PESTICIDE

1ST GENERATION
2ND GENERATION
3RD GENERATION
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined pesticide as:
any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying,
or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease,
unwanted species of plants or animals, causing harm during or otherwise
interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport, or marketing
of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal
feedstuffs, or substances that may be administered to animals for the control
of insects, arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes
substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant,
or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used
as substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the
commodity from deterioration during storage and transport
Health effects of pesticides may be acute or delayed in those
who are exposed. A 2007 systematic review found that "most
studies on non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia showed positive
associations with pesticide exposure" and thus concluded that
cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased.Strong evidence
also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure
including neurological problems, birth defects, fetal deathand
neurodevelopmental disorderAccording to The Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 9 of the 12 most
dangerous and persistent chemicals are pesticides.
Long term effects
Cancer

Many studies have examined the effects of pesticide exposure on the risk of cancer.
Associations have been found with: leukemia, lymphoma, brain, kidney, breast,
prostate, pancreas, liver, lung, and skin cancers.This increased risk occurs with
both residential and occupational exposures.[ Increased rates of cancer have been
found among farm workers who apply these chemicals
Neurological
Evidence links pesticide exposure to worsened neurological outcomes. The risk of
developing Parkinson's disease is 70% greater in those exposed to even low levels
of pesticides. People with Parkinson's were 61% more likely to report direct
pesticide application than were healthy relatives. Both insecticides and herbicides
significantly increased the risk of Parkinson's disease. There are also concerns that
long term exposures may increase the risk of dementia.
Reproductive effects
Strong evidence links pesticide exposure to birth defects, fetal death and altered
fetal growth.In the United States, increase in birth defects is associated with
conceiving in the same period of the year when agrochemicals are in elevated
concentrations in surface water. Agent Orange, a 50:50 mixture of 2,4,5-T and 2,4D, has been associated with bad health and genetic effects in Malaya and Vietnam
It was also found that offspring that were at some point exposed to pesticides had a
low birth weight and had developmental defects
Fertility
A number of pesticides including dibromochlorophane and 2,4-D has been
associated with impaired fertility in males. Pesticide exposure resulted in reduced
fertility in males, genetic alterations in sperm, a reduced number of sperm, damage
to germinal epithelium and altered hormone function.

Types
Pesticides are often referred to according to the type of pest they control. Pesticides
can also be considered as either biodegradable pesticides, which will be broken
down by microbes and other living beings into harmless compounds, or persistent
pesticides, which may take months or years before they are broken down: it was
the persistence of DDT, for example, which led to its accumulation in the food
chain and its killing of birds of prey at the top of the food chain. Another way to

think about pesticides is to consider those that are chemical pesticides or are
derived from a common source or production method.
Organophosphate pesticides
Organophosphates affect the nervous system by disrupting the enzyme that
regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Most organophosphates are
insecticides. They were developed during the early 19th century, but their effects
on insects, which are similar to their effects on humans, were discovered in 1932.
Carbamate pesticides
Carbamate pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting an
enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. The
enzyme effects are usually reversible. There are several
subgroups within the carbamates
Organochlorine insecticides
They were commonly used in the past, but many have been
removed from the market due to their health and environmental
effects and their persistence (e.g., DDT and chlordane).
Pyrethroid pesticides
They were developed as a synthetic version of the naturally
occurring pesticide pyrethrin, which is found in chrysanthemums.
They have been modified to increase their stability in the
environment. Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to the nervous
system
Sulfonylurea herbicides
the following sulfonylureas have been commercialized for weed
control: amidosulfuron, azimsulfuron, bensulfuron-methyl,
chlorimuron-ethyl, ethoxysulfuron, flazasulfuron, flupyrsulfuronmethyl-sodium, halosulfuron-methyl, imazosulfuron, nicosulfuron,
oxasulfuron, primisulfuron-methyl, pyrazosulfuron-ethyl,
rimsulfuron, sulfometuron-methyl Sulfosulfuron, terbacil,

bispyribac-sodium, cyclosulfamuron, and pyrithiobac

sodium.Nicosulfurontriflusulfuron methyl,and chlorsulfuron are
broad-spectrum herbicides that kill plants by inhibiting the
enzyme acetolactate synthase. In the 1960s, more than 1 kg/ha
(0.89 lb/acre) crop protection chemical was typically applied,
while sulfonylureates allow as little as 1% as much material to
achieve the same effect.
Biopesticides
Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such
natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain
minerals. For example, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal
applications and are considered biopesticides. [
Biopesticides fall into three major classes:
Microbial pesticides consist of a microorganism e.g., a
bacterium, fungus, virus, or protozoan as the active
ingredient. Microbial pesticides can control many different
kinds of pests, although each separate active ingredient is
relatively specific for its target pest.For example, there are
fungi that control certain weeds, and other fungi that kill
specific insects.
Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs) are pesticidal substances
that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to
the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt
pesticidal protein, and introduce the gene into the plant's own
genetic material. Then the plant, instead of the Bt bacterium,
manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. The protein
and its genetic material, but not the plant itself, are regulated by
EPA.
Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances
that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms. Conventional
pesticides, by contrast, are, in general, synthetic materials

that directly kill or inactivate the pest. Biochemical

pesticides include substances, such as insect sex
pheromones, that interfere with mating, as well as various
scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to traps.
Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a
substance meets the criteria for classification as a
biochemical pesticide, EPA has established a special
committee to make such decisions.
Type of pesticide
Herbicides
Algicides or Algaecides
Avicides
Bactericides
Fungicides
Insecticides
Miticides or Acaricides
Molluscicides
Nematicides
Rodenticides
Virucides
Classified by type of pest

Target pest group

Plant
Algae
Birds
Bacteria
Fungi and Oomycetes
Insects
Mites
Snails
Nematodes
Rodents
Viruses

Pesticides that are related to the type of pests are:

Type

Action

Algicides

Control algae in lakes, canals, swimming pools,

water tanks, and other sites

Antifouling
agents

Kill or repel organisms that attach to underwater

surfaces, such as boat bottoms

Antimicrobials Kill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses)

Attractants

Attract pests (for example, to lure an insect or

rodent to a trap). (However, food is not
considered a pesticide when used as an

attractant.)
Biopesticides

Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides

derived from such natural materials as animals,
plants, bacteria, and certain minerals

Biocides

Kill microorganisms

Disinfectants
and sanitizers

Kill or inactivate disease-producing

microorganisms on inanimate objects

Fungicides

Kill fungi (including blights, mildews, molds, and

rusts)

Fumigants

Produce gas or vapor intended to destroy pests in

buildings or soil

Herbicides

Kill weeds and other plants that grow where they

are not wanted

Insecticides

Kill insects and other arthropods

Miticides

Kill mites that feed on plants and animals

Microbial
pesticides

Microorganisms that kill, inhibit, or out compete

pests, including insects or other microorganisms

Molluscicides

Kill snails and slugs

Nematicides

Kill nematodes (microscopic, worm-like organisms

that feed on plant roots)

Ovicides

Kill eggs of insects and mites

Pheromones

Biochemicals used to disrupt the mating behavior

of insects

Repellents

Repel pests, including insects (such as

mosquitoes) and birds

Rodenticides

Control mice and other rodents

Insecticides
Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects. Often the word "insecticide"
is confused with the word "pesticide." It is, however, just one of many types of
pesticides. An insecticide may kill the insect by touching it or it may have to be
swallowed to be effective. Some insecticides kill both by touch and by swallowing.
Insecticides called Systemics may be absorbed, injected, or fed into the plant or
animal to be protected. When the insect feeds on this plant or animal, it ingests the
systemic chemical and is killed.
Broad Spectrum. Insecticides vary in the numbers of different kinds of insects
they kill. Some insecticides kill only a few kinds of insects. Sometimes you can
choose these insecticides when you wish to kill only one insect pest and not other
beneficial insects in the area. Many insecticides are general purpose or wide range
killers. These "broad spectrum" pesticides are used when several different kinds of
insects are a problem. One chemical can kill them all. No broad spectrum
insecticide kills all insects; each varies as to the kinds of insects it controls.
Narrow Spectrum. While many insecticides are broad spectrum, killing a wide
variety of animals by attacking a system common to all, such as the nervous
system, a new group of insecticides are much more selective. The chitin inhibitors
only affect animals with chitin in their exoskeleton (i.e. insects). Growth regulators
are even more specific. They affect certain groups of species that have a particular
hormone. Finally, pheromones are the most restrictive because they react with only
one species or one sex of a single species.
Chitin synthesis inhibitors interfere with the development and molting of
immature insects causing their death. Chitin is the primary structural chemical in
an insects body wall. An immature insect treated with a chitin inhibitor dies the
next time it attempts to molt.
Insect growth regulators or IGRs mimic the action of an insect's naturally
occurring juvenile hormone. They interfere with certain normal processes and
prevent immature insects from completing development into normal reproductive
adults. The effects of IGRs on insects include abnormal molting, twisted wings,
loss of mating behavior, and sometimes death to embryos in eggs. IGRs attack a

growth process found only in insects, thus there is a great margin of safety for
humans and other vertebrates. However, one disadvantage is that growth regulators
act slowly, since they do not kill the insect until it molts into an adult.
Pheromones are naturally produced chemicals used by animals to communicate to
each other. There are three basic types of pheromones. Aggregation pheromones
attract many individuals together, for example, a site where food may be plentiful.
Sex pheromones are used by one sex of a species to attract a mate. Trail
pheromones are deposited by walking insects, such as ants, so that others can
follow. Synthetic pheromones produced in laboratories mimic these natural
chemicals. They are used to attract pest insects into traps, disrupt mating, and
monitor populations of insects. Because they do not kill insects, they are often not
considered to be pesticides.
Short Term vs. Residual. Insecticides also vary in how long they last as a killing
agent. Some break down almost immediately into nontoxic by -products. These
"short term" chemicals are very good in situations where the insects do not return
or where long-term exposure could injure non-target plants or animals. For
example, short-term insecticides are often used in homes and dwellings where
people and domestic animals might be exposed. Other insecticides remain active
killers for a fairly long period of time. These "residual" pesticides are very useful
when the insects are a constant problem and where they will not be an
environmental and/or health hazard. For example, residuals are often used for fly
control in livestock buildings or for termite control in wooden structures.
Miticides (or Acaricides) are chemicals used to control mites (tiny Insecticides
spider-like animals) and ticks. The chemicals usually must contact the mites or
ticks to be effective. These animals are so numerous and small, that great care must
be used to completely cover the area on which the mites live. Miticides are very
similar in action to insecticides and often the same pesticide kills both insects and
mites. The terms "broad spectrum," "short term," and "residual" are also used
Fungicides
Fungicides are chemicals used to control the fungi which cause molds, rots, and
plant diseases. All fungicides work by coming in contact with the fungus, because

fungi do not "swallow" in the normal sense. Therefore, most fungicides are applied
over a large surface area to try to directly hit every fungus. Some fungicides may
be systemic in that the plant to be protected may be fed or injected with the
chemical. The chemical then moves throughout the plant, killing the fungi. to
describe miticides.
Protectant vs. Eradicant. There are two basic approaches in the use of fungicides.
One is designed to prevent the plant from getting the disease. These fungicides are
used as "protectants" and are similar in purpose to polio and smallpox vaccinations
for humans. They are applied before the disease gets a start. This type of fungicide
is very useful when a particular disease or group of diseases are likely to attack a
plant or crop, year after year. Protectants, for example, have often been used as a
routine precaution on fruit and vegetable crops.
Most protectant fungicides are fungistatic. This means they prevent or inhibit
fungal growth. Once the fungistatic action ceases, the controlled fungus may grow
again or produce spores. Thus, a protectant fungicide may have to be applied at
regular intervals to continue the protection from infection.
The other type of fungicide kills the disease after it appears on (or in) the plant.
These fungicides, called "eradicants," are like penicillin or other antibiotics
which cure diseases in humans after the sickness appears. Eradicants are less
common than protectants because once the fungus is established in a plant, it is
often difficult to destroy. Eradicants are often used when protectants aren't
available, aren't applied in time, or are too expensive. Eradicants are also applied
when the disease appears unexpectedly on a plant or in an area. For example, a
common use is on fruit and vegetables when the protectant spray wasn't applied on
time to prevent infection. Eradicants are also used by orchardists in combatting
diseases of fruit trees, such as apple scab.
Herbicides
Herbicides are chemicals used to control unwanted plants. These chemicals are a
bit different from other pesticides because they are used to kill or slow the growth
of some plants, rather than to protect them. Some herbicides kill every plant they
contact, while others kill only certain plants.

Nonselective herbicides are toxic to all plants. These are often used when no
plants are wanted in an area. For example, nonselective herbicides could be used
for clearing under guardrails or for total control of weeds in industrial areas.
Selective herbicides kill some plants with little or no injury to other plants.
Usually selective types will kill either broadleaved plants or grassy plants. These
are useful for lawns, golf courses or in areas with desirable trees. Some very
selective herbicides may kill only certain plants in a group; for example, crabgrass
killers on lawns.
Preplanting vs. Preemergence vs. Postemergence. The timing of an herbicide
application is important. Care must be used to get the job done effectively without
injuring desirable plants. The directions on the label tell you when to apply the
herbicide for best results. Preplanting treatments are made before the crop is
planted. These chemicals may be used in seed beds or incorporated into the soil
before planting.
Any treatment made before the crop and weed appears is called preemergence.
The application may be made before both the crop and weeds appear, or after the
crop appears but before the weeds appear. The label or directions will state
"preemergence to the crop," "preemergence to the weeds," or "preemergence to
both crop and weeds."
When the herbicide treatment is made after the crop or weeds appear, it is called
postemergence. Postemergence applications must be very selective. They must
control the weeds but leave the crop unharmed. Often, the chemical will be applied
postemergent to the crop but preemergent to the weeds.
Growth Regulators and Harvest Aids
A plant growth regulator (or plant regulator) increases, decreases or changes
normal growth or reproduction in a plant. Fertilizers and other nutrients are not
included. Some growth regulators are used to move up or move back the normal
harvest date for the crop. Others are used to obtain better quality and/or yield of the
crop. Electric power utilities could use growth regulators to slow the growth of a
tree threatening power lines, thus saving the tree from being cut.

Defoliants and desiccants are pesticide materials generally referred to as harvest

aids. A defoliant causes the leaves of a plant to drop off early, but does not kill the
plant. A desiccant draws moisture from a plant, killing the plant foliage.
Rodenticides
Rodenticides are chemicals used to control rats, mice, bats and other rodents.
Chemicals which control other mammals, birds, and fish are also grouped in this
category by regulatory agencies. Most rodenticides are stomach poisons and are
often applied as baits. Even rodenticides which act by contacting the pest are
usually not applied over large surfaces because of the hazard to domestic animals
or desirable wildlife. They are usually applied in limited areas such as runways,
known feeding places, or as baits.
Nematicides Molluscicides Repellents
Nematicides are chemicals used to control nematodes. Nematodes are tiny hir-like
worms, many of which live in the soil and feed on plant roots. Very few of these
worms live above ground. Usually, soil fumigants are used to control nematodes in
the soil. (See section on fumigants in Module XV.) However, a few contact
insecticides and fungicides are also effective against these tiny worms.
Molluscicides are chemicals used to control snails and slugs. Usually the
chemicals must be eaten by the pest to work. Baits are often used to attract and kill
snails or slugs in an area.
A repellent is a pesticide that makes a site or food unattractive to a target pest.
They are registered in the same way other pesticides are and must be used
according to the label. Insect repellents are available as aerosols and lotions and
can be applied to skin, clothing, or plants to repel biting and nuisance insects.
Vertebrate repellents are available as concentrates to be mixed with water,
powders, and granules. They can be sprayed or painted on nursery crops,
ornamental plantings, orchards, vineyards, vegetables, and seeds. Repelling deer,
dogs, birds, raccoons, and others can protect sites from damage.
Pesticides: Chemical & Physical Characteristics

Understanding the chemical and physical characteristics of a pesticide allows the

applicator to make better decisions about which pesticide active ingredient and/or
formulation to use for a particular situation. Two chemical characteristics of
interest are water solubility and volatility. The more water soluble a pesticide is,
the greater the potential for runoff and leaching. The more volatile a pesticide is,
the greater the potential for drift.
When a pesticide is highly water soluble the pesticide remains dissolved in the
water as it moves around in the environment. Less water soluble pesticides deposit
in the soil or on plants more quickly and are less likely to move around in the
environment. Because highly water soluble pesticides tend to move around in the
environment, they are more likely to contaminate nearby rivers, lakes, streams,
wells, and storm sewers, especially following heavy rainfall or excessive irrigation.
If soils are sandy or if ground water tables are close to the surface, highly water
soluble pesticides are not a good choice for use in these areas. This is because the
dissolved pesticide has a greater chance of moving into groundwater.
The physical form of a pesticide or pesticide formulation can also travel
throughout the environment. Pesticides formulated as granules, for instance, can be
easily carried by wind or water into undesirable areas.
EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE
Air
Pesticides can contribute to air pollution. Pesticide drift occurs
when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by
wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides
that are applied to crops can volatilize and may be blown by
winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife.
Weather conditions at the time of application as well as
temperature and relative humidity change the spread of the
pesticide in the air. As wind velocity increases so does the spray
drift and exposure. Low relative humidity and high temperature
result in more spray evaporating. The amount of inhalable
pesticides in the outdoor environment is therefore often

dependent on the season. Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or

particles from pesticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind
to other areas,] or pesticides may adhere to particles that blow in
the wind, such as dust particles.Ground spraying produces less
pesticide drift than aerial spraying does.
Water
In the United States, pesticides were found to pollute every
stream and over 90% of wells sampled in a study by the US
Geological Survey.Pesticide residues have also been found in rain
and groundwaterStudies by the UK government showed that
pesticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking
water in some samples of river water and groundwater. [Pesticide
impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology
transport model to study movement and fate of chemicals in
rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of
pesticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of
pesticide that would reach surface waters.There are four major
routes through which pesticides reach the water: it may drift
outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate,
or leach, through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff,
or it may be spilled, for example accidentally or through neglect.
Soil
The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the
chemicals results in higher soil quality with the additional effect that more organic
matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for
farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than
their conventional counterparts A smaller content of organic matter in the soil
increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area of application, because
organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides.
Degradation and sorption are both factors which influence the persistence of
pesticides in soil.
Effect on plants

Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher

plants, is hindered by pesticides in soilThe insecticides DDT,
methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been
shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical
signaling.Pesticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in
pollinator decline, the loss of species that pollinate plants,
including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder,On
the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on
plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and
reduced plant growth
Effect on animals
Pesticides can eliminate some animals' essential food sources,
causing the animals to relocate, change their diet or starve.
Residues can travel up the food chain; for example, birds can be
harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed
pesticides. Earthworms digest organic matter and increase
nutrient content in the top layer of soil. They protect human
health by ingesting decomposing litter and serving as bioindicators of soil activity. Pesticides have had harmful effects on
growth and reproduction on earthworms. Some pesticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms
that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts
species high on the food chain especially hard.
Laws regulating the manufacture and the use of pesticides
The Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), or H.R.1627The FQPA standardized
the way the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would manage the use of
pesticides and amended the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
and the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act. It mandated a health-based standard
for pesticides used in foods, provided special protections for babies and infants,
streamlined the approval of safe pesticides, established incentives for the creation
of safer pesticides, and required that pesticide registrations remain current. The
FQPA required the re-testing of all existing pesticide tolerance levels within 10

years. When assessing this risk the EPA is required to take into account the
aggregate risk (the exposure to a pesticide from multiple sources) and the
cumulative exposure to pesticides with similar mechanisms of toxicity. To do
this the EPA is required to establish new science polices to assess the risks. The
FQPA requires the EPA to set tolerances for pesticide uses that fall under section 18
of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (emergency
exemptions). The FQPA mandates that the EPA expedite the approval of reduced
risk pesticides. To be considered reduced risk pesticides must have a proven lowimpact on human health, have low toxicity to non-target organisms and have a low
potential to contaminate groundwater. The FQPA requires the EPA to give special
consideration to pesticides used on products that have less than 300,000 acres of
total U.S. production or products that do not have enough economic incentive to
either support an initial registration or a continuing registration. The FQPA requires
the EPA to establish a list of pests that are considered significant to public health
and to give special consideration to pesticides with public health uses. The EPA is
also required to provide maintenance fee waivers to and encourage the safe and
necessary use of methods/pesticides that either combat or control pests that have
been deemed of public health importance. The EPA also provides waiver fees for
the pesticides used on pests that are deemed of public health importance.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes
USEPA) is an agency of the U.S. federal government which was created for the
purpose of protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing
regulations based on laws passed by Congress. EPA administers the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (which is much older than the
agency) and registers all pesticides legally sold in the United States.
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) is a United States
law, passed by the United States Congress in 1976 and
administered by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, that regulates the introduction of new or already existing
chemicals. Its three main objectives are to assess and regulate
new commercial chemicals before their entrance into the market,
to regulate chemicals (which were already existing in 1976) that
posed an "unreasonable risk to health or to the environment", and

to regulate these chemicals' distribution and use. However, as

explained below, the TSCA specifically regulates polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCB) products. The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976
mandated the EPA to protect the public from "unreasonable risk of
injury to health or the environment" by regulating the
manufacture and sale of chemicals. This act does not address
wastes produced as by product of manufacturing, as did the Clean
Water and Air Acts of the era. Instead, this act attempted to exert
direct government control over which types of chemicals could
and could not be used in actual use and production
Integrated pest management and other alternatives to insecticide dependence
Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as Integrated Pest Control
(IPC) is a broad-based approach that integrates practices for economic control of
pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury level
(EIL). The UN's Food and Agriculture Organisation defines IPM as "the careful
consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of
appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and
keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and
reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes
the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems
and encourages natural pest control mechanisms. Entomologists and ecologists
have urged the adoption of IPM pest control since the 1970s. IPM allows for safer
pest control. This includes managing insects, plant pathogens and weeds. IPM
extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests and was expanded
to include all tactics. Controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated
control, but these now had to be compatible with tactics for all classes of pests.
Other tactics, such as host-plant resistance and cultural manipulations, became part
of the IPM framework. IPM combined entomologists, plant pathologists,
nematologists and weed scientists. IPM is used in agriculture, horticulture, human
habitations, preventive conservation and general pest control, including structural
pest management, turf pest management and ornamental pest management.
Principles

An American IPM system is designed around six basic components:

Acceptable pest levelsThe emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM
holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the
attempt can be expensive and unsafe. IPM programmes first work to
establish acceptable pest levels, called action thresholds, and apply controls
if those thresholds are crossed. These thresholds are pest and site specific,
meaning that it may be acceptable at one site to have a weed such as white
clover, but not at another site. Allowing a pest population to survive at a
reasonable threshold reduces selection pressure. This lowers the rate at
which a pest develops resistance to a control, because if almost all pests are
killed then those that have resistance will provide the genetic basis of the
future population. Retaining a significant number unresistant specimens
dilutes the prevalence of any resistant genes that appear. Similarly, the
repeated use of a single class of controls will create pest populations that are
more resistant to that class, whereas alternating among classes helps prevent
this.
Preventive cultural practicesSelecting varieties best for local growing
conditions and maintaining healthy crops is the first line of defense. Plant
quarantine and 'cultural techniques' such as crop sanitation are next, e.g., removal
of diseased plants, and cleaning pruning shears to prevent spread of infections.
Beneficial fungi and bacteria are added to the potting media of horticultural crops
vulnerable to root diseases, greatly reducing the need for fungicides.
MonitoringRegular observation is critically important. Observation is broken
into inspection and identification. Visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and
other methods are used to monitor pest levels. Record-keeping is essential, as is a
thorough knowledge target pest behaviour and reproductive cycles. Since insects
are cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on area temperatures.
Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree-days.
The degree days of an environment determines the optimal time for a specific
insect outbreak. Plant pathogens follow similar patterns of response to weather and
season.
Mechanical controlsShould a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical
methods are the first options. They include simple hand-picking, barriers, traps,
vacuuming and tillage to disrupt breeding.
Biological controlsNatural biological processes and materials can provide
control, with acceptable environmental impact, and often at lower cost. The main
approach is to promote beneficial insects that eat or parasitize target pests.
Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g.

Bt, entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fall in this

category. Further 'biology-based' or 'ecological' techniques are under evaluation.
Responsible useSynthetic pesticides are used as required and often only at
specific times in a pest's life cycle. Many newer pesticides are derived from plants
or naturally occurring substances (e.g.nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile
hormone analogues), but the toxophore or active component may be altered to
provide increased biological activity or stability. Applications of pesticides must
reach their intended targets. Matching the application technique to the crop, the
pest, and the pesticide is critical. The use of low-volume spray equipment reduces
overall pesticide use and labor cost.
Some elements of integrated pest management
Sterile-male technique
A direct method aimed at decreasing the reproduction of pest
species. One of the early uses of this was during the 1950s
against the screwworm fly which attacks cattle. The release of
Radiation-sterilized male to mate with a female fly results in
infertile eggs. This plan works as the female fly mates just once,
whether or not they are fertilized.
Pheromones and juvenile hormones
Sex attractant pheromones can be used to draw insects into trap,
disorient insect or otherwise decrease their reproduction.
Pheromones are most effective in low-density population. They
are also useful in monitoring infected areas: the extent of
infestation can be determined on the basis of the number of
insects trapped over a specific period of time. Juvenile
Hormones are substances produced by insects that maintain
them in an immature state. Chemicals that have the similar
effects can prevent insects from reaching sexual maturity and
reproducing. The chief advantage of hormone approach is its
species specificity.
Biological and natural enemies

Both bacteria and viruses have also been successfully used to

control specific pests, Bacteria have been used to control the
Japanese beetles.
Resistance management
>Because it is multifaceted approach to the control of pests, IPM
should diminish the resistance in pest species. Resistance
Management refers to any attempts to prevents, delay or reverse
the evolution of resistance through various ecological and
chemical techniques. The development of resistance is costly in
terms of crop loss, increasing volumes of pesticide applied, and
the use of new, more expensive pesticides to replace those no
longer usable. Biotechnology is expected to play a significant role
in resistance management, since genes for resistance or
susceptibility can be altered. The use of nonchemical control
methods should certainly be considered as promising alternative
in pesticide resistance management.
Low input sustainable agriculture
This approach to farming minimizes the use of synthetic chemical
fertilizers and pesticides and focuses on practices that will
maintain the ability of the land to grow crops for an unlimited
period of time. Thus erosion control and good irrigation practices
are part of the said program. The actual methods used depend on
the characteristics of the specific farm and the crops to be grown
but includes such practices.
(KEY CONCEPTS) ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL: Is a term used to
designate a number of techniques that alter the biotic and abiotic
conditions in crops making them inhospitable to pests.
Increasing crop diversity: heteroculture and crop
rotating
Altering plants and soil nutrients
Controlling adjacent crops and weeds

 Altering the time of planting

Biological controls: Introducing predators, parasites
and disease organisms.
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Reducing the use of Second generation pesticides
PESTICIDE BANS AND RESTRICTIONS

AGENT ORANGE
MIREX AND FIRE ANTS
EDB ETHYLENE DIBROMIDE
WOOD PRESERVATIVES

Pesticide Characteristics
Solubility
Solubility is a measure of the ability of a pesticide to dissolve in a solvent, which is
usually water. Pesticides that are highly soluble in water dissolve easily. Such
pesticides are more likely to move with water in surface runoff or to move through
the soil in water than less-soluble pesticides.
Adsorption
Adsorption is the process whereby a pesticide binds to soil colloids, which are
microscopic inorganic and organic particles in the soil. Colloid is derived from the
Greek term meaning glue-like. These particles have an extremely large surface area
in proportion to a given volume. It has been calculated that 1 cubic inch of
colloidal clay may have 200500 square feet of particle surface area.
Adsorption occurs because of an attraction between the chemical and soil particles.
Typically, oil-soluble pesticides are more attracted to clay particles and to organic
matter in soil than water-soluble pesticides. Pesticide molecules with positive
charges are more tightly adsorbed to negatively charged soil particles. A pesticide
that adsorbs to soil particles is less likely to move from the application site than a
chemical that does not adsorb tightly to the soil.

Persistence
Persistence is the ability of a pesticide to remain present and active in its original
form during an extended period before degrading. A chemical's persistence is
described in terms of its half-life, which is a comparative measure of the time
needed for the chemical to degrade. The longer a pesticide's half-life, the more
persistent the pesticide. Persistent pesticide residues are sometimes desirable
because they provide long-term pest control and reduce the need for repeated
applications. However, some persistent pesticides applied to soil, plants, lumber,
and other surfaces or spilled into water or on soil can later harm sensitive plants or
animals, including humans. It is especially important to prevent persistent
pesticides from moving off-site through improper handling, application, drift,
leaching, or runoff.
Application of persistent pesticides presents a hazard to persons
and non-target animals entering a treated area and may lead to
the presence of illegal residues on rotational food or feed crops.
Check the label for statements about the persistence of the
pesticide and for replanting restrictions. The rate of pesticide
degradation relates to the persistence of the pesticide.
Volatility
Volatility is the tendency of a pesticide to turn into a gas or vapor. Some pesticides
are more volatile than others. The likelihood of pesticide volatilization increases as
temperatures and wind increase. Volatility is also more likely under conditions of
low relative humidity.
The potential for a pesticide to volatilize is measured by its vapor pressure. This
measurement may be described in units of Pa (Pascals) or mmHg (millimeters of
mercury). Pesticides that have high vapor-pressure values are more volatile. Vapors
from such pesticides can move off-site and cause injury to susceptible plants. Some
volatile pesticide products carry label statements that warn handlers of the
product's potential for vapor movement
Pesticide Safety

Since pesticides are poisons designed to destroy pest species, there are many
hazards associated with their use. Pesticides can harm humans in different ways.
Exposure to pesticides can be through the skin, mouth, eyes or lungs. Hazards to
nontarget organisms and environmental contamination also are important concerns.
All pesticides should be handled with care to avoid unnecessary exposure.
The label is designed to ensure safe use, so be sure to always read
understand and follow all label instructions.
Use pesticides only when they are necessary.
Use the protective equipment indicated on the label and make sure that this
equipment is clean and in proper working order.
Make sure that application equipment is properly calibrated and in good
working order.
Take precautions to avoid unnecessary drift during application.
Use pesticides that have low volatility.
Use formulations that resist drift and volatility.
Use low pressures during spraying.
Use nozzles which reduce formation of small spray particles.
Use high water volumes during application.
Apply pesticides close to the crop or soil surface.
Avoid applying pesticides when the temperature is high.
Avoid applying pesticides during windy conditions.
Use drift-reducing adjuvants.
Take precautions to avoid contamination of surface and groundwater.

 Store pesticides properly, in accordance with federal, state and local

pesticide laws and regulations.
Dispose of empty pesticide containers promptly, safely, and according to the
label.
Know the proper procedures for controlling, containing, and cleaning up
accidental pesticide spills.
Know the symptoms of pesticide poisoning.
Seek medical attention immediately if poisoning is suspected. Take the
pesticide label to the physician.
Know first aid procedures for pesticide poisoning and keep a first aid kit
available.
Managing Pesticide Resistance
By: Frank B. Peairs
Resistance is a naturally existing characteristic that can be inherited, that increases
a pests ability to withstand the effects of the pesticide. Pesticide resistance is a
growing problem. Nearly 450 species of insects and mites have developed
resistance to one or more insecticides, including carbamates and organophosphates.
More than 55 resistant weed species have been reported in the United States. Many
systemic and some contact fungicides are prone to resistance because they attack
fungi with a specific mode of action. Among the fungicides considered candidates
for resistance are: bensimidaoles (Benlate, Tersan, Topsin M), phenylamides
(Ridomil), dicarboximides (Rovral, Ronilan), and sterol inhibitors (Rubigan
Bayleton, Tilt).
Rotate the mode of action of pesticides used in the field.
Use pesticides only when necessary.
Scout for resistance.
Utilize integrated pest management.

Eliminating pesticides
Many alternatives are available to reduce the effects pesticides have on the
environment. Alternatives include manual removal, applying heat, covering weeds
with plastic, placing traps and lures, removing pest breeding sites, maintaining
healthy soils that breed healthy, more resistant plants, cropping native species that
are naturally more resistant to native pests and supporting biocontrol agents such
as birds and other pest predators. Biological controls such as resistant plant
varieties and the use of pheromones, have been successful and at times
permanently resolve a pest problem. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) employs
chemical use only when other alternatives are ineffective. IPM causes less harm to
humans and the environment. The focus is broader than on a specific pest,
considering a range of pest control alternatives. Biotechnology can also be an
innovative way to control pests. Strains can be genetically modified (GM) to
increase their resistance to pests.