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STUDY QUESTIONS FOR 1st EXAM

Short Answers (identification) terms (write 4-5 lines, allow 4 minutes for each)
Agricultural
Revolution - n is a period of transition from the pre-agricultural period characterized by a
Paleolithic diet, into an agricultural period characterized by a diet of cultivated foods; or a further
transition from a living form of agriculture into a more advanced and more productive form of
agriculture, resulting in further social changes, and some argue worse individual living
conditions This transition everywhere seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic
hunter-gatherer way of life to a more settled, agrarian-based one, with the inception of the
domestication of various plant and animal speciesdepending on the species locally available,
and probably also influenced by local culture.
Ahuramazda & Ahriman these were two different entities for the religion of Zoroaster. The
Iranian god Ahuramazda embodied good and truth. While Ahriman was Ahuramazdas opposition
who was a hateful spirit who stood for evil and lies. These two were locked together in a cosmic
battle for the human race, a battle that stretched over thousands of years.
Akhenaten - known before the fifth year of his reign as Amenhotep IV (sometimes given its
Greek form, Amenophis IV, and meaning Amun is Satisfied), was a pharaoh of the Eighteenth
dynasty of Egypt who ruled for 17 years and died perhaps in 1336 BC or 1334 BC. He is
especially noted for abandoning traditional Egyptian polytheism and introducing worship
centered on the Aten, which is sometimes described as monotheistic or henotheistic. An early
inscription likens the Aten to the sun as compared to stars, and later official language avoids
calling the Aten a god, giving the solar deity a status above mere gods.
Akhenaten tried to bring about a departure from traditional religion, yet in the end it would not
be accepted. After his death, traditional religious practice was gradually restored
Amon-Re (Amon-Ra) - Among all the multitude of Egyptian deities, the Egypt god Amon-Re
was considered to be the king of the gods. While most Egyptian gods were 'born' at various
points in the history of the Egyptian nation and many floated in and out of popularity, the Egypt
god Amon-Re appears to have been present in the mythology and culture of the Egyptian people
almost from the very inception of this complex and mysterious nation. Amun-Ra in this period
(16th to 11th centuries BC) held the position of transcendental, self-created[2]creator deity "par
excellence", he was the champion of the poor or troubled and central to personal piety.[3] His
position as King of Gods developed to the point of virtual monotheism where other gods became
manifestations of him. With Osiris, Amun-Ra is the most widely recorded of the Egyptian gods.
Archaic Age - The Archaic Period in Greece refers to the years between 750 and 480
B.C., more particularly from 620 to 480 B.C. The age is defined through the
development of art at this time, specifically through the style of pottery and sculpture,
showing the specific characteristics that would later be developed into the more
naturalistic style of the Classical period. The Archaic is one of five periods that Ancient
Greek history can be divided into; it was preceded by the Dark Ages and followed by the
Classical period. The Archaic period saw advancements in political theory, especially
the beginnings of democracy, as well as in culture and art.

Bantu -70 million people living south of the congo river speak this language. Because very few
muslims and Europeans penetrated into the interior very few written sources for the early history
of this area were documented. This language did not have much of a written language so
everything was through word of mouth. Thus leaving the chances of recorded history to be found
almost absolete.
Babylonian Captivity religious rift in Solomons kingdoms after his death. North is Israel and
South is Judah, Israel established rival sanctuaries for gods other than Yahweh. Although the
Asyrians wiped out
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Israel, Judah remained until the Babylonians cames through and wiped Judah out. The survivors
were sent into exile in Babylonia. In 538 BCE, the Persian King, Cyrus the Great, permitted
some 40k exiles to return to jeruselum. During this time the exiles redefined their beliefs and
practices, there by establishing what they believed in the law of Yahweh. Those who lived by
these precepts came to be called the jews
Coptic - are the native Christians of Egypt and the largest Christian denomination in the country.
Christianity was the religion of the vast majority of Egyptians from 400800 A.D. and the
majority after the Muslim conquest until the mid-10th century [13] and remains the faith of a
significant minority population. Historically they spoke the Coptic language, a direct descendant
of the Demotic Egyptianspoken in the Roman era, but it has been near-extinct and mostly limited
to liturgical use since the 18th century. They now speakArabic.
Copts in Egypt constitute the largest Christian community in the Middle East, as well as the
largest religious minority in the region, accounting for an estimated 10% of the Egyptian
population.[14] Most Copts adhere to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Cuneiform - is one of the earliest known systems of writing,[1] distinguished by its wedgeshaped marks on clay tablets, made by means of a blunt reed for a stylus. The name
cuneiform itself simply means "wedge shaped", from the Latin cuneus "wedge" and
forma "shape," and came into English usage probably from Old French cuniforme
Delian League - founded in 478 BC, was an association of Greek city-states, members
numbering between 150 to 173, under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to
continue fighting the Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plataea at
the end of the Second Persian invasion of Greece. , Athens began to use the League's
navy for its own purposes. This behavior frequently led to conflict between Athens and
the less powerful members of the League. By 431 BC, Athens' heavy-handed control of
the Delian League prompted the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War; the League was
dissolved upon the war's conclusion in 404 BC
hoplite phalanx - These were soldiers from the greek empire. These were spartans who were
supposed to stand and die rather than retreat. Retreating was considered a cowards way out of
war. These soliders were heavily armed infantrymen, they were urged to come back with their
shields on the backs or to be carried back on their shields.

Hittites The hitties were from 1650-1200 BCE. They had settled in anatolia which is modern
day turkey.they became a major power in the region and began to expand east and south. The
hitties were an indo european people. The hitties were known for many things but one things that
does stand out is that they stopped the egyptian army of Rameses II, at the battle of kadesh in
Syria. Having fought to standstills, they made peace. But they eventually became allies.
Homer - is best known as the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He was believed by the
ancient Greeks to have been the first and greatest of the epic poets. Author of the first known
literature of Europe, he had a lasting effect on the Western canon. The importance of Homer to
the ancient Greeks is described in Plato's "Republic", which portrays him as the protos
didaskalos, "first teacher", of the tragedians, the hegemon paideias, "leader of Greek culture",
and the ten Hellada pepaideukon, "teacher of [all] Greece".[3] Homer's works, which are about
fifty percent speeches,[4] provided models in persuasive speaking and writing that were
emulated throughout the ancient and medieval Greek worlds.[5] Fragments of Homer account for
nearly half of all identifiable Greek literary papyrus finds in Egypt.[6]
Helots - were a subjugated population group that formed the main population of Laconia and
Messenia (areas ruled by Sparta). Their exact status was already disputed in antiquity:
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according to Critias, they were "slaves to the utmost",[1] whereas according to Pollux, they
occupied a status "between free men and slaves".[2] Tied to the land, they worked in agriculture
as a majority and economically supported the Spartan citizens. They were ritually mistreated,
humiliated and even slaughtered: every autumn, they could be killed by a member of the
Crypteia without fear of repercussion
Hammurabi's Code - is a well-preserved Babylonian law code of ancient Mesopotamia, dating
back to about 1754 BC. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the
world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a
human-sized stone stele and various clay tablets. The Code consists of 282 laws, with scaled
punishments, adjusting "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (lex talionis)[1] as graded
depending on social status, of slave versus free man.[2]Nearly one-half of the Code deals with
matters of contract, establishing, for example, the wages to be paid to an ox driver or a surgeon.
Other provisions set the terms of a transaction, establishing the liability of a builder for a house
that collapses, for example, or property that is damaged while left in the care of another. A third
of the code addresses issues concerning household and family relationships such as inheritance,
divorce, paternity and sexual behavior. Only one provision appears to impose obligations on an
official; this provision establishes that a judge who reaches an incorrect decision is to be fined
and removed from the bench permanently.[3] A handful of provisions address issues related to
military service.
Marathon - took place in 490 BC, during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought
between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and
Artaphernes. The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I,
to subjugateGreece. The Greek army decisively defeated the more numerous Persians, marking a
turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars.

Maat- was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat
was also personified as agoddess regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals
and the deities, who set the order of the universe from chaosat the moment of creation. Her
ideological counterpart was Isfet.
The earliest surviving records indicating that Maat is the norm for nature and society, in this
world and the next, were recorded during the Old Kingdom, the earliest substantial surviving
examples being found in the Pyramid Texts of Unas (ca. 2375 BCE and 2345 BCE).[1]
Later, as a goddess in other traditions of the Egyptian pantheon, where most goddesses were
paired with a male aspect, her masculine counterpart was Thoth and their attributes are the
similar. In other accounts, Thoth was paired off with Seshat, goddess of writing and measure,
who is a lesser known deity.
Mesopotamia - "land of rivers") is a name for the area of the TigrisEuphrates river system,
corresponding to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, the northeastern section of Syria and to a much lesser
extent southeasternTurkey and smaller parts of southwestern Iran.
Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization by the Western world, Bronze Age
Mesopotamia included Sumer and theAkkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires, all native to
the territory of modern-day Iraq. In the Iron Age, it was controlled by the Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian empires. The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and
Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the
fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It fell to
Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.
Mitraism - were a mystery religion practiced in the Roman Empire from about the 1st to 4th
centuries AD. The name of thePersian god Mithra (proto-Indo-Iranian Mitra), adapted into Greek
as Mithras, was linked to a new and distinctive imagery. Writers of the Roman Empire period
referred to this mystery religion by phrases which can be anglicized as Mysteries of Mithras or
Mysteries of the Persians;[1][2] modern historians refer to it as Mithraism,[1] or sometimes
Roman Mithraism.[3][4] The mysteries were popular in theRoman military.[5]
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Worshippers of Mithras had a complex system of seven grades of initiation, with ritual meals.
Initiates called themselves syndexioi, those "united by the handshake".[6] They met in
underground temples (called mithraea), which survive in large numbers. The cult appears to have
had its centre in Rome.[7]
Numerous archeological finds, including meeting places, monuments, and artifacts, have
contributed to modern knowledge about Mithraism throughout the Roman Empire.[8] The iconic
scenes of Mithras show him being born from a rock, slaughtering a bull, and sharing a banquet
with the god Sol (the Sun). About 420 sites have yielded materials related to the cult.
Neolithic Age - New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology,
beginning about 10,200 BC, according to the ASPRO chronology, in some parts of the Middle
East, and later in other parts of the world[2] and ending between 4,500 and 2,000 BC.
Traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age, the Neolithic followed the terminal
Holocene Epipaleolithic period and commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced
the "Neolithic Revolution". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or
Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age). The Neolithic is a progression of

behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops
and of domesticated animals
Ostrakon - is a piece of pottery (or stone), usually broken off from a vase or other
earthenware vessel. In archaeology, ostraca may contain scratched-in words or other
forms of writing which may give clues as to the time when the piece was in use. In
Athens, the voting public would write or scratch the name of a person in the shard of
pottery. When the decision at hand was to banish or exile a certain member of society,
citizen peers would cast their vote by writing the name of the person on the piece of
pottery; the vote was counted and if unfavorable the person was exiled for a period of
ten years from the city, thus giving rise to the term ostracism.
Parthenon - is a former temple on theAthenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the goddess
Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron. Construction began in 447 BC when
the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It was completed in 438 BC although
decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of
Classical Greece, generally considered the zenith of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are
considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring
symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy and western civilization,[3] and one of the
world's greatest cultural monuments.
Polis the greeks developed these city states. More than a political institution, the polis was a
community of citizens with their own customs and laws. Even though the physical, religious, and
political form of the polis varied from place to place, it was the very badge of greekness. The
polis included the town and its surrounding countryside. The city contained a point, usually
elevated, called the acropolis, and a public square or marketplace, the agora.
Swahili - are an ethnic and cultural group inhabiting the African Great Lakes region. Members
mainly reside on the Swahili Coast, in an area encompassing the Zanzibar archipelago, coastal
Kenya, the Tanzania seaboard, and northern Mozambique. The name Swahili is derived from the
Arabic word Sawahil eht kaeps ilihawS ehT ."stsaoc" gninaem , Swahili language, which
belongs to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo family.
Sophists - was a specific kind of teacher in both Ancient Greece and in the Roman Empire.
Many sophists specialized in using the tools ofphilosophy and rhetoric, though other sophists
taught subjects such as music,
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athletics, and mathematics. In general, they claimed to teach arete ("excellence" or "virtue,"
applied to various subject areas), predominantly to young statesmen and nobility. There are not
many writings from and about the first sophists. The early sophists' practice of charging money
for education and providing wisdom only to those who could pay, resulted in the condemnations
made by Socrates through Plato in his Dialogues, as well as by Xenophonin Memorabilia and
Aristotle.
Sumer - site of the earliest known civilization, located in the southernmost part of
Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, in the area that later became

Babylonia and is now southern Iraq from around Baghdad to the Persian Gulf. They
were in this area because of a milder climate, in between two water sources, which also
acted as psuedo barriers. The top soil near the two rivers provided excellent agriculture.
Timbuktu - Desert port cities such as Jenne, Gao, and later Timbuktu, enjoyed tremendous
prosperity, held many beautiful houses, became centers for culture, housed many universities and
colleges, Islamic mosques, and exciting bazars. The Trans-Saharan trade exported: gold, ivory,
cola, gum, and slaves, and imported: manufactured goods, silk, cotton, dates, and salt. where it
became the center of Islamic scholarship with 150 schools, center of great architecture, and
sciences such as astronomy. During the time of Mansa Musa, the Islamic religious increased but
most ordinary people held on to their ancestral religions.
Trans-Saharan trade this refers to the north south trade across the sahara desert in Africa.
The sahara desert is almost treated as a sea because of how vast, dangerous and immobile it was
at the time due to the lack of transportation, The camel had an impact on this trade comparable to
the very important impact of the horse on European agriculture. People agree that the camel was
introduced to this area before 200 C.E, camels were able to carry 500 pounds of materials and as
far as 25 miles per day, could go days without water because they were able to survive on the
water in their stomachs.
Essay Topics. (Write 150-200 words, allow 20 minutes for each)
1- Discuss the origin of human civilization from Paleolithic Age to the Iron Age. What were
the main turning points? Where did the first civilizations appeared? What factors
(including environmental) might have contributed to the rise of the first civilizations? How
would you define "civilization" as opposed to mere human settlement?
The earliest findings from our species are some small statuettes dating to about 25,000 B.C. They
are all female figures with large hips and breasts collectively called Venus of Willendurf. (See
PowerPoint.) Why do you think these statuettes were made? Were they decorative figures? Were
they toys for their children? Were they sex enhancement objects?
Well, from what we can speculate, their function was none of the above. These objects had
religious significance and were goddesses. The female body produces life; women nourish and
sustain life.
Moving in time to around 13,000 B.C., we find some extraordinary archeological findings in a
major cave network in Lascaux in southern France. There we have some beautiful cave
paintings (see the PowerPoint). In these huge and dark caves, we have discovered large
paintings, images of wild animals such as horses, bulls, oxen, and other hunt animals, some
showing arrows going into their bodies
This was a major step in the development of human society, and by far the most dramatic change
came with the formation of political systems; social stratification (creation of social classes); the
beginning of the first writing system; and, as the name of this age implies, the first use of metal,
bronze, for tools and weapons. Ironically, the first civilizations appeared in the least likely
places, where in general there was little rain or natural vegetation growth.

3- Discuss the rise and development of Assyrians, Neo-Babylonians, and Phoenicians

civilization. How did each of these civilization permanently impact the development of the
subsequent human civilization? What role did the Persians Play? In your answer pay
particular attention the fate of Israelites and development of language.
The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the
Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and
very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the
splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a
style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone or
alabster, and originally painted, for palaces. The precisely delineated reliefs concern
royal affairs, chiefly hunting and war making. A year after the death of the last strong
Assyrian ruler, Assurbanipal, in 627 BC, the Assyrian empire spiralled into a series of
brutal civil wars. Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar, a member of the Chaldean
tribe which had migrated from The Levant to south eastern Babylonia in the early 9th
century BC. The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed c.
1200800 BC. Archaeological evidence consistent with this understanding has been
difficult to identify. A unique concentration in Phoenicia of silver hoards dated between
1200 and 800 BC, however, contains Hacksilber objects that have lead isotope ratios
matching ores in Sardinia and Spain. The persians played a big role in the destruction
of the phoenician empire. Cyrus the Great conquered Phoenicia in 539 BC. The
Persians divided Phoenicia into four vassal kingdoms: Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, andByblos.
They prospered, furnishing fleets for the Persian kings. Phoenician influence declined
after this In the 7th century Jerusalem grew to contain a population many times greater
than earlier and achieved clear dominance over its neighbours.[40] This occurred at the
same time that Israel was being destroyed by Assyria, and was probably the result of a
cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as an Assyrian vassal
controlling the valuable olive industry.[40] Judah prospered as an Assyrian vassal state
(despite a disastrous rebellion against Sennacherib), but in the last half of the 7th
century BCE Assyria suddenly collapsed, and the ensuing competition between the
Egyptian and Neo-Babylonian empires for control of the land led to the destruction of
Judah in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582
5- Discuss political, economical, and cultural developments in the three distinct regions of
Africa (West African kingdoms, Ethiopian kingdom, and East African City-states). How
did the environment influence these developments? How did religion impact the social
structures? Explain the difference between Coptic Christianity of Ethiopia and Western
Christianity.
The environment played a key role in the development of the different nations in multiple ways.
First since Africa is such a large continent, there was not much East-West movement. Majority
of the movement in the continent was more of the North South movement. But what difficulty
presents itself when you move North South. The constant and different change in the flow of
weather made it impossible for one group of people to move another area to be prepared to live
in that area. You also had to deal with the Sahara desert as well.
The Kingdoms of Ghana and Mali (Islamic) in the savanna (between sahara and tropical)
region west, and the Ethiopian Kingdom (Christian) in the dry mountain forest in the east. In
addition, we will discuss two other unique and very different civilizations, the very advance,

wealthy, and sophisticated Swahili decentralized city-states (I hope you still remember what it
mean from Sumerians and the Greeks!) in east cost of Africa (present day Somalia) and
Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the most southern region of African on the dry mountain forest
region.
monophysites are the sub-denomination within the Greek Orthodox Church, and their views and
their culture is very different from the Catholic Church, and of course, much later appearing,
Protestant Churches. monophysitism asserted that in the person of Jesus Christ there
was only one, divine nature rather than two natures, divine and human, as asserted at
the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
6-What elements contributed to the success of the Persian Empire established by Cyrus the
Great. What where some of the main features of this empire? Discuss the possible impact of
Persian Religion (Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism) on Judaism and Christianity.
who created a true empire, one that was the largest, longest lasting, and most powerful of its
time. In many ways he was very different from all other previous leaders. He is known as an
enlightened leader because he had a new vision that was very advanced for his time. Unlike all
his predecessors in the region, he did a shocking thing by not massacring conquered people,
destroying their temples, and taking their women and children into slavery. Even more shocking,
when Cyrus took over Babylon, not only he did not destroy the Babylonians temples, he went
inside and prayed alongside them, much to his religious advisors surprise.
That degree of tolerance of other cultures opened the door for his easy conquest of many people,
from India in the east to Greece in the west; people who were fed up with violence or fear of
violence easily embraced his rule. That is the secret of his success: initiating 200 years of peace,
prosperity, and security in the region, an era known as Pax Persia.
He managed to have his name in the Old Testament as a prophet to the Jews by liberating the
Jews from Babylonian captivity and even helping to rebuild the temple for them. Of course, after
50 years or so in a foreign land, many Jews decided to stay in Babylon. The Middle Eastern/
Iraqi Jews of today are probably the descendants of the original Jews from the Babylonian
captivityprobably more so than the Jews with blue eyes and light hair who are from Eastern
European ethnic backgrounds. Cyrus divided the huge Persian Empire into 10 satrapies (states or
mini kingdoms) and called himself Shahanshah (the King of the kings). To rapidly and
effectively connect this vast empire, he created the equivalent of the pony express used in early
America. Thousands of stations with horses ready to go were spread throughout the empire to
take messages around in a relatively short span of time. But probably one of the most important
contributions of the Persians was their religions. Like others before them, early Persian religion
involved nature worshiping and many gods. By the time of Cyrus, most probably, Zoroastrianism
(a monotheistic religion established by prophet Zoroaster around 650 B.C. in eastern Persia) was
also practiced, although there is no direct evidence OF WHAT?. One of the main features of this
religion is that it marked the first time that the idea of God as the Lord and Wiseman in the sky
was conceived. He was called Ahuramazda (the creator god representing goodness and truth)
and his antagonist was known as Ahriman (representing evilness and lies). For the first time
ever, as far as we know, the universe was considered to be a battleground for these two cosmic
forcesa confrontational dualism
4- Explain what major factors contributed to the rise of the Classic Greek (golden age). Please
pay close attention to political, economic, and cultural conditions which contributed to it.

How did the Minoan Civilization impact the Greeks? How was the 5 th century literary genre
different from the 4 th century and why? Give examples.
Only Linear B has been recently deciphered which belongs to much later time an reveals very
little about this amazing civilization. Therefore much of this civilization remains in mystery.
Unfortunately, unlike in Egypt, there is no Rosetta Stone found here to enable us to decipher
and understand what we have from the Minoan writing. These understood writings where
mainly administrative records of their bureaucracy and show striking similarity to the
organizations found in the Near East (Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria). Most probably, the origin of
the Minoans is from south and Near East than Greece. From archeological findings we can see
the extent to which this civilization was in contact with others all around the Mediterranean
Sea (See the map.) And, therefor, in a profound way it acted as a bridge between more
advanced civilizations in south and later Greek Civilization in north, transferring the
achievement of the older civilizations that we talked about already to that of Europe.
Let us now take a brief look at this tiny but great civilization. Minoans were peaceful people.
Their four palaces found so far on the island of Crete, Cnossos, Phaestus, and Hagia Triada,
none show any defensive walls or fortifications. They are all open with large windows into the
beautiful surrounding land and the sea. It appears they faced no threat of external enemy, at
least for a long time. Inside these palaces that are often three to four stories in height, we
observe human scale living spaces enjoying bright light sunlight shining inside the comfortable
living quarters. We see lovely tapered columns, murals, and sport festivals. In the basements of
these palaces there were huge jars for grain and food storages, jewelry workshops that
produced incredibly beautiful jewelry unmatched in history, using sophisticated technique of
working with gold, which was lost until the present time. Minoans were not as wealthy as the
Egyptians and never built as grandiose building as Egyptians did, but what they did was
extremely tasteful with a touch of sensitivity and delicacy.
Unlike most palaces we have seen throughout history which display power, war scenes and
military victories, the walls in Cnossos, for example, are covered with delightfully painted
seascape of marine life, dolphins, and landscape sceneries of deer and other animals. We see
dancing girls and merchant ships as opposed to fighting events and military parades.
As to their religious beliefs, archeologists have found only female deities (goddesses) as oppose
to male gods, which signifies the importance role and influence of women in this civilization.
Maybe that has to do with their peacefulness. However, we know they had kings. Since the
discovery of this civilization is relatively recent, and was in a way accidental, there is much to be
discovered about this rich and geographically important civilization. May those of you who have
interest in history and archeology could devote a few years of your lives sailing among beautiful
Greek and Turkish islands in the Aegean Sea (section of the Mediterranean Sea) to find out
more about this magnificent culture.

The political structures polies, during the Archaic Age when it first appeared, were generally
aristocratic (run not by individual king or pharaoh but by a group of upper class men). During

this Age, once in a while when economic disparity between the upper (aristocrat families) and
lower class (farmers) reaches intolerable level (due to famine, drought or other causes), there
would appear individuals from the upper class who took power by force and overthrew the
aristocracy by extralegal method and establish tyranny. These leaders who were known as
tyrants were not necessarily wicked and evil. They had the support of the majority and
redistributed the land among the lower class. They soon would be overthrown and the
traditional aristocracy would replace them. The last tyrant came to power just before the
Golden Age (~500 B.C.) when democracy was established and lasted for about 200 years all
through this age. An important aspect of poleis were that they created a bond between the
upper and the lower class.
One of the themes in human history is the development of communication. We saw the first
writing systems, from the symbolic writing of Sumerians and Egyptians where symbols (or in the
case of pictographic Egyptian writing, pictures) represented words. The symbolic writing of the
Sumerians in Mesopotamia allowed them to created Epic of Gilgamesh and Hammurabi Law
Code. The Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, as beautiful as it was, prevented them to communicate
their ideas as clearly as Mesopotamians. Therefore, the Egyptian literary work, such as the
Egyptian Book of the Death, was much more ambiguous and mystical (requires more
interpretation). The Phoenicians revolutionized writing system by inventing the alphabet. With
the small alphabetic letters, which represent sounds (and not words) it is possible to create
much larger body of words to communicate nuances in meaning. But, what was Greeks
another major contribution to the development of the writing system was addition of vowels
into alphabet. What vowels do to the alphabet is simply make it easier to learn and read. Today
many written languages (such as Arabic, Hebrew, and Persian) do not fundamentally have
vowels. (In Quranic Arabic, diptotes have been invented for better accuracy to communicate
words). Imagine if you had to eliminate vowels in your everyday writing of English! It would be
very difficult to guess what as to go in between consonants. To give you an example, in Persian
(in which vowels are not generally used) the equivalent of letters S and R. Combining S and R
we have a word SR. This word can be read at least three different ways (that is if you dont
know the context).
SAR, SOR or SER, with completely different meaning. Sar means head, sor means to slide, and
ser means secret! Persian civilization has produced some of most magnificent poetic literature
of all times. But, we know poetic language is the language of mystical, indirect, double
meaning, communication (along with allegory, simile, and metaphor). On the other hand, one
of the highlights of the Greek civilization is philosophy. Philosophy, compare to literature, is the
way to express ideas as exactly and as accurately as possible and attempt is to present words
and their relation in rational way. There is another important contribution of vowel-alphabet in
the development of Greek civilization that we will discuss later when we get to the spread of
Greek colonization.