel is first and foremost a novel of globalization, as opposed to simply
being a French novel about India.
Key Words: Sahib, French Sahib, Novel, French Literature, India, Globalization,
Translation, Literary Translation, Pierre Frha.
This article is based on recent practical work done in my capacity as a

French translator. The insights shared here are derived not as much from the
close reading that one undertakes while a translating literary work as from the
view from a distance that is afforded when such a long-drawn and substantial
project reaches completion. The reflection presented here covers a series of
broad themes, global ideas meant to serve as guiding signposts that will ideally
pave the way for other future scholarly projects. It was only after the translation
was done and I began drafting the preface and took some distance from the text
both source text and the target text that the realizations that I am going to
present in this piece dawned on me.

The recenly completed project that I allude to involved the crafting of the
English version of French author Pierre Frhas recent novel, Sahib. The English
translation of this book will appear under the more expanded appellation of
French Sahib. While this novel written by a Frenchman, set in India, and
revolving around a French protagonist is a text that brings India closer to France,
and France closer to India in surprising ways that are both comical and profound
as critic Shanti Desjardins has pointed out, it is also a work that defies being
straitjacketed into a specific category and evades affiliation with any specific
national culture or country, a trait which signals its universal relevance. The work
especially exhibits elements and influences that situate it as a product of the
global age. Not only does the novel depict characters, situations, events, places,
attitudes and values that can only come together, textually or otherwise, in an era
of globalization, the novel is in itself an instance of globalization at work. The
fictional universe that it depicts, the unchartered territory of its storyline, and the
strands that make up its thematic and stylistic fabric make it so. I see this novel as
first and foremost a novel of globalization.
As the term novel of globalization in the title of this article suggests,
what Im more interested in then is not the question if this novel is a novel
about globalization although it could be that too but rather how this text
stems from globalization and the manner its content and style mirror the reality
of contemporary globalization. Thus, as I discuss Sahib/French Sahib, my focus
is, in particular, the features and elements that mark the work as a product of
the global age and the reasons why this novel is first and foremost a novel of
globalization, as opposed to merely being a French novel about India, or a novel
about globalization.
Sahib is basically a humorous love story with a complex plot that takes
place mostly in India. While the novel foregrounds an unconventional but
entertaining story of love and marriage, it has, one finds, very little in common
with stories of love and marriage associated with India, as seen in typical
Bollywood films, or as seen even in international films such as the The Mistress
of Spices or Bride and Prejudice, for example. So what is the story about? Here is
a synopsis: We are in Chennai (formerly known as Madras), just a few weeks
before the great tsunami of 2004. Young Dipu wants to marry Philippe. Dipu is
Indian, Philippe is French. The issue of nationality, however, is not their biggest
problem. What about, to begin with, the principle of such a marriage itself?
Complicating the issue is an intrigue relating to Dipus alleged activities as a
computer hacker which brings the plot of the story to a level involving US,
French and Indian authorities. When Philippe, or the Sahib, arrives in Chennai,
there is just enough time for him to realize that Mrs. Rao, Dipus mother, has no
intention of accepting him as her son-in-law, even though he comes from a very
rich and influential Parisian family and even though his father is a famous
politician engaged in issues such as gay marriage. The domineering Mrs. Rao is

unable to even bear to think that her son might be seeing in the older
Frenchman someone more than just a friend, as his Krishna!109 Little by little
though, as the story develops, the question is whether she will learn to cope
with the truth, and whether she will like Philippe or not. And she does not!
French Sahib, although a very masala novel to use a colloquial Bollywood term
avoids the traps of typical stereotypes, Indian or Western, even as it depicts a
very dramatic Indian approach to the issue faced by the Rao family. What
makes the novel remarkable is also the fact that Frha born in Algeria to
French parents, and more European and French in his upbringing than he can
claim to be Indian gives the impression that he is obsessed with coming to
terms with Indian reality and the Indian soul. One may laugh, cry and ponder
reading Sahib. The book is an extraordinary representation of what
confrontation between an Indian and a European frame of mind might be like.
We are treated to two points of views: how life is lived in Chennai where the
story unfolds, and how life is lived in France from where Philippe Sahib hails.
Sahib then is much more than a simple story of coming out, it is also the
confrontation between post-independence but nevertheless traditional Indian
values and modern Western values. Interestingly, Pierre Frha claims I have
not written a book on India, as if he were not interested in according the issue
much importance. I just told a story that is set in India (Desjardins). While the
issue of coming out, in modern India, and gay marriage comprise the main
theme of Frha's novel, the book more importantly also raises questions about
general rights to personal freedom. In particular, it raises a fundamental
question: Is it possible to be free without offending those whom we love?
As mentioned earlier, Pierre Frhas French Sahib is from my
perspective, first and foremost a novel of globalization. The fictional universe
that it depicts, the unchartered territory of its storyline, and the strands that
make up the thematic fabric of this text make it so. It depicts characters,
situations, events, places, attitudes and values that can only come together,
textually or otherwise, in an era of globalization. The novel is an instance of
globalization at work. This is what I wish to discuss now.
First, set in India with a French protagonist, and written by a Frenchman,
French Sahib brings about a new kind of rapprochement between India and
France. The amusing tale of an unconventional friendship between two men,
one French one Indian, one older and one younger French Sahib is much more
than a funny gay story which in itself is something that till very recently would
have been taboo in the Indian context. French Sahib is however much more than
a funny gay story; it is many texts in one. Readers will simultaneously read it as a
109
The family tree in Appendix I indicates the network of relationships in Sahib/French Sahib. The
diagram, missing in the original French text, was specially designed for the English version and
renders the relationship between Philippe and Dipu more explicit.

travelogue, a mystery story, a political and cultural commentary, a sociocultural
critique (of two discrete, and perhaps traditionally antithetical civilizations), a
philosophical discourse on identity, individuality, family, technology, nationhood,
and friendship, and as a narrative on the universal human need for connection
and belonging all rolled into one. It is a global text.
However, more specifically, while Pierre Frhas rapprochement of India
and France is tailored to suit what he wants to tell us about conventions and
freedom amongst other things, the narrative to a large extent sidesteps the
usual clichs on India that previous French narratives have articulated in the
past. One can think of Dominique Lapierres La Cit de la joie with its focus on
abject and crushing poverty and its quasi-glorification of the poorest of the poor
in the slums of Calcutta, or Catherine Clments Pour lamour de lInde with its
nostalgia for the Raj period and its focus on the neo-royals of India, the NehruGandhi clan, as but two examples. Binita Mehtas 2002 book, Widows, Pariahs,
and Bayadres: India as Spectacle is a study that provides insights into other
forms of exoticism or barbarism associated with India in the French colonial
imagination in an earlier period. Mehta writes:
Land of spirituality, or land of widow burning? Land of fabulous wealth,
or land of dire poverty, the caste system, and untouchability? [] For
centuries, French writers have reproduced images of India such as the
widow immolating herself according to the custom of sati, the pariah or
the untouchable, and the bayadre or the dancing girl, in various forms
of theatrical representations. (12)
Making the case that such recurrent images intervene politically in
French society as well as further the aesthetic agendas of the dramatists
themselves, and turn India into a literal and figurative spectacle on the French
stage, Mehta states that such representations persist in contemporary French
dramatic and other print and visual culture, albeit in more nuanced and
sophisticated ways (12).
As a contemporary novel, Sahib in contrast seems to have overcome the
characteristic penchant for such negative and exotic characterizations and shifts
its primary focus to the new upper middle-class and emergent Indias new
contradictions. In a sense, it puts India on a par with the West, with France in
particular. While the encounter between India and the West is not new, the
nature of this encounter in the contemporary era has changed. Sahib reflects
this. The novel reflects India at a time when the country and its people have the
opportunities of the global age and are also faced with the challenges of fast
paced change and soulless modernity wrought by the forces of globalization.
Pierre Frhas fascinating characters are thus ordinary upper middle-class but
unique, and very Indian (however one may interpret that!), even though we

have been warned that the story could take place anywhere in the world. What
makes the characters captivating is the way they choose to deal with the family
issues with which they are all confronted. Overall, these situations are
extremely funny. Readers will frequently smile, and even burst out laughing.
Some situations are simply irresistible because of Satish, the buffoon servant
who enlightens us thanks to his strange words and ideas, his incomprehension
and insatiable curiosity. Essential to the novel is the fascinating character of
Dipu's mother, Mrs Rao. She is undoubtedly the most powerful character in the
novel. But many things about her are uncertain too, and the novel, at another
level, is a panoramic portrayal of this ambivalent personage at a special moment
in her life. She is dealing with crisis, living in a time when traditional family
values are, little by little, getting undermined. It is not easy for this Indian
mother to accept that her son has decided to live a life of his own. And that he
has declared a silent war against the ones he loves the most.
Sahib/French Sahib is also a novel of the global age for another reason.
It gives us, in the West, an image of the new India of modernity which is in
transition but also gives us an image of the India of the Aquarian Age, that is,
without abstracting its ancient spirituality. The novel has a spiritual subtext
which offers another rich but hidden layer of meaning. We see this layer of India
through western eyes, but from within. We see Amma, the famous living saint
from Kerala, the hugging mother, as a character in the novel, as well as droves
of spiritual seekers from the West who have arrived not to conquer India, but
themselves. Several episodes are built around ashrams, ayurveda, and
synchronicity.110 The novel dismantles certain boundaries, by assigning to India a
new role with regard to the Western subject, deconstructing the traditional
opposition between the East and West. In this novel, the new and still chaotic
India still the Other for the European is no longer the object of an Orientalist
gaze, but instead a site of quest and discovery, a means for coming to terms
with life and with existence. A place for recasting relations and oneself. It
transports us to an India of paradoxes that is not an object to be known or
understood but a transforming experience of diffrance to be lived and
traversed. This humorously recounted tale is then, at another level, also about
breaking down boundaries. Boundaries between cultures, boundaries between
individuals, but most importantly those conceptual ones that restrict freedom
and separate us from others and from our deeper selves and keep us from being
who we are.
This novel is a novel of globalization for yet another reason. Not only is
it a product of globalization, and not only does it depict events and phenomena
110
Susan Gilberts bestseller novel and its 2010 film adaptation starring Julia Roberts, Eat, Pray,
Love: One Woman's Search for Everything Across Italy, India and Indonesia depict this Indian
setting in particular.

that could only be attributed to globalization, it also manifests a literary and
stylistic hybridity that is directly connected with our global age. Having an
unconventional marriage as its theme, the novel, especially in its French version,
is in itself an unconventional marriage between France and India at the literary
level. Activating uniquely French syntax, images, thought structures, metaphors
and articulating the philosophical, moral, and existential preoccupations
characteristic of the noblest traditions in French writing, the narrative also
unmistakably and dynamically evokes Bollywood and its energy thanks to its
changing settings, vibrant colors, sudden twists, variegated flavors, and brisk
pace. The story is replete with Bollywood style excitement and drama.111 French
prose techniques, narrative style and textual features are delightfully combined
with desi style material and effervescence. The novel consummates this
marriage between France and India with an incredible, almost joyful lightness of
being, in a very matter of fact way, marking a guiltless and natural appropriation
of influences possible only in the era of cultural globalization.
Finally, a few words about the crafting of the English version titled
French Sahib, which took place in a context that is yet another instance of
globalization and involved the translation, at the behest of a French writer, of a
French novel by a linguist of Indian origin teaching French and Spanish in the
United States. In translating this work, I made readability the topmost priority. I
tried to be consistently mindful of both the banks as I navigated the river that is
the translation process. I had to be faithful to the source text and respectful of
the target audience a global audience of English speaking and reading people.
Certain peculiarities of the authors own writing style, such as long and dense
paragraphs, often with run-on sentences and comma splices, were challenging.
So was the liberal use of the discours indirect libre (free indirect speech) in the
original in many places where it was hard to tell whether it was the narrator or
the character whose point of view was being represented. In all these instances
I consulted with the author for meaning and clarification to make sure all the
connotations and denotations, flavors, nuances, tones, and levels of meaning
could be captured in the translation, thanks to some real-time instant
communication technologies that define our global age. As I resolved each
problem connected to these issues, I did not lose sight of my double-edged goal:
transferring the wholeness of meaning of this carnivalesque text and injecting
clarity and a sense of naturalness into the translation. Some of the phrases,
images and metaphors would just not make sense in English, or would lose their
original impact if translated literally, so there I had to resort to transcreation.
In such cases, my emphasis was on the essence of the message, rather than on
111
While the French version did not have chapter headings, Appendix II shows the table of
contents page added to the English translation. The chapter titles foretell the color and drama in
the story, the many twists in the plot, and the brisk movement of the narrative.

the literal meaning. There again, I conferred with the author to make sure we
were on the same page.
The various Indian characters in the original French version titled Sahib all
spoke in French, just like regular French people. Understandably so. The novel
was in French! Readers of the English version, titled French Sahib, will however
notice that these characters speak English the way urban Indians do. For example,
Mrs. Raos children all call her Mummy and not Mom or Mama. I have
attempted to be as authentic as possible with linguistic representation. These
characters speak, or use, English the way Indians of their background and age do
today in the real world. It is for this reason that Bira, Mrs. Raos computer-savvy
teenage daughter, exhibits a certain American influence.
Ultimately, as an academic, it is my ardent belief that the story Pierre
Frha tells will enthrall not just the reader reading for pleasure but also serious
scholars of travel literature, cultural studies, globalization, and global
interculturalism. For me, it was very exciting to be involved in the translation of
a work that I see as a trailblazing piece of modern global writing in so many
ways. No translation is, in a sense, ever final, just as no reading ever is. I do
however hope that readers will find French Sahib to be smooth reading and will
appreciate the book not just for its entertainment value and thought-provoking
content but also for its clarity and language.
References:
Bride and Prejudice. Dir. Gurinder Chadha. Perf. Aishwarya Rai, Martin
Henderson. Miramax, 2004.
Clment, Catherine. Pour lamour de lInde. Paris: Flammarion, 1993.
Desjardins, Shanti. Sahib, de Pierre Frha. 30 Oct.2006. Couleur Indienne: Une
Passerelle entre lInde et la France. 7 Nov. 2009 <http://www.couleurindienne.net/Sahib,-de-Pierre-FREHA_a191.html>.
Eat, Pray, Love: Screenplay by Elizabeth Gilbert. Dir. Ryan Murphy. Perf. Julia
Roberts, Javier Bardem. Columbia Pictures, 2010.
Frha, Pierre. Sahib. Paris: Harmattan, 2006.
Gilbert, Elizabeth. Eat, Pray, Love: One Woman's Search for Everything Across
Italy, India and Indonesia. New York: Viking, 2006.
Lapierre, Dominique. La Cit de la joie. Paris: Robert Laffont, 1985.
Mehta, Binita. Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadres: India as Spectacle. Lewisburg:
Bucknell UP, 2002.
Mistress of Spices. Screenplay by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni. Dir. Paul Mayeda
Berges. Perf. Aishwarya Rai, Dylan McDermott. DVD. Rainbow Film, 2005.

RFLEXIONS D'UN TRADUCTEUR: EN QUOI LE ROMAN FRENCH
SAHIB DE PIERRE FRHASERAIT IL UN
ROMAN DE MONDIALISATION?
Je viens de terminer un projet de traduction qui consistait prparer la
version anglaise dun roman franais crit par Pierre Frha, intitul Sahib, publi
en 2006. La traduction anglaise du livre de Frha fut publie en 2011 sous le titre
de French Sahib. Bien que ce roman crit par un Franais, se droulant en
Inde et tournantautour d'un protagoniste franais soit un texte qui rend l'Inde
plus prs de la France et la France plus proche de l'Inde dune faon surprenante
la foiscomique et profonde, c'est aussi un ouvrage quon ne peut pas caractriser
facilement comme appartenant un tel ou tel genre ou une culture ou une
tradition particulire. Le roman rvle en particulier des lments et des
influencesqui le marquent comme produit de l're de la mondialisation. Non
seulement sont
reprsents des
personnages,
des situations,
des
vnements, des lieux, desattitudes et des valeurs qui ne peuvent se
runir, textuellement ou autrement, quedans lre de mondialisation, le roman
est en
soi
un exemple du
phnomne
de
mondialisation
l'uvre. L'univers fictionnel qu'il reprsente, le territoire jusquiciinexplor de
son histoire et les fils qui composent son tissu thmatique et stylistique
lassurent. Je vois ce roman d'abord comme un roman de la mondialisation. A
partir de mes rflexions en tant que traducteur de cette uvre de
fiction franaise contemporaine, je discute de ce qui fait de Sahib /
French Sahib un roman de la mondialisation. Je porte mon attention sur les
aspects qui rvlent pourquoi ce roman est bel et bien un roman de la
mondialisation, au lieu dtre tout simplementun roman franais sur l'Inde.
Mots-cls: Sahib, French
Sahib,
roman,
littrature
Inde, mondialisation, traduction, traduction littraire, Pierre Frha
franaise,

APENDIX I
Family Trees
Radhika Rao (53) + Sushil (deceased)
__________________________________________
Ammu (28) + Suneet (32)
___________
Santosh (5)
Abhi (31)
Pradeep (30) Brinda (19)
Amit (2)
Olivier Delcourt (72) + Bernadette (70)

______________________
Nomie (43) + Jean-Bernard (51)
____
Benjamin (9)
Olivier Delcourt
Christophe (49) + Batrice (40)

_______________
Alice (12)
* Domitille Surprenant (deceased)

____
Philippe (45) Pradeep
Olivier Delcourt * Laetitia Demasure (56)

____
Carole (34) Nadge (28)
____
Santz (2)
+ = marriage
* = affair
= civil union
Jean-Lou (8)

APENDIX II
French Sahib: Table of Contents
1. Rainbow in the Chennai Sky
2. The Missing Mustache
3. A Gem in the Family
4. Family Matters
5. Bad Luck
6. Any Cure for Dipu?
7. Kuchus Game
8. A New Haircut
9. Letter from a French Father
10. Waiting for Laddus
11. The Hacker
12. Over Lunch
13. Quality Time with Mummy
14. Bapu of French Politics
15. The Translator
16. Kerala Coincidences
17. Ashram
18. Tsunami

UDK: 272:316.356.2(415)
(DIS)OBEYING THE INEXORABLE CENSOR: CATHOLICISM IN

THE FICTION OF K ATE OBRIEN AND EDNA OBRIEN
Vesna Uki Kota
University of Zadar
Abstract: This article examines the ways in which two Irish authors, Kate OBrien and
Edna OBrien, articulate and subvert the repressive Catholic dogma which heavily
impacted on the shaping of Irish woman's identity throughout most of the twentieth
century. The chosen novels, The Ante-Room (1934) and Mary Lavelle (1936) by Kate
O'Brien, and The Country Girls Trilogy (1960, 1962, 1964) by Edna O'Brien are read in
the same cultural and ideological context, and are considered to graphically enact what
the philosopher Louis Althusser terms as the ideological state apparatuses at work. The
heroines of both authors are constantly interpellated as individuals subjected to the
controlling force of religion and thus deeply and often painfully steeped in the ideology
and doctrine of the Irish Catholic Church.
Key Words: Catholicism, Althusser, ideology, family, state apparatuses, repression.
Traditionally, literary scholars and critics have not considered novels of

Kate OBrien (1897-1974) and Edna OBrien (b. 1930) together.112 Apart from
grouping them together as banned Irish authors, they have rather tended to
explore the works of these two writers separately, that is, in different historical
contexts. On the one hand, Kate OBrien started writing fiction in the early
thirties and continued to write until the late fifties. It is a critical consensus that
she created her finest fiction in the thirties and forties, during the heyday of the
nexus between the Church and state in Ireland. The focus of this paper
therefore also lies on the two novels from this period: The Ante-Room (1934)
and Mary Lavelle (1936). Edna OBrien, on the other hand, started her literary
career in the sixties, at a time of gradual changes in Irish society and the second
wave of feminism worldwide. Her early trio of novels which I will analyse here,
The Country Girls (1960), The Lonely Girls (1962) and Girls in Their Married Bliss
(1964), are considered to have successfully introduced rebellious and audacious
women characters into Irish fiction. The Country Girls Trilogy (hereafter The
Trilogy) is therefore usually hailed as a crucial piece of womens fiction to
112
The two authors are not related.

forever change the face of Irish womens literary scene in the second half of the
last century.
However, as my readings of their selected novels will attempt to
demonstrate, it is possible to consider the fiction of these two writers in the
same ideological and cultural context. These novels very vividly represent the
huge impact of what the philosopher Louis Althusser terms ideological state
apparatuses on Irish women for most of the twentieth century. In his famous
1969 essay, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, Althusser examines
the function and influence of social forces such as religion, school, family, the
political system, and censorship, to name a few, which subtly but continually
control the everyday lives of each individual. He points out the religious,
educational and family apparatuses as the major enforces of ideology. Observed
in the light of his thesis, the Irish were deeply steeped in, that is, subjected to
the ideology of the Irish Catholic Church for most of the twentieth century.
Unsurprisingly, as Catholicism in Ireland had enormous impact on virtually every
aspect of life, it completely permeated not only education and family, but also
the political and cultural state apparatuses. In other words, religious ideology
consistently hailed or interpellated the Irish as subjects, and the chosen
novels enact graphically the social force of religion at work.
That is why the complexities which Kate OBriens heroines and
Caithleen Brady, one of Edna OBriens protagonists, come across when facing
many restrictions imposed on them are not as different as they seem at first
sight. Whereas The Ante Room is set in the milieu of the late nineteenth-century
middle-class Irish bourgeoisie, and the plot of Mary Lavelle in Spain in 1922, the
Trilogy conveys a coming of age story of the two girls in contemporary Ireland,
in the fifties and early sixties. This paper argues that Edna OBriens Caithleen
has much more in common with Kate OBriens more or less compliant heroines
than with her subversive and astringent friend Baba. The confines and
oppression of a small, patriarchal and Catholic society determine her behaviour
and her destiny almost as much as they do in the world of Kate OBriens
heroines. Notwithstanding the period in which each of the novels is set, what
the three women (Agnes in The Ante-Room, Mary in Mary Lavelle and Caithleen
in The Trilogy) have in common is the fact that they are very deeply steeped
particularly in religious ideology. The profound and sincere devotion to the
Catholic religion and the awareness of the dire consequences they will have to
suffer if they disobey the doctrine, holds them in check and dominate every
single aspect of their lives. They are all individuals who live in ideology, as
Althusser would have it (113). They recognize too well, as the poet Eithne
Strong says, Voices of Authority which keep warning the mortal soul of many
dangers: Deny flesh: Mortify. Abnegate (34).
Compared to our other two heroines, Agnes Mulqueen in The AnteRoom remains the staunchest Catholic character and, possibly the most

miserable of heroines in Kate OBriens fiction, as she sternly denies herself even
the slightest prospect of emotional fulfilment with the man she loves. At the
opening of the novel, the tolling of the bells113 announces the gloomy
atmosphere, and also symbolically represents the crucial impact coming from
the outside world, that of the Catholic Church which runs through the novel
strongly and continuously. This is one of the rare aspects of the outside world
sensed within the house and within the otherwise enclosed space of the family
permeated with the odour of illness and approaching death. We soon find out
that apart from tending her mother who is on the death-bed dying of cancer,
Agness true agony revolves around the forbidden love for Vincent, her sisters
husband. The news that her sister, Marie Rose, and her husband, are coming to
the Roseholm household triggers a succession of interior conflicts and feverish
introspection. Agnes examines her conscience with remarkable meticulousness,
showing that she is too well aware of the moral dilemma that weighs heavily on
her, but also displaying the extent to which she is subjected to the controlling
force of Catholicism: For three months ... she has not received communion. ...
At Mass and in her prayers Agnes sought to face her moral problem (The AnteRoom 33).
Agnes constantly measures out her life with mass goings, regular weekly
confessions and the number of Communions received which give her a much
needed sense of moral purity and sinlessness, but also spiritual comfort. She
lives in such a constrained religion-dominated world that it is no wonder that
she is so harsh on herself. Rigorously participating in, as Althusser would have it,
certain regular practices which are those of the ideological apparatus (113),
she lives in the religious ideology on a day-to-day basis. These practices,
Althusser explains, are governed by the rituals in which these practices are
inscribed, within the material existence of an ideological apparatus, be it only a
small part of that apparatus; a small mass in a small church, a funeral ... (114).
It is obvious early on in the novel that these rituals are an extremely important
part of Agness daily existence. If she happens to miss any of these, she well
knows that in her unforgiving world it would imply only one thing: that she has
recklessly neglected perhaps the major aspects of her identity being a good
and obedient Catholic.
Hopeful that she would finally dispense with her illicit reveries, she goes
to church to confess to be finally loosed from sin (The Ante-Room 85-86).
Louise Fuller states how hugely important confession was to the Irish:
113
The novels atmosphere owes much to the time of year in which Kate OBrien sets the plot. It
takes place at the end of October, over the three Catholic feast days concerned with dead: the Eve
of All Saints, the Feast of All Saints and the Feast of All Souls. The book is also divided into three
parts, each signifying one day. In the Afterword to the 1988 edition, Deirdre Madden suggests
that the structure of The Ante-Room constantly reminds the reader that this is a novel focused on
death (307).

Sins had to be confessed in detail, as well as the number of times they
had been committed. There was a very real fear of dying in a state of
mortal sin and thus losing eternal salvation. Graphic images of hell-fire
and damnation were etched into peoples consciousness. (21)
Agness urge to have a confession captures well this importance. However, were
she a woman whose faith is not so profoundly and sincerely lived, she would be
perhaps able to deceive herself into believing that this simple and short religious
act could obliterate a months long emotional suffering. As Eamon Maher
notices, Agnes belongs to the line of Kate OBriens women who have an
intellectual appreciation of the theology to which they plead their allegiance
(Irish Catholicism 98). Agnes soon realizes, however, that confession provides
only a temporary relief, and that all she is left to do is gather all her strength on
her own and exorcise her forbidden love for her brother-in-law once and for all.
Unlike our two other heroines, as we shall see, Agnes never flinches
either from her faith or family duty. Not even when faced with Vincents
outpouring of love for her near the end of the novel, does Agnes come close to
overstepping the line of socially and morally acceptable behaviour of her time.
Therefore, I do not completely agree with Anthony Roche when he claims that,
as an Irish woman, she is driven both to draw and subvert on the powerful
tradition of Irish Catholicism, the only language in which she has been schooled
(97-98). When offered an alternative life they could have if they ran away
together, Agnes realizes that some inexorable censor in her knew that it would
never happen and almost feels like cheating on him (The Ante-Room 258-259).
This inexorable censor is the nagging and deeply ingrained awareness that it is
impossible for a woman to ever get out of the enclosed world of religion and
strong family ties. It controls her life to such an extent that, although constantly
carried away by invigorating fantasies, she keeps depriving herself of a life she
envisages in secret. Given Agness striking resolution and morality, I agree, on
the other hand, with Lorna Reynolds who argues that in this novel, Catholicism
is not presented as a characteristic of the class and race of the girl. She goes on
to say that for Agnes Catholic teaching is not just given mouth-service, merely
acknowledged, but is understood and accepted as an inescapable part of life
(56). It is quite significant that her identity of a good Catholic and a loyal sister is
so deeply implanted in her that Agnes does not experience her sacrifice as a
burden.
Despite the fact that the eponymous character of Mary Lavelle is
considerably bolder and that she actually subverts the tenets of Irish
Catholicism, she eventually responds to the repressiveness of religious ideology
in much the same way as Agnes. It has to be said, however, that she is a heroine
of a novel which does not explicitly confront the wretched misery the Church
can inflict on its faithful but rebellious members, as Michelle Roberts correctly

observes (xi). Although Catholic moral doctrine lurks here beneath every action
and decision Mary makes and beneath the consequences she has to suffer, the
repressive force of religion and its influence on the lives of the characters do not
occupy the foreground of the novel. It is quite evident from the outset that here
we are dealing with a somewhat different heroine, one who is not fully at peace
with the role of a dutiful daughter and an obedient future wife and mother. She
is, just like just like Agnes, born and raised in Mellick,114 but has a genuine need
to step out of the stalemate world of the small town bourgeoisie, if only for a
brief period of time. As opposed to Agnes, Mary herself dares to defy social
forces by spending a year as a governess in a rich family in Spain.
However, it is not until she meets Juan Averaga, interestingly placed
only in the second half of the book, that Mary starts to forcefully question her
Catholic background. Their forbidden love awakens Mary to even deeper
interrogation of the whole ideological system of truths she has lived by so far in
Ireland. Our heroine falls in love with a married man in Spain, and suddenly
realizes that the strict order and supervisory eye of her traditionalist home
country are exactly what she needs to prevent her from falling deeper into what
she sees as a moral abyss: In Mellick there were blessed mists and rain, and the
old rules were absolute. ... Ah God, to be back there, back in her own quiet
heart, in coldness and tenderness (Mary Lavelle 208). Although away from
home and seemingly free from the suffocating concerns of life in a small rural
community, Mary is, in Athusserian terms, naggingly interpellated by the
controlling forces of state, religion and family. Once she has freedom to decide
on her own what course her life would and might take, she is quite expectedly
at a loss as to know how to behave. Just like Agnes, who tries hard to exorcise
forbidden emotions for her brother-in-law with the only means available to her confession and prayer, so is Mary compelled to pray in order to salvage her up
to that moment enclosed and sheltered world of Catholic prohibitions and her
alleged love for her fianc: God, help me! Oh, help me, please. Teach me how
to pray. Teach me how to love John as I should (Mary Lavelle 161).
Nevertheless, praying and desperately calling upon the old rules,
characteristic of the conservative young state, does not help her stay compliant
with Catholic teaching. The omniscient narrator calls her conduct foolish very
often throughout the novel, as if wanting to stress not only the oddness and
nonconformity to the Catholic authority and any of the social conventions, for
that matter, but also the fact that well-behaved Irish girls do not behave like
this. Her Irish identity strongly defined by the power and influence of strict
authorities is not something she can easily ignore. She remembers how she
114
Although the story of Mary Lavelle is entirely set in Spain, its Irish characters are, just like those
in The Ante-Room, inhabitants of Mellick, a fictional town which largely corresponds to OBriens
native Limerick.

learnt by hearsay from confessors, from school retreats, from missions, from
the exhortations of the catechism that she was a sinner, a weak thing of the
flesh (Mary Lavelle 157). However, the lure of the forbidden, of the carnal
pleasure she is yet to taste for the first time eventually turns out much more
powerful. Although unable to shut down completely that inexorable censor
which prevents Agnes from acting out and eventually helps her remain a good
Catholic, Mary lets herself go and gets involved in an illicit love affair.
Terry Eagleton lucidly points out that for Kate OBrien, especially in this
novel, sexual love is a kind of delicious insanity, a wayward, unmanageable,
implacable force which disrupts all settlement and involves an ecstatic casting
loose of ones moorings. It is the enemy of communal spirit and social
responsibility (241). Marys conscious decision to give in to sin thus seems to
be as far from social responsibility and the submissiveness to the religious
ideology as can be. The moment the two make love quite simply implies the
transgression of any kind of subjection, and it is interesting that it is Mary who
initiates the intercourse (a detail which must have particularly stuck in the
censors craw): She put her arms round him and pulled his head down for her
kiss (265), But I want you to have me first just for this one time (Mary
Lavelle 266). We thus witness Marys intense emotional coming-of-age as she is
able to examine her loose behaviour and is ready to take the consequences in
an astonishingly down-to-earth and mature manner. This is certainly another
characteristic that brings her close to Agnes in The Ante-Room. Well aware of
the oppressive nature of their Catholic background which neither Mary nor
Juanito is able to escape from (Were Catholics, Mary Lavelle 221)), the
(im)possibility of divorce remains for our heroine nothing but an abstract notion
of fleeing their plight. However, for a girl who was some time ago just a typical,
inexperienced Irish virgin, afraid to even think or talk about, let alone indulge in
sexual desire and adultery, discussing such a taboo matter is another act of
boldness and even subversion. In eventually choosing neither to become the
mistress of the man she is passionately in love with nor to marry her fianc, she
demonstrates both great intelligence and courage. Lorna Reynolds comments
that Kate OBrien makes no moral issue of the behaviour of her heroine.
Nevertheless, behind lies a question: Is it better for Mary Lavelle to learn the
real nature of love, even though she sins against her Catholic training in doing
so, than to sleep-walk amiably into marriage, agreed to but not desired by her?
(102). An intelligent young woman, Mary is well aware that in the stifling world
of the narrow-minded Irish society she will never be forgiven for this
transgression, and goes into self-imposed exile: She was going home with a
lame and hopeless story And afterwards she would take her godmothers
hundred pounds and go away (Mary Lavelle 300).
If we turn to Edna OBriens Caithleen in The Trilogy, we can instantly
notice that what she lacks is the emotional maturity and decisiveness that both

Kate OBriens heroines possess. Mary consciously decides to come clean to her
fianc about the committed sin, and then face an unforeseeable future on her
own. For the sake of her faith and her family, Agnes remains forever subjected
to the repressive social forces and renounces love knowing that she would
never again experience such intense and profound feelings. Caithleen is a
character who could at first sight easily find a place in the world of Kate
OBriens fiction. Her vision of ideal life finish convent school, find a man, get
married and live happily-ever-after as wife and mother fits quite well into the
image promoted by the fledgling Irish state and at the same time denounced by
Kate OBriens novels. However, in her desperate search for love she cannot
help constantly breaking moral laws. Caithleens conduct is quite unacceptable
for the still very conservative Ireland of the fifties and early sixties, let alone for
the time of Kate OBrien.
Caithleen, however, experiences Catholicism in much the same way as
Mary and Agnes and eagerly participates in regular practices, prayers and
confessions, which make an inescapable part of her life. Nevertheless, her
inexorable censor is not as nearly as effective and strict as in Kate OBriens
women. At the outset of the Country Girls, upon getting up, the teenage
Cathleen performs what seems to be her usual morning ritual contentedly
speaking to the picture of the Virgin Mary. Saying out loud that she loves Hickey,
a workman on the farm where she lives with her parents, she addresses the
picture of the Virgin and demonstrates in all her naivety how seriously she takes
the power of prayer: I said so aloud to the Blessed Virgin, who was looking at
me icily from a gilt frame. [...] She said nothing. It surprised me that she didnt
talk more often. Once, she has spoken to me, and what she said was very
private (The Trilogy 4). It is no wonder that Caithleen maintains such an
intimate relationship, as it were, with the Virgin Mary, the supreme Catholic
symbol of purity. Louise Fuller states that in the Ireland of the fifties, when the
plot of The Country Girls takes place, the symbolic forms of Catholicism were
everywhere to be seen, in the home as well as in the public the holy pictures,
particularly the picture of the Sacred Heart with the eternal lamp, the papal
marriage blessing, the crucifix, the statues of the Blessed Virgin, the Infant of
Prague, St Joseph and various other saints (10).
From her early childhood Caithleen is on a symbolical level also heavily
steeped in the ideology and worldview, which would continue to determine
her life all through to her death. Caithleens feeling that the picture of the Virgin
Mary remains callous and insensitive to her prayers, announces early on in the
novel that her often childlike and naive reliance on the Catholic faith will prove
futile and wasted for much of her life. Her tragic death by drowning symbolically
demonstrates that of all three heroines under discussion here, she is the least
able to cope with the unattainable ideal of femininity promulgated by the
Catholic Church. As much as this extremely pious and meek girl tries to adhere

to the religious ideological apparatus, she seems to inadvertently keep
transgressing its prescriptions throughout her whole life. Of course, it is her
friend Baba who constantly (and with much pleasure, it has to be noted) laughs
at Caithleens devoutness and undermines the authority of her inexorable
censor, as it were. Mocking Caithleens behaviour throughout the Trilogy, she
in fact functions as a voice which undermines every notion of passive obedience
that Catholic ideology fosters.
When the teenage Caithleen and Baba move to Dublin (and later
London) after yet another punishment the expulsion from the convent school,
Baba enthusiastically enjoys their newly won freedom not only from the
clutches of the church but from all kinds of subjugation of the tight-knit
community. Caithleen, on the other hand, has difficulties adjusting to the city
life. Their attitudes towards this new stage in life are starkly contrasted and
illustrate perfectly two opposing views of the subjection to Catholicism:
What will we do, Cait? Baba asked as she lay full length on the single bed.
I dont know. Will we go to confession? It was what we usually did on
Saturday evenings.
Confession. Christ, dont be such a drip, well go downtown. Oh, God,
isnt it heaven? (The Trilogy 128-129).
When Caithleen eventually ceases to eagerly participate in all those
small rituals, which Althusser necessarily connects to the functioning of the
religious apparatus, she feels that she has disengaged from her Catholic
background and, for that matter, from the sense of belonging. Unlike Baba, but
like Mary or Agnes, she obviously finds it easier to live under constraints and
guidelines imposed on her by religion. The act of going to confession is for Baba,
on the other hand, just another symbol of the hated religious repression she
cannot wait to get rid of. She has no problems whatsoever shunning it and
readily turning to many possibilities the city has to offer to young girls freed
from parental control or the prying eye of the Church.
It is interesting, however, that the God-fearing Cathleen, while in an odd
relationship with a certain Mr Gentleman,115 stops going to Mass and confession
115
From the vantage point of the twenty-first century the ever growing hysteria over paedophilia,
I cannot help thinking of this romance (which remains strangely unconsummated!) in terms of a
relationship between a potential paedophile and his young victim. It is also somewhat surprising
that no critic so far has addressed this contentious issue in The Trilogy. When they start seeing
each other, Caithleen is a minor, only fourteen, and his age remains unidentified. From the way
OBrien portrays him, he is at least three times her age (he was such a distinguished man with
grey hair (12)). However, according to Shirley Peterson, this odd relationship does not necessarily
bear negative connotations and is in effect contrasted to the much darker one with Eugene

and things (The Trilogy 167) dismissing them, just like Baba, as time-wasting
activities. All of the sudden, Catholic identity is for Caithleen no longer as
important as it used to be. As Rudiger Imhof notices, what is increasingly at work
especially in the first two novels of the Trilogy is a subtle transference from
religion to love [...] Love is felt as a new devotion, a new religion, as a quest for
paradise on earth (72). He suggests that Edna OBrien consistently uses the
religious metaphor, as Caithleen perceives men in her life very much through
the lens of religion.116 She thus refers to Mr Gentlemen as my new God, with a
face carved out of marble (The Trilogy 57). The first time she meets Eugene
Gaillard, her future husband, his face reminds her of a saints face carved out of
gray stone which I saw in the church every Sunday (The Trilogy 185). However, in
Caithleens case, just like in Kate OBriens novels, love can never fully substitute
religion. The more pronounced her neglect of Catholic practices and her
disobedience of the Catholic Church, the guiltier she feels about it and the sense
that she is once again interpellated as the subject gets more intense. A desperate
need to be loved and an equally strong need to be subjected to Catholicism prove
to be mutually exclusive. When in a new troubled relationship, that with Eugene,
she is aware that breaking away from religion brings her nothing but misery: I
could feel the goodness going out of me, as I had not been to Mass for five
weeks (The Trilogy 327). The sharp contrast between the two disparate aspects
of her life love for Eugene and living in sin with him, and her Catholic devoutness
clearly signifies that her need for this subjection is not only symbolical but
genuine and sincere. When Eugene, who is a non-Catholic, mocks sarcastically at
her need to seek consolation in Sunday Mass, he seems to pinpoint the essence of
her increasing anguish: So, when youre in there, you become a convent girl
again. [] I dont know how you can do it, [...] How can you live two lives? In
there [...] youre deep in it with crucifixions and hell and bloody thorns. And here
am I sitting on a wall (The Trilogy 328-329).
Living in sin (with a divorced man, to make things worse) only underlines
Caithleens constant torment as for this young Irish woman anything connected to
sex is quite unsurprisingly the unmentionable subject. The bashful Caitheen has,
for example, an idea that couples had to be married for a long time before a
Gaillard. Peterson suggest that if Mr Gentleman is Kates childish fantasy of the Goody Father,
then Eugene Gaillard is the dark underside of this desire (158).
116
For similar observations, see Byron (463-4). However, neither Imhof nor Byron notices the way
Caithleen connects other seemingly mundane experiences in her life with her devoutness. For
instance, when she tries on a new bra in a fitting room of a shop, it is an act in her mind related to
a forbidden and deeply immoral act: Will you fit on the brassiere, Miss Brady? The shop-girl
asked. Pale, First Communion voice; pale, pure, rosary-bead hands held the flimsy, black, sinful
garment between her fingers, and her fingers were ashamed (142). Quite predictably, unable to
break free from the nagging sense of Catholic guilt and shame, Caithleen resorts to the religious
metaphor when depicting the girls voice and hands. In this way, they stand in sharp contrast to
the sinfulness of the bra she is going to wear.

woman got a baby (The Trilogy 169). This utter ignorance of the facts of life may
be taken to stand as a perfect paradigm for Irish womanhood for greater part of
the last century. Her fear of sexuality and having sex for the first time almost
recalls the naivety of Mary Lavelle (before coming to Spain!): I knew that I was
about to do something terrible. I believed in hell, in eternal torment by fire (The
Trilogy 228). However, Caithleen and Eugenes subsequent marriage, the only
approved context for the expression of sexuality, does not provide any sort of
bliss either, as Edna OBrien ironically puts in the title of the third book. The hasty
wedding ritual stresses the impossibility of the turbulent relationship ever turning
into a happily-ever-after marriage, but also deepens the rift between her two
identities, so to speak. Caithleen, a convent girl, and Caithleen, a grown up
woman who desperately tries to meet the demands of contemporary society are
juxtaposed, as they keep resisting each other all the time. A Catholic Church
wedding, another ritual inextricably linked with the subjection to the religious
authority, is for Caithleen the obvious choice, or, in other words, the only possible
option. However, as she is heavily pregnant and her husband-to-be a non-Catholic
they make an image of a highly undesirable Irish couple of the sixties, and can be
married only in the back of the church. As their marriage is considered a mixed
marriage, the act per se is scandalous in the eyes of the Catholic Church, although
they do not get married in Ireland but in England. The Catholic Church fostered
strict rules concerning such marriages until the late 1960s. Louise Fuller argues
that the wedding could not take place in any consecrated building, there could
be no religious vestments or rites, the priest must not bless the couple, and
finally the wedding was treated as a second-class affair (17).
The religious metaphor, however, gets even more pronounced as
Caithleen is at a loss to know how to cope with the fact that their relationship has
not lived up to the Catholic ideal of the indissoluble marriage union. In an attempt
to expiate her sinful behaviour a platonic affair with another man which sets off
their separation and later divorce the pious Caithleen resorts to constructing a
new martyr-like image for herself. When Eugene eventually rejects her as a
woman of loose morals and deprive her of the right to nurture their son, she
starts a solitary existence which conjures up this martyr-like conduct. Her new life
of a recluse in a cell, a shabby room in a lodging house, tends to function as an
act of atonement for all the alleged sins she has committed, but also for the
shame she wants to hide from the prying eyes of the others. It turns out that,
from the beginning until the very end her life within marriage it is heavily laden
with a sense of the Catholic guilt and shame. Caithleen fails to fit into the
appropriate image of what a good Catholic woman should behave like and
therefore must bear the consequences: In the mornings she cooked her
breakfast in the kitchen [...] saluting the dog or the landlady if she met either,
appeasing them both with a smile before vanishing into her cell once again (The
Trilogy 442). It is somewhat of a paradox that Caithleen who so desperately

strives to be a good Catholic, in other words, submissive and obedient woman,
ends up like the worst of sinners.
After she is forced to give in to her husband in the custody battle, she
resorts to a sterilization operation. With this severe and radical act of eliminating
the risk of making the same mistake again (The Trilogy 508), she rejects
womans primary role mandated by Catholicism: becoming a mother again. If the
Trilogy finished here, with Caithleens sterilization, it could be argued that through
her decisiveness, although harsh and perhaps somewhat too strict, the dejected
Caithleen resembles Mary Lavelle and Agnes Mulqueen. Although Kate OBriens
women eventually stay loyal to religion and willingly consent to being controlled
by the Church, and Caithleen, for that matter, totally counters it, each of them
turns out a strong character as they make a life-affecting decision. However, we
find out in the Epilogue that the image of a disillusioned woman who has
suddenly and finally turned self-confident is heavily undermined. Even as a
mature woman, she cannot seem to escape the vicious circle of the same pattern
of behaviour she remains that submissive god-fearing girl who constantly gets
involved in dead-end affairs with married men and hopes in vain to find true love:
It goes on, by Jesus, it goes on (The Trilogy 511). When Anne Weekes Owens
claims that Mary Lavelle, before her coming of age in Spain, is OBriens
indictment of the [religious ideological] system (Trackless Road 133), it seems
to me that she might sadly apply exactly the same words to the character of
Caithleen. She retreats into the detrimental dolefulness and eventually into the
arguable suicide. She is well aware that in the eyes of traditionalist Irish society
she would never be a good enough Catholic, no matter how hard she tried to
make amends for her continual misbehaviour the expulsion from a convent
school, failed relationships with much older men, a disastrous marriage with a
divorcee, a divorce and extramarital affairs: Ive come to a nice end, she said
aloud, and thought, Where are convent scruples now? (The Trilogy 497).
These three women (Kate OBriens Agnes and Mary, and Edna OBriens
Caithleen) each in her own way inflict punishment on themselves because they are
aware that the supervisory eye of the repressive forces will not let them off scotfree. I argue here that they might be observed in complete contrast to Edna
OBriens other protagonist, the gold-digging Baba. As we have already seen, she is a
character who continually and stubbornly resists subjecting herself to the
repressiveness of the church and thus disengages herself from the image of an ideal
woman fostered by church and state. Even though she does not altogether escape
the entrapment of the suffocating Catholic culture and even though she does not
get everything she wants from life (she ends up in a loveless marriage with a man
she despises, gets pregnant during a one-night stand, has a bad relationship to her
daughter), Baba still finds the way to go about things. The fact that in the Epilogue
to the Trilogy, Edna OBrien kills off one of her characters, that of Caithleen and not
of Baba, demonstrates symbolically but unambiguously that in contemporary Irish

literature, the bad side of Irish womanhood should prevail over the often irksome
kindness of the good girl. In the last book, Girls in Their Married Bliss, it is Baba
who, fed up with Caithleens plaintiveness and servility, simply says: She was so
goddamn servile I could have killed her (The Trilogy 421).
It comes as no surprise then that Babas circumstances challenge the
ground tenets of Catholicism much more unashamedly and openly than Caithleens
more or less inadvertent misbehaviour. Whereas Caithleen, contrary to her life-long
beliefs and principles, manages to gain control over her body and her life at least for
a brief period of time, Baba is near the end of the Trilogy subjected to this same
control. She marries a nouveau riche builder then gets pregnant outside marriage
and finally, completely lacking maternal instincts, tries to induce an abortion in a
hot tub. When this act, probably one of the most infamous moments in the Trilogy,
proves unsuccessful, she is not only forced to tell her flabbergasted husband about
the unwanted pregnancy but is also compelled to undergo a series of highly
unpleasant medical examinations. Baba has to succumb to the control of male
gynaecologists over her body, now more vulnerable than ever:
I was thinking of women and all they have to put up with, not just
washing nappies or not being able to be high-court judges, but all this. All
this poking and probing and hurt. And not just when they go to doctors
but when they go to bed as brides with the men they love. Oh, God, who
does not exist, you hate women, otherwise youd have made them
different. And Jesus, who snubbed your mother, you hate them more.
(The Trilogy 473)
No matter how blunt and earthy, Babas comment reveals a mature
young woman much more aware of the predicament of women of her time than
her friend. According to Amanda Greenwood, Baba's recognition of women's
entrapment by a male construction of 'God' who 'does not exist' in their interests
anticipates O'Brien's ongoing deconstructions of myths of femininity under Irish
Catholicism (29). Therefore, when her Catholic gynaecologist tells her God has
fructified your womb (The Trilogy 473), his words sound nothing but hollow and
meaningless. Baba constantly refuses to perceive her pregnancy and maternity in
terms of Gods blessing or any kind of God-given gift to her. In her world, the
concept of God or subjection to religion are categories which she readily
dismisses. Unlike Caithleen, in rejecting motherhood from the very first moment
and in eventually failing to achieve an affectionate bond with her child, she
persistently resists being identified as a good Catholic. When she compares
herself to her friend, she does not feel the need to apologize for her behaviour
either: Im not a mother like Kate, drooling and holding out the old metaphorical
breast, like a warm scone or griddle bread (The Trilogy 515). Unlike her friend or
Kate OBriens protagonists, Baba can be simply termed a bad Catholic who does

not heed the rules of moral behaviour fostered by the religious ideology. Far from
feeling that she is interpellated by the authority of the Church, she behaves in a
way that Alhusser would simply term wicked (113).
If the images of Agnes, Mary or Caithleen largely correspond to what
many Irish women of the twentieth century were really like limited by the
Church-state conception of womanhood, then Baba might be said to portray what
they would have liked to be but never dared to try. In creating Baba, Edna OBrien
recognizes the need for a totally different, bolder type of woman in the more
secular and global Ireland in the second half and towards the end of the twentieth
century. She might be just as well suggesting that Babas asperity and
subversiveness, although somewhat exaggerated at times, encapsulate the too
long awaited backlash of Irish womanhood to the exigencies of the weakening but
still rigid Catholic Church towards the end of the twentieth century. As Edna
OBrien OBrien herself states in her famous essay, heroines dont have to be
good anymore (Why Irish Heroines).
References:
Althusser, Louis. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Towards an
Investigation). Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Trans. Ben
Brewster. Delhi: Aakar Books, 2006. 85-126. Print.
Byron, Kristine. 'In the Name of the Mother...': The Epilogue of Edna O'Brien's
Country Girls Trilogy. Womens Studies. Jul/Aug 2002, Vol. 31 Issue 4, p 447,
19p. Ebsco. Web. 16 Sept. 2005.
<http://search.epnet.com/login.asp?direct=true&db=aph&an=7328032
Dalsimer, Adele, ed. Kate O'Brien, A Critical Study. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan,
1990. Print.
Eagleton, Terry. Home and Away: Internal Emigres in the Irish Novel. Crazy
John and the Bishop and Other Essays on Irish Culture. Cork: Cork UP in
association with Field Day, 1989. 238-253. Print.
Fuller, Luise. Irish Catholicism Since 1950; The Undoing of a Culture. 2002.
Dublin: Gill&McMillan, 2004. Print.
Greenwood, Amanda. Edna O'Brien. Devon: Northcote House, 2003. Print.
Imhof, Rudiger. The Modern Irish Novel: Irish Novelists after 1945. Dublin:
Wolfhound, 2002. Print.
Madden, Deirdre. Afterword. The Ante-Room. By Kate OBrien. 1934. London:
Virago, 2003. 307-317. Print.
Maher, Eamon. Irish Catholicism as Seen Through the Lens of Kate O'Brien and
John McGahern. Bretagne et Irlande: Peregrinations. Ed. Yann Bevant
and Anne Goarzin Rennes: Tir, 2009. 95-112. Print.
OBrien, Edna. The Country Girls Trilogy and Epilogue. 1987. London: Penguin,
1988. Print.

---. Why Irish Heroines Dont Have to be Good Any More.
The New York Times on the Web. 11 May 1986. Web. 20. Jun 2009.
<http://www.nytimes.com/books/00/04/09/specials/obrienheroines.html>.
O'Brien, Kate. The Ante-Room. 1934. London: Virago, 2003. Print.
---. Mary Lavelle. 1936. London: Virago, 2006. Print.
Peterson, Shirley. 'Meaniacs' and Martyrs: Sadomasochistic Desire in O'Brien's
The Country Girls Trilogy. Eds. Laing, Mooney and OConnor. Edna
O'Brien, New CriticalPerspectives. Dublin: Carysfort Press, 2006. 151170. Print.
Reynolds, Lorna. Kate O'Brien, A Literary Portrait. Gerrards Cross,
Buckinghamshire: Colin Smythe. Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes and Noble
Books, 1987. Print.
Roche Anthony. The Ante-Room as Drama. Ordinary People Dancing. Ed.
Eibhear Walshe. Ordinary People Dancing, Essays on Kate O'Brien. Cork:
Cork UP, 1993. 85-100. vii-xi. Print.
Roberts, Michelle. Introduction. Mary Lavelle. By Kate OBrien. 1936. London:
Virago, 2006. Print.
Strong, Eithne. Flesh...The Greatest Sin. Dublin: Attic Press, 1993. Print.
Weekes Owens, Anne. A Trackless Road: Irish Nationalisms and Lesbian
Writing. Border Crossings, Irish Women Writers and National Identities.
Ed. Kathryn Kirkpatrick. Tuscaloosa and London: The U of Alabama P,
2000. 123-156. Print.
(NE)POKORAVAJUI SE 'NEUMOLJIVOM CENZORU': KATOLIANSTVO U PROZI

KATE O'BRIEN I EDNE O'BRIEN
Ovaj se tekst bavi iitavanjem perspektiva iz kojih dvije irske knjievnice
razliitih generacija, Kate O'Brien i Edna O'Brien, poimlju represivne katolike
dogme koje su gotovo itavo dvadeseto stoljee snano definirale i oblikovale
identitet irske ene. Odabrani romani, The Ante-Room (1934.) i Mary Lavelle
(1936.) Kate O'Brien, te The Country Girls Trilogy (1960., 1962., 1964.) Edne
O'Brien, analiziraju se u istom kulturolokom i ideolokom kontekstu, i polazite
je lanka da vrlo oito ilustriraju ono to je filozof Lous Althusser nazivao
ideolokim dravnim aparatima. Religija kao jedan od kljunih aparata drave
neprestano interpelira protagonistice ovih romana kao subjekte i one su stoga
duboko a esto i bolno potinjene ideologiji i doktrinama irske katolike crkve.
Kljune rijei: katolianstvo, Althusser, ideologija, obitelj, dravni
aparati, represija.

UDK: 316.7
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was simply amazed by your brothers story and / AUSTIN: Amazed? You lost a bet!
You gambled with my material! / SAUL: Thats really beside the point, Austin.]
.
118
, 40. [The pressures on, boy. This is it. You gotta come up with it now. You dont come up
with a winner on your first time out, they just cut your head off. They dont give you a second
chance ya know.]
119
, 27. [Each one separately thinks hat hes the only one thats afraid. And they keep
ridinlike that straight into the night. Not knowing. And the one whos chasin doesnt know where
the other one is taking him. And the one whos being chased doesnt know wheres he going.]

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, 25. [LEE: I could be just like you then, huh? Sittin around dreamin stuff up.
Gettin paid to dream. / AUSTIN: Its not all that easy.[...] / LEE: Whats the toughest
part? Deciding whether to jog or play tennis?]
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, 49. [Theres nothin down here for me. There never was [...] Theres nothin real down
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Bigsby, Cristopher. Born injured: the theatre of Sam Shepard, : Matthew
Roudan (.), The Cambridge Companion to Sam Shepard, Georgia State
University: Cambridge UP, 2002.
Cesaire, Aime. Return to my Native Land. Translated by John Berger and Anna
Bostock. Penguin, 1969.
Shepard, Sam. True West. Plays 2. Introduction by Richard Gilman. London,
Boston: Faber and Faber, 1997.
, . = In quest of meaning. :
, 2002.
SHEPARD AND POPULAR CULTURE

By the mass of ordinary people, popular culture today is usually
understood as a way of living and thinking and it finds its best expression in
massive propaganda mainly in the world of fashion, music and film. The kind of
world which is divided between disgraceful wealth on one side and poverty on
the other, rude force, indifference and aimless violence characterize new
popular mythology emerging in America as its focal point and spreading further

all over the world. A play True West by an American playwright Sam Shepard
will be analyzed in the following paper as a critique of the society where proper
measure is money, and in which true values are only those that bring profit. The
play dwells on the question of commercialization of art and regression of the
American dream but also the demystification of falseness and artificiality of the
world unrelated to proper reality or any moral codes whatsoever.
Key Words: success, art, popular culture, artificiality, corruption,
commercialization.

UDK: 821.163.4.09-2
REKONSTRUKCJA MITU KRLA NIKOLI I PETROVICIA W

125
DRAMACIE HISTORYCZNYM RADMIY VOJVODI PRINCEZA
KSENIJA OD CRNE GORE
Katarzyna Sudnik
Uniwersytet Jagielloski, Krakw
Apstrakt: Literatura, jako wany element kultury i tradycji, bierze udzia w kreowaniu
tosamoci narodowej midzy innymi poprzez aktualizacj i reinterpretacj mitw
narodowych. Zgodnie z teori Jana Assmanna tradycja tworzona jest nieustannie w
kontrolowanym procesie selekcji i interpretacji faktw oraz postaci historycznych.
Znaczenie literatury w tym procesie znakomicie tumaczy zjawisko tosamoci
narracyjnej, ktra konstruowana jest w oparciu o kody kulturowe i teksty kultury. Sztuka
Radmiy Vojvodi Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore jest przede wszystkim dramatem
historycznym, ktry, poprzez przywoanie jednego z najwaniejszych okresw w historii
Czarnogry i jego kluczowych postaci, dokonuje weryfikacji prawdy historycznej
rekonstruuje i reinterpretuje jeden z gwnych czarnogrskich mitw narodowych.
Historia emigracji rodziny krlewskiej Petroviciw-Njegoszw oraz powstawania
pierwszego wsplnego pastwa Sowian Poudniowych (Krlestwa Serbw, Chorwatw i
Sowecw) z perspektywy crki krla Nikoli I, ksiniczki Kseni, z historycznej
narracji zmienia si w sentymentaln spowied i opowie o samotnoci, izolacji i
wolnoci. Nard czarnogrski zostaje postawiony w centrum uwagi, a jego troski staj si
zmartwieniami wadcy. Przedstawienie krla Nikoli I w innym ni dotychczas wietle
jako ofiary spisku, wadcy kochajcego swj nard, zdeterminowanego i dcego do
niepodlegoci Czarnogry, a take jako kochajcego ojca i ma, staje si elementem
procesu aktualizacji i reinterpretacji kanonu kultury i tradycji czarnogrskiej.
Ksiniczka Ksenia, natomiast, z narratorki i obserwatorki staje si kluczow postaci
czarnogrskiej historii oraz czci mitu krla Nikoli I.
125
Radmila Vojvodi jest czarnogrsk dramatopisark, nalec do grona modszych twrcw

czarnogrskich. Jest take dziekanem Wydziau Dramaturgii Uniwersytetu w Podgoricy,
profesorem i wykadowc uniwersyteckim, czonkiem Duklaskiej Akademii Nauk i krytykiem
teatralnym. Vojvodi jest twrc nagradzanym i czsto zapraszanym na festiwale teatralne nie
tylko w regionie, ale w caej Europie. Pochodzi z Baru nad Adriatykiem, a jako twrca porusza
kwestie zwizane midzy innymi z mitami narodowymi, histori i kultur narodow
czarnogrsk tosamoci (za ktrej ognisko raczej naley uzna centrum kraju oraz dwa gwne
orodki miejskie Podgoric i Cetinje). Dramat Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore (Ksiniczka Ksenia z
Czarnogry) powsta w 1993 r. i jest jednym z kilku utworw Radmiy Vojvodi powiconych
stricte problematyce czarnogrskiej. Dramat by ju wielokrotnie wystawiany na scenach teatrw
w krajach byej Jugosawii i od lat cieszy si niesabnc popularnoci. Innymi jej dramatami
poruszajcymi podobne kwestie, rwnie wysoko ocenianymi w Czarnogrze, s Montenegrini
(1998) i Montenegro blues (2003).

Sowa kluczowe: Radmila Vojvodi, Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore, Nikola I,
ksiniczka Ksenija, Crna Gora, Czarnogra, literatura, dramat, historia, mit narodowy
Trwajcy ju ponad dwa dziesiciolecia proces aktualizacji i reinterpretacji

kanonu tradycji kulturowej w Czarnogrze zwizany jest z kreowaniem wyobraonej wsplnoty kulturowej narodu. Wanym skadnikiem (re)konstruowanej w tym
procesie tosamoci i kultury narodowej jest tak zwana pami historii z jej
aktualnym zestawem wartoci i antywartoci (postaci, wydarzenia, miejsca), ktre
t kultur i tosamo okrelaj. Wedug Jana Assmanna tworzenie tradycji odbywa si poprzez zinstytucjonalizowan selekcj i interpretacj faktw i zdarze, co
rozumiane jest jako konstruowanie pamici kolektywnej (jej podstaw stanowi
wybrane, z gry okrelone zdarzenia, osoby, fakty historyczne), kontrolowane
przez instytucje kulturalne, polityczne i spoeczne (Assmann 2008: 15). Podobn
zasad mona zastosowa do literatury, stanowicej narracyjn konstrukcj
tosamoci tworzonej poprzez kody kulturowe i teksty kultury126 (Rosner 2006:
125-136). W ten sposb wspczesne narracje o historii (swoiste historyczne
reinkarnacje literackie) staj si jej interpretacjami, aktualizujcymi dotychczasowy kanon oraz kreujcymi nowy kod kulturowy narodu.
Przeom XIX i XX wieku by okresem formowania si nowoczesnego
spoeczestwa czarnogrskiego. Na ten czas przypada take ponad pidziesit lat
rzdw Nikoli I (od 1860 do 1918 roku), ostatniego wadcy Czarnogry z rodu
Petroviciw-Njegoszw. Czarnogra staa si wtedy krlestwem, ale ju niedugo
potem (w wyniku zawirowa I wojny wiatowej oraz wczesnych midzynarodowych ukadw politycznych) Nikola I zosta zmuszony do opuszczenia kraju wraz
z ca swoj rodzin, nastpnie zdetronizowany decyzj Zgromadzenia
Narodowego w Podgoricy (tzw. Podgorika skuptina, 26 listopada 1918 roku), a
Czarnogra zostaa wczona do nowopowstaego wsplnego pastwa Sowian
Poudniowych Krlestwa Serbw, Chorwatw i Sowecw (tak zwane SCHS).
Przez dziesiciolecia rzdy Nikoli I oraz jego osoba byy przedstawiane
przez historiografw jugosowiaskich w negatywnym wietle; nieustannie podkrelano wszystkie polityczne bdy wadcy, jego naiwno, krtkowzroczno i
lepy upr. Podtrzymywano przekonanie o krlu Nikoli jako zdrajcy, ktry (jak
tchrz) uciek z kraju127. Dopiero teraz, po rozpadzie Jugosawii i uniezalenieniu
126
Autorem przytoczonych wnioskw jest Paul Ricoeur. Poruszana w niniejszym artykule

problematyka tosamoci narracyjnej i jej sposobw jej kreowania zostaa szczegowo omwiona
przez Ricoeura m.in. w jego ksikach Czas i opowie (Ricoeur 2006) oraz Pami, historia,
zapomnienie (Ricoeur 2007). Interpretacja teorii Paula Ricoeura przytoczona w niniejszym artykule
zostaa zaczerpnita z opracowania Katarzyny Rosner Narracja, tosamo i czas (Rosner 2006).
127
Odwoywanie si do honoru, dumy i odwagi jest istotne w tej sytuacji, gdy wspomniane cechy
Czarnogrcy traktuj jako swoje cechy narodowe. Ich brak jest odczytywany jako zdrada i
ponienie. Uznanie Nikoli I Petrovicia za zdrajc, ktry wanie jak tchrz ucieka przed walk,

si Czarnogry od Serbii, podejmowane s prby obiektywnej oceny tego kluczowego dla wspczesnej Czarnogry okresu w historii. O rehabilitacji ostatniego
czarnogrskiego krla w oczach narodu wiadczy midzy innymi fakt, i to jego
godo stao si jednym z symboli narodowych dzisiejszej Republiki Czarnogry
widnieje, midzy innymi, na fladze (pozosta dwugowy zoty orze, pozbawiony
jedynie inicjaw krlewskich Nikoli I H.I.)128. Reinterpretacja mitu krla Nikoli I
nie sprowadza si wycznie do wpisania go w kanon najwaniejszych postaci w
historii Czarnogry. Dotyczy ona rwnie przyczyn emigracji rodziny krlewskiej,
ktre miay tkwi w uknutym przeciwko Czarnogrze i dynastii PetroviciwNjegoszw spisku.
Ksiniczka Ksenia, tytuowa posta dramatu Radmiy Vojvodi Princeza
Ksenija od Crne Gore, bya dziesitym z dwunastu dzieci czarnogrskiego krla
Nikoli I Petrovicia-Njegosza i krlowej Mileny (z domu Vukoti) oraz jedn z dwch
krlewskich crek, ktre nigdy nie wyszy za m. Wraz z krlem Nikol I i ca
swoj rodzin w 1916 roku udaa si na emigracj najpierw do Woch, potem do
Francji, gdzie spdzia reszt swojego ycia. Sztuka tylko pozornie opowiada o
ksiniczce, w rzeczywistoci bowiem jest to opowie o Czarnogrze, krlu Nikoli
I, trudach emigracji rodziny krlewskiej, a take o wolnoci i samotnoci. Posta
ksiniczki, ktr autorka uczynia gwnym narratorem, pozwolia odwoa si do
kluczowego w historii pastwa i narodu czarnogrskiego okresu formowania si
wsplnego pastwa Sowian Poudniowych i roli, jak w tym procesie odegraa
Czarnogra. Podtytu dramatu Izgnanika tugovanka doma Petrovia (Smutna
pie rodu Petrovi na wygnaniu129) wskazuje na intonacj caego utworu i jego
nastrj pesymistyczny, ale i sentymentalny. Poprzez form narracji w dramacie
Vojvodi oraz dziki poruszonej w nim problematyce (niezwykle wanej dla
wspczesnego procesu ksztatowania si tosamoci narodowej Czarnogrcw),
wystarczyo, aby by postrzegany negatywnie, jako swoista antywarto czarnogrskiego kodu
kulturowego (Por. Stanii 2005).
128
wiadectwem wspomnianej rehabilitacji ostatniego wadcy Czarnogry w oczach narodu byo
take sprowadzenie szcztkw krla Nikoli I Petrovicia-Njegoa, jego ony krlowej Mileny, a take
crek ksiniczki Vjery i ksiniczki Kseni, do ojczyzny oraz pochowanie ich w grobowcu przed
monasterem w Cetinje, 1 padziernika 1989 roku. Krl Nikola I ju w swoim testamencie wyrazi
jasno pragnienie bycia pochowanym w ojczystej ziemi, a nie na emigracji: A sada, dragi mj Sine,
zapamti dobro ovu moju elju. Ako umrem u inostranstvu, za vrijeme izbjeglitva neka bude opijelo
sa sprovodom izvreno prema propisima nae Crkve i neka moje tijelo bude poloeno netaknuto u
privremenu grobnicu, dok moji posmrtni ostaci ne budu mogli biti preneseni u nau Otadbinu i
tamo sahranjeni (cyt. za: Marku). Pochowanie krla i czonkw jego rodziny w Cetinje stanowi
symboliczny powrt wadcy do ojczyzny po 73 latach emigracji. Jednoczenie, zdarzenie to wpisuje
si w proces reinterpretacji i aktualizacji czarnogrskiej tradycji, jak rwnie potwierdza zjawisko
reinterpretacji tradycji narodowej i mitu krla Nikoli I jako jednej z najwaniejszych czarnogrskich
postaci historycznych.
129
Podtytu dramatu jest wieloznaczny ze wzgldu na moliwe znaczenia sowa tugovanka (od
tuga = smutek, al) pie aobna, elegia, tren, narzekanie. Zob. tugovanka, tubalica, tubanka,
tualjka (Zob. Frani 1987: 1020).

take posta ksiniczki Kseni Petrovi-Njego przywrcona zostaa pamici
narodu czarnogrskiego i wpisana w kanon postaci historycznych, ktre stanowi
maj stay punkt odniesienia w ramach wspczenie ksztatowanej czarnogrskiej
tosamoci narodowej i kulturowej. W dramacie Radmiy Vojvodi postaci, ktra
(niewiadomie i porednio) peni funkcj reinterpretatora mitu Nikoli I, jest
wanie Ksenia. Dziki temu, ksiniczka staa si nieodzown czci tego mitu.
Dodatkowym kontekstem (re)interpretacyjnym dla postaci krla Nikoli I jest
przedstawianie go jako kochajcego (lecz surowego) ojca i ma. Odwoanie do
wartoci rodzinnych ma na celu ocieplenie wizerunku ostatniego wadcy.
Dramat Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore jest swego rodzaju retrospekcj, w
ktrej gwna bohaterka ksiniczka Ksenia Petrovi-Njego, wspomina swoj
rodzin i ycie. Czas rzeczywisty (czas opowiadania) to rok 1960, kiedy ksiniczka
jest ju osiemdziesicioletni staruszk. W ramach retrospekcji pojawiaj si
dodatkowe dwie warstwy czasowe okres, kiedy Ksenia ma zaledwie dziewi lat
(scena epizodyczna) oraz kiedy jest ju wiadom politycznie kobiet w wieku 3640 lat130. Kada z paszczyzn czasowych przywouje inne wydarzenia historyczne
lub konteksty, ktre, traktowane jako cigo chronologiczna, prezentuj
wydarzenia w wczesnej Czarnogrze oraz przebieg procesu zjednoczenia Sowian
Poudniowych. Jednoczenie przemycony zostaje kontekst krla Nikoli I, jego
pogldy oraz sytuacja, w jakiej si znalaz pod koniec swojego ycia.
Gwnym tematem utworu jest troska ksiniczki (a take samego krla
Nikoli I) o Czarnogr i czarnogrski nard, ktry przeywa trudne chwile (wyniszczenie wojnami, zjednoczenie z Serbi i zmiana ustrojowa, gd, naduycia ze
strony wadzy). Radmia Vojvodi przedstawia krlewsk crk jako dobrze wyksztacon, niezalen i uwiadomion politycznie kobiet, dla ktrej cikie ycie
na emigracji jest nie do zniesienia z powodu bezsilnoci wobec niedoli swojego narodu oraz rozk z ojczyzn. Kseni charakteryzuje upr, radykalne pogldy, krytycyzm oraz wyjtkowe poczucie patriotyzmu. Pragnie wolnoci dla narodu, popiera walk w imi niezalenej Czarnogry oraz organizuje pomoc materialn dla
Czarnogrcw przebywajcych w obozach poza granicami kraju. Ksiniczka Ksenia do ostatnich dni wierzya w swj nard i ojczyzn, za wszelk cen chciaa mu
pomc i pokaza swoj lojalno. Niestety, sytuacja caej rodziny Petroviciw-Njegoszw w pierwszej poowie XX wieku ograniczaa moliwo dziaania, czynic
wszelkie prby niemal bezsensownymi. Charakterystyka bohaterki zostaa oparta
na autentycznych informacjach i przekazach, ktre opisuj ksiniczk Kseni
przede wszystkim jako patriotk, bez reszty oddan sprawie narodu czarnogrskiego.
130
W spisie postaci dramatu, na wstpie utworu, ksiniczka Ksenia wymieniona zostaa

trzykrotnie jako dziewiciolatka, jako kobieta w wieku 36-40 lat oraz jako osiemdziesicioletnia
staruszka. Autorka kreuje w ten sposb trzy odrbne postaci, bdce w rzeczywistoci jedn
osob (Zob. Vojvodi).

Koncepcje zjednoczeniowe Sowian Poudniowych swoje apogeum i
najwiksz popularno osigny pod koniec XIX wieku. Krl Nikola I by jednym z
najbardziej zagorzaych zwolennikw wsplnoty narodw sowiaskich. Jego
decyzje polityczne oraz wszelkie dziaania miay na celu zjednoczenie si z bratni
Serbi, jednak nie bezwarunkowo. Jak si okazao pniej, jego wiara w moliwo
stworzenia wsplnoty rwnych sobie narodw bya zudna. Czarnogra pozbawiona zostaa bowiem praw rwnego i penoprawnego czonka teje
wsplnoty. Dziki propagandzie, niesprzyjajcym warunkom politycznym i oglnej
sytuacji w Europie (I woja wiatowa) Serbia i serbska rodzina krlewska Karadjordjeviciw, zdoali podporzdkowa sobie Czarnogr. Kluczowe w tym procesie byy dwa wydarzenia emigracja rzdu czarnogrskiego i rodziny krlewskiej do Francji w 1916 roku oraz, wspomniane wczeniej, Zgromadzenie Narodowe w Podgoricy w 1918 roku.
Wczenie Czarnogry do Serbii jako jednego z serbskich okrgw w ramach tworzcej si wsplnoty rozczarowao nie tylko krla, ale te nard czarnogrski, ktry odczyta t zmian jako zdrad (negatywna ocena sytuacji bya
dodatkowo podsycana przez przeciwnikw czarnogrskich rojalistw). Bohaterowie dramatu Radmiy Vojvodi podkrelaj swoje niezadowolenie z serbskiej
dominacji w ramach tak zwanej wsplnoty narodw braterskich, ktra wedug
nich przynosi kres cigoci czarnogrskiej pastwowoci i niezalenoci narodu.
W tekcie dramatu, Nikola I kilkakrotnie wzywa rzd do powrotu do kraju (wbrew
decyzjom Zgromadzenia Narodowego, ktre doywotnio zabronio krlowi i jego
rodzinie powrotu). W rozmowie ze swoim ministrem spraw zagranicznych (Dr o)
krl domaga si, aby niezwocznie i za wszelk cen zorganizowa powrt:
Vi kao Vlada nijeste rijeili sutinu pitanja odlaska u Crnu Goru, niti ste ma i
naznaili koji biste pravac odabrali. Dunost vi, ka dunost svakog kabineta,
to dobro znate, nalae da to rijeite kao nau unutranju stvar, bez obzira
oe li se danas-sjutra pasat na taj put. () A ja znam da za taj put ima naina, r, i sad u ti ga kazat: ima da se za put obezbijedi ona jahta koja se
rauna kao svojina moga sina i prestolonaljenika Danila! Zahtijevam ovo
bez obzira na rrk i uprkos svakoj opasnosti! (Vojvodi)
Nikola, oburzony stanowiskiem swojego rzdu, ktry prbuje odwie go od
pomysu powrotu do Czarnogry, zwraca si do swojego zaufanego lokaja Iliji
Bjeloa:
Kralj Nikola: [Zove Bjeloa, unezvijeren je od bijesa.] Ilija! [Ilija utri u sobu.]
Budi pripravan, pa kad reem da moemo u taj as krnut za Crnu Goru!
Mo li, Ili? Ilija Bjelo: [Odgovara po vojniki...] Mogu, kako ne mogu,
uzvieni gospodaru! Kralj Nikola: E budi spreman, sokole. Poteci, pa tako

prenesi Vuku Vukotiu i perjanicima! Ili Bjelo: Ou, kako neu, moj
gospodaru! Kralj Nikola: Ako mora i glavom kroz zid, pa ija pretekne!
[Prilazi Kseniji.] Naduboga, Velika! Ilija! Naduboga! Pa u Crnogorcima
poeljet Novu devetnaestu godinu, i srean Boi, i Hristos se rodi, nasred
Cetinja. Princeza Ksenija: Naduboga i pravdu, tata! Pobjeda je Crne Gore!
(Vojvodi)
Determinacja krla jest ogromna. Taki sposb przedstawienia sytuacji przewartociowuje j i diametralnie zmienia optyk to otoczenie krla (by moe by to
spisek) doprowadzio do upadku Czarnogry. Nikola sam by do tego nie dopuci, o czym wiadczy ma jego decyzja o powrocie wbrew wszelkim przeciwnociom i zakazom oraz plan rozwizania dramatycznej dla jego kraju i narodu
sytuacji. W swoich osdach surowsza od ojca wydaje si by jednak ksiniczka
Ksenia, ktr ojciec krl Nikola pieszczotliwie nazywa Wielka. Ksiniczka
widzi w dziaaniach Serbii dowd na ch ponienia narodu czarnogrskiego:
A zato sve ovo, tata? Zato to ele stvoriti od Crne Gore jedan ili dva okruga
srbijanska, kojima e oni [Srbi K.S.] gospodariti, a ne ravnopravnog brata.
Zato to znaju da je elja svakog Crnogorca da stupi u jedinstvo
jugoslovensko na ravnoj nozi sa Srbijom, a nikako drukije, i to bi da im se
dala sloboda odluke izglasali ovakvo ujedinjenje a ne koje poniava ast i
dostojanstvo Crne Gore. (Vojvodi)
Powysze sowa Ksenia wypowiada do ojca w przeddzie Boego Narodzenia w
1918 roku (ksiniczka spisywaa dyktowan przez krla tre listu boonarodzeniowego do narodu czarnogrskiego). Data jest tu znaczca, gdy wanie tego
roku na Boe Narodzenie doszo w Czarnogrze do tak zwanego boonarodzeniowego powstania (Boini ustanak)131, ktre miao by wyrazem sprzeciwu
narodu wobec wszystkich decyzji Zgromadzenia Narodowego listopadzie 1918
roku. Ksiniczka Ksenia postrzega polityk Serbii wobec Czarnogry jako form
aneksji i nieprawomocnego podporzdkowania sobie terytorium dotychczas
niepodlegego krlestwa. Pomimo wielu prb, interwencje rodziny krlewskiej nie
maj nawet najmniejszego wpywu na sytuacj w kraju. Potwierdza to komentarz
131
Wielu historykw uwaa, e faktycznie nie chodzio o zbrojne powstanie, lecz zorganizowany
przez grup rojalistw popierajcych krla Nikol I i rzdy dynastii Petroviciw-Njegoszw (tzw.
Zelenai) bunt wobec decyzji Zgromadzenia Narodowego w Podgoricy o bezwarunkowym
zjednoczeniu z Serbi i wczeniu do tworzonego Krlestwa SCHS nie jako odrbnego narodu na
rwnych prawach, lecz jako jeden z okrgw pastwa serbskiego pod rzdami dynastii
Karadjordjevi oraz o zrzuceniu dynastii Petroviciw-Njegoszw z tronu czarnogrskiego i zakazie
powrotu caej rodziny byego krla Nikoli do kraju. (Por. Istorija Crne Gore. Od najstarijih vremena
do 2003 2006; Istorijski leksikon Crne Gore 2006; Jovanovi 2001; Pajovi 2005).

Kseni trzy lata pniej (w pitym roku emigracji, jak autorka podaje w
didaskaliach):
mi, jednostavno treba da ostanemo pri naim starim traenjima! Na
program je: da se Srbija evakuie iz Crne Gore, da se Crna Gora integralno
restaurira, te da narod u svojoj dravi sobom raspolae... (Vojvodi)
Oba przywoane tu cytaty jasno ukazuj stanowisko modej ksiniczki i dowodz
zarwno jej politycznej wiadomoci, jak i radykalnych pogldw w kwestii losw
ojczyzny. Swoj postaw nie ustpuje ona ani swojemu ojcu, ani bratu nastpcy
tronu Danile, ani te odwiedzajcym krla politykom, ministrom czy wojskowym, z
ktrymi chtnie wdaje si w dyskusje.
Dla ksiniczki Kseni Czarnogra jest czym wicej ni tylko z koniecznoci
opuszczon ojczyzn, lecz moe jej ona dowiadcza wycznie przez pryzmat
wspomnie, kiedy jawi si jej ona jak swego rodzaju utopia, albo utracony raj, do
ktrego nie ma powrotu. Na samym pocztku dramatu bohaterka, jako
osiemdziesicioletnia staruszka, rozmawia ze swoim gociem czciowo po
czarnogrsku/serbsku (ani razu nie mwi o jzyku czarnogrskim, czy serbskim,
lecz uywa okrelenia po naszemu), a czciowo po francusku. Wyznaje, e cho
lata emigracji wpyny na sposb jej wyraania i jzyk, ktrym si posuguje, to
brakuje jej ojczystego jzyka:
Je vous remercie. Odiva kue Petrovia! Kako je to lijepo uti. Zvui naki...
Vouz voyez, moi je reflehis, comme ca, dans la solitude... Ovdje u tuinu
nemam priliku da govorim po naki, ali dumam, dumam po naki...
(Vojvodi)
Powoywanie si na jzyk jako jeden z wyznacznikw tosamoci jest waciwe
jeszcze XIX-wiecznemu modelowi kultury, ktry wskazywa na konstytutywne
elementy autoidentyfikacji narodowej takie jak jzyk, wiara (wyznanie) i
pochodzenie (terytorium). Model ten oraz przekonanie o jego adekwatnoci do
dzi nie ulegy zupenej dewaluacji. W przypadku trwajcej obecnie w Czarnogrze
transformacji i w zwizku z procesem aktualizacji i reinterpretacji kanonu tradycji
kulturowej, jzyk sta si jednym z najczciej podnoszonych argumentw,
potwierdzajcych odrbn tosamo. Walka o jzyk czarnogrski, oczywicie, nie
pojawia si w tekcie dramatu Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore, jednak samo
poruszenie kwestii wsplnego (naszego/nakiego) jzyka jest wyranym wskazaniem na wspomniany model, a tym samym na poczucie przynalenoci bohaterki do narodu czarnogrskiego132.
132
O ksiniczce Kseni rzeczywicie mwio si, e czua si prawdziw Czarnogrk, ktra

powicia swoje ycie sprawom ojczyzny.

W jednym fragmencie dramatu Radmiy Vojvodi ksiniczka Ksenia
staruszka, siga po pudeko, w ktrym znajduj si posegregowane zdjcia dawnej
Czarnogry. Przeglda je po kolei z nieukrywanym wzruszeniem. Zdjcia s jej
autorstwa, zrobia je sama jeszcze jako moda dziewczyna i po latach pozwalaj jej
powrci wspomnieniami do ukochanego kraju. wiadoma zmian, jakie musiay
nastpi w spoeczestwie po tylu latach, pyta swojego gocia:
En passant j'aimerais demander nose li Crnogorke jo korotnu robu kao
nekad? () Jesu li studene zime na Cetinje? Je li pao sneg? A na dom tamo,
je li sruen? (Vojvodi)
Naiwna, nieco dziecica ciekawo ksiniczki ujawnia jej ogromny sentyment do
rodzinnych stron. Pytania, jakie zadaje swojemu gociowi, wiadcz jednak o tym,
jak niewiele Ksenia wie o wspczesnym yciu Czarnogrcw w nowej (socjalistycznej) ojczynie. Pozbawiona moliwoci powrotu do ukochanego kraju, odcita od informacji, kreuje swj prywatny (utopijny) wiat oparty na wspomnieniach.
Przy pomocy takich sentymentalnych obrazw autorka wprowadza do
dramatu problem samotnoci i izolacji czowieka, ktre wraz z kategori wolnoci,
stanowi prymarny kontekst interpretacyjny dziea. Problematyka historyczna,
dyskurs tosamociowy s w tym przypadku realizacj lub projekcj tych trzech
nadrzdnych i uniwersalnych kategorii. Odwoania do zwykej ludzkiej wraliwoci
i empatii stanowi niezbdne dopenienie treci historycznych w dramacie
Radmiy Vojvodi. Pozwalaj odbiorcy na przeycie swoistego katharsis, co jest
niezwykle istotne dla recepcji utworu/sztuki i bezporednio przekada si na jego
warstw reinterpretacyjn.
Dramat Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore, cho w centrum uwagi stawia
ksiniczk Kseni, jest opowieci rwnie o krlu Nikoli I. Jego osoba zostaa
przez autork przedstawiona w duo lepszym wietle, ni dotychczas zwyko si o
nim mwi. Wszystkie winy, o jakie Nikola I zosta oskarony przez socjalistyczny
system byej Jugosawii, wspczenie s weryfikowane. W ramach procesu
reinterpretacji kanonu tradycji dokonywana jest ponowna ocena postaci, ich
dziaa i wydarze historycznych, ktre propaganda systemu umiecia w negatywnym kluczu identyfikacyjnym. Na zasadzie opozycji (w stosunku do byej Jugosawii oraz do socjalistycznego systemu wartoci) rekonstruowany jest nowy,
oczyszczony z treci propagandowych i przekama, model tradycji. Krl Nikola I,
jak si okazuje, zajmuje w nim wane miejsce bardziej jako ofiara midzynarodowej polityki, ni zdrajca swojego narodu.
Radmia Vojvodi w pewnym sensie zrehabilitowaa krla Nikol I w
oczach spoeczestwa. Przedstawiony on zosta jako patriota, lojalny wobec
swojego kraju i narodu, wierny tradycji i kulturze czarnogrskiej. Najpeniejszy
obraz przekona Nikoli I oraz wartoci, jakimi si kierowa jako czowiek i jako krl,

daje scena, kiedy Nikola w samotnoci wypowiada monolog w ktrym zwraca si
do swojego syna i nastpcy Danila:
Ako umrem u izbjeglitvo... to u najposlije... Kad nai saveznici pobijede,
kad Crna Gora bude uspostavljena, nastoj prije svega... nije njemu to
potrebno objanjavati, isuvie dobro zna koliko smo tijesno vezani sa velikom slovenskom nacijom, to zna svako dijete... Prije svega preporuujem ti
da se vas posveti srei i slavi tvoje zemlje i tvoga naroda, da ljubi majku,
brau i sestre, i da im i dalje ne uskrauje tvoju punu odanost, da ne gaji u
tvojemu srcu osvetu prema onijema na koje sam ja bio gnjevan ili prema
onijema koji su mene zla inili... Nijesi ti u godinama da bi ti bili potrebni
moji savjeti... zrio si oek, znam... pratio si moja djela. Mnogo mi je stalo da
zna kakve sam muke podnosio i da naem u tebe nastavljaa mojega rada... ali neka ta elja ni najmanje ne skuava polet tvojega talenta, neka te
ne sprjeava da bude savreniji od mene... Zadatak ti nije lak, ali lake e
ga vriti u tvoju etrdeset estu godinu nego to sam ja moga primivi ga u
devetnaestu... [] ... Ako ti bude sueno da vlada... pazi da tvoj narod ima
pravdu i staraj se o njegovom napretku i blagostanju... ali na putu napretka
ne idi prenaglijem koracima... nepromiljenijem... priroda, sine, ne ini
takve krk, slijedi je... Ne ini se duhovni i materijalni preobraaj jednoga
naroda udarom maioniarskog tapa, ve postojanou strpljenja, razboritou i proraunom... Dragi sine, Danilo, ne zaboravi nikad... (Vojvodi)
Zdradzajc cechy spowiedzi lub testamentu, powyszy monolog ma dowodzi
nieudawanej szczeroci i szlachetnoci krla. Szczero, jaka towarzyszy aktom
spowiedzi, jest kolejnym z faktw wiadczcych na korzy Nikoli I i moe zapewni mu sympati odbiorcw. Operowanie przez autork nastrojem i odpowiednie ukierunkowanie emocji u czytelnikw (widzw) jest form manipulacji, dziki
ktrej dokonuje si reinterpretacja, a mit konstruowany jest na nowo.
Nikola I opisany zosta take jako kochajcy ojciec i m. Odwoanie si do
wartoci rodzinnych ma tu niebagatelne znaczenie, gdy w czarnogrskim systemie spoecznym rodzina i relacje rodzinne zajmuj wane miejsce. Wspomniany
system, wywodzi si z dawnych struktur rodowych, u ktrych podstawy znajduj
si patriarchat i wizy krwi. Ich miejsce obecnie zaja nowoczesna rodzina oparta
na wzgldnej rwnoci pci i prawie do wasnych pogldw. Niezmiennie jednak
wartoci nadrzdn jest szacunek do rodzicw, mio rodzicielska oraz mio do
braci i sistr. Autorka opisaa w dramacie chorob krla Nikoli i umiecia w
tekcie scen rozmowy wadcy z on Milen, co podobnie jak w przypadku
sceny wzruszenia ksiniczki Kseni podczas ogldania zdj rodzinnego kraju
peni funkcj oczyszczajc poprzez odwoanie do ludzkiej wraliwoci, wywouje
u czytelnika i widza uczucie empatii, oraz porusza kwesti tradycyjnych wartoci

rodzinnych (wzajemna troska poszczeglnych czonkw rodziny, cierpienie,
poegnalna rozmowa maonkw) (Zob. Vojvodi).
Mity narodowe su tworzeniu i wyobraaniu wsplnoty. Jak zaznacza
Antonina Koskowska, wszelkie zabiegi narodotwrcze, a wic take reinterpretacja mitw narodowych i zwizane z nimi rozbudowywanie sfery symbolicznej,
dopuszczaj moliwo faszerstwa (kamstwa, nadinterpretacji), co w aden
sposb nie szkodzi reinterpretacji historii czy tradycji (Koskowska 2005: 10-16).
Interpretacji bowiem dokonuje jednostka w odniesieniu do zaproponowanych
dyskursw, narracji i symboli. Zwaszcza w przypadku literatury (czy szerzej
tekstw kultury) jednostkowe postrzeganie kultury narodowej i tosamoci jest
ograniczone prywatnym dowiadczeniem (Halbwachs 1969: 421).
Odwoania do tradycji pastwowoci, tradycyjnego systemu wartoci w
Czarnogrze oraz do lokalnej kultury symbolicznej s etapem procesu budzenia
wiadomoci narodowej i naley je wpisa w proces reinterpretacji mitw narodowych. Jako argument wiadczcy o zasadnoci powyszych wnioskw mona
potraktowa fragment wypowiedzi jednego z bohaterw dramatu Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore, wspomnianego wczeniej gocia osiemdziesicioletniej ksiniczki Kseni Vukmanovicia:
Ne usuujem se da vas prekinem, vidite i sami s koliko vas udivljenja i panje sluam, a vidim rastuili ste se... Vae velianstvo, ne bih da zaboravim
da vam kaem, blagodari vam u Crnoj Gori onaj obini na svijet to zna za
tradiciju, ljudi nae kulture, a i najvie instance nove vlasti, naravno... Vae
velianstvo, hou, evo, i sam da izrazim divljenje prema vaem gestu, da je
svetinja doma Petrovia, Njegoeva biljenica, vaom dareljivou i plemenitou, danas na Cetinju... Nemojte me pogreno shvatiti, njena je cijena
na svjetskom tritu vrijednih starina basnoslovna, to se zna... Duguje vam
se vie od zahvalnosti... U vaoj materijalnoj situaciji, vae velianstvo...
(Vojvodi)
Przywoany powyej fragment mwi o wdzicznoci dla ksiniczki, ktra
ofiarowaa bezcenny notatnik Petra II Petrovicia-Njegoa do muzeum w Cetnje,
cho sama jest w cikiej sytuacji finansowej. Jej gest jest niezwyky potwierdza
jak warto ma dla ksiniczki tradycja i kultura narodowa133. Wedug sw
Vukmanovicia, dla narodu czarnogrskiego (dla zwykych ludzi) najwaniejsza jest
wanie tradycja. To dziki niej konstruowana jest hierarchia wartoci, ktra
przekazywana z pokolenia na pokolenie ksztatuje spoeczestwo i jego kultur.
133
Mona si domyla, e zostao jej to wpojone przez rodzicw, ktrzy musieli by

reprezentantami tych samych wartoci. Porednio jest to kolejny element reinterpretacji mitu
krla Nikoli I i dynastii Petroviciw-Njegoszw.

Recepcja dramatu Radmiy Vojvodi moe odbywa si na wielu paszczyznach, niezalenie jednak od tego, ktr warstw znaczeniow odbiorca uzna
za prymarn, tekst Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore wpisuje si w proces reinterpretacji kanonu tradycji kulturowej. Poprzez przedstawienie wanych z punktu
widzenia najnowszej historii Czarnogry postaci w dziele literackim nastpuje
przeniesienie tyche postaci do sfery znaczeniowej kultury. Jan Assmann twierdzi,
e do ksztatowania pamici czonkw zbiorowoci dochodzi dziki osadzeniu w
kolektywnym wspomnieniu wydarze, osb i miejsc uznanych za znaczce.
Pami ta suy rekonstrukcji przeszoci i tworzy z niej przedmiot odniesienia dla
teraniejszoci (Assmann 2008: 15). Sztuka Radmiy Vojvodi jest wanie tak
form ksztatowania pamici lokuje we wspomnieniu zbiorowoci zreinterpretowany i zaktualizowany mit krla Nikoli I oraz jego crki ksiniczki Kseni,
umieszczajc go w oglnym ukadzie odniesienia dla rekonstruowanej czarnogrskiej tosamoci.
Dla lokalnych krytykw dramat Radmiy Vojvodi jest jednym z najwaniejszych, jakie zostay przez ostatnie kilkanacie lat wystawione w Czarnogrze. Borka Pavievi, ceniona czarnogrska dramaturg, pisze o sztuce Princeza
Ksenija od Crne Gore jako o swoistym impulsie do odczytania historii na nowo
bez zbdnych nadinterpretacji i tumacze. Sugeruje, e Radmila Vojvodi w dramacie zwyczajnie nazywa rzeczy po imieniu, dziki czemu sztuka ma dziaanie
uzdrawiajce dla narodu jer ako dokinemo mistifikacije, i ako prepoznamo
problem moda emo se nai i na poetku nekog reenja (Pavievi, cyt. za:
www.montenegrina.net). Twierdzi ona, e dramat tumai vrijeme konstituisanja
drave i zahtjeva za dravom, std w jednej z recenzji przemianowaa jego tytu
na Princeza Ksenija o Crnoj Gori (Pavievi, cyt. za: Tripkovi). Zdanie Pavievi
podzielaj take inni krytycy teatralni z Czarnogry. Wedug Nataszy Nelevi,
dramaty Vojvodi stanowi swoist ewokacj kolektywnego dowiadczenia grupy,
ktra przechodzi transformacj bdc pomidzy historyczn a post-historyczna,
nowoczesn a ponowoczesn (Nelevi, cyt. za: A..), oraz konstatuje:
Ovako posmatrane drame vie ne mogu biti itane kao politike drame, ako
pod politikom podrazumijevamo vjetinu postizanja politikih ciljeva, ve ih
gledamo kao priu o zaviaju koji se neprestano konstruie i dekonstruie.
(Nelevi, cyt. za: A..)
Borka Pavievi wieloznaczno i wielowymiarowo tekstu Radmiy Vojvodi
skomentowaa nastpujco:
Mislim da su paradoksalno promjene i interpretacija istorije i identiteta bolje kodirane u kulturi nego u politici. To je najvea greka i mistifikacija itavog politikog ivota, to zapravo ne vidi da je umjetniki i kulturni potencijal ono to moe da rijei ekonomska pitanja. Kultura pravi napor, a na-

ravno umjetnost i drame nadasve, da uspostavi, objasni i iskae neke cjeline
u jednom, danas, fragmentarisanom svijetu. Oigledno se radi o insuficijenciji ideja kako da ovaj svijet tumaimo u cjeloj njegovoj mjeni, ali mislim
da e taj povratak biti nuan jer ovjeanstvo teko moe da preivi bez
ponovne artikulacije ideja za savremeni svijet. (Pavievi, cyt. za: A..)
Trudno nie zgodzi si z Pavievi i jej opini na temat moliwoci reinterpretacyjnych kultury. Dramat Radmiy Vojvodi potwierdza, e tekst literacki jest
w stanie wpyn na opini publiczn i dokona przewartociowania, co w tym
przypadku byo moliwe dziki duej popularnoci sztuki Princeza Ksenija od
Crne Gore. Reinterpretacja mitu krla Nikoli I w ramach tekstu scenicznego staje
si bardziej skuteczna dziki prawdopodobiestwu oraz wpisanej w charakter
(klasycznych) utworw dramatycznych mimetycznoci, ni w przypadku powieci
fabularnej. Naley podkreli, e dziki sztuce Vojvodi, staym elementem
rekonstruowanego mitu staa si posta ksiniczki Kseni, a w pewnym stopniu
take caa rodzina Petroviciw-Njegoszw.
Bibliografia:
A.., Drame Radmile Vojvodi predstavljene na Zimskom salonu knjige,
Pobjeda, 08.03.2012 [na:] http://www.pobjeda.me. Web. 09.09.2012.
Assmann, Jan, Pami kulturowa. Pismo, zapamitywanie i polityczna tosamo
w cywilizacjach staroytnych, prev. A. Kryczyska-Pham, Warszawa:
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 2008.
Frani, Vilim, Sownik serbsko-chorwacko polski, Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna,
1987.
Halbwachs, Maurice, Spoeczne ramy pamici, prev. M. Krl, Warszawa: PWN,
1969.
Istorija Crne Gore. Od najstarijih vremena do 2003, Cz.1: Andrijaevi, ivko M., Crna
Gora od najstarijih vremena do Balkanskih ratova, Cz.2: Rastoder, erbo,
Crna Gora u XX vijeku, Podgorica: Centar za iseljenike Crne Gore, 2006.
Istorijski leksikon Crne Gore, T.1-4, ur. . Rastoder, Podgorica: Vijesti, 2006.
Jovanovi, Jago, Istorija Crne Gore, Podgorica: CID, 2001.
Koskowska, Antonina, Kultury narodowe u korzeni, Warszawa: PWN, 2005.
Marku, Jovan, Lele svijetli gospodare, Glas Crnogoraca, 04.10.1999 [na:]
http://www.njegos.org. Web. 15.03.2013.
Pajovi, Radoje, Crna Gora kroz istoriju, Cetinje: Obod, 2005.
Pavievi, Borka, Dramski predlog jedne dame [na:] http://
www.montenegrina.net. Web. 09.09.2012.
Ricoeur, Paul, Czas i opowie, t. I-III, prev. M. Frankiewicz, Krakw: Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu Jagielloskiego, 2006.

Ricoeur, Paul, Pami, historia, zapomnienie, prev. J. Margaski, Krakw:
Universitas, 2007.
Rosner, Katarzyna, Narracja, tosamo i czas, Krakw: Universitas, 2006.
Stanii, Milija, Dubinski slojevi trinaestojulskog ustanka u Crnoj Gori, Podgorica:
Istorijski institut Crne Gore, 2005.
Tripkovi, Dragana, Drame Radmile Vojvodi u jednoj knjizi, Vijesti, 07.03.2012
[na:] http://www.vijesti.me. Web. 09.09.2012.
Vojvodi, Radmila, Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore [na:]
http://www.montenegrina.net. Web. 09.09.2012.
REKONSTRUKCIJA MITA KRALJA NIKOLE I PETROVIA U ISTORIJSKOJ DRAMI

RADMILE VOJVODI PRINCEZA KSENIJA OD CRNE GORE
Knjievnost kao vaan elemenat kulture i tradicije uestvuje u procesu
kreiranja nacionalnog identiteta preko aktualizacije i reinterpretacije nacionalnih
mitova. Jan Assmann tvrdi da je tradicija konstruisana neprekidno u kontrolisanom procesu selekcije i interpretacije istorijskih injenica i likova. Znaenje knjievnosti u tom procesu objanjava pojava naracijskog identiteta, kojeg konstrukcija bazira na kulturnim kodovima i tekstovima kulture. Drama Radmile Vojvodi
Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore je pre svega istorijska drama, koja putem verifikacije istorijske pravde rekonstruie i reintpretira jedan od najznaajnijih crnogorskih nacionalnih mitova. Pria o emigraciji i usamljenju kraljevske porodice Petrovi-Njego s perspektive princeze Ksenije pretvara istorijsku naraciju u linu
ispovest, priu o izolaciji i slobodi. Crnogorska nacija je postavljena u centru italake panje. Kralj Nikola I je predstavljen kao vladar pravedan i briljiv, dobar i milostiv, te pre svega kao rtva politikih manipulacija. Na taj se nain vri reinterpretacija kulturnog kanona i crnogorske tradicije, u kojima kralj Nikola I igra vanu
ulogu. Zahvaljujui drami Vojvodi takoe i princeza Ksenija postala je kljuni
elemenat iznova interpretiranog mita kralja Nikoli I Petrovia-Njegoa.
Kljune rijei: Radmila Vojvodi, Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore, Nikola I,
princeza Ksenija, Crna Gora, knjievnost, drama, istorija, nacionalni mit.

UDK: 791.43
FILMSKE FIGURE U DOKUMENTARNOM FILMU DRIJELO IVKA

NIKOLIA134
Zoran Koprivica
Apstrakt: U filmovima ivka Nikolia, kako dokumentarnim tako i igranim, figurativni

iskazi, generalno, i arhetipske figure kao pojedinani segmenti njihove generike
strukture, ine sutinski uslov njihove ukupne izraajnosti i, pri tom, presudno utiu na
stvaranje dijegetiki funkcionalnih poetskih slika. Raznoliko i mizanscenski uvjerljivo
postuliranje, figure-simboli i figure ispunjene asocijacijativnim znaenjem, imajui pri
tom u vidu ne samo kontekstualna, ve i intertekstualna proimanja, ine osnovu na kojoj
se formira i uobliava vizuelna kompoziciona struktura Nikolievih filmskih pria. Iz
cjelokupnog Nikolievog opusa, u tom smislu izdvajamo drijelo kao egzemplaran film u
kojem se oituju sve vrijednosti njegovog poetskog iskaza. Figure se u Nikolievim
filmovima, pa ni u ovom, nikada ne javljaju kao gotove sheme i obrasci, ve prevashodno
imaju svoju precizno odreenu i opravdanu dijegetiku funkciju u globalnoj znaenjskoj
strukturi. One su, kako se to u vezi sa stilistikim normativima esto kae, a Nikoliev
primjer, rekli bismo, to na najbolji nain potvruje, istovremeno i izuzetan stvaralaki in
i izraz originalnosti reditelja. Kao jedinu mogunu prihvatili smo vaeu nomenklaturnu
podjelu stilskih figura na nain kako je ona prisutna u nauci o jeziku i knjievnosti.
Uostalom, tako je i kod Kliftona i drugih teoretiara koji su se odvojeno bavili ovom
problematikom.
Kljune rijei: vizuelni plan, auditivni plan, tropi, figure izostavljanja, figure
ponavljanja, figure kontrasta, figure asocijacije, dijegetiki zvuk, nedijegetiki zvuk,
metafora, metonimija, sinegdoha, poreenje, emfaza, ironija, lajtmotiv, anadiploza,
elipsa, antiteza, hiperbola, simbol, alegorija, apostrofa, peristaza, etopeja, amfibolija.
Figurativni iskazi, generalno, i arhetipske figure kao pojedinani segmenti njihove generike strukture, ukljuujui i verbalnu sferu/govor aktera dramskih zbivanja i raznovrsni oblici semantikih odnosa u figurativnom kazivanju/ u
filmovima ivka Nikolia, kako dokumentarnim tako i igranim, ine conditio sine
qua non njihove ukupne izraajnosti, sutinsku komponentu i, pri tom, presudno
utiu na stvaranje strukturalno i dijegetiki funkcionalnih poetskih slika. Raznoliko i mizanscenski uvjerljivo figurativno postuliranje, uz izbjegavanje nemotivisanih, redundantnih i nerijetko disperzivnih poetskih erzaca kao aktivnih kompo134
U izuavanju ovog aspekta Nikolieve poetike od nemjerljive koristi nam je bila relevantna
studija Roja Kliftona (N.Roy Clifton) The Figure in Film (1983 by N.Roy Clifton)

nenti dijegetikog iskaza, figure-simboli i figure ispunjene asocijacijativnim znaenjem, imajui pri tom u vidu ne samo kontekstualna, ve i intertekstualna proimanja, ine osnovu na kojoj se formira i uobliava vizuelna kompoziciona struktura Nikolievih filmskih pria. Meutim, Nikoli nikada nije apriorno odabirao
figure, ve ih je, najee, otkrivao u samom procesu realizacije filma, izuzimajui one koje je ostvarivao na globalnom nivou prie, kao film-metaforu ili
film-alegoriju, kao to je to sluaj s dokumentarnim filmovima Marko Perov i
Oglav. Iz cjelokupnog Nikolievog opusa u tom smislu dokumentarni film drijelo
izdvajamo kao egzemplaran, film u kojem se oituju sve vrijednosti njegovog
rediteljskog poetskog iskaza.135 U detaljnom analitikom prosedeu, ukljuujui
svaki detalj kompozicione strukture, svakog pojedinanog kadra ovog filma, nastojali smo da pokaemo i dokaemo! do kog stepene je figurativno filmsko
izraavanje prisutno u Nikolievim filmovima, kao i koje su figure u njemu dominantne, i zbog ega. Jasno je da iz njihove pravilne, dosledne i sinematiki opravdane upotrebe proistiu osobenosti i obiljeja svekolike stilske izraajnosti,
odnosno stilsko-tehnikog postupka, karakteristian i prepoznatljiv stil reditelja.
Figure se u Nikolievim filmovima nikada ne javljaju u svom klietiziranom obliku
kao gotove sheme, obrasci i ukrasi, ve prevashodno imaju svoju precizno
odreenu i opravdanu dijegetiku funkciju u globalnoj znaenjskoj strukturi. One
su, kako se to u vezi sa stilistikim normativima esto kae, a Nikoliev primjer,
rekli bismo, to na najbolji nain potvruje, istovremeno i izuzetan stvaralaki in
i izraz originalnosti reditelja. Kao jedinu mogunu prihvatili smo vaeu nomenklaturu i podjelu stilskih figura na nain kako je ona prisutna u nauci o jeziku
i knjievnosti. Uostalom, tako je i kod Kliftona i drugih teoretiara koji su se
odvojeno bavili ovom problematikom.
135
Teko je u Nikolievom dokumentarnom opusu pronai film sa toliko metafora kao to je to

Marko Perov, snanim alegorijskim kazivanjem kao u Oglavu, ili, pak, film sa prepoznatljivim
simbolima jednog vremena, svojevrsni signum temporis, kakav je sluaj sa Biljegom. Pa ipak, u
drijelu kao Nikolievom prvom znaajnijem dokumentarnom filmu, sve te figure u cjelosti su
prisutne, ali i mnoge druge, i od njega se granaju dalje prema ostalim njegovim filmovima, jednako
igranim i dokumentarnim.
drijelo
FIGURE U DRIJELU
I Vizuelni plan
1 Tropi
1.1 Metafora
Pria starca o sinu Mrguda Mijova koji zida kamenu ogradu: Te e mu
cio ivot proi nosei kamen i zemlju, kako bi ogradio malo njive e bi
neki kam usijo da izije.
Momci u kamenjaru hvataju Mila Avetnog, vezuju ga i vode zavezanog
za magarca, pjevajui. (Njihovu pjesmu u poetku ritmiki prati udar
tapa kao zvuk metronoma koji za sve jednako otkucava; isti motiv je

prisutan i u sekvenci u kojoj mu napastvuje enu, a njihova djeca to
nijemo i bespomono posmatraju.)
Pria stare ene koja eka prosci da joj dou: Ovim mlaim
evojkama bez muke ruke doe poteko. (Djevojke rukama hvataju
pritke, gledaju ih, odmjeravaju, smiju se.)
Djevojka koja uz pratnju ianog instrumenta, obuena u bijelu haljinu,
igra izmeu zidina naputene kue (metafizika inicijacija magnoveno
podsjeanje na ivot u tom prostoru).
Ruke staraca u krupnim planovima dok udaraju tapovima (orkestar
metafizike jeze).
Udaranje tapom sa metalnim iljkom u rupu u kamenu (ekanje na
polazak).
Ruevine kua, polusruena crkva (vidljivi tragovi i oiljci jednog
vremena).
1.2. Metonimija
tap na koji je starac naslonio glavu i ruke, ne vidi mu se lice, ve samo
kapa.
metonimija i hirmos: motika dok mu i ena kopaju batu
/kasnijeotkrivamo u ijim je rukama/.
metonimija i metafora: dok prolaze raspjevani momci, u kadru odvojeno
ostaje dug konopac za koji je svezan Mile.
1.3. Sinegdoha
Krupni plan kao sinegdoha:
Tri krupna plana ruku /prsti koji se dodiruju, prekrteni dlanovi, ukrteni
prsti/.
Sinegdoha i metafora:
Krupni plan ruku djevojaka koje dre i stiskaju pritke.
Situacioni kontekst:
Krupni plan cipela nevjeste koja je dola iz urbanog svijeta i koju prati
pria starca, njenog svekra, o tome ta njoj po prilici smrdi.
Gola stopala ene dok neujno hoda kamenom, poslije nasilja izvrenog
nad njom.
Struktura:
tapovi u rukamastaraca u krupnom planu.

1.4. Poreenje
Pogrebna povorka sa nosilima vs. mu i ena sa drvenim nosilima u
kojima su kamen i zemlja.
Ruevine kue vs. starica na pragu kue.
Poreenje i anadiploza:
Koraci koji odzvanjaju u pogrebnoj povorci - koraci mua i ene ogromne
kamene litice - starac koji sjedi leima okrenut njima - pria drugog
starca: To je moj sin, uzoas// pa njegovoj nevjesti po prilici smrdi
krevet e su spavali moji edovi, najglasitiji junaci u Crnoj Gori, no lee
pod ergu ka gurbeti- njih dvoje, sin i snaha, ispred atora sjede, maze
kue i daju mu da jede, oko kamene ograde publika, gledaju jo jednu
predstavu /nepremostiva razlika izmeu tradicionalnog i modernog,
patrijarhalne, mitoloke svijesti i savremenog, urbanog mita/ - dvije
drvene posude napunjene kamenom u rukama ene rez na ruku u
krupnom planu i drvenu posudu napunjenu vodom. 136
1.5. Emfaza
1.5.1. Fokus
Emfaza i lajtmotiv: udaranje tapom.
Osvijetljena oljica za kafu u rukama jednog od posmatraa istjerivanja
zlih duhova koji je u polu-sjeni.
Djeak u krupnom planu i dio nadgrobnog spomenika sa ukraenim
krstom.
tap sa velikim metalnim iljkom koji je u kamenu urezao rupu.
Jukstapozicija u funkciji emfaze: starac iza ijih lea je ogromna kamena
gromada.
1.5.2. Fokus unutranje stanje
Starica koja sjedi bono okrenuta, sa tapom u ruci, na pragu male
kamene kue pokrivene slamom.
Ruke djevojaka u krupnom planu dok stiskaju pritke, uz pojaan smijeh.
Starica koja brie suze u prozorskom otvoru poruene kue.
1.5.3. Donji rakurs
Polusruena crkva.
136
Rakord koji je poreenje, metafora ili anadiploza, ali ne i elipsa, jer nije logina.

drijelo i ogromna kamena gromada.
Bosa stopala ene na kamenu dok se penje brdom.
1.5.4. Gornji rakurs
Starica unutar polusruene crkve dri unuka za ruku.
Djevojka unutar zidina polusruene kue igra podignutih ruku.
1.5.5. Pokret kamere u funkciji emfaze
Panoramski snimak od vrha drijela du kamenih gromada.
Kamera brzo prelazi preko lica ena koje se smiju svai oko karaule i
brzo se vraa nazad.
Panoramski snimak preko zidina poruenih kua.
1.5.6. Svjetlosna
Bonom svjetlou osvijetljena lica posmatraa u krupnom planu dok
biuju Mila Avetnog i istjeruju zle duhove iz njega.
1.5.7. Zvuna
Udarci biem i Milovo jaukanje.
Galama i povici oko karaule.
Tubalica.
Udarci tapovima / muzika kamena/.
1.6. Ironija
1.6.1. Ironija [paradoks]
Miljenje odbornika po pitanju karaule i njegov demagoki nastup: Ja
lino apstrahujem sve to se oe do diskutuje, i smatram da je ova
karaula komun i da je kao takvu treba pripojiti zajednici.
1.6.2. Ironija [apsurd]
Ispovijest stare ene koja eka prosce.
Svaa oko uruenih zidana karaule.
Stoka u polu-sruenoj crkvi.

2. Figure ponavljanja
2.1. Lajtmotiv
Udaranje tapovima.
Pogrebna povorka.
Smijeh djevojaka i ena.
ene u crnini.
2.2. Anadiploza
Kadrovi ruku starih ljudi u krupnom planu.
Udaranje tapovima.
Stareva ispovijest dok upire tapom prema drijelu: Vidi ono drijelo
tamo? /kamena litica iznad koje se vidi pare neba/. E, iz ove jame e
ivimo drugog izlaza nema... panorama preko kamenih litica.
Koraci u pogrebnoj povorci - koraci mua i ene sa drvenim nosilima.
Smijeh ena dok sin Mrguda Mijova tri za enom i vrijea je.
Udaranje tapom djeca sa kamene uzviice nijemo posmatraju
zlostavljanje majke /u vie kadrova i razliitih planova/ - stopala ene
dok se penje kamenom kosinom.
Pria stare ene koja eka prosce: Da nam opet nije tog Mila Ludoga,
ne znam to bi se injelo od samoga sebe istjerivanje zlih duhova
/krupni planovi onih koji tom inu prisustvuju/.
Jauci Milovi dok ga biuju smjenjuju se kadrovi onih koji to sluaju, ne
pomjerajui se djeca koja gledaju kroz prozor s reetkama starac koji
ispija rakiju.
Nostalgina starica: Dvajes i kusur godina otkad odosmo preko
drijela... smjenjuju se kadrovi ruevina crkve, groblja, oraha, unuka
koji bezbrino vae, starice sa tapom na koji je, sjedei na kunom
pragu, oslonila glavu, staraca, pogrebne povorke, udarima tapom,
tubalicom.
Dok traje pria djevojke koja otkopava zemlju: Tu je zakopan manastir
..., ona, s glavom prislonjenom uz zemlju, oslukuje.
Starac ironino nastavlja priu o sinu Mrguda Mijova: ... Kako bi
ogradio malo njive e bi neki kam usijo da izije. mu i ena istovaraju
kamen sa drvenih nosila.
Stara ena koja eka prosce: Ovim mlaim evojkama bez muke ruke
doe poteko. djevojke se hvataju za pritke, odmjeravaju ih
pogledom i nastavljaju da se smiju.

Galama i svaa oko karaule prenosi se na starca u crnogorskom odijelu
koji sjedi prislonjen uz kameni zid. Starac kae: Ja mislim da se ne more
to bez krvi zavriti .
Ispovijest stare ene koja eka prosce: U ove nae momke to ostae
oe nema nade... besposleni momci ispod drveta u hladu, igraju
karte.
Ispovijest drugog starca: To je moj sin uzoas, vratio se iz svijeta...
smjenjuje se vie kadrova njegovog sina, snahe i kueta ispred atora.
Momci u koje nema nade nekoga jure, odzvanjaju koraci, smjenjuju se
kadrovi jurnjave - glas preko, stare ene koja eka prosce, nastavlja: Ti
momci nita ne rade nako to prave sprdnju od Mila Avetnog.
Pjesmu momaka dok vode zavezanog Mila, Poosmo li, poosmo,
janje moje janje, ruo moja, ruo, povezuje vie kadrova.
Udarci tapom dok djevojka oslukuje s glavom prislonjenom na zemlju
smjenjuju se kadrovi sa tapovima u rukama staraca tap sa
metalnim iljkom koji dube rupu u kamenu.
3. Figure izostavljanja
3.1. Elipsa
Elipsa kao sinegdoha: izdvanje krupnih planova ruku staraca.
Elipsa i emfaza [izdvajanje krupnog plana]: dok djevojke tre jedna za
drugom, krupni plan djevojke sa rasputenom kosom, koja nije sa njima i
koja gleda smireno ispred sebe - bezbrino lice djeaka koji vae pored
krsta na spomeniku.
Elipsa i emfaza [izdvojeni krupni plan metaforiko iskljuivanje manje
bitnog hirmos]: tapovi koji udaraju u kamen tap sa dugim
metalnim vrhom koji je napravio rupu u kamenu
Montana elipsa: asindeton ili skok: 137 dok starac poinje priu o
drijelu, slijede krupni planovi ostalih staraca koji udaraju tapovima mu i ena iz drvenih nosila istovaraju kamen zidaju ogradu
istovaraju zemlju dok starac pria o sinu i njegovoj nevjesti, smjenjuju
se kadrovi njih dvoje i kueta, s jedne i mjetana, s druge strane dok
traje tubalica smjenjuju se kadrovi poruene kue, poruene crkve,
starice i unuka u crkvi, starice na grobu, starice dok ljubi drvo.
Montana elipsa [asindeton] elipsa i emfaza [izdvojeni krupni plan]:
Izdueno lice djevojke u krupnom planu dok ubrzano razgre rukama
zemlju, poinje njena pria: Tu je zakopan ... njen krupni plan ...
137
To je u ovom Nikolievom filmu najee prelazak sa ruke na ruku, sa tapa na tap, sa lica na lice.

manastir sa velikim zvonima krupni plan izmeu daanih pregrada
vraanje na njen krupni plan kako, poloene glave na zemlju, oslukuje.
Montana elipsa [hirmos]: pria starice koja se nastavlja preko pogrebne
povorke i krupnog plana djevojke u bijeloj haljini Nee iz inata, iako
mu je gore no mene. djevojka uz zvuke ianog instrumenta sa reskim
zvukom poinje da igra otkrivamo da je to u ruevinama naputene
kue.
Montana elipsa [asindeton hirmos]: vika staraca i starica,
odmahivanje rukama, galama nadgornjavanje starca s crnogorskom
kapom i gospodina s kapom koja nije crnogorska, oko toga ija je
poruena karaula.
Montana elipsa [asindeton metaforino izostavljanje manje bitnog
ponavljanje]: tapovi u rukama staraca kadrovi se smjenjuju, i sve to
podsjea na dobro uvjeban orkestar.
Montana elipsa [parenteza ili premoavanje na globalnom nivou
narativnog toka prie]: kadrovi i sekvence od prie o Milu Avetnom do
prie o mlaim evojkama premoavanje, preko krupnih planova
staraca, kadrova pogrebne povorke.
Montana elipsa [metaforini rez i gradacija hirmos kao odloeno
metaforino znaenje]: smijeh djevojaka nasmijana starica sa tapom
pogrebna povorka.
3.2. Kontekstualno isticanje znaenjski bitnog
Lica staraca dok udaraju tapovima.
Ruka i posuda dok traje zalivanje.
Starica koja brie suze u prozorskom otvoru polusruenih zidina
naputene kue.
3.3 Okvir kadra
Pogrebna povorka koja prolazi kroz kadar /kamera je statina, fiksirana/.
Kue koje zalaje i ruka starca koja se pojavljuje u kadru i gaa ga
tapom.
3.4. Parenteza ili premoavanje
Izmeu dvije prie starca o drijelu i sinu Mrguda Mijova, svi kadrovi i
sekvence koji se niu mogu se u odnosu na priu koja se nastavlja tumaiti
kao parenteza.

3.5. Hirmos [odloeno znaenje]
Smijeh ena i djevojaka sin Mrguda Mijova tjera enu.
Djevojke se smiju, pokuavaju da uhvata jedna drugu pria stare ene
koja eka prosce: Ovim mlaim evojkama bez muke ruke doe
poteko.
3.6. Elipsa i emfaza [asindeton izdvajanje krupnog plana]
Lica prisutnih staraca i starica i djece na prozoru koji posmatraju
zlostavljanje Mila Avetnog.
Krupni planovi djece dok prisustvuju zlostavljanju majke.
4. Figure kontrasta
4.1. Antiteza
Posle pjesme Janje moje janje... i svatovske povorke u kojoj odvode
zavezanog Mila pogrebna povorka [antiklimaks].
Mladi, djevojka i kue ispred atora kamenjar i kue od kamena
prekrivene slamom i mjetani koji ih posmatraju.
ena koja u drvenoj posudi nosi kamenje rez na istu tu posudu
ispunjenu vodom.
Jedan od prisutnih udara Mila Avetnog uetom po leima, to izaziva
njegove jauke - ostali mirno sjede, ne pomjeraju se.
Djeak u bijelom odijelu i sa bijelom kapom njegova baba u crnini.
Djeak koji pored krsta nadgrobnog spomenika mirno i odsutno vae
njegova baba koja na grobu tui.
Ispovijest nostalgine starice: Zborim mome ojeku da se vratimo amo i
tun preivimo jo ovo malo pogrebna povorka sa nosilima.
Jaukanje Mila Avetnog dok ga biuju djevojke koje tre i smiju se.
Pogrebna povorka /tiina, koraci/ svaa oko karaule /galama,
nadgornjavanje, smijeh/.
Nakon vike i nasilja, enina bosa stopala dok se penje kamenom
kosinom [antiklimaks].
Smijeh djevojaka starica sa tapom i pogrebna povorka.
4.2. Sinkrazija na nivou ukupne strukture
Pogrebna povorka svi ostali dogaaji.

4.3. Hiperbola
Ispovijest stare ene: ekam prosci da mi dou....
Ispovijest drugog starca: Umjesto da prave sina, oni privijaju ovo kue.
Tome kuetu, kunem vam se, znadu i devetog ukuneda, a tako mi
boga ne znaju ko je mene rodio.
5. Figure asocijacije
5.1. Simbol
tapovi u rukama staraca, udaraju njima u kamen, okreu ih pomjerajui
prste, kao da na njima sviraju zvuk kao znaenje /ritmiki
kontrapunkt/ znaenje koje proistie iz naracije i supstituie cijelu
priu [simbol i metafora].
Kamen u rukama sina Mija Mrgudova, njegove ene i djece pria
starca: ...Te e mu cio ivot proi nosei kamenje i zemlju kako bi
ogradio malo njive da bi neki kam usijo da izije. [simbol i metafora]
Karaula znaenje izvedeno iz kulture i tradicije, Ja mislim da se ne
more to bez krvi zavriti. [simbol i metafora]
Unutranjost polusruene, zaputene crkve sa stokom u njoj zvuk kao
znaenje: tubalica i pria nostalgine starice: U ovu crkvu sam se s
ojekom vjenala.
Znaenje izvedeno iz metafore: svjetlost koja probija kroz otvor u zidu
na mjestu gdje se nekada nalazio oltar [simbol i metafora].
drijelo znaenje postignuto uglom snimanja, vizuelno /donji rakurs,
panorama od vrha drijela nadolje/ i verbalno, znaenje koje proistie iz
naracije /pria postaje kontekst/: E, iz ove jame e ivimo, drugog
izlaza nema do kroz Otovia drijelo.
Krst transcendencija znaenje koje proistie iz obiaja i tradicije i
kretanja unutar kontekstualnog okvira prie.
ene u crnom znaenje koje proistie iz obiaja i tradicije i iz
kontekstualnog okvira /simbol u funkciji dijegetikog premoavanja
prie/.
Konopac kojim je Mile zavezan za magarca konstektualna emfaza
/dijegetiki ekskurs/ kojom se izraava obijest i nemo.
Konopac kao bi i Milovo jaukanje: On nam lijepo doe ka priredba
dekor kao znaenje i znaenje izvedeno iz gradacije svjetlosti /jaka
svjetlost koja dolazi iz drugog plana/.
Krik ptice kao ominozna anticipacija - Zli duhovi, izaite!

Reetke na prozoru kroz koje djeca posmatraju istjerivanje zlih duhova
dekor kao znaenje i znaenje izvedeno iz svjetlosti /svjetlost dolazi
izvana kroz prozor kroz koji djeca gledaju/.
Pritke u rukama djevojaka /transparentna erotska simbolika/ - steu ih,
smiju se, odmjeravaju pogledima zvuk kao znaenje /jukstapozicija
njihovog raspoloenja i tapa u rukama starice smijeh prestaje, zauje
se udar tapom/.
Ruevine kue znaenje izvedeno vizuelno.
tap sa iljatim gvozdenim vrhom i rupa u kamenu znaenje izvedeno
iz pokreta i zvuk kao znaenje /jednolian i otar/ [simbol i metafora].
6. Mit [Arhetip i transcendencija]
Zli duhovi izaite istjerivanje zlih duhova iz Mila Avetnog.
Iz ugla u dnu crkve gdje je nekada bio oltar i gdje se u prethodnom
kadru vidjela svjetlost koja je dolazila izvana, pogled na staricu i njenog
unuka.
Nostalgina starica koja ljubi drvo.
Djevojka koja rukama razgre zemlju: Tu je zakopan manastir sa velikim
zvonima. Ko ga nae bie spaen svih muka i nevolja.
7. Alegorija
Univerzalna slika ljudske patnje koja proistie iz prie o drijelu.
Pjesma svatova dok, za magarca zavezanog, odvode Mila Avetnog, a on
isputa nemute i neartikulisane krike /alegorijska slika ljudske obijesti/.
II Zvuni plan
1.Dijegetiki zvuk
1.1. Metonimija
tap u ruci starice.
Udaraci tapovima starca i starice /prelaze u peristazu/.
Potjera za Milom Avetnim /zvuna slika ege i udar motike, koji se moe
tumaiti i kao prozopopeja, lupanje srca/.
Udraci tapom dok odnose mrtvaca /metonimija koja prerasta u
metaforu/.

1.2. Metonimija / Metafora
Vruina, zvuna slika ege /podsjea na rad maine/.
1.3. Apostrofa / Peristaza
Pria starca o drijelu: Vidi ono drijelo tamo? E, iz ove jame e ivimo
drugog izlaza nema... /oiglednost/ .
Pria stare ene: ekam prosci da mi dou... /unutranje stanje/.
Pria djevojke u dugoj bijeloj haljini: Tu je zakopan manastir sa velikim
zvonima ... /metafizika refleksija/.
1.4. Apostrofa / Peristaza / Emfatika metonimija
Starica s glavom pognutom na pragu naputene kue tubalica,
naglaeni udarci tapom /u ispovjednim pauzama/, tubalica i
ispovijest, koji se uju istovremeno.
1.5.
Apostrofa / Metonimija kao uvod
Zvuna slika ege i udarac tapom ispovijest nostalgine starice:

Dvajes i kusur godina otkad odosmo preko drijela ... /injenice,
unutranje stanje, subjektivna senzacija/.
1.6. Peristaza
Koraci ljudi i ena u pogrebnoj povorci.
Koraci mua i ene koji nose drvena nosila napunjena kamenom i
zemljom.
Stavljanje kamena na ogradu.
Kopanje motikom.
Koraci pred kojima bjei Mile i njegova zadihanost dok pokuava da
umakne goniocima.
Pjesma momaka koji su uhvatili Mila Avetnog: Poosmo li, poosmo,
janje moje janje, ruo moja ruo.
Bacanje tapa prema kuetu koje bjei i njegov lave.
Starica koja apatom istjeruje zle duhove iz Mila Avetnog: Zli duhovi
izaite, zli duhovi izaite ...- Milovo jaukanje.
Svaa oko karaule, amor, galama meukadar [apostrofa i parenteza]
starac u crnogorskom odijelu: Ja mislim da se ne more to bez krvi
zavriti.

1.7. Peristaza / Metonimija
[Apostrofa u off-u]: smijeh ena dok mu tjera enu, vie i prijeti
udaranje tapom i djeca koja to posmatraju.
Koraci ene dok nosi drvenu posudu s vodom i bure na leima.
Oglaavanje ptice [moe se odvojeno tumaiti i kao metonimija].
Udar tapom i zvuna slika ege.
Udarci i Milovo jaukanje idu preko udara tapom starice [pojaana
peristaza i metonimija], oljice s kafom u rukama prisutnih, djece koja
gledaju kroz ipke na prozoru, starica koja je utonula u duboke misli,
starca koji ispija rakiju.
Smijeh i podvriskivanje djevojaka dok pokuavaju jedna drugu da uhvate
[apostrofa i parenteza iz off-a] glas stare ene koja eka prosce: Ovim
mlaim evojkama bez muke ruke doe poteko... smijeh djevojaka
dok u rukama dre pritke, steu ih i odmjeravaju.
Djevojka u dugoj bijeloj haljini tri, uju se njeni koraci ubrzano razgre
rukama zemlju metonimija i multiplikovana peristaza vie ruku staraca
i starica udara tapovima, zvuk se pojaava i prenosi na drijelo.
1.8. Etopeja
1.8.1. Subjektivni kadar
Vidi li ono drijelo tamo? kamene gromade i otvor na njihovom
vrhu.
Ovo je moj sin uzoas... sin drugog starca, njegova nevjestai njihove
kue, pristiu ispred atora koji su razapeli unutar krune kamene
podzide .
1.9. Etopeja/ Apostrofa / Peristaza
1.9.1. Subjektivni zvuni plan
Pria drugog starca /unutranje stanje izraeno u tonu i nainu
pripovijedanja/: Vratio se iz svijeta malo na odmor, pa njegovoj
nevjesti, po prilici, smeta krevet e su spavali moji edovi, najglasitiji
junaci u Crnoj Gori, no lee pod ergu ka gurbeti. Nedijegetiki zvuk
2. Nedijegetiki zvuk
2.1. Metonimija / Amfibolija
Udarci koji idu preko najavne pice nepoznat izvor zvuka.

2.2. Metonimija/Apostrofa
Tubalica starice koja se uje, iako se ona ne nalazi u dijegetikom
prostornom okviru.
2.3. Peristaza / Amfibolija
Zvuk ianog instrumenta dok djevojka u dugoj bijeloj haljini igra u
ruevinama kue.
Figure su u drijelu na vizuelnom planu zastupljene sa oko dvije treine
od njihovog ukupnog broja, a figure na zvunom, sa manje od jedne treine.138
To, izmeu ostalog, govori, a to je, kada je poetska faktura Nikolievih filmova u
pitanju u potpunosti razumljivo, o znaaju koji je on pridavao kompleksnosti i
bogatstvu vizuelnog iskaza.139 Od svih figura u drijelu su najvie zastupljeni
tropi, meu njima metonimija, emfaza i metafora, a takav je sluaj i sa ostalim
Nikolievim filmovima, jednako dokumentarnim i igranim. To nas, takoe, navodi na zakljuak o vanosti upotrebe i prisustva figura sa prenesenim znaenjem u
dijegetikoj fakturi Nikolievih filmova, koje, generalno, odreuju i stil jednog reditelja. Nikoliev stil u ovom filmu, ali u mnogim drugim, odreuju upravo tropi.140 Marko Perov jeste najmetaforiniji Nikoliev film, to je i sm Nikoli esto
isticao, ali figurativna razuenost i bogatstvo prenesenog znaenja, ni u jednom
Nikolievom filmu nisu do tog stepena izraeni kao to je to sluaj u drijelu.
138
Film drijelo traje 12 minuta i 22 sekunde (450 m). Detaljnom analitikim istraivanjem utvrdili
smo da je u njemu prisutno 180 figura, od ega 127 na vizuelnom planu ili 70,55% i 53 na zvunom
ili 29,45%. Na ukupnom nivou filma: tropi su zastupljeni sa 35,5% (metafora 4,5 %, metonimija
11%, sinegdoha 3%, poreenje 3,5%, emfaza 11,5%, ironija 2%), anadiploza 10%, lajtmotiv 2%,
elipsa 14%, antiteza 6,5%, hiperbola 1%, simbol 8%, alegorija 3,5%, apostrofa 4%, peristaza 13%,
etpopeja 1,5% i amfibolija 1%.
139
U pojedinim analizovanim segmentima teko je bilo odluiti se za konkretnu /aktivnu/ figuru,
budui da je dvije ili vie njih esto uestvovalo u formiranju odreenog znaenja. Po pravilu smo
odabirali onu za koju smo procijenili ne samo da je dominantna u izdvojenom narativnom iskazu,
ve da najpotpunije prenosi njegovo dijegetiko znaenje. Ostale, kao supsidiarne, ali ne i manje
bitne za konkretnu znaenjsku strukturu, isticali smo u uglastim zagradama.
140
Tropi se u stilistici odreuju kao rijei koje se uzimaju u prenesenom znaenju /od grke rijei
trop obrt, okret/. Postoje, takoe, definicije koje trope odreuju kao vjeto odstupanje od
uobiajenog ili glavnog znaenja rijei, figure koje mijenjaju, odnosno modifikuju tipino ili opte
znaenje rijei.

FILM FIGURES IN THE DOCUMENTARY GORGE BY ZIVKO NIKOLIC
In Zivko Nikolic's films, both documentary and fiction, figurative
statements in general and archetypal figures as individual segments of their
generic structure, form an essential condition for their overall expressiveness
and, in addition, have a crucial impact on the creation of diegetically functional
poetic images. Diverse and plausible postulating of mise en scene, figuresymbols and figures with associative meaning, bearing in mind not only
contextual but also intertextual permeation, are the basis for forming and
shaping the visual compositional structure of Nikolic's film stories. From the
entire Nikolic's oeuvre, in this sense, we highlight Gorge as an exemplary
documentary which manifests all the value of his poetic expression. Figures in
Nikolic's movies, even in this one, never appear as finished schemes and
patterns, but rather have a precisely defined and justified diegetical function in
the global semantic structure. They are, as it is often said in relation to the
stylistic norms, and Nikolic's example, we would say, confirms it in the best way,
at the same time an extraordinary act of creative expression and originality of
directors. As the only possible we accepted the valid nomenclatural division of
style figures in a way that it is present in the science of language and literature.
Key words: visual plan, auditory plan, tropes, figures of omission,
figures of repetition, figures of contrast, figures of associations, diegetic and
non-diegetic sounds, metaphors, metonymy, synecdoche, comparison,
emphasis, irony, leitmotiv, anadiplosis, elipsis, antithesis, hyperbole, symbol,
alegory, apostrophe, peristasis, etopeia, amphibolia.
Razliiti struni prilozi /Miscellaneous

PRIKAZI/BOOK REVIEWS
PUTOKAZ ZA SUSRET U TAMI

Nina Sirkovi
Sveuilite u Splitu
Biljana Dojinovi, Susreti u tami. Uvod u itanje Virdinije Vulf. Slubeni Glasnik,
Beograd, 2011.
Autorica je izvanredni profesor na katedri za optu knjievnost i teoriju

knjievnosti Filolokog fakulteta Univerziteta u Beogradu. Jedna je od osnivaica
Centra za enske studije u Beogradu i Asocijacije za ensku inicijativu i dugogodinja glavna urednica asopisa za feministiku kritiku Genero. Dosad je objavila
knjige Ginokritika: Rod i prouavanje knjievnosti koju su pisale ene (1993),
Odabrana bibliografija radova iz feministike teorije/enskih studija 1974-1996
(1997), Gradovi, sobe, portreti (2006), GendeRingS: Gendered Readings in
Serbian Women's Writing (2006) i Kartograf modernog sveta: romani Dona
Apdajka (2007). Ova, esta knjiga po redu, nastavak je autoriinog dugogodinjeg prouavanja problematike roda, feministike kritike i knjievnosti koju piu
ene, s naglaskom na specifinom pristupu u promiljanju djela Virginije Woolf,
jedne od najboljih knjievnica modernizma. Iako je svjetska literatura bogata
studijama o autorskom opusu ove spisateljice, Susreti u tami odlikuju se jedinstvenim pristupom djelatnosti Virginije Woolf, kako u teorijskom, tako i u knjievnopovijesnom kontekstu.
Knjiga se sastoji od petnaest eseja od kojih svaki tvori zasebnu cjelinu, a
istovremeno predstavlja i dio ireg konteksta. Ve od prvog eseja Susreti u tami, pa do posljednjeg, Post Scriptum, Biljana Dojinovi dri itatelja na dvije
razine, u svijetu knjievnosti, odnosno fikcije i svijetu stvarnosti, gdje se na knjigu gleda kao na proizvod, odnosno robu, makar ona predstavljala duhovni artikal. S druge strane, umjetnost je onaj impuls koji raa drugu umjetnost, radilo
se o ulinom grafitu nadahnutom Gospoom Dalloway ili drevnoj kineskoj tradiciji ispisivanja stihova vodom po ploniku. Prije nego to potpuno nestanu, stihovi koji isparavaju, u svojoj nedovrenosti i necjelovitosti, u pravoj modernistikoj
maniri pobuuju inspiraciju, stvaraju se trenuci bivanja, koji se kroz sjeanje
vraaju spremni da ih se prenese drugima. Susreti u tami temelje se na takvim
trenucima, kada je autorica spremna svoja sjeanja mapirati, usmjeriti prema
zajednikom susretu pisca, itatelja i samog ivota. Upravo zbog ovakvog subjektivnog pristupa, bliskog i samoj Virginiji Woolf, a koji je opet utemeljen na
najmodernijim drutvenim, kulturolokim, ekonomskim i knjievnim teorijama,

knjiga je od izuzetnog znaaja za iitavanje knjievnog opusa ove modernistike
spisateljice u dvadesetprvom stoljeu.
U prvom eseju, govorei o ideji Virginije Woolf o neraskidivoj vezi izmeu pisca, itatelja i samog ivota, Dojinovi navodi primjer mogueg fiktivnog
susreta u Londonu 1904. godine izmeu mlade Virginije Stephen, knjievnice u
zaetku, i junaka posljednjeg zavrenog romana Henryja Jamesa, Zlatnog pehara, Ameriga i Charlotte Stant koji u antikvarnici gledaju pukotinu na, naoko,
savrenom zlatnom predmetu. Ta slika e se i kasnije javljati u knjizi, jer autorica
zastupa tezu da je Woolf zapravo bila Jamesova duhovna ki, te da je od svih
predstavnika visokog modernizma, ba s Jamesom uspostavila najblii kontakt.
Jamesov zahtjev za jasnim prikazivanjem u tekstu zapravo se iskristalizirao kao
vjetina uskraivanja, preuivanja. Woolf je s druge strane insistirala na susretu u tami, koji se instinktivno dogaa izmeu pisca i itatelja direktno, znai na
prepoznavanju bez posrednika. Ono to je James nagovijestio pukotinom, nesavrenou na zlatnom peharu, kasnije e se pokazati kroz pukotine i podijeljenost unutar samih likova, to i mi, itatelji, koji smo takoer nesavreni, moemo prepoznati. Taj trenutak, kako istie Dojinovi, stoji na pragu modernih
vremena. Virginia Woolf je instinktivno bila svjesna tih pukotina u ljudskoj
svijesti od samog poetku svoje spisateljske karijere.
U eseju Pristupi Biljana Dojinovi naglaava vanost prilaenja djelu
Virginije Woolf s pozicija irih kulturolokih studija, posebno u dananje vrijeme
kada ideje multidisciplinarnosti i interdisciplinarnosti pomiu granice samih
znanstvenih disciplina. Ona se zalae za izlazak iz okvira biografskog i ideolokog
iitavanja djela Virginije Woolf, koji zahtijevaju mnogostrukosti identiteta same
spisateljice. Pri tome je od pomoi studija Susan Stanford Fridman o lokacijskoj
kritici kao spoju kulture i feministikih studija, te razliitim diskursima identiteta.
Iako se Woolf smatra rodonaelnicom feministike kritike, ne bi bilo dobro
promatrati je samo iz feministike perspektive, ve se u obzir treba uzeti iri
kontekst u kojem je ova autorica stvarala. Odatle bi zapravo trebalo poeti u
pristupanju opusu Virginije Woolf, jer bez obzira to njena umjetnost nije
posebno netransparentna, mnogi detalji u autoriinim djelima bi mogli ostati
potpuno neprimjetni ako se ne upozna iri kontekst u kojem su oni nastajali.
U sljedea tri eseja Modernost i modernizam, Modernizmi s razlikom i Kolonije i imperije, Dojinovi se bavi teorijskim postavkama modernizma, okolnostima njegovog nastanka, razliitostima u okviru samog pravca, te
utjecaju Britanske imperije na kulturu i knjievnost toga doba. Ona prvo razmatra pojmove modernog, modernosti i moderniteta, te sam modernizam s aspekta svijesti o vremenu, naroito odnosa prema prolosti. Drugi vaan aspekt modernizma je specifian preokret u romanu, takozvani zaokret ka unutra, gdje
dolazi do povlaenja pripovjedaa, a itatelj se uz pomo sjeanja dovodi u prolost likova. Unutarnji monolog i tok struje svijesti postaju postupci karakteristini za modernistiki roman. Trei aspekt modernizma je osebujan doivljaj

Prvog svjetskog rata i trauma koja je s njim dola. Okretanje modernista ka sebi,
odnosno okretanje od svijeta, vjerojatno je rezultat samog rata. Pojam vremena, odnosno prekid temporalnosti uslijed posljedica rata, dovodi do zamrzavanja vremena, prolost je izgubljena, sadanjost traumatina, a budunost
izgleda bezizlazna. Ostaje osjeaj nemoi, paraliza, slike mrtvih koje proganjaju
ive. Izvrstan primjer za ovakve osjeaje je Septimus Warren Smith, alter ego
Clarisse Dalloway, koji je paraliziran u vremenu, te ga i nakon pet godina proganjaju iste slike prolosti. ivot se nakon katastrofe nastavlja, ali za neke objektivni protok vremena ne postoji, oni su rtve rata, nesposobni za novu ivotni
borbu.
U eseju Modernizmi s razlikom, razmatrajui slinosti i razlike unutar
samog pravca, autorica dolazi do zakljuka da modernizam u sebi sadri
elemente koji su vani za koncept svjetske knjievnosti, a to su, izmeu ostalih,
zajedniki interesi, meusobni utjecaji i slina trita. Modernizam ima globalizirajui aspekt, koji istovremeno naglaava i postojanje razlika u okviru njegovog
stvaralatva. Geografski udaljene knjievnosti uslijed svojih slinosti dokazuju,
kako neophodnost razmiljanja izvan granica nacionalne knjievnosti, tako i
nejednaki razvoj, odnosno razlike, uvjetovane unutarnjim razlozima.
Kolonije i imperije bave se odnosom izmeu Britanske imperije prema
novim nacijama koje se pojavljuju poetkom dvadesetog stoljea. Rat i gubitak
kolonija, necjelovitost carstva utjeu na svijest likova, to je naroito vidljivo u
romanu Gospoa Dalloway. elja za kolonizacijom prisutna je u liku Lady Bruton,
koja Kanadu vidi kao novi prostor za moguu kolonizaciju, a kroz lik Petera
Walsha tematizira se i Indija, iz koje se on vraa, promijenjen i uzdrman. Analizom odnosa Virginije Woolf prema novim politikim i drutvenim okolnostima
kroz likove u romanu, te posebno u odnosu na intimnu priu izmeu njenog
neaka Juliana Bella i Kineskinje Ling Shuhua, s kojom je Woolf kasnije imala
prepisku, autorica razmatra pitanja kolonijalizma, roda i jezika, te ustanovljava
apsurd samog Bloomsburyja dok je Woolf u svojim romanima ironizirala
imperijalnu i kolonizatorsku svijest, istovremeno je na patronizirajui nain
savjetovala Ling Shuhua pisanje autobiografije na engleskom jeziku, ali tako da
sauva kineski ukus. Na taj nain ona prevoditeljici uskrauje mogunost
koritenja jezika kao maske savrenstva. Dojinovi se s pravom pita moe li
inzistiranje na razlici istovremeno biti oblik kolonizirajueg kulturnog pritiska,
ba kako i inzistiranje na istome. Ona zakljuuje da je nezaobilazno obiljeje
Bloomsburyja bio upravo elitizam, koji je nadilazio esteticizam, a Britanija je,
iako u opadanju kao kolonijalna sila, i dalje bila u svijesti Bloomsburyja kao
polazna toka u uspostavljanju vrijednosti prema drugim stvarima.
Analizom nastanka modernizma u irem drutvenom, povijesnom, kulturnom, pa i ekonomskom kontekstu, te razmatranjem specifine situacije u to
doba u kolonijalnoj Britaniji, Biljana Dojinovi nas dovodi do same sri svog djela: teorijskih postulata i poetike Virginije Woolf. Esej Dejmsova ki podcrtava

razlike i slinosti izmeu Henryja Jamesa i Woolf, kao i njegov utjecaj na stvaralatvo ove modernistike spisateljice.
Eseji Uhvatiti gospou Braun i Lik u modernoj prozi baziraju se na
esejima Virginije Woolf Moderna proza, Gospodin Bennett i gospoa Brown,
te Lik u prozi u kojima Woolf saima svoje stavove o knjievnosti, umjetnosti i
ivotu uope. Biljana Dojinovi interpretira stavove Virginije Woolf u irem drutvenom kontekstu, naglaavajui modernistiku crtu u njenom stvaralatvu.
Woolf je puno vie bila kreatorica proze novog doba, nego to je bila zagovornica. Bila je zaokupljena pitanjem to je ivot uope on ne predstavlja ono
to nam stoji pred oima, ve je u naem umu, omotan finim velom, to je duh,
istina i realnost koju treba dohvatiti. Nema fotografskog opisivanja injenica, to
predbacuje piscima materijalistima, Woolf je svjesna podvojenosti ljudske
svijesti, odatle fragmentarnost, nedoreenost, utnja. Tu se javlja itatelj u novoj, aktivnijoj ulozi nego prije, on postaje suradnik u stvaranju teksta. Pisac pred
publiku stavlja neto to je nedoreeno, nedovreno, neto to e itatelj prepoznati, to e potaknuti njegovu matu. Publika u modernizmu ne dijeli injenice,
ve osjeaje. Tu se javlja novi problem, kojega su i James i Woolf bili uvelike
svjesni: publika svojim (ne)ukusom namee ogranienja, a tko slui publici,
upropatava umjetnost. Osnovavi vlastitu izdavaku kuu Hogarth Press, Woolf
je vjeto izmakla ovoj zamci i stekla neovisnost u pogledu zahtjeva publike.
U eseju Sopstvena soba Dojinovi usporeuje ovaj kultni esej koji se
ponekad naziva i feministikim manifestom, s esejem Tradicija i individualni talent T. S. Eliota, te nalazi slinosti u pogledu vanosti i shvaanja tradicije i
impersonalnosti umjetnika. Za Eliota je tradicija iv, dinamian proces u kojem
pjesnik sudjeluje svojim radom i istovremeno je mijenja svojim utjecajem na nju.
S druge strane, Woolf istie vanost tradicije u kreativnom stvaranju i osjea
neravnopravnost ena iza kojih ne stoji tradicija njihovih majki, ve tradicija koju
su stvarali mukarci po svojoj mjeri. Impersonalnost pjesnika je zahtjev za koji se
zalau oba autora: Eliot tvrdi da je pogreno u pjesmi traiti pjesnika, jer ga
tamo ne smije biti, a Woolf govori kako nije dobro ako u djelu nehotice naemo
tragove pisca, to predbacuje Charlotte Bront, istiui Shakespearea kao primjer idealnog stanja uma. Impersonalnost autora djelu daje jednu novu kvalitetu, autora nema, ali djelo ostaje proeto njegovim idejama i stavovima. Biljana
Dojinovi naglaava utjecaj Waltera Patera i Georgea Moora i njihovog esteticizma na stvaralaki rad Virginije Woolf, naroito Moora, ija je ideja estetske
dunosti pomogla Woolf u pomirenju stavova izmeu estetike i politikog angamana. Ideje o materijalnim, formalnim i psiholokim uvjetima nunim za umjetniko stvaranje, pojam androginije, problem tjelesnosti i iskustva, vane su teme vezane za ovaj esej. Istovremeno, ova potraga za izgubljenim jedinstvom duha i tijela, vremena i prostora oituje se i kroz velianje pjesnike slike, to je
karakteristino za modernizam. Slika predstavlja proivljeni govor. Slika djevojke
i mladia koji ulaze u taksi, ili Orlando koji se iz mukarca pretvara u enu, pred-

stavljaju elju da se jedinstvo tjelesnosti i uma objedini slikom, da se proivljeno, ono to je povezano sa ivotom premosti u verbalnom smislu i kao slika ue
u svijest. Tehnike neverbalne komunikacije, koje su vana odlika visokog modernizma razmotrene su u eseju Drug(aij)im glasom?, u kojem Biljana Dojinovi
analizira uporabu zagrada u romanima Virginije Woolf zagrada postaje neka
vrsta slike u tekstu. Zagrada predstavlja neizgovorljivost, ona ak sugerira preutni govor u vidu dijaloga koji se nikad nije dogodio (kao u romanu Izmeu inova), periferiju svijesti kojom protiu dojmovi koji nikad nee biti izgovoreni.
Zato se u modernizmu i pojavljuje slika kao nadomjestak za neizgovorenost, a od
itatelja se zahtijeva aktivnost, sposobnost konstruiranja znaenja.
Nakon to je razmotrila teorijske pretpostavke knjievnog stvaralatva
izraene u esejima Virginije Woolf, Dojinovi se okree njenim romanima. U
sljedea etiri eseja ona se bavi romanima Svjetionik, Gospoa Dalloway i Izmeu inova. Esej Ka svjetioniku, ka slici razmatra utjecaj teorijskih dostignua na
suvremeno knjievno stvaralatvo. Radi li se o fikcionalnoj ilustraciji ideja ili o
inspiraciji? U romanu Svjetionik Woolf problem postavlja prvenstveno na estetskoj razini. Analizirajui poetika razmatranja junakinje Lilly Briscoe i njezina
shvaanja o slici i slikarstvu, povlaei analogiju s Rimbaudovim Mostovima iz
zbirke Iluminacije, autorica naglaava znaaj impresije, koja postaje modus spoznaje svijeta. Lik gospoe Ramsay sazdan je od dojmova drugih ljudi, ona i za
Lilly predstavlja impresiju, doivljaj koji eli izraziti prije nego to se on materijalizira. Slika postaje neverbalizirani govor, ona mora biti apstrakcija, jer i sam doivljaj dolazi iznutra. Ovakvi knjievni postupci, stilistike forme tipa doivljenog
govora ili unutarnjeg monologa karakteristini su za modernistiko shvaanje
umjetnosti.
Tragom Whiteove ideje da se modernisti suoavaju s povijeu koja je
drugaija od povijesti njihovih prethodnika, realista, Biljana Dojinovi u dva
eseja Tragom Pitera Vola i Istorija izmeu inova razmatra kakvi su to povijest, stvarnost i moderni junaci u romanima Virginije Woolf. Lik Petera Walsha iz
romana Gospoa Dalloway u najveoj mjeri predstavlja modernog junaka suprotstavljenog buroaskom drutvu. Proizaao iz tog istog drutva, kao proizvod
kolonijalne sile, Walsh ivi na samom rubu, drutveno neostvaren, neutemeljen,
s pukotinom u karakteru. Kao povratnik iz Indije, on ne pripada ni tamo, ni
ovamo, nije ni otpadnik, ali ni integriran u britansko drutvo i kao takav predstavlja vjesnika propasti koja se blii, novog doba.
Posljednji roman Virginije Woolf kojeg ona za ivota nije uspjela redigirati razmotren je u eseju Istorija izmeu inova. Tu Woolf kao dominantnu
tehniku koristi govor utnje. Likovima se pripisuju misli vezane za knjievne
postupke, pa se tekst u izvjesnoj mjeri moe smatrati eksperimentom na granici
metafikcije. Dojinovi opaa slinost u povijesnom i biografskom smislu izmeu
posljednjeg romana slavne spisateljice i njezinog oprotajnog pisma Leonardu
Woolfu. Glasovi koje Virginia spominje u pismu glasovi su povijesti, buka povije-

sti u nastajanju, strah od nadolazeeg. Povijest u nastajanju uplie se nasilno u
ivote ljudi, ne moe je se izbjei. Naslov romana Izmeu inova sugerira dogaanje, ali nikakvog dogaanja nema ni u inovima, niti izmeu njih. U govor utnje se uplie stvarnost u obliku povijesti u nastajanju, a ta stvarnost nekad
procuri i preko granica teksta. Cijeli roman proet je problemom povijesnog, a
predstava gospoice La Trobe zavrava prelijevanjem fikcije i stvarnosti. U posljednjem romanu Virginije Woolf moderni svijet se raspada, a narativni postupci i komunikacija djela samog sa sobom ukazuju na nagovjetaj postmodernizma.
Susreti u tami studija je posveena itanju ukupnog djela Virginije Woolf,
kako njezinih teorijsko-kritikih tekstova, tako i romana. Polazei od kulturolokih studija i ireg konteksta nastanka djela, analizom povijesnih i drutvenih
okolnosti, ne zanemarujui teorijsko-knjievni pristup, Biljana Dojinovi nam
daje okvir, kako za interpretaciju, tako i za individualan, subjektivan doivljaj
djela Virginije Woolf. Sloenost knjievnog opusa i poetika ove izuzetne modernistike spisateljice namee potrebu da se njenom djelu pristupi interdisciplinarno, upravo kako to Dojinovi iscrpno radi, istovremeno stalno naglaavajui
doivljajnu komponentu djela koje je autonomna umjetnika tvorevina. Od samog poetka, ukljuivi nas u svoju vlastitu priu o fiktivnom susretu mlade
Virginije Stephen, Ameriga i Charlotte u Bloomsburyju, pa do samog kraja, grafita koji je opazila na beogradskoj ulici, Biljana Dojinovi kod itatelja budi elju
za sudjelovanjem, sukreativnou, sposobnou pronalaenja puta za susret u
tami.
THE CURRENT STATUS OF THE TRIO OF VIRTUES

Slaana ivkovi, Nadeda Stojkovi
University of Ni
Truth, Beauty and Goodness Reframed: educating for the Virtues in the Twentyfirst century. By Howard Gardner (New York: Basic books. A Member of the
Perseus Books Group, 2011), xii + 256 pp.
Howard Gardner is a well-known educational theorist who has written a

remarkable and highly thoughtful book Truth, Beauty and Goodness Reframed:
Educating for the Virtues in the Twenty-First Century. The aim of the book is to
present the concept of truth, beauty and goodness as the great ideals of human
striving, and to demonstrate their significance in postmodernism and the advent
of the digital media. Truth, beauty and goodness are traditionally associated as
together representing an ideal of perfection.
The book represents a contemporary approach to three classical virtues,
in which Gardner explains how our conceptions of these virtues have shifted
over time, and how the trio is valued in todays society where nothing
traditional stands firm.
Any society that hopes to endure must ensure that these concepts and
values are passed on in viable form to succeeding generations. For, if we
give up lives marked by truth, beauty and goodness or at least the
perennial quest for them to all intents and purposes, we resign
ourselves to a world where nothing is of value, where anything goes.
Not only is the book informative, but it provokes discussion, leading us to
investigate and think clearly about the current status o f the t r i o .
Dealing with these complex issues, Gardner starts with the words: Why
should we care about the beautiful, the true and the good? Such caring is
fundamental to our condition as human beings, and has been so for thousands
of years. He invites us to think deeply about these eternal human virtues. The
more people understand the concept of truth, beauty and goodness, the more
they realize that the trio together plays a crucial role in their lives. There is one
more important thing to perceive without truth, beauty and goodness the
world may never exist, because the trio is the essence of human lives.

Concerning truth, it is nowadays intertwined with power to have any validity at
all. The search for truth is fundamentally misplaced in the arts, but [...] the
litmus test of authenticity, of feeling right may be appropriate.
Turning to beauty, we find that it is about experiences, primarily about
the arts. Gardner identifies three main criteria of the beautiful. The first
criterion is interestingness. In this sense, those who appreciate arts seek out
material that is interesting, engaging, exciting, and unexpected, thus, the
reaction is positive and we are satisfied with the final result. Gardners second
criterion is focused on the memorable form of a work. Throughout our lives we
encounter unusual things, and they certainly elicit interest. We recall them, and
identify as memorable. The third criterion is the invitation to revisit the
beautiful, to re-think about highly enjoyable things which give intense aesthetic
pleasure to the senses again and again.
As far as goodness is concerned, Gardner states the principles of
neighborly morality and the ethics of roles. Neighborly morality refers to
how we treat people around us, i.e. our friends, cousins, neighbors. On the
contrary, the ethics of roles involves how we relate to people in a modern,
complex, highly differentiated, division-of-labor kind of society. It can be
applied to good work and good citizenship.The trio of virtues has guided human
thoughts and behavior, so they need to continue to exist as fundamental to
human survival. They must not and will not be abandoned. Despite fastchanging and technology-driven world, truth, beauty and goodness, should
remain cornerstone of our society.
He argues how the concept of these virtues need to be reframed in the
current century, and reframing it entails rethinking how to educate on this
virtue. We must strive to identify and affirm the virtues, while remaining open
to revising it in the light of new knowledge.
Gardner suggests that education should strive for a deep understanding
of the virtues. In other words, education should enhance students' deep
understanding of truth (and falsity), beauty (and ugliness), and goodness (and
evil) as defined by their various cultures, and to help to rise to the challenges of
the future while preserving the traditional goals of education.
In addition, educators should follow four essential pedagogical goals. The first
goal is universal, to produce literate and numerate population. The second one
is to provide tools whereby future society can learn the truths of the society.
The third goal is to confirm that the important m o r a l l a w s are widely known
and need to be applied universally. The last one is to transmit those human
creations narratives, crafted objects, decorations, dances, songs whose
forms and messages are most valued by the culture.
Gardner has signaled his own optimism that only if we face a problem
directly and look squarely at the threats to beauty posed by postmodernism and

the digital media can we think in a right way about the virtues and their status
today and going forward.
He argues how best to educate the young people (he uses the term
"fragmented generation") in the digital era. They are not mere consumers,
instead, they are active participants in assembling, editing, or even
creating messages. With respect to our concerns, all of these forms of media
present views of the world (truth), in various forms and formats (beauty), and
with different models of human relations (goodness).
On the other hand, Gardner comments about "the third stage of
adulthood" i.e. the person who "has the potential and the time to appreciate
the various truths across several realms; to refine his or her distinctive sense of
beauty; and to tackle sensitively and sensibly the often vexed ethical issues that
arise at the workplace, the ballot box, or the town square."
The book represents a multidisciplinary approach to the investigation of
the status of these virtues. Gardner has drawn
on history and prehistory (with respect to the origins of writing and of
philosophy); biology and evolutionary psychology (to explain why certain
scenes are attractive to human beings around the globe); sociology and
anthropology (the tastes and predilections of different groups, for
example, with reference to canons of beauty); humanistic scholarship
(descriptions and evaluations of specific events and works); and three
strands of philosophy epistemology (the nature of statements reflecting
our knowledge), aesthetics (judgments of beauty and other valued
qualities), and ethics (the beliefs and actions that humans ought to
pursue).
The book is so perfect in its simplicity, clarity and precision, and
everyone has a clear insight into the concept of the trio as the great human
ideals. It has been written for a broad audience who wants to understand how
the concepts can be understood and reformulated in a fast-changing world.
The more people understand the concept of beauty, the more they
realize that it plays great role in their lives. The fact is that we could hardly
survive if we did not navigate among the true (and what is not true), the
beautiful (and what is not beautiful), and the good (and what is not good). Just
try to do so!
PREVODI/TRANSLATIONS

UDK: 791.32
IZ LINDA HAION, TEORIJA ADAPTACIJE
141
Klie br. #1: Samo forma pripovijedanja (posebno u prozi) ima fleksibilnost da
izrazi kako intimnost tako i udaljenost take gledita
Kao to smo mogli vidjeti, nije jednako pripovijedati i prikazati priu, kao
to e nam uostalom potvrditi svaka knjiga o pripovijedanju ili bilo koja savremenija knjiga iz oblasti naratologije. No, meusobne veze romana i kinematografije pokazuju da ova izjava ne moe biti shvaena tako olako. uvena je reenica koju je Dozef Konrad napisao u predgovoru za svoju pripovijest Crnac sa
Narcisa: Moj zadatak... jeste snagom pisane rijei omoguiti vam da ujete,
da osjetite prije svega da vidite. Razliiti su stavovi kritiara kada je rije o
pitanju da li moderan roman duguje filmu ili film duguje romanu u svom korienju viestrukih taaka gledita, elipse, fragmentacije i nepovezanosti. Romanopisac Klod Simon trvdio je: Ne mogu da piem svoje romane a da ne definiem
neprestano razne pozicije koje pripovjeda ili pripovjedai zauzimaju u prostoru
(vidno polje, udaljenost, mobilnost u odnosu na opisanu scenu) ili pak drugaijim
rjenikom: ugao kamere, krupni kadar, srednji kadar, panoramski kadar, ukoeni
kadar itd.
Ipak, jedan od prvih teoretiara adaptacije, Dord Bluston (George
Bluestone), smatrao je jo 1957. godine da su filmske adaptacije zapravo zaivjele onda kada je roman pretrpio krizu identiteta, poetkom XX stoljea, pretvarajui se u dramu jezike neadekvatnosti. Budui da je film mogao predstaviti i
vizuelnu i dramsku priu tako ivopisno, roman se povukao u unutranjost. Ova
teorija ini film osvetnikom prie koju je roman napustio uhvativi se u kotac sa
jezikom. ini se da su filmske verzije odgovor na pokuaj knjievnog predskazanja iz 1927. godine u vidu djela pod naslovom eherezada ili budunost engleskog romana. Njegov autor Don Karutes (John Carrutheres) potisnuo je moderniste u futuristiku gomilu ubreta insistirajui na radnji, zapletu reinkarnacijom eherezade, istinskog pripovjedaa PRIA (1927:92).
Meutim, postavlja se pitanje kako e ove budue eherezade ispriati
svoje prie na filmu ili pozorinoj sceni? Da li je scenski medij ogranien samo na
pripovjea u treem licu? Ili se pak i na sceni moe postii intimnost pripovijedanja u prvom licu? Da li u tom sluaju zaista vrijede tehnike solilokvija ili glasa
naratora (filmske naracije)? ta je sa snagom krupnog plana i njegovom mogunou da ponudi mikrodramu ljudskog lika? (Bluestone 1957/1971:27)
141
Linda Hutcheon, A Theory of Adaptation, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2006.

Ako je vjerovati Prii (Story, 1997), Robert Mekijevoj (Robert McKee)
bibliji za scenariste, film ne bi nikada trebalo da se oslanja na knjievne instrumente ili njihove ekvivalente, kao to su zavrnice tipa deus ex machina ili filmska naracija: to bi bilo pripovijedanje, ali ne i prikazivanje. Dovitljivo i aljivo pojavljivanje Mekija u filmu Adaptacija ogleda se u tome to, naravno, sam film
sadri i prikazuje njegova vienja tog procesa. Popularni prirunik za adaptaciju
Linde Serger Vjetina adaptacije: kako injenice i fikciju pretoiti u film, smatra
da su tehnike poput filmske naracije haotine i neprikladne budui da nas
usmjeravaju na sluanje a ne na radnju koju u tom trenutku vidimo. (1992:25)
Stoga nije iznenaujue to je Bapsi Sidva (Bapsi Sidhawa) insistirala na govornoj
naraciji u filmskoj adaptaciji svog romana Crakcing India koji je reirala Dipa
Meta (Deepa Metha), kao ni injenica da je njeno insistiranje u znaajnoj mjeri
otealo posao reiserki (Sidhwa, 1999:21).
Film Klinta Istvuda Djevojka od milion dolara (2004) za koji je scenario
napisao Pol Hegis (Paul Heggis) prema kratkim priama F.X. Tula (pseudonim
Jerry Boyd) Uad gore prie iz ugla (2000) efikasno koristi filmsku naraciju
kako bi uinio jednog junaka moralnim centrom djela (Eddie Scrap Iron Dupris
kojeg u filmu glumi Morgan Friman). Pa ipak, kada je 1950. godine Robert Breson koristio filmsku naraciju da bi u svojoj adaptaciji predstavio zapise iz Dnevnika seoskog svetenika ora Bernanosa, kritiari su odmah imali podijeljena miljenja o njegovom uspjehu.
Pokuaji da se kamera koristi za pripovijedanje u prvom licu kako bi se
omoguilo da gledaoci vide samo ono to vidi protagonista nijesu esti. Uprkos
dobro poznatom primjeru adaptacije Roberta Montgomerija iz 1946. godine po
knjizi Rejmonda andlera Dama u jezeru (1943), u kojem se kamera nalazila na
grudima protagoniste, filmovi sa naracijom u prvom licu esto se smatraju
nespretnim, ak razmetljivim i pretenciozno umjetnikim(Giddings, Selby and
Wensley, 1990:79).
S druge strane, pisci romana koji su zasnovani na filmovima, moraju da
odlue koju taku gledita da odaberu da bi napravili repliku kamere, pa stoga
njihov zadatak moe biti podjednako teak. Veina filmova koristi kameru kao
jednu vrstu pripovjedaa u treem licu koji je u pokretu da bi predstavio taku
gledita raznovrsnih likova u razliitim trenucima (Stam 2000: 72). Takav stav
postao je pravilo do te mjere da se film koji bi koristio posebne take gledita
zaista isticao kao to je sluaj sa uvenim filmom Raomon Akira Kurosave
(1950), u kojem protagonisti pruaju etiri razliite verzije dogaaja. Kada je BBC
televizija 1966. godine adaptirala operu Bendamina Britna Billy Budd (1951),
kamera je kapetana Vera uinila centralnim likom, to je nailo na osudu
libretiste E. M. Forstera (Tambling, 1987:88); pa ipak, vjerovatno je sam tekst
opere, zasnovan na istoimenom Melvilovom djelu, ve uinio Verovu taka gledita centralnom u djelu, imajui u vidu da on na sceni pripovijeda poetak i kraj
prie.

Do sada smo koristili termin taka gledita. Meutim, postoji razlika
izmeu onoga ta mi vidimo, a ta likovi vide i znaju. (Jost 2004: 73) U filmskoj
adaptaciji Entoni Mingele narativno dezorjentirajueg Engleskog pacijenta
(1992), glavni junak je najvei fokalizator: onaj koji odluuje o tome ta emo
znati. Pa ipak, naa perspektiva je proirena zahvaljujui filmskoj naraciji i
drugim informacijama o likovima, koje su nam esto date kroz flebekove (B.
Thomas 2000: 222).
U sloenom medijumu kakav je film taku gledita moe prenijeti sve:
ugao kamere, fokusna duina, muzika, mizanscena, gluma, kostimi (Stam,
2005b: 39). Ono to je jo vanije od razmiljanja o naraciji u prvom ili treem
licu, smatra Robert Stam, jeste autorska kontrola intimnosti i distance, utvrditi
pristup znanju i svijesti junaka (2005b:35). Primjer za to je autobiografski roman Gustava Hasforda iz 1983. godine, The short Timers. Radnju pripovijeda
Doker, vojni novinar, a pria je data epizodinim, fragmentisanim, nepovezanim stilom koji prividno objektivno odgovara subjektivnom iskustvu likova i
autora u ludilu Vijetnamskog rata. Kada su Stenli Kjubrik i Majkl Her adaptirali
ovaj roman u film Full Metal Jacket (1987), zamijenili su ironinu novinarsku
perspektivu onom linom, u kojoj se ogledala sva moralna apsurdnost rata.
Kada je rije o adaptaciji filma u formi video-igrice upotreba take gledita takoe stavlja pred izazov stereotip o jedinstvenoj fleksibilnosti proze. ak
i bez upotrebe virtualne stvarnosti, koja je zapravo otjelovljena perspektiva
prvog lica, kompjuterska animacija dozvoljava vie raznolikosti nego to je to
obino poznato. Igrice nude poziciju prvog ili treeg lica, uz mogunost za vie
igraa. Postoje i kombinovane varijante: moemo da se ponaamo kao akteri u
prvom licu, ali moemo i da vidimo aktere koji su u treem licu iza nekog junaka ili avatara. U ulozi prvog lica igrai nijesu pasivni posmatrai, ve imaju pregled svijeta igrice koji gledaju oima svog video-junaka. Ovo prua neposredniju
vezu sa likom i vei pristup animiranom svijetu video-igrice. Igrice iji su akteri u
treem licu koriste ve predodreene uglove kamere da bi usmjerile panju
igrau na isti nain na koji filmska kamera privlai pogled gledalaca.
Pa ipak, ovaj klie o taki gledita u razliitim modelima prikazivanja vodi
i ka problematinom pitanju sposobnosti razliitih medija da predstave unutranje i spoljanje svjetove, subjektivnost i materijalnost. Premda je diskusija na
ovu temu u kritikoj literaturi ograniena na pripovijedanje i prikazivanje, moe
se takoe odnositi i na uestvovanje, koje moda nema ono to imaju film i knjievnost a to je manje-vie visoko razvijena upotreba dijaloga, govora i jezika
(Morrissette, 1985:13).

Klie br.#2: Interiornost je teren pripovjedake forme dok se eksteriornou
najbolje upravlja kroz prikazivanje, a posebno kroz interaktivne forme
Drugim rijeima, jezik, naroito jezik knjievne fikcije, sa svojom vizualizacijom, konceptualizacijom i intelektualizovanim shvatanjima najbolje ostvaruje
interiornost; dok scenske umjetnosti, njihova direktna vizuelna i zvuna percepcija, uestvovanje koje podrazumijeva fiziku ukljuenost, vie odgovaraju
predstavljanju eksteriornosti. Vjerovatno je modernistika fikcija pogorala podjelu izmeu pisane rijei i kinematografije, posebno dajui novi znaaj unutranjem ivotu likova, psihikoj sloenosti, mislima i osjeanjima. Premda je
Dejms Dojs tvrdio da njegovo pamenje funkcionie kao kinematograf,
njegova klasina modernistika djela uinila su ga, po miljenju mnogih, prethodnikom novog medijuma: Proces same misli sada konstituie temu i omoguava da se napusti linearni, pravi svijet logike. Dojs... koristi tehniku toka svijesti da bi izrazio integraciju subjekta i svijeta, unutranjeg i spoljanjeg(Dinkla,
2002:30. Vodei se ovom logikom, rizomska mrea Bdenje nad Fineganovim
odrom pronaala je dosljednog nasljednika u hipertekstu kao narativnoj strategiji (Dinkla, 2002:31).
Imajui to u vidu, svakako su oduvijek postojala podijeljena miljenja
izmeu onih kritiara koji su za Dojsovu upotrebu toka svijesti govorili da je
poput kinematografskog ili ak novog medija, kao i onih koji su smatrali da
njegova jeziki i strukturno sloena djela zapravo ne mogu biti adaptirana za
ekran (Gibbons 2002: 127). Pa ipak, adaptacije Dozefa Strika traile su iskljuivo
kinematografske ekvivalente onih pitanja kao to je tenzija izmeu realizma i
apstrakcije sluei se, u Uliksu (1967) na primjer, irokim objektivom, asocijativnim montaama, dizajnom zvuka koji bi oslabili logiku i kontinuitet (Pramaggiore 2001: 56). Ukratko, on odbija standardne holivudske konvencije za
predstavljanje subjektivnosti (kadar/protivkadar, subjektivna montaa) i koristi
umjesto toga tehnike avangardnog filma, ukljuujui i eksperimente sa zvukom,
pa ak isprobavajui i potpuno zamraene kadrove. U svojoj adaptaciji Portreta
umjetnika u mladosti iz 1978. godine, Strik koristi sekvencijalne flebekove i
fleforvarde ne bi li dao osjeaj Stivenove izlomljene subjektivnosti. U filmskoj
verziji ove prie subjektivizirana krivica, vie nego li raanje umjetnike kreativnosti, postaje centralna tema. Reiser je razvio reenicu iz teksta romana Tear
out his eyes/apologise (Oi e mu iskopati/on se mora izviniti)142 i odabrao vizuelni motiv oiju, u krupnom kadru simboline montae, da bi tako na samom
poetku filma predstavio i otjelovio ovu temu.
Stivenov dnevnik ima manju ulogu u filmu nego u romanu, ali u scenama
na kraju filma u kojima je prusutan, Strik koristi filmsku naraciju i montau,
142
Dejms Dojs, Portret umetnika u mladosti, Mono & Manjana Press, Beograd, 1999. (prevod:
Petar urija)

odbijajui da savreno uklopi zvuk i sliku sve do etvrtog pojavljivanja dnevnika,
kao znaka njegovog prisustvau filmu. Nakon to je dnevnik prikazan i peti put,
filmska naracija ustupa mjesto stvarnom prikazivanju opisane scene (Armour,
1981:284).
Pretpostaviemo da su do ovog trenutka gledaoci shvatili ovaj kod za
dnevnik, iako se filmska naracija javlja pri kraju, za svaki sluaj. Tano je da je
isticanje jezika Stivenova opsjednutost rijeju, pisanom i usmenom, kao i naglasak na druga ula u Dojsovom romanu (mirisi, zvukovi, osjeaji), rtvovano
zarad vizuelnog u filmskoj adaptaciji. Jedan od rezultata je i taj da Stivenova
transformacija u umjetnika izgleda nemotivisano. Ipak, film pronalazi vizuelni
nain da nas uvede u Stivenovu psihu i matu.
Uprkos kinematografskim pokuajima kao to je ovaj, filmska kritiarka
asopisa NewYorker, Polin Kejl, samouvjereno je tvrdila da su filmovi dobri
kada je akcija u pitanju, ali ne i kada je rije o razmiljanju i konceptualnom
miljenju. Oni su dobri za neposredan stimulus. Ovo miljenje dijelio je i Bertolt
Breht smatrajui da film zahtijeva spoljanju radnju a ne introspektivnu psihologiju(1964:50). Film ne treba da bude dobar u prikazivanju unutranjosti
nekog junaka, jer on moe da pokae samo spoljanjost i nikada zapravo ne moe
ispriati ta je to to se dogaa ispod vidljive povrine. Pomenuti prirunik Sergerove to prikazuje na ovaj nain: Materijal koji je unutranji i psiholoki, koji se
koncentrie oko unutranjih misli i motivacija, teko se moe dramski izraziti
(1992: 55). Svakako je teko predstaviti elaboriranje unutranjih monologa i
analizu unutranjih stanja na vizuelan nain, ali Strik pokazuje da u Portretu zvuk i
avangardna filmska tehnika ipak mogu posluiti u oznaavanju interiornosti.
Virdinija Vulf nije mogla da odoli a da ne napadne samu ideju o adaptaciji Tolstojevog romana Ana Karenjina, ija je junakinja predstavljena kao
pohotna dama u crnom somotu sa perlama. Ona je jednostavno odbijala da je
prihvati kao takvu, jer je insistirala na injenici da ona, kao italac romana, poznaje Aninu duu do tanina njen arm, njenu strast, njen oaj (1926: 309).
Bez te insajderske informacije izgubili bismo sutinu njenog lika u romanu.
Trenutak uasa Panic and emptiness! Helene legel u Forsterovom romanu Hauardov kraj, kao to smo vidjeli u prvom poglavlju, postaje jedva
apstraktna deskripcija u predavanju o Betovenu u Merchant/Ivory filmskoj adaptaciji. Stoga moemo zakljuiti da nam film moe pokazati likove dok misle i
proivljavaju, ali nam nikada ne moe otkriti njihova iskustva i misli, osim putem
tog knjievnog sredstva poznatog kao filmska naracija.
Pa ipak, film uspijeva da pronae kinematografske ekvivalente, kao to
smo ve i vidjeli. Odreene scene, na primjer, mogu biti osmiljene tako da
preuzmu simbolinu vrijednost, inei tako jasnim ono to se dogaa u unutranjosti nekog lika. Na primjer, protagonista Viskontijevog filma Smrt u
Veneciji, stariji ovjek, transformisan je nakon to mu berberin ofarba kosu i
bradu i nakon to ga uljepa u parodinu sliku mladog ovjeka koji je u stanju da

se zaljubi u prelijepog djeaka. Ova scena postoji u istoimenoj prii Tomasa
Mana, ali ima mnogo vei znaaj i teinu u Viskontijevoj filmskoj verziji: zahvaljujui moi same slike i suptilne glume Dirka Bogarda, tenzija izmeu Aenbahove tjeskobe i elje, izmeu njegovog straha i njegove nade, ovjekovjeena je na
ekranu brutalnim krupnim planom.
Spoljanji izgled napravljen je tako da odraava unutranje istine. Drugim rijeima, za unutranja stanja mogu biti stvorene i vizuelne i zvune veze, i
zaista film na svom raspolaganju ima mnoge tehnike koje pisani tekstovi nemaju. Na primjer, mo tog krupnog kadra da stvori psiholoku intimnost je toliko
oigledna (sjetimo se filmova Ingmara Bergmana) da ih reiseri mogu koristiti za
snane unutranje ironije: u ve pomenutoj adaptaciji Opasnih veza Stivena Frirsa, vikont Valmon posmatra enu koja u velikom bolu doivljava pobaaj i gubi
bebu dok krupni plan njegovog lica pokazuje svu frigidnu bezosjeajnost lika.
Premda je rije o naturalistikom medijumu u veini svojih upotreba,
film takoe moe da stvara vizuelne, spoljanje analogije sa subjektivnim elementima tzv. fantastini ili magijski realizam koristei tehnike kao to su slow
motion, kratki kadrovi, distorzivni objektivi (fisheye, telephoto), osvjetljenje, ili
koristei razne vrste filmske trake (Jinks 1971: 36-37). Stam insistira na tome da
je kao tehnologija predstavljanja, kinematografija savreno opremljena da
magino umnoi vrijeme i prostore; da pomijea njihove raznolikosti (2005a:
13). Montaa postaje ono to je Suzan Zontag jednom nazvala ekvivalent vjete
ruke maioniara(1999: 256) jer, za razliku od pozorita, film moe prikazati
bilo ta. Flebekovi i fleforvardi mogu doprinijeti osjeaju nestvarnosti, kao to
to mogu postii i zvuni i muziki efekti. Upotreba sjenke i prostora u adaptaciji
Kafkinog romana Proces (1925) koju je uradio Orson Vels ili prelivanje boje u
Roder Kormanovoj verziji prie Edgar Alana Poa Maska crvene smrti (1842)
dobri su primjeri kako se u filmu na kinematografski nain moe predstaviti
subjektivno.
Stanja poput sna, zapravo, dobila su svoje vizuelne i zvune konvencije u
filmu. Nijesu bez razloga dadaisti i nadrealistiki pjesnici vidjeli film kao privilegovani nain prenoenja nesvjesnog. Bez sumnje su mislili na avangardni ekspresionistiki film, sa njegovim karakteristino udnim uglovima kamera, neobinim
osvjetljenjem, slow motionom, i sa ponovljenim sekvencama ili sekvencama koje
su predstavljene unazad (Morrissette 1985: 13), ali treba pomenuti da ak i tradicionalni narativni film ima svoja ustaljena sredstva predstavljanja unutranjosti, i ona su esto, u narativnom smislu, veoma sofisticirana. Odvajanje zvune i
vizuelne trake, na primjer, moe omoguiti da unutranje stanje nekog lika bude
saopteno publici, a da pritom ostane nepoznato drugim likovima. Jo je 1916.
godine Hugo Munsterberg smatrao da, za razliku od pozorine predstave,
photoplay ili film mogu reprodukovati mentalne funkcije na platnu potujui
zakon uma prije nego zakon spoljanjeg svijeta, oblikujui materijal u pribline
flebekove, matovite vizije, vremenske skokove (1916/1970: 41). Mnogo godi-

na kasnije romanopisac i filmski reiser Alen Rob-Grije e potkrijepiti ovaj pojam
iz drugog ugla, smatrajui da pisci francuskog novog romana nijesu privueni
objektivnou kamere kao analogijom za njihovo djelo, ve su radije privueni
njenim mogunostima u polju subjektivnog, imaginarnog (1963: 161).
Lorens Kramer je izjavio da je muzika u filmovima ta koja nas povezuje
sa deavanjima na platnu prizivajui dimenziju dubine, unutranjosti, koja
nastaje u samom tijelu dok sluamo upornu produkciju ritma, tona i promjene u
dinamici (1991: 156). Ako je ovakav sluaj sa filmom ija je muzika na traci,
kakav li je tek sluaj sa operom koja, o emu se mnogo raspravljalo, prenosi ritam emocija u istom trenutku u kom su imenovane: Spajanje muzike i rijei,
vremenskog i prostornog, uoptenog i posebnog, trebalo bi da u teoriji rezultira
jednom zadovoljavajuom slikom unutranjeg svijeta, koja se ne moe postii
njihovim zasebnim dejstvom (Weisstein 1961:18). Premda je ovo vie ideja nego
stvarnost, takvo spajanje omoguava razmatranje interiornosti ak i u ovoj
naglaeno scenskoj umjetnikoj formi.
Likovi u operi ili mjuziklu mogu izgledati dvodimenzionalno zbog tog
neophodnog saimanja pria, ali je muzika dovedena u vezu sa njihovom
neverbalizovanom podsvijeu. Tekst koji pjevaju moe biti upuen spoljanjem
svijetu, ali muzika predstavlja njihove unutranje ivote (Halliwell 1996: 89;
Schmidgall 1977: 15; Weisstein 1961: 20). Zato? Zato to je jedna od konvencija
opere ta da njeni likovi na sceni ne uju muziku koju pjevaju, osim kada svjesno
ne izvode prigodne pjesme (uspavanke, zdravice itd.) Samo publika uje
muziku; samo publika ima pristup njenom znaenju (Abbate 1991: 119). Ovo je
razlog zbog kojeg muzika moe predstaviti unutranjost. Naime, opera ima
ustaljenu konvenciju za predstavljanje unutranjeg ariju. Dramska radnja i
razgovor se zaustavljaju u toku arije i imamo priliku da oslunemo trenutak
introspekcije i razmiljanja junaka (Weisstein 1961:18). U komponovanim operama bez arija, kao to su muzike drame Riharda Vagnera, muzika ponavljanja i
varijacije obino nazvani lajt-motivima mogu doarati publici ono sa im se
likovi ne mogu svjesno suoiti. Izolda moda pjeva o svojoj mrnji prema Tristanu u Vagnerovom djelu nazvanom po uvenim ljubavnicima, ali to ini uz muziku
koju ve asociramo za njenu ljubav prema njemu.
Kada se opere snimaju, kao to smo vidjeli, konvencije realizma izgleda
da rade ak i protiv konvencionalne sposobnosti anra da prenese interiornost.
Pa ipak, dva su naina kojim se to moe postii: an Pjer Penelova televizijska
verzija iz 1976. Puinijeve opere Madam Baterflaj (1904) vizualizuje ideju da arija pokazuje unutranje misli i osjeanja likova tako to pjevai ne pomjeraju
usne u toku arija. ujemo arije, ali ne vidimo da ih oni zaista fiziki pjevaju.
Franko Zefireli koristi drugaija sredstva da bi ispoljio unutranje u svojoj
filmskoj verziji Verdijeve opere Travijata (1835): bazirana na tekstu koji je opera
zapravo usvojila (Dama sa kamelijama iz 1848. godine autora Aleksandra Dime
mlaeg). Zefirelijeva Violeta iznova gleda sebe u ogledalu. Iako je ova radnja

kinematografski realistina (ona provjerava da li je jo uvijek lijepa ili djeluje
bolesno), to je takoe i samorefleksivan nain da nas reiser pusti kako u njen
um, tako i da nam pokae kako je i sama prihvatila objektivizirajue muke
poglede. Reiser je ve na samom poetku filma ustanovio i naglasio specifian
muki pogled dajui sliku mladia koji je znatieljno i pohotno gleda. Zefireli
takoe omoguava svojoj kameri da na neki nain ue u Violetin um i da nam
pokae kako ona vidi svog ljubavnika, naroito onda kada je bolesna i u groznici.
Do sada smo se suprotstavljali jednoj strani kliea, predlaui sposobnost scenskog medijuma da u formi predstavljanja prikae unutranjost,
uprkos drugaijim tvrdnjama. Pa ipak, neophodno je ispitati drugu polovinu
kliea koji tvrdi suprotno da scenske umjetnosti spoljanjost izraavaju bolje
nego pisana rije. Zigfrid Krakauer insistirao je na tome da filmske adaptacije
imaju smisla jedino kada je sadraj romana vrsto ukorijenjen u objektivnoj
stvarnosti, a ne u mentalnom ili spiritualnom iskustvu (Andrew 1976:121).
Tako bi Jazbina Emila Zole mogla biti adaptirana, dok Bernanosov
Dnevnik jednog seoskog svetenika (1936) ne bi mogao biti. Pa ipak, kao to smo
vidjeli, to je hrabro pokuao Robert Breson. Ali, da li su filmske adaptacije nuno
bolje u prenoenju eksteriornosti od romana? Nakon svega, prozne deskripcije
mogu dugo da traju, ali takoe mogu da biraju detalje koji su narativno znaajni;
u filmu su svi elementi podjednako prisutni, jednake teine i znaaja makar
dok se kamera ne zadri ne nekom od njih ili dok osvjetljenje ne da znak naim
oima. Likovi mogu biti objanjeni jednom u romanu, i to znaajno odabranim
detaljima, ali ih u filmovima gledamo iznova i iznova, pa su znaajne posebnosti
njihove pojave izgubljene kroz ponavljanje i naturalizaciju. Film je, kako kae
Volter Mar, izuzetno redundantan medij, dok su romani karakteristini po
bogatstvu prie i, ako reiser koji adaptira djelo ove razlike ne uzme u obzir,
idemo ka filmskoj nevolji.
U romanu Velika oekivanja (1860-1861) Dikens je bio opsjednut kako
naturalistikom tako i simbolinom vrijednou odjee i pojave, ali je namjerno
odabrao da ne opisuje Degersov izgled. Pa ipak, u slikovito naturalistikom
medijumu kakav je film, ako treba da vidimo neki lik, onda taj lik mora biti po
potrebi opisan. Ali opisati, vizualizovati lik podrazumijeva unitavanje same
suptilnosti kojom roman kreira njegovu specifinost (Giddings, Selby i Wensley
1990:81).
Animacijom u filmu, videu, tekstualnim avanturama (IC interactive
fiction) ili video-igrici, spoljanja radnja se ne zabiljeava kamerom ija je brzina
24 kadra u sekundi, ve se stvara kadar po kadar. Na ovaj nain mogu biti napravljeni specijalni efekti koji omoguavaju da se stripovi adaptiraju na film poput
nekoliko posljednjih filmova o Spajdermenu. Na isti nain natprirodni svijet arobnjaka i udovita moe biti vidljiv i realistian kroz kompjuterizovane medije.
Meutim, ba kao to je Ajzentajn u montai vidio ekvivalent dijalektikom
razmiljanju, Lev Manovi u svom djelu Od ekternalizacije psihe do implementa-

cije tehnologije tvrdi da su nove vizuelne tehnologije, od Galtonove fotografije
do novih medija, zaista koriene da eksternalizuju i objektivizuju rad uma.
Da li je ovo razlog zbog kojeg animirani svijet videoigrica moe biti korien u stvaranju kako unutranjosti tako i spoljanjosti, pri emu bi spoljanjost
imala udnu naturalistiku tanost ili bila potpuna fantazija? Upotreba perspektivnog prostora, precizno izvoenje detalja na povrinu i mogunost da se
pokret predstavi na realistian nain u igricama kao to je rek (2001), sarauju
meusobno da bi ponudili tehnoloko odobravanje stvarnosti (Ward 2002:
132). Premda je tano da likovi i avatari nemaju stvarnu unutranjost, igrai je
imaju i, manipuliui pokretima avatara, svoje motive, elje, nade i strahove u
kontekstu igre dodjeljuju likovima (Winberen 2002: 186).
Predstavljanje unutranjosti i spoljanjosti oigledno ukljuuje ovu prostornu dimenziju, i to ne samo u animaciji; pa ipak, vremensko je takoe relevantno za formalnu dimenziju adaptacije: i vrijeme radnje i vrijeme naracije (o
kojoj god formi ili medijumu da je rije). U koliko je Lesing bio u pravu kada je
knjievnost nazvao umjetnou vremena (a slikarstvo umjetnou prostora), moemo oekivati da e forma pripovijedanja, kao produena narativna fikcija, biti
najbolja u oslikavanju vremena, stvarajui tako posebne probleme za adaptaciju
na druge forme. Treba meutim naglasiti da tanost teorije ipak mora biti provjerena u okraju sa realnostima prakse.
Klie br. #3: Forme prikazivanja i intereagovanja imaju samo jedno vrijeme:
sadanje; sama forma pripovijedanja moe samo pokazati odnose izmeu
prolosti, sadanjosti i budunosti
Kamera je, kao i pozorina scena, po miljenju mnogih zasnovana na trenutnom i neposrednom, to vai i za elektronsku tehnologiju. Sama prozna fikcija, ovom logikom, posjeduje fleksibilnost vremenskog pregleda i sposobnost da
se kroz nekoliko rijei vrati u prolost ili ode u budunost, pa se uvijek pretpostavljalo da ove sposobnosti nemaju prave ekvivalente u scenskom ili interaktivnom medijumu. U realistinoj estetici, u svakom sluaju, prie se u ovim medijima odvijaju u sadanjem vremenu; vie se zanimaju za to ta e se sljedee dogoditi nego za ono to se ve dogodilo (Blusestone 1957/1971: 50; Seger 1992:
24). U transpoziciji knjievnosti na film, bilo jednom sudara se sa ovdje i sada
(Giddings, Selby i Wensely 1990: 13). To je razlog zbog kojeg film moe manje
tolerisati kanjenje zapleta, ak i u svrhu saspensa, nego to to moe roman
(Abbott 2002: 109). Pa ipak, za razliku od pozorine scene, kinematografija je
zaista sposobna za flebekove i fleforvarde, i sama njena neoposrednost moe
uiniti prelaze potencijalno djelotvornijim od prozne fikcije u kojoj glas naracije
stoji izmeu likova utopljenih u vrijeme i itaoca. Scenski tropi zaista postoje da
bi upleli i meusobno povezali prolost, sadanjost i budunost.

Na primjer, knjievno u meuvremenu, drugdje i kasnije pronalaze svoje ekvavilente u filmu, dok jedna slika blijedi, druga se pojavljuje i vrijeme
se spaja sa prostorom na mnogo neposredniji nain nego to je to mogue
ostvariti rijeima. Odvijanjem vremena, nijesu samo sintetizovani prostor i vrijeme, ve i uzrok i posljedica (Morrissette 1985: 18-19). Ovo je jedan od naina na
koji je roman toka svijesti i unutranjeg monologa postao prilagodljiv za film. Na
isti nain, vizuelni i zvuni lajtmotivi u filmu mogu uputiti na prolost kroz sjeanje sa sjeanjem publike koja ponavlja sjeanje likova, premda na drugom
nivou naracije. Tako je i Marsel Prust eksternalizovao unutranje znake Medlin
kolai i kamen koji tri iz poploanog poda podstakli su sjeanje protagoniste u
romanu U potrazi za izgubljenim vremenom i najavio kinematografske tehnike.
I kao to nas Stem podsjea, postoji zapravo puno naina u kojima prolost ili
prolo mogu biti predstavljeni u filmu: kroz dekor i kostime, muziku, opremu,
naslov, boju (sepia filtere), arhaine ureaje za snimanje, vjetake ili stvarne
snimke iz prolosti (2005b: 21).
Jo jedan aspekt ovog stereotipa o vremenu jeste i taj da opis radnje,
situacije ili lika u romanu moe biti dug ili kratak, detaljan ili neodreen, pa je
italac taj koji donosi zakljuak o njegovom znaaju u zavisnosti od toga koliko se
pripovjeda na njemu zadrao. U filmu se ljudi javljaju u akciji, svi odjednom, bez
posredovanja i pomoi za publiku. Meutim, vrstu kadra (dugi, srednji, krupni;
ugao), da ne govorimo o duini njegovog trajanja, zapravo uvijek odreuje dramski znaaj onoga to se snima, a ne prirodni tok odvijanja stvarne radnje. Reiser, montaer ili kamerman zaista postaje posrednik i to ne samo preko vizuelnog. Za razliku od pozorine predstave koja se dogaa u stvarnom vremenu,
a u kojoj su zvukovi i slike tano poreani, odnos izmeu zvuka i slike u filmu je
konstruisan. Tako vizuelni kadrovi i razni zvukovi (dijalog, muzika, umovi, filmska naracija) mogu biti kombinovni, budui da montaer filma manipulie odnosima izmeu vremena i prostora.
Drugim rijeima, filmska adaptacija na svom raspolaganju ima istinsko
bogatstvo tehnikih mogunosti, a sada je nauila i prihvatila konvencije prenoenja teksta na platno, ak i kada je taj tekst vremenski sloen ili strogo interiorizovan. Meutim, ovo ne znai da neemo naii na probleme. Tomasu Manu
treba mnogo vremena da u svojoj prii Smrt u Veneciji dozvoli djeakovoj ljepoti
da se uvue u um njegovih protagonista, i Aenbaha i itaoca. U filmskoj adaptaciji Lukino Viskonti mora jasno predoiti tu sliku kroz zgodnog Bjorna Andersena da bi pokrenuo priu. Umjesto da postepeno upoznajemo Taa kroz Aenbahovu idealizaciju, u filmu gledamo kako on i djeak razmjenjuje podue poglede
ije seksualne implikacije pretvaraju Aenbaha u smijenog, prljavog starca, a
djeaka u mali, slatki izazov. Vrijeme i tajming jasno predstavljaju stvaran izazov za onoga ko eli da adaptira jednu formu u drugu.
Pozorina scena ima drugaija i moda vie ograniavajua sredstva na
svom raspolaganju da bi se nosila sa pitanjima vremena budui da se, kao to

smo ve primijetili, scenski nastup deava u stvarnom vremenu. Adaptacija mora
uzeti u obzir ne samo promjene vremena u prii, ve i tehnikalije, kao na primjer, vrijeme koje je potrebno da bi se scena uredila. Zigfrid Kracauer istie da
su opere ukljuile i vremenske probleme: arije u sutini zaustavljaju vrijeme. Ne
samo da su arije konvencionalizovani trenuci unutranjosti u naizgled veoma
eksteriorizovanoj umjetnikoj formi, kao to smo vidjeli, ve i zaustavljaju radnju: njihove ispjevane strasti uzdiu njihove fizike ivote umjesto da uu u
njih (Kracauer 1955: 19). Iz tog razloga, smatra on, svijet opere je sagraen na
pretpostavkama koje radikalno prkose pretpostavkama kinematografskog pristupa. Prirodnost televizije i filma moe izgledati strana i nepoznata za izvjetaenost ove muziko-scenske forme, ali to ne sprijeava operu da ima jo jedan
ivot u oba medija, zahvaljui onome to se moe smatrati vie adaptacijom,
nego snimanjem i produkcijom.
Premda se drama opere odvija u stvarnom vremenu, tajming nije tajming pozorine predstave, a razlog za to je muzika (Halliwell 1996: 87-88). Kao
to kompozitor Virdil Tompson ivopisno opisuje: Opera nije koncert u kostimima. Niti je to predstava sa muzikom podlogom. To je dramska radnja viena
kroz poeziju i muziku, animirana i kontrolisana muzikom koja je sveprisutna.
Svoju grandioznost duguje poeziji, a svoju elegantnost muzici (1982: 6). Muziki
puls u operi i mjuziklu obezbjeuje jo jednu vremensku dimenziju koja je i
prednost i ogranienje koje druge umjetnike forme nemaju. Reiseri i montaeri video verzija opera esto usklauju duinu kadrova sa ritmom muzike
ukljuujui i strukture njenih akorda i harmonija (Large 1992: 201).
Poseban problem adaptacije javlja se u svim medijima: kako predstaviti
ili prikazati tok vremena neto to se u prozi moe postii vrlo lako. Klasini
filmovi pribjegavali su prikazivanju okretanja stranica kalendara kako bi se publici pokazao protok vremena. U romanu, likovi mogu da se dosauju, moemo itati o prolasku vremena, o dosadi koja se sve vie nagomilava, a da se pritom sami ne dosaujemo. U stripovima moemo zapravo vidjeti tu otupjelost na djelu,
a da joj se pritom sami ne predamo. Na filmu, meutim, proces dostizanja dosade ne moe biti prikazan tako jednostavno, imajui u vidu vremensku ogranienost filma kao to je Klod abrol otkrio kada je pokuao da dramatizuje
dosadu Eme Bovari u filmskoj adaptacji iz 1991. godine Floberovog romana Madam Bovari (1857). Stoga i postoji filmska naracija (vremenski skok unaprijed)
kao kinematografska konvencija koju gledaoci razumiju. I scena doruka koja se
ponavlja u filmu Orsona Velsa Graanin Kejn (1941) takoe prenosi prolaznost
vremena u dosadu kroz jednostavano ponavljanje radnje.
Televizijske adaptacje obino imaju vie vremena na raspolaganju, a stoga i vie fleksibilnosti. Romani kao to je Nice work (1998) Davida Loda pretoeni su u televizijske serijale. No, ovaj in podrazumijeva i neke druge vremenske ograniavajue okolnosti, kao na primjer potrebu da narativna struktura
bude podijeljena u odreen broj blokova jednakog trajanja. Prema rijeima

Loda, koji je napisao scenario po sopstvenom romanu, nijedan narativni medijum nije tako vremenski precizan kao epizoda televizijske serije. Kada se
prikazuje, ona mora ispuniti predodreeno vrijeme izmjereno minutima, pa ak i
sekundama (1993: 193). Iako je pisac taj koji mora misliti o preciznom tajmingu,
montaer je, naravno, onaj ko na kraju to mora i postii. Ali ovdje se javlja jo
jedna oteavajua okolnost: kao medijum televizija je mnogo breg ritma nego
film, to treba imati u vidu kada se adaptiraju knjievna djela neizbjeno mnogo
sporijeg ritma. Kada se klasini romani adaptiraju za televiziju meutim, tekstualni prizvuk veze sa knjievnim djelom je esto sadran u radnji i u pokretu kamere, podsjeajui tako da je itanje oputenija, umjerenija i promiljenija radnja
od gledanja televizije (Cardwell 2002: 112).
Vizuelna i zvuna neposrednost scenskog medija moe zaista stvoriti
osjeaj kontinuirane sadanjosti, ali je vrijeme i tajming mnogo sloenije nego
to bi se to pretpostavilo u procesu adaptacije. Dokaz za to je u parodijama. U
klasinoj filmskoj verziji u trajanju od 30 sekundi koju je kreirala umjetnica
Denifer iman, prie su dekonstruisane, rekonstruisane i opet prikazane, dok ih
glume ozbiljni, pouzdani likovi zeeva. Sa druge strane, Daglas Gordon je proirio popularne filmove pa tako produena verzija Hikokovog Psiha traje 24
asa a Fordovih Tragaa 5 godina (pa ipak ne elimo propustiti ni sekund filma).
Parodijske adaptacije ovih umjetnika ironino stavljaju u prvi plan konvencije
kinematografskog manipulisanja vremenom. Ta neposrednost koja je tehniki
omoguena korienjem daljinskih sistema komunikacije (telefon, radio, televiziju) novina je XX stoljea, a omoguava nam da prihvatimo iluziju da se film deava u sadanjosti, a da smo mi prisutni dok se on odvija (LeGrice 2002: 232).
Video-igrice zasnovane na filmovima, naravno, idu korak dalje i uvode
nas u vrijeme i ritam stvarnog ivota istovremeno odravajui tu kinematografsku iluziju. Meutim, elektronske tehnologije nude razne nove mogunosti
adaptacije, makar kada je rije o predstavljanju vremenskog. Lav Manovi
smatra da u kompjuterizovanim filmovima, na primjer, vrijeme i sjeanje mogu
biti zapravo otjelovljeni u prostoru kroz montau:
Logika zamjene (zamjena jedne slike drugom koja popunjava platno/
ekran) karakteristina za kinematografiju, ustupa mjesto logici dodavanja i postojanja. Vrijeme postaje prikazano u prostoru, distribuisano na povrini ekrana/platna. U montai prostora nita nije potencijalno zaboravljeno, nita nije
izbrisano. Kao to koristimo raunare da akumuliramo bezbrojne i beskrajne
tekstove, poruke, podatke, biljeke i ba kao to osoba, kroz svoj ivot, akumulira sve vie i vie sjeanja, gdje prolost postaje sve tea od budunosti, tako i
montaa prostora moe akumulirati dogaaje i slike dok napreduje kroz svoje
pripovijedanje. Za razliku od bioskopskog platna, koje je najprije funkcionisalo
kao zapis percepcije, kompjuterski ekran funkcionie kao zapis memorije.
(2002b: 71)

Da li e ove mogunosti dalje biti upotrijebljene u adaptacijama ostaje da se
vidi, budui da veina filmova koji su do sada producirani ne predstavljaju
adaptacije. Pa ipak, novi mediji su na raspolaganju; oni zaista nude jako sugestivne
mogunosti za adaptaciju vremenski i prostorno kompleksnih djela iz drugih medija.
Hos Gifordova produkcija interaktivnog internet sajta (http://pi.
flamjam.com/life_of_pi.htm), inspirisana Jan Martelovim romanom Pijev ivot,
bira odreene scene iz romana i predstavlja ih u jednoj mjeavini animacija i
interaktivnih igara sa ubjedljivim vizuelnim efektima. Rijei i zvuk pojaavaju
vizuelno (u formi kompjuterizovanih rijei ili slika). Doivljavamo prolazak vremena kao na filmu, ali takoe kontroliemo vrijeme u igrici, stvarajui tako jednu
intrigantnu hibridnu vremensku dimenziju.
Tokom godina, taka gledita, interiornost/eksteriornost i vrijeme posta-li
su najvea sporna pitanja, kao i veliko uporite teorijskih stereotipa o adapta-ciji i
specifinostima medija. Takoe ih prati i grupa pitanja verbalne i narativne
sloenosti, koje takoe treba testirati u stvarnoj praksi.
Klie br.#4: Samo pripovijedanje (u pisanoj formi) moe predstaviti elemente

kao to su dvosmislenost, ironija, simbol, metafora, tiina i odsustvo. Njih je
nemogue prevesti u forme predstavljanja ili intereagovanja
Godine 1898, Henri Dejms je objavio, a 1908. preradio priu Okret
zavrtnja za koju je sam govorio da je und djelo. Godine 1934, Edmund Vilson
je podstakao, iako nije prvi poeo, beskonanu akademsku raspravu o tome
kako treba tumaiti ovaj zagonetni tekst. Rasprava je oduvijek bila u vezi sa
njegovim odlunim i namjernim dvosmislenostima. Da li guvernanta iz prie
halucinira pojavu Kvinta i gospoice Desel (za koje je reeno da su umrli) zbog
njene seksualne represije? Da li guvernanta otkriva da su djeca o kojima se brine
obuzeta neim natprirodnim i izopaenim ili je ona sama opsjednuta nekom
neurozom? Sudeu po ovome mogli bismo zakljuiti da bi pria Okret zavrtnja
bila jako neposluna i nezgodna za adaptaciju kroz formu predstavljanja. Pa ipak,
dokazano je sasvim suprotno.
U filmu Deka Klejtona iz 1961. godine, Nevinost (scenaristi: Truman Kapot i Viljem Aribald), gledaocima je data ansa da odmjere dokaze za razne
mogue interpretacije dvosmislenosti ovog teksta. Rezultat je stalna promjena
simpatije u odnosu na guvernantinu matu. Sama kamera ponekad mijenja taku gledita, kao na primjer u finalnom suoavanju izmeu guvernante i njenog
tienika Majla. Muzika je upotrijebljena ne samo da sugerie interiornost ve i
da pojaa dvosmislenost: da li su jezivi zvuci koje ujemo u guvernantinom umu
ili oznaavaju prisustvo natprirodnog? Kada se ono to ujemo ne poklapa sa
onim to vidimo, rezultirajua sugestivnost moe biti monija nego stvarno
pojavljivanje duha. Pa ipak je na kraju Dejmsova narativna dvosmislenost odbi-

jena u naturalistikom filmskom medijumu, premda na zanimljivo sveobuhvatan
nain: Kvint zaista postoji i zaposjeo je Majla, a sama guvernanta je zaposjednuta, pa na kraju zaposijeda i mrtvog Majla (J. Allen 1977: 140).
Kada su Meri Pajper i Bendamin Britn adaptirali Dejmsovu priu 1954.
godine u kamernu operu, suoili su se mnogo veim izazovom nego to je to bio
sluaj sa piscima scenarija: kako predstaviti ovu vrstu dvosmislenosti u scenskoj
muzikoj radnji uivo. Pa ipak, Britnova muzika je uspjela u tome. Svaka od
kratkih, odvojenih scena koje ine operu vezana je za onu prethodnu ponavljanjem muzike teme (sa odreenim varijacijama), iji se intervali okreu poput zavrtnja (Whittall 1992: 847). Djeca u ovoj muzikoj drami ne zvue kao
Klejtonovi nevini jer, ak i dok izgledaju bezazleno i pjevaju pjesmu Tom, Tom
pipers son, zvue jako izopaeno. Ovdje se duhovi pojavljuju i njihova jeziva
egzotina muzika jasno stavlja do znanja da su oni sa drugog svijeta, ak iako je
njihova zlobna ali zavodilaka mo nad djecom opipljiva i ujna. Ipak, uvena
dvosmislenost romana sauvana je do samog kraja dok muzika podvlai sumnju
u stvarni uzrok Majlove smrti tako to guvernantina vokalna linija polako blijedi.
Izgleda da je ovaj primjer oprean uvenom stavu Patrika D. Smita da u
operskoj adaptaciji svaka mogua dvosmislenost ili razliita tumaenja velikih
umjetnikih djela... moraju obavezno biti izostavljeni ili pak ublaeni, na tetu ne
samo originala nego i same adaptacije (1970: 342-43). I zaista, verbalne i narativne dvosmislenosti moraju biti dramatizovane u scenskim umjetnostima, to
nije nemogu zadatak. Neto mora biti dobijeno, dok neto mora biti i izgubljeno. Vizuelna i zvuna neposrednost dramatizacije ne bi se mogla dostii ni
prozom jednog velikog Henrija Dejmsa. A koja je cijena koja se za to plaa? (U
adaptaciji uvijek postoji neka trampa). Kada se predstava ili opera postavlja na
scenu, reiser i izvoai-glumci prave izbore kojim neizbjeno umanjuju interpretativno bogatstvo pisanog teksta (Scholes 1976:285); u filmskoj ili televizijskoj adaptaciji, ti izbori su konani, snimljeni zauvijek. Sa take gledita pisca
koji gleda na svijet ovo je ozbiljno ogranienje, kao to smatra Patrick MekGart,
koji je adaptirao svoj roman Pauk za film Dejvida Kroneberga iz 2002. godine:
Kada se prvi put lati pisanja scenarija, pisac prozne fikcije esto to radi
sa nipodatavanjem. Sigurno to ne moe biti toliko teko, smatra on; sve
to treba jeste osmisliti skelet prie. Tako se baci na posao predviajui
da e sve brzo zavriti i na kraju lako zaraditi novac, a vjerovatno i
trenutak slave. Meutim, ubrzo se uvjerava u suprotno. Postaje mu jasno da na svom raspolaganju ima jedva poreani slijed nekoliko dramskih scena. Mora da ih iskoristi na isti onaj nain na koji je cjelokupni
engleski jezik koristio u pisanju svog romana. (2002: R1)
Za vizuelno usmjerene reisere vai suprotan stav. Oni mogu da se kreu od
jednostavnih do sloenih medijuma i samim time ponude viestruka znaenja
privlaei druga ula.

Pa ipak, beskrajni resursi engleskog jezika ili bilo kojeg drugog
ukljuuju simbole i metafore, koje ukoliko ih treba ostvariti kroz formu prikazivanja junak jednostavno moe izgovoriti. Nekada mogu biti materijalizovani u
formi slike ili na neki drugi nain prevedeni u odgovarajui ekvivalent. Uprkos
miljenju kritiara da nijedna od preko stotinu radio, pozorinih i filmskih adaptacija
Dikensovog romana Velika oekivanja nije nikad uspjela da ostvari stapanje
naturalistikog i simbolinog u verbalnoj strukturi romana, treba naglasiti da scenski
mediji imaju svoje resurse u koje se mogu uzdati. Kao to smo vidjeli, opere i
mjuzikli mogu zadati muzici simboline ciljeve: ba kao to ekspirov Otelo
postepeno preuzima Jagovu sliku, Verdijev i Boitov operski Otelo postepeno
preuzima Jagovu muziku (koja je veoma glasna; njegove triplete i precizan ritam),
dok je protagonista kako u pozorinoj predstavi tako i operi sveden na nivo svog
antagoniste. ak i u filmu, uprkos njegovim naturalistikim zahtjevima, montaa
moe da ukae na metaforina poreenja povezivanjem oprenih slika. Kamera
moe da izoluje neki element scene zasnivajui na njemu ne samo znaenje, ve i
simbolianu vrijednost kroz njegovu kontekstualizaciju. Slika purpurnih usana
protagonistkinje Hardijevog romana Tesa od Urbervilovih (1891) pretoena je u film
Tesa (1797) Romana Polanskog i otjelovljena u liku Nastasje Kinski ije se pune
crvene usne otvaraju da uzmu jagodu koju joj daje Aleks.
Verbalna ironija predstavlja poseban izazov za adaptaciju u scenskoj formi,
naravno ne kad je rije o dijalogu, ve o prikazivanju. Da se vratimo na djelo koje
smo ve pominjali u drugaijem kontekstu, roman Viljema Takerija iz 1844. godine,
Srea Beri Lindona. Ovo djelo je predstavljeno, kako to je i bila namjera autora, od
strane pripovjedaa u prvom licu kao pria o trijumfima i nesreama saosjeajnog i
snalaljivog dentlmena iz XVIII vijeka, ili nam se makar tako ini. Zahvaljujui
Takerijevoj spretnoj ironiji djelo se polako pretvara u dnevnik izopaenog i
samoobmanjujueg grubijana (Sinyard, 1986: 130). Ve smo vidjeli koliko je
pripovijedanje u prvom licu teko za film i zaista sveznajua naratorska kamera
Stenli Kjubrika u adaptaciji ovog romana odbacuje prisnost zarad udaljenosti, pa
znaenje koje se gubi iza glasa grube, osorne, egocentrine osobe, pokazuje se kroz
osjeanje te individue u kontekstu snobovskog drutva. Posljedica toga je injenica
da je Kjubrikov Beri Lindon mnogo vie simpatian od Takerijevog, uprkos ironinom
glasu naratora koji se javlja izmeu scena.
Problemi u dramatizovanju tako verbalnih elemenata kao to su ironija,
dvosmislenost ili simbolika, blijede u poreenju sa onima koji nastaju kada treba
dramatizovati ono to nije prisutno. Odsustvo i tiina u proznoj naraciji gotovo se
neizbjeno pretvaraju u prisustvo u scenskim formama, inae bi, kako smatra ovaj
aspekt kliea, izgubili svoj znaaj i mo. Da li je ovo zaista sluaj? U daljem tekstu
ispitaemo stereotip koji se tie svih specifinosti formi i medijuma kojim se ovo
poglavlje bavi. Stoga, ono moe biti kratak pregled i zakljuak.
Prevela Sanja Bogojevi

UDK: 165.82:130.2
143
PROTIVURJENOSTI DEBATE REALIZAM MODERNIZAM

Frederik Dejmson144
Realizam. Realistian. Realan. I zato jo ne dodati realnost? Ove gramatike varijante nijesu zasnovane na bilo kakvom centralnom znaenju, ve se
ire, nudei u najboljem sluaju neke mogunosti klasifikacije svih viestrukih i
ponekad kontradiktornih naina upotrebe ovog zadivljujueg termina. One teko
da e biti dovoljne, ali e vjerovatno posluiti kao dobra polazna osnova.
Ova rije, meutim, kao i mnogo drugih rijei, neraskidivo je povezana sa
neim to ona nije: drugim rijeima, definisana je kao suprotnost neemu drugom, a kako su te suprotnosti mnogobrojne, sadraj nae rijei estoko e varirati. Nabrojau nekoliko: realizam nasuprot modernizmu, realizam nasuprot
idealizmu, realizam nasuprot romantizmu, realizam nasuprot naturalizmu, realizam nasuprot materijalizmu itd. Za bilo kakvu knjievnu diskusiju, ini mi se da
su od navedenih suprotnosti kljune tri: romantizam, naturalizam i modernizam
koje na neki nain hronoloki slijede jedna drugu (slijed koji bez sumnje izaziva
silnu zabludu u sluaju bilo kakve ozbiljne rasprave). Prva suprotnost, ona u
odnosu na romantizam, panju usmjerava na porijeklo realizma; ona u odnosu
na modernizam, na njegovo nestajanje; dok opozicija realizma i naturalizma definie kanonski pristup Georga Lukaa, sa kojim se neu sloiti, i svrstava naturalizam u realizam kao to u i ja initi.
ak i ova preliminarna diskusija, meutim, esto neprimjetno klizi u istorijski i hronoloki vid, a realizam se onda posmatra kao istorijski fenomen. Dvije
naredne komplikacije upozoravaju nas da zaustavimo ili pak odgodimo ovakav
razvoj dogaaja. Prva u nizu je da je realizam esto vie ili manje sinonim za roman, tako da ono to stvarno ne spada u jednu od ove dvije kategorije biva
iskljueno i iz one druge. Ovo je, moglo bi se rei, Bahtinova tendencija, u kojoj
romansijerski ide ruku pod ruku sa modernou, bilo da se to javlja u aleksandrijskoj Grkoj ili u 19. vijeku. ini mi se da bi bilo teko diskutovati o reali-
143
Modern Language Quaterly 73:3, University of Washington, 2012.

Frederik Dejmson je profesor knjievnosti na Djuk univerzitetu. Njegova knjiga
Postmodernizam, ili, Kulturna logika kasnog kapitalizma osvojila je Louel nagradu Udruenja za
savremeni jezik 1990. godine, a njegova skorija djela obuhvataju: Arheologije budunosti: elja
zvana utopija i druga nauna fantastika (2005), Modernistike radove (2007), Valencije dijalektike
(2009), Hegelove varijacije: O Fenomenologiji duha (2010) i Predstavljanje Kapitala (2011).
Dobitnik je Holbergove nagrade 2008. godine i nagrade za ivotno djelo Udruenja za savremeni
jezik 2011. godine.
144

zmu ili o romanu na zadovoljavajui nain, a da se diskusija o jednom ne zavri
pritom diskusijom o onom drugom.
Nakon toga slijedi upotreba realizma kao termina vrijednosti (ili, kao kod
filmadija i estetiara 1960-ih, kao termina koji oznaava kritiku i osudu: za njih
on tei znaenju Holivud). Iz ugla ljeviara, meutim, realizam e biti pozdravljen
kao pobjeda realnosti i oruje u kognitivnoj borbi; i moemo da pretpostavimo
da u Treem svijetu, gdje su intelektualni pogledi generalno ljeviarski, termin
ima uglavnom isto pozitivno znaenje. A opet i Trei svijet je (tradicionalno) mjesto modernizacije, a uvezena forma poput romana je u potpunosti i u istoj mjeri
komponenta modernizacije kao i uvoz automobila. Sve ovo nas vodi do jo jednog paradoksa: naime, onaj pravi realizam, ukoliko se posmatra u trenutku
svog nastanka, predstavlja proces otkrivanja koji, svojim naglaavanjem novog i
do sada neprijavljenog, nezastupljenog i nevienog i svojim uvenim podrivanjem naslijeenih ideja i anrova (Kihot), je, u stvari, sam neka vrsta modernizma, ako ne i njegova prva forma.
Do sada, meutim, budui da je istorijski realizam poistovjeen sa buroaskim, sa buroaskim stilom, i stvarno sa buroaskom kulturnom revolucijom kao takvom, on postaje meta modernistike kritike buroaskog: u stvari,
osjea se da je moderna franscuska kultura generalno, od Balzaka nadalje,
kritika buroazije, a stoga i sklona da realizam smatra dijelom te buroaske
kulture, njenih vrijednosti i predstava. Tako da svaki stvarno novi realizam svoje
prethodnike proglaava nerealstinim; tako se suoavamo sa paradoksom da su
Balzak ili Flober sami osnivai modernog realizma u neku ruku antirealisti i
postmodernisti. To je paradoks koji se moe razjasniti rijeju satirian, do onog
nivoa na kom je Domije, na primjer, realistian onoliko koliko je i modernista; ili
Dojs, koji je u svom irskom kontekstu, realistiniji od ostalih savremenika romantine ili nacionalne irske kulture.
U svemu ovome, meutim, jo uvijek nijesmo potegli kljuno pitanje politikog, koje onda jednako mijenja cjelokupnu debatu. Poslijeratne polemike protiv realizma bilo da su to one polemike novog talasa usmjerene protiv Holivuda ili one potpuno drugaije koje odbacuju tradicionalni buroaski realizam,
budui da su ga Breht i Rob-Grile vidjeli kao neprijatelja iz politikih razloga: za
njih, realizam je ili podsticao prihvatanje statusa kvo kroz svoje stereotipe ili, s
druge strane, nije ostavljao mjesto za politiku pedagogiju zahvaljujui svom
mimesisu paralizovanog svijeta u kojem se politika akcija inila nemoguom ili
onom koju je nemogue pokrenuti. S druge strane, politiki branioci antimodernistikih realizama kritikovali su poveanu subjektivizaciju moderne umjetnosti i njeno formalno iskljuivanje klasne i politike realnosti koje vie nijesu bile
vidljive u proivljenim iskustvima zapadnih pisaca i umjetnika. Ovo je trenutak
kada treba predstaviti termin socijalni realizam koji naginje naturalizmu, na jednoj strani, i socijalistikom realizmu na drugoj, ali koji se nekako otro razlikuje
od buroaskog realizma svojim nie-klasnim sadrajem u potpuno istoj mjeri kao

i po svojim politikim motivacijama. Meutim, ono to se deavalo na Zapadu je
da su iskustva radnike klase, tako skandalozno prikazivana u naturalizmu, bila
zamijenjena etnikim, racionalnim i rodnim realnostima ije predstavljanje svakako moe biti iz politiikih namjera, ali nije neophodno realistino u smislu starijih knjievnih tradicija (rivalitet izmeu Elisona i Rajta nudi istu takvu reprizu
suprotstavljanja modernizma i realizma).
Mogunosti knjievnosti, koja je u jedno isto vrijeme politika intervencija,
su tradicionalno utemeljene na epistemolokoj dimenziji: takva knjievnost nam
prikazuje stvari koje nikad ranije nijesmo vidjeli, u ije postojanje nikad nijesmo
sumnjali stvari koje vjerovatno nikad ranije nijesu bile izraene ili predstavljene u knjievnosti (ili ak u jeziku). U uslovima koji su vladali u kasnom 20. i
u 21. vijeku, ak i to neznanje ili tiina poprima relativno psiholoki i subjektivan
smisao, budui da je potrebno objasniti da je ovaj nedostatak svijesti strukturno
povezan sa naom klasnom izolacijom, naim nedostatkom linog iskustva, naom prostornom odvojenou od tih uslova. Ovo je takoe uvijek praeno onim
to se moe nazvati retorikom pretpostavkom: biti upoznat sa ovim nepoznatim uslovima znailo bi iskusiti ozlojeenost i saaljenje, i biti stoga podstaknut
na politiku akciju. Svaka teorija politikog realizma e stoga ukljuivati i retoriko, i onda se suoiti sa problemom naina na koji e do sada neviene
realnosti biti prikazane: da li e protagonisti biti rtve, nad ijim patnjama neko
osjea saaljenje; ili e oni biti heroji otpora, koji (ma koliko da ne uspiju)
podstiu nadmetanje uz mrnju ka ugnjetaima? Ili e pak, kao to je to sluaj
kod naturalista, oni kod svojih udobno smjetenih buroaskih italaca probuditi
osjeaj odreenog zadovoljstva sopstvenim imanjima, i zadovoljstva to nisu,
niti e se ikad sami nai u takvim okolnostima. Ali takve su uvijek neizvjesnosti
retorikog i nepredvidljivost svakog pokuaja korienja realizma u politike
svrhe osim ukoliko se ne ispostavi da smo uvijek politika i klasna bia i da
neizostavno reagujemo politiki na bilo kakvu vrstu prikaza (osjeajui gaenje
prema subjektivnim slabostima odreenih modernizama, na primjer, ili prema
prijatnim proslavama naina na koji sami ivimo, kada ne osjeamo prezir prema
pokuajima knjievnih agitatora da nas privole na ideju).
Oito, itav ovaj opseg pitanja mora neizosatvno biti zadivljujui i svakome se moe oprostiti ukoliko odlui da napusti rijei kao to je realizam generalno ostajui pri originalnom tekstu. Opet, sama kompleksnost ovih pitanja
unaprijed iskljuuje svako imperativno namjetanje znaenja i definicija, ije
pojednostavljenje moe djelovati od pomoi. Odluka da se realizam ogranii na
samo jedno svoje znaenje nije opcija. Hegel je jednom tvrdio kako je na
zadatak kao mislilaca bio suprotan situaciji Grka koji su morali da izvlae apstrakcije i opte ideje iz mase pojedinanosti i divljih misli njihovog svakodnevnog
ivota: mi sami se, sa druge strane, davimo u apstrakcijama svakakve vrste, vijekovima filozofiranja, razmiljanja, definisanja i imenovanja, i suoavamo se sa
problemom nalaenja prohodnih puteva kroz iste (Vitgentajnova terapija

dostupna je samo engleskim filozofima). Ovo znai da e svako korienje osnovnog termina ukljuiti analizu konkurentskog terena i, po definiciji, potrebu da
se isti taj termin problematizuje; svaka analiza realistinog djela mora biti teoretska kao i kritina. Moda se ak i zapitamo da li najkorisnija definicija realizma moda lei u mogunosti teksta da pokrene pitanje realizma kao takvog u
njegovoj sopstvenoj strukturi, bez obzira na odgovor koji e iz toga proistei. U
tom sluaju, realistinim moemo nazvati svako knjievno djelo koje pokree
pitanje realizma, bilo da ga hoe problematizovati ili pokuati ponovo izmisliti:
realizam bi onda oznaavao svako pripovijedanje koje je organizovano, ne oko
pitanja realnog ili realnosti (filozofska pitanja) ve oko ispitivanja samog
realizma i realistinog. Ali i ovdje mi se ini da postoji odvojenost modernistikih
realizama i realistinih modernizama. Plodna ideja udnog zastranjivanja mogla bi se naeti ovdje, u kontekstu teksta koji koristi, a zatim preispituje eksperimentalno; a modernistiki realizam bi poeo da se pojavljuje kada se koriste, a
potom i podrivaju, tradicionalne metode narativnog prikazivanja/predstavljanja
(romansijerski realizam).
Ali, kada stignemo do te take, moraemo takoe da se zapitamo da li je
postmodernizam suprotstavljanje realizma i modernizma uinio zastarjelim, i da
li moramo da izumimo neke nove kategorije, tj. da iskaemo neke nove vrste
suprotnosti.
Ovdje, meutim, moram otvoriti veliku zagradu o Lukau, o kome su na
ovim stranama reene mnoge interesantne stvari. Radi sebe lino, volio bih da
izazovem koncept realizma koji se pripisuje Likau na osnovu vjerovatnosti (ili,
koristei njegovu terminologiju, odraza): tanost predstavljanja, adekvatnost
realnom ili realnosti, i tako dalje. Ove koncepcije mi se ine statinim; one
saoptavaju (moda i uprkos njima samima) ideju da je realnost neka vrsta stvari
koja se nalazi izvan, koju je potrebno opisati to vjerodostojnije kroz: drutvene
situacije i prilike; postojanje drutvenih klasa, ak i njihove meusobne konflikte; istorijsku tanost; ideologije odreene situacije. Totalitet je stoga ovdje
zamiljen na Spinozin nain, kao ogromna cjelina kojoj se nekako mora prii kroz
njene raznovrsne unutranje veze.
Ali vjerujem da je za Lukaa totalitet predstavljala istorija, i da je u realnosti(nosti) njegova koncepcija realizma morala da ima veze sa umjetnou, pri
emu je pripovijedanje o pojedincima uinjeno na nain da pristupa istorijskoj
dinamici kao takvoj. Totalitet je za njega bio organizovan tako da otkrije svoju
vezu sa istorijom u pokretu i budunou u momentu njenog nastajanja. Realizam stoga mora biti u vezi sa otkrivanjem tendencija prije nego sa portretisanjem (prikazivanjem) trenutnog stanja stvari. Mislim da napad na naturalizam
u djelu Pripovijedati ili opisivati? veoma otro kritikuje opisivanje, iako ak i
Lukaevi pokuaji da prikae uee u akciji, ili pristup prosjenog heroja
dubljim istorijskim strujama (najee revolucijama i revolucionarnim tendencijama) moda nijesu dovoljno ivi, ili pak ne odgovaraju svim raznovrsnostima

istorijskog iskustva. Istorija je u tom smislu kao Hajdegerovo bivstvo: ono se ne
moe posmatrati ili opaati direktno ili frontalno; ono se pojavljuje i nestaje; i
mora se uhvatiti u tranutku pojavljivanja.
Zato istorijski realizam ove vrste slabi kada pokua da se bavi situacijama u kojima istorijski momenat nije primjetan (npr. kolonijalno vrijeme); a
takoe ostaje zateen kada su istorijske struje drutva sahranjene pod slojevima
u kojima se pojavljuje Lukaeva druga priroda (nae sopstveno drutvo
spektakla izgleda da odgovara ovoj dilemi). Sutina se ne pojavljuje ba uvijek,
da parafraziram veliku Hegelovu lozinku, ili ne ba uvijek kada to elite: ne moe
se stvoriti iz magle svakodnevnice istom naredbom, isto kao to se prava
revolucionarna situacija ne moe stvoriti snagom volje, ili natjerati u ivot gerilskim ratovanjem u stilu 60-ih. Ne samo da je istoriju (klasnu istoriju) potrebno
iznenaditi na najmanje oekivanim mjestima, ve moramo imati instrumente
registracije koji e je spremno zgrabiti; to uopte ne moraju biti staromodne
prie pojedinaca, ali mi moda jo uvijek nemamo prave. Ovo je smisao koji
elim da sauvam i da ojaam margine tog termina: ne kao beskorisne derae
koje je drutvo odbacilo, ili prostorne pustinje u kojima se nita ne deava, niti
proizvode pare ve kao slabe karike u lancu gdje se stvarno moe pojaviti
bez upozorenja i nestati na isti nain, ako nijesmo dovoljno oprezni da ga
uhvatimo.
Fokus sadanje zbirke zahtijeva od nas da ova razmatranja zakomplikujemo dodatnim teorijskim problemom koji uveliko prevazilazi ono knjievno u
realizmu. A to je pitanje nacije i nacionalnog kao takvog. To je pitanje koje
mone sile ne bi trebalo da postavljaju, u sopstvenoj zaslijepljenosti svojim
centralnim ulogama; pitanje za koje tzv. zapadna knjievnost smatra da ga je do
sada mogla izostavljati; ali zbog kojeg istona Evropa i ostatak svijeta neprestano brine. To je i pitanje jezika, ali i generacijsko: za mlae pisce ili filmske stvaraoce, na primjer, kategorija nacionalne knjievnosti ili nacionalnog filma kao da
im namee samo ogranieni i staromodni dio trita novog svijeta, koji uglavnom
pie i ita na engleskom (ili je, u sluaju filma, organizovan oko najveih festivala
i njihovih distibutivnih krugova).
Jedan moj poznati esej jednom je ukazao na to da je cijela knjievnost
bila neka vrsta nacionalne alegorije, u onoj mjeri u kojoj njeni tekstovi pretpostavljaju univerzalno ili kolektivno simbolino znaenje privatnih ili ivotnih
situacija. Nacionalno se u tom smislu odnosi na istorijski momenat stvaranja
nacije u datom geografskom prostoru, tj. na kulturnu revoluciju (bilo da je ona
buroaska ili socijalistika) koja proizvodi kolektivnost i javnost Gramscijevu
nacionalno-popularnu u kojoj, kako navodi Delez nastaje un peuple a venir.
Moji primjeri Lu Ksun, Osman Semben su na svoje razliite naine predstavili
to stvaranje i tu nadu, njima nije bilo strano po nekoliko razoaranja i poraza.
Termin kolektivnost zbilja bolje pristaje tim poslednjim momentima, u onoj
mjeri u kojoj su etniki i rasistiki kulturni nacionalizmi na isti nain alegorini i

u pokuaju da stvore novu kolektivnost, ali na drugaijim osnovama od onog
zvaninog nacionalnog. Danas, u eri globalizacije, ove starije kolektivnosti ini se
da ustupaju mjesto novoj vrsti grupisanja pod nazivom mnotvo; ali novi
fenomen ostaje onaj koji se tie kolektiva i postavlja formalne i probleme u
prikazivanju na isti alegorian nain, ako ne nuno istog tipa.
Ali i staromodne nacije nastavljaju da egzistiraju; one svakako nisu u
procesu odumiranja, kao to je to predstavljao stari liberalizam, iako se esto
ini da u osnovi imaju negativne funkcije: da ogranie politiku mo otpora, da
ogranie simboliku i ideoloku mo svojih pripovijedanja, da mijenjaju lokalne
standarde ivota u ime velikih multinacionalnih kompanija, i da osiguraju pojavu
multikulturalizma koji ne odraava ekonomske, egzistencijalne i klasne realnosti.
Takoe je tano da nas zbirka ove vrste stoga suoava sa onim to se
ini da su nerjeive globalne multiplikacije, ali i teoretske kontradikcije koje
prate rijei kao to su nacija, kolektivnost, mnotvo, a koje onda mijenjaju i
iskrivljuju ionako nestabilno teoretsko polje termina realizam. Dakle, uz naoigled nerazrjeivu knjievnu i optu konceptualnu konfuziju po ovom pitanju,
suoeni smo sa suprotstavljenim tekstovima i temama ne manje zapanjujuim
svatarom ili izobiljem, u zavisnosti od vaeg raspoloenja. ta Roberto Balanjo i
Toni Morison imaju zajedniko sa ranijom generacijom kolonijalnih pisaca poput
Mulka Raja Ananda (Nedodirljiv), Tomasa Mofola (aka) ili pak Dejd Snou
Vonga (Peta kineska ker )? ta romani koji se bave irskim radnicima u Engleskoj
imaju sa 1968-om i afrikim izrazima? Moemo li Akebove napade na modernizam na bilo koji nain porediti sa evolucijom tajvanske knjievnosti, a kamoli sa
modernizmom Maksin Hong Kingstonove ene ratnika? I ta uasni Najpol
(ovdje predmet izuzetne valorizacije) radi usred ove bune zabave? (Ublaavam
nepravedne prigovore na raun odsustva filipinske knjievnosti, knjievnosti
Magreba, Balkana itd.)
Istina je da naa apstraktna anrovska pitanja ovdje oivljavaju. Kada se
pozovemo na knjievno-istorijske perspektive, evolucija od realistinih romana
do onih modernistikih postaje vidljiva u manjinskoj unutranjosti ili etnikim
tradicijama i u spoljanosti samih nacionalnih kultura. Romantizam se na zapanjujui nain pojavljuje u eseju Simona Gikandija, a istorija na jo volebniji
nain u esejima Suzan Z. Andrejd. Pojavljuje se tu i Hegel, na predvidljiv i neoekivan nain u isto vrijeme, sa temama ropstva i kolonijalizma. Dijalektike suprotnosti naruavaju nae briljivo sklopljene klasifikacije: tako, u jednom trenutku,
modernizam, povezan sa metropolama, biva proklet od strane (post)kolonijalnih
pisaca kao konotacija potinjenosti i pokoravanja; dok u drugom trenu, i vjerovatno na istom mjestu, realizam biva identifikovan kao otrovan poklon Evrope.
Ili, ako se vratimo na knjievnu istoriju, prethodne generacije pisaca i intelektualaca i njihova postignua modernizma ili realizma bivaju (kao to je to sluaj u Irskoj) stigmatizovani zbog njihovih klasnih izgleda (elitizma) ili pak internacionalizma radnike klase (socijalistiki realizam). DNK pribor onda radi preko-

vremeno kako bi izmjerio nivo subverzije u ovim tekstovima, ili pak potvrdio stepen do kojeg mogu biti kvalifikovani kao manjinski, to je, rekao bih, u suprotnosti. italaka javnost samo se rijetko moe pomenuti, budui da ista potee
neprijatna pitanja o Englezima kao kapitalistikoj svjetskoj struji, ili, na drugoj
strani, o politikoj vrijednosti Ngugijeve izuzetne politike lingvistike: pitanja koja su dabome vrlo povezana sa istorijom i istorijskim promjenama i sa prelaskom
sa nacionalnog momenta dekolonijalizacije na momenat trine globalizacije,
kroz sve vrste pokuaja da se kritikuje korupcija u neokolonijalnoj eri.
Sve ove promjene sa predgovorom Doa Klirija i uvodom Deda Estija i
Kolina Laja, gdje odjednom postajemo svjesni da teoretske klasifikacije tekstova
(kao realistinih ili modernistikih, ili ak njihovim varijantama Polonijeve
opte prefinjenosti kolonijalno-pastoralna, tragino-realistina itd. nikada
nijesu bile daleko od takvih) poinju da ive drugaijim ivotom u odnosu na
sopstvene u nekim drugim prostorima osim samih romana. Kliri se bavi sudbinom ove mnogo puta ponavljane opozicije u periodu izmeu ratova (Luka,
Ojerbah, Bahtin), dok Esti i Laj potvruju njenu zadivljujue kompleksnu funkcionalnu metamorfozu u cjelokupnom poslijeratnom periodu, periodu u kojem je
sama proizvodnja onoga to oni nazivaju perifernim djelima poela da se umnoava, pri emu su neka od tih djela zauzela centralno mjesto u neijem kanonu. Opet, ini se da se takvo irenje moglo desiti i na normalan knjievno-istorijski nain, kroz nekoliko poglavlja dodatih relevantnoj studiji ili antropologiji.
Ovako se misli ukoliko se ne uzimaju u obzir estoke politike i ideoloke
debate tako karakteristine u borbi teorija realizma i modernizma u oba perioda. U onom u kojem dominiraju Rusi, prije II svjetskog rata, ton je postavljen i
ulozi su odreeni vrstom vezom izmeu realizma i progresivne politike, i
pripisivanjem mnogih modernizama Lukaevom stalnom karnevalu fetiizirane
unutranjosti, ako ne i gore. Zapad mijenja ovu monu intrigu (ali je njen uticaj i
dalje vidjiv, ne samo kod Lukaa ve i kod Ojerbaha, a ak i u Bahtinovom
naglaavanju modernosti romana) pridajui joj visoku knjievnu vrijednost i
suprotstavljajui literarnost modernistikog kanona poveanoj povrnosti
socijalistikog realizma.
Klirijeva izuzetna dijalektika sada pokree ovu previe uprotenu situaciju istorizirajui je, inei ono to, pratei uveni izraz Gajatrija Spivaka, moemo
nazvati stratekim esencijaliziranjem. Ovo poslednje, umjesto da odraava
neizbjeno dranje strane dobrom ili loem stavu (esencijalnost kao ljudska priroda, antiesencijalnost kao ljudski proizvod) pravi neoekivani potez iznenadno
ukljuivi samu situaciju u znaenje realizma: sada politika ocjena i politiki sud
ne bivaju nebitni, u nekom polju izvan objekta o kojem se sudi; znaenje realizma je u samim terminima u kojima razmiljamo i definiemo samu stvar, koju
prati istorija koja nas uvjerava u sopstvenu efemernu aktuelnost, pri emu sud
nee biti isti narednog dana ili u narednom avataru. Ono to je napredno moe

prerasti u svoju suprotnost kako se situacija razvija, a ravnotea se moe
promijeniti.
Naoruani ubjeenjem da, kako god realistini ili modernistini bili,
velika djela Zapada uglavnom iskljuuju realnosti ostatka svijeta, ako ne i
sopstvene periferije, Kliri je u stanju da formira par osa pri emu realistinomodernistika osa biva zamijenjena drugom, nekom vrstom geopolitike klasne
ose u kojoj je provincijalni Zapad suprotstavljen sutinski politiki definisanom
setu do sada uutkanih margina. Sada postaje lake uvidjeti kako u jednoj
situaciji modernistiki stav moe biti napredan (jedno odreeno vrijeme), dok je
u drugom sluaju realistini impuls taj koji e biti politiki (i kulturno)
nezamjenljiv. Ova funkcija sada biva vrsto i organski vezana za samo djelo (a
moda je i uvijek bila i u samim tzv. zapadnim klasicima).
Kad je u pitanju period poslije rata, kada su, u cjelosti, nakon kljunog trenutka dekolonizacije, u stvari i nastajale pomenute knjievnosti, infrastruktura
naih teorija se paradoksalno sa novog globusa globalizacije svodi na sami
univerzitet. To nisu mase koje se bore na strani de Gola zarad njegovog obeanja slobode, niti su to oni koji se zarad istog cilja bore na strani ili protiv Japanaca; ve su to kole i odsjeci, teoretsko-politike tendencije koje e osigurati
priznanje za svoje studente i univerzitetske jedinice (i odgovarajue zajednice
koje stoje iza njih) to su sada obnovljeni i transformisani uesnici teoretske
borbe iju sloenost Esti i Laj tako ekspertski istrauju u svom osvrtu.
Lokalna infrastruktura mnogih ovih borbi je materijalna: podrka novim
studentima i novim programima, borba oko skromnih resursa i jo manje velikodunog adiministrativnog priznanja, krvavi rat izmeu konkurenata i jo povrnije napadanje estetskih rivala ovdje mikrokozma politikih bitaka 1930-ih biva
teoretski minijaturizovana i defirencirana, a proliferacija novih kurseva i novih
metoda (kulturne studije, svjetska knjievnost, postkolonijalna knjievnost, etnika knjievnost, anti-imperijalistike tradicije, studije etvrtog svijeta, zapadnjaci nasuprot nacionalistima, itd.) omoguila je sve vrste neoekivanih otria
novih tekstova, zaboravljenih pisaca i tradicija, novih i suptilnijih teorija. Samo
oni samo-mrzei intelektualci koji jo uvijek ne razumiju da proireni univerzitet
predstavlja novu javnu sferu, e eljeti da trivijalizuju ove nove energije, a to su
u stvari one energije njihovih sopstvenih studenata i onih potpuno novih
jedinica u novoj i komunikacionoj demokratizaciji svijeta u kojem samo novac
odrava velike klasne razlike.
Urednici ovog izdanja skromno se nadaju da postoji mjesto za njihove
periferne realnosti na ovoj tabli za uzdisanje gdje predstavnici mnogih razliitih
struja stvaraju i pune svoje tanjire. S vremena na vrijeme ini se da ele da doe
kraj standardnom starom suprotstavljanju realizma i modernizma u ime neeg
drugog. Ali ta bi bilo to neto drugo? Estetski konsenz? Stavljanje prirode
objekta pod okrilje kulture subjekta? Vrijedi se prisjetiti da je cjelokupno
bogatsvo sadanje kolekcije u odreenoj mjeri zavisno od ratnog i potinjenog

statusa realizma u ovom suprotstavljenom odnosu (uprkos njegovim prolaznim
hegemonijama u specifinim situacijama): uzvraanje udaraca sigurno da omoguava jasniju identifikaciju centara moi. U svakom sluaju, debata realizam
modernizam je u krajnjem i uglavnom socijalne i politike prirode, a stoga i
neizbjeno osnaena samim suprotstavljenim silama koje nikad nee nestati.
Uvijek e postojati Lijevo i Desno, uvijek e biti borbe, i kad god se knjievni ulozi
mjere tako apsolutno kao ovdje, isti nee biti imuni na nju. Ovo znai da
realizam i modernizam nikada nee biti obuhvaeni jedinstvenom novom
cjelinom, jedinstvenom novom tezom: ve oni zasigurno nee potpasti pod neku
navodnu postmodernu sintezu. U najboljem sluaju, u postmodernizmu, biemo
svjedoci novih postmodernih verzija ove antiteze budui da se ista prilagoava
promjenljivim granicama i marginama novih periferija i novih centara.
Prevela Ivana Rai
UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA
Potovani autori,
Prilikom pisanja i predaje rada molimo da se rukovodite sljedeim
uputstvima:
Radovi se predaju u elektronskoj formi u Word formatu, na adresu
foliaredakcija@gmail.com.
Obim lanka treba da bude ogranien do maksimalno 7000 rijei ukljuujui
naslov, vae ime i prezime, naziv institucije, spisak bibliografskih referenci,
apstrakte na 2 jezika, naslov na jeziku prevoda apstrakta i kljune rijei na
oba jezika.
Na poetku rada daje se apstrakt (do 300 rijei) i do 10 kljunih rijei na
jeziku na kojem je pisan rad. Isti podaci ispisuju se na kraju teksta na
jednom od svjetskih jezika (engleskom, njemakom, francuskom, ruskom).
Kada je u pitanju formatiranje teksta, molimo poaljite rad u formatu
176x250mm. Ukoliko se koristite slikama ili tabelama, vodite racuna da se
uklope u isti format.
Dalje formatiranje teksta svedite na minimum ili se korisitite jednostavnom
opcijom Normal koju nudi Word program (ukljuujui naslove i
podnaslove).
Podnaslove odvojite sa dva prazna reda od prethodnog pasusa, odnosno
jednim redom od narednog pasusa.
Grafike sadraje molimo ne slati zasebno, ve ih ukljuiti u tekst kao
integrisanu sliku.
Isticanje u tekstu vri se iskljuivo upotrebom kurziva (italics), a nikako
polucrnim (boldovanim) fontom, navodnicima, podvlaenjem, s p a c i o n i
r a n j e m, verzalom (ALL CAPS) i slino.
Koristite navodnike odreene normom jezika na kome je napisan rad.
Molimo da u radu ne mijeate razliite tipove navodnika. Polunavodnike
(m) koristimo jedino unutar navodnika.
Citat koji je dui od tri reda vaeg kucanog teksta upiite kao posebni pasus.
Izostavljanje originalnog teksta unutar citata oznaava se sa tri take unutar
uglastih zagrada [].
Iako to va kompjuterski program ponekad ne radi, molimo vas da pravite
razliku izmeu crte ( ) i crtice ( - ).
Bibliografske reference navoditi po MLA obrascu (MLA Citation Style).
Detaljnije uputstvo nalazi se na adresi www.ff.ac.me.
Ureivaki odbor
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Dear authors,
While writing and preparing your papers for submission, please respect the
following instructions:
Submit your papers electronically in Word format, to the following address:
foliaredakcija@gmail.com
The length of your work must not exceed 7000 words, including the title,
your name and the name of your institution, the list of references, two
abstracts (in 2 languages) and key words.
An Abstract (up to 300 words) and up to 10 key words should precede the
paper and be in the language in which the paper is written. Translate the
same information in one of the world languages (English, German, French,
Russian) and repeat at the end of the text.
Formatting of text, pelase make sure it fits into the 176x250mm format of
the journal. Further formatting should be minimal (including titles and
subtitles), please use the option Normal your Word provides under the
title Style.
Subtitles should be separated by two empty lines from the text preceding
it, and by one empty line from the text following it.
Graphics, tables, illustrations, pictures should not be sent separately but as
part of the papers and as integral images, makign sure they fit into the
176x250mm format of the journal.
Emphasis is provided exclusively by the use of italics, and NOT by bold
letters, quotation marks, s p a c i n g, ALL CAPS, etc.
Use double quotations marks consistently and asrequired by the norms of
the language in which the paper is written. Use single quotations marks
(m) only within quotations.
Quotations longer than three lines of your typed paper should be inserted
as a separate paragraph.
Avoiding parts of original text within quotation should be marked by the
following sign: [].
Do not confuse the dash and hyphen!
Use MLA citation style for bibliographical references.
For more details please visit www.ff.ac.me.
Board of Editor

Zoonimi U Toponimima - Nazivima Mesta

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FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA:

ASOPIS ZA NAUKU O JEZIKU I

Institut za jezik i knjievnost

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

SADRAJ / TABLE OF CONTENTS

Aorist u srpskom i francuskom jeziku (sintaksika analiza upotrebe ovog

Nauka o jeziku / Language Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 9

CONVENTIONALITY IN ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS AND RELEVANCE

Abstract: Conventions in language are generally considered to be socially and

A short theoretical discussion

10 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 11

12 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 13

14 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 15

16 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 17

18 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

KONVENCIONALITETI N AKTET ILOKUCIONARE DHE TEORIA E RELEVANCS

Folia linguistica et litteraria 19

RHETORICAL CONVENTIONS IN WRITTEN DISCOURSE:

20 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 21

22 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 23

24 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 25

The results of the first analysis of choice of organizational patterns,

26 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 27

Implications of the Study for the Teaching and Assessment of

Due to the differences in the rhetorical models for organizing information

28 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

As a result of the three analyses, we can conclude that coherence

Folia linguistica et litteraria 29

30 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 31

32 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 33

criminals (poor people)

severe and harsh measures

22. crime (vandalizam)

English language first

34 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 35

NOMINAL COMPOUNDS AND NOMINAL PHRASES A LOOK

36 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

2. Nominal Compounds and Nominal Phrases in English

Folia linguistica et litteraria 37

38 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

3. Nominal Compounds and Nominal Phrases in SC

Folia linguistica et litteraria 39

40 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

3. Analysis and Suggestions

Folia linguistica et litteraria 41

42 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 43

44 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Srpskom, hrvatskom, bosanskom i crnogorskom

Folia linguistica et litteraria 45

WHAT STANDARD WRITTEN NORMS OF ENGLISH DO IN THE