Chapter Nine

PIPELINE PROTECTION
The most effective of mitigating corrosion on the external surface of a buried
or submerged facility utilizes a dual system of a protective coating
supplemented by cathodic protection.
Corrosion
Corrosion is the destructive attack on a metal by chemical or electrochemical
reaction with its environment. Deterioration by physical causes is not called
corrosion, but is described as erosion, galling, or wear and is dealt with later.
In some instances, chemical attack accompanies physical deterioration as
described by the terms: corrosion-erosion, corrosive wear, or fretting corrosion.
Non-metals are not included in this present definition. Plastics may swell or
crack, wood may split or decay, granite may erode, and Portland cement may
leach away but the term corrosion is presently restricted to chemical attack of

metals. Rusting applies to the corrosion of iron or iron-base alloys with the
formation of corrosion products consisting largely of hydrous ferric oxides.
Non-ferrous metals, therefore, corrode but do not rust.
Metals occur most commonly in nature as oxide or sulphide ores which are
in a higher oxidation state than that of the free metal. An extraction of the
metal from the ore involves reduction of the oxidized form to free metal
involving an increase in internal free energy. Consequently the metal will try to
loose its excess energy by becoming oxidized again, through loss of electrons.
This oxidizing tendency is the driving force for corrosion, and it is found in
virtually all metals except the very noble metals such as gold and platinum.
1 Pipeline Corrosion
Having outlined the mechanism of corrosion in the general sense it is
necessary to relate the problem to pipelines specifically. Internal corrosion
occurs when the components for corrosion come together and primarily when
the pipe is carrying water, aqueous solutions, aqueous suspensions, damp
gas, or water in any form. External corrosion is related to the environment in
which the pipe exists, in air with many different climatic conditions, in soil with
widely varying conditions and in water with different salt contents

Internal corrosion, Apart from exceptional cases of corrosive fluid

components such as H2S, is usually a gradual process resulting in a lowering
of pipeline efficiency and is characterized by indentations and pigs. Regular
line cleaning with scraper pigs, discussed later in chapter 10 of this project,
can be used to care for the internal surface of most installations. Internal
corrosion can also be controlled by injecting a corrosion inhibitor into the
transported fluid. Another method of reducing internal corrosion is by internally
lining the pipe while there are few examples of existing pipeline systems using
epoxy coatings; they give good protection, long life, and have a low friction
factor.
External corrosion, It is a major factor in the design and operation of a
pipeline system in that external corrosion can reduce the life of a pipeline and
impair its safety. External corrosion is mitigated by application of a pipe
coating and the installation of a cathodic protection system. The external
coating increases the pipe-soil electrochemical resistance, and the cathodic
protection (impressed current or galvanic anodes) system makes the pipe
cathodic with respect to the surrounding soil.

2 Corrosion types
Corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon; that is, it involves chemical
reactions and the flow of current. The two most common types are corrosion
caused by stray currents from external sources and galvanic-type corrosion
caused by different metals in an electrolyte or the same metal in different
electrolytes.
Galvanic-type corrosion
Corrosion
types
Stray current corrosion

1 Galvanic-type corrosion

Description, Galvanic-type corrosion occurs as the result of the tendency of

metals to revert to their natural state. If this is to occur, the metals must be so
arranged as to form a complete cell, which may be termed a battery or
corrosion cell or galvanic cell. Since corrosion may stem from other causes, it
is important to note that the type described as galvanic may be recognized
from the fact that the cell provides the forces causing corrosion, rather than
external currents, etc. The cell is comprised of an anode and cathode
immersed in an electrolyte. When the anode and cathode are metallically
connected (as when a wire is connected across the terminals of a battery),
current flows and corrosion of the anode occurs. When the anode happens to
be a metallic part of a structure, piping, or cable system, severe damage may
result.
Natural corrosion cells, The environment for many electrical power
structures provides conditions favoring formation of natural corrosion cells. The
metal or metals of a structure serve as anode, cathode, and the necessary
metallic conductor between the two. Water, either as such or as moisture in
soil, provides the electrolyte required to complete the cell circuit. Such cells
develop their driving force or electrical potential from differing conditions at the

interfaces between metal and electrolyte of the anode and cathode. These
differences fall into three categories:
a.Dissimilar metals comprising the anode and cathode,
b.In homogeneity of a single metal, which causes one area to be anodic to
another area, and
c. In homogeneity of the electrolyte. The following are a few of many possible
examples in which the essential requirements of a complete cell are
satisfied in a structure.
The galvanic series, The differing vigor with which different metals tend to
dissolve in electrolytes provides the driving force for galvanic cells and gives
rise to the galvanic series. This is a listing of metals in decreasing order of their
corrosion when any two of them are the electrodes of a complete cell. That is,
the metal higher on the list will be the anode and will be corroded while the
lower will be the cathode and will be protected in the cell. (A galvanic series
tabulation developed by the International Nickel Company is shown in table 1).
This series was developed by actual field and laboratory tests using
electrolytes likely to be encountered under operation conditions. It takes into

account that certain metals form protective oxides which cause these metals to
assume more noble positions in the series than the clean metal would have.
This series, then considers practical corrosion aspects as well. However, it
cannot anticipate all service conditions and reversals of position which may
occur.
Corroded end (anodic or least noble)
Magnesium
Magnesium alloys
Zinc
Aluminum 2S
Cadmium
Aluminum 17ST
Steel or iron. Cast iron
Chromium-iron
(active)
Ni-Resist
18-8 Chromiumnickel-iron (active)

18-8-3 Chromiumnickel-molybdenumiron (active)

Lead-tin solders
Lead
Tin
Nickel (active)
Inconel (active)
Hastelloy C (active)
Brass
Copper
Bronzes
Copper-nickel alloys
Monel
Silver solder
Nickel (passive)
Inconel (passive)
Chromium-iron

(passive)
18-8 Chromiumnickel-iron
18-8-3 Chromiumnickel-molybdenumiron (passive)
Hastelloy C (passive)
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Graphite
Protected end (cathodic or most noble)

Table 1 Galvanized series of metals and alloys

2 Stray current corrosion
Stray currents which cause corrosion may originate from direct-current
distribution lines, substations, or street railway systems, etc., and flow into a
pipe system or other steel structure. Alternating currents very rarely cause
corrosion. The corrosion resulting from stray currents (external sources) is
similar to that from galvanic cells (which generate their own current) but
different remedial measures may be indicated. In the electrolyte and at the
metal-electrolyte interfaces, chemical and electrical reactions occur and are
the same as those in the galvanic cell; specifically, the corroding metal is again
considered to be the anode from which current leaves to flow to the cathode.
Soil and water characteristics affect the corrosion rate in the same manner as
with galvanic-type corrosion. However, stray current strengths may be much
higher than those produced by galvanic cells and, as a consequence,
corrosion may be much more rapid. Another difference between galvanic-type
currents and stray currents is that the latter are more likely to operate over
long distances since the anode and cathode are more likely to be remotely

separated from one another. Seeking the path of least resistance, the stray
current from a foreign installation may travel along a pipeline causing severe
corrosion where it leaves the line. Knowing when stray currents are present
becomes highly important when remedial measures are undertaken since a
simple sacrificial anode system is likely to be ineffectual in preventing
corrosion under such circumstances.
EXTERNAL CORROSION PROTECTION
Application of protective coatings

Protection methods
Install cathodic protection by impressed currents

Install cathodic protection by sacrificial anodes

2 Coating

The primary function of an external coating is to establish a permanent

barrier between a structure and immediate environment.
The performance of any coating system is directly related to the conditions
encountered during the installation and operational life of a facility. Therefore,
before any coating selection is initiated, it is imperative that the environmental
and construction conditions of a facility are will understood.
Based on an evaluation of the relevant chemical, electrical, environmental,
and mechanical conditions experienced by a pipe coating system during its
service life, an optimum external pipeline coating for buried service should
exhibit the following properties:
Adhesion
Chemical resistance
Electrical resistance
Compatibility with cathodic protection
Flexibility
Soil stressing resistance
Compatible repair and girth weld coating material

Coatings and corrosion cells, Protective coatings are widely used to prevent
corrosion, and they serve this function by interposing a mechanical and often
electrical barrier between the metal surface being protected and the corrosive
environment. As long as the barrier remains intact, corrosion usually will not
progress. Viewed from the standpoint of the corrosion cell such as a battery or
corroding pipeline, an organic coating acts rather as an envelope insulating an
electrode away from the electrolyte, thus ideally removing that electrode from
contact and breaking the electrical circuit of the cell. However, coatings may
be damaged mechanically during installation, they deteriorate at varying rates
with time, and high cathodic or stray currents may destroy their bond and
continuity. Further, some coatings offer little or no electrical resistance. In
practice, then, the corrosion cell circuit is often restored to some degree with
the coating providing some measure of resistance to the flow of current.
Compatibility of protective coatings and cathodic protection, Coatings
and cathodic protection complement each other and, where possible, should
be used as a combination to achieve the best economy and protection.
However, the coating must be compatible with cathodic protection. Certain
materials, notably phenolic resin and aluminum pigment, deteriorate rapidly in

the alkaline environment which cathodic protection creates where the structure
is being protected. Coal-tar enamel and vinyl resins are relatively unaffected.
Both high stray current voltages and excessive cathodic protection voltages
may "blow off" coatings; that is, cause disbonding and rupture of the coatings.
All coatings are susceptible, but high adhesion decreases the vulnerability to
this effect. Since the cost of cathodic protection is a function of coating
resistance, the better electrical insulator the coating is, the lower the cost.
Coal-tar enamel and plastic tape coatings offer the greatest advantage from
this standpoint. The preceding information should be considered in evaluating
the condition of a coating where a corrosion problem exists. It may be found
that providing protection may best be accomplished by restoring the continuity
of an existing coating, and the condition of an existing coating will always be a
factor in evaluating the desirability of installing cathodic protection.
Reclamation's Paint Manual should be referred to for a discussion of the
characteristics of various paints and the procedures for their application and
maintenance.
3 Cathodic protection

Cathodic protection is the use of an impressed or galvanic current to reduce

or prevent corrosion of a metal in an electrolyte by making the metal to be
protected by the cathode of a corrosion cell. The source of the protective
current is immaterial, and it may be derived from zinc or magnesium anodes or
external sources of power, i.e., a rectifier. Whenever corrosion takes place at
the surface of steel in contact with an electrolyte, it can be controlled by
cathodic protection. It is not always the most economical method since other
more corrosion-resistant materials may be applied. However, after careful
study of all the factors, cathodic control of corrosion by itself or in conjunction
with protective coatings will often prove to be the most efficient means of
protecting buried or submerged metals. Cathodic protection is not considered
a practical means for protecting the interior surfaces of smaller diameter
pipelines. In this bulletin, methods of using cathodic protection by sacrificial
anodes for protection of the exterior of buried pipeline installations will be
described. Other applications of cathodic protection will be briefly covered, and
some reference to adaptability of the systems to other structures will be made.
It must be remembered that for each structure, protection is a specific problem
and has to be handled as such in cathodic protection installations.

Theory of Cathodic Protection

Referring back to the Daniel cell, the measured potential between the copper
and zinc electrodes, without current flow, is 1.1 Volts, If a small current is
allowed to flow, the electrodes polarize and the potential difference falls to
below one volt. If the electrodes are short circuited, the current rises to a maximum value known as the corrosion current and the potential difference falls to
zero, at a value corresponding to the corrosion potential. It follows, therefore,
that if the cathode is polarised beyond the corrosion potential to the open
circuit potential of the anode by an external current, both electrodes achieve
the same potential and no corrosion to the anode can occur.
This now requires to be related to a corroding pipe which contains on its
surface, both anodic and cathodic areas. The pipe is connected to an auxiliary
anode and a potential is applied between the two. The current enters both
cathodic and anodic areas, polarizing the cathodic areas to the open circuit
potential of the anodes as before, Therefore, as tong as the external current is
maintained, the pipe cannot corrode, If the potential goes beyond that required
for protection, protection is maintained but the extra current may have harmful
effects on coatings. If the potential is just short of that required, corrosion will

occur, but at a greatly reduced rate.

For steel in sea-water, the surface potential required to stop corrosion is
around -0.80 volts, with respect to an AgIAgCl reference electrode. In soil, the
potential is around -0.82 volts, or -0.91 volts (w.r.t.AgIAgC1) if sulphate
reducing bacteria are present.
It has been suggested that part of the protective process, when the pipe
surface becomes cathodic as a whole, is due to the deposition of calcium
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide in soil or water containing bicarbonate
salts. Also any iron lions are precipitated as iron carbonate resulting in a
chalky film which would plug any gaps in a protective coating. The deposit, as
well as restricting the movement of iron lions, would delay the onset of
corrosion should the protective current is cut off.
There are two methods of applying a cathodic protection current:
1.Impressed current
2.Sacrificial anodes
1IMPRESSED CURRENT (RECTIFIER) SYSTEMS

Description, The corrosion situation depicted in figures 1(A and B) may also
be solved by cathodic protection using an impressed current or rectifier
system. Such a system is physically comparable to the sacrificial anode
system in that an anode is installed in the electrolyte (soil or water) and is
metallically connected to the corroding structure which is made the cathode.
However, rather than rely for protection on the current which results from the
anode-cathode couple, an artificial source of current is introduced into the
circuit as shown in figure 2. This has several consequences. First, the galvanic
potential of the anode is no longer relevant, and almost any electrode material
may be used. Scrap iron, abandoned structures, driven steel anodes, etc.,
among sacrificial materials will suffice; or non sacrificial materials, such as high
silicon iron, graphite, or platinum, may be selected as anodes. Second, a more
powerful and flexible system can be designed because the artificial current
source makes available higher voltages and currents which can be
manipulated to advantage. For instance, anodes can be located considerable
distances from a pipeline and sufficient current supplied to protect the lines for
as much as an 80.5-km (50-mi) length. Also, high enough voltages can be
obtained to supply necessary currents for protection n high-resistance soils
where sacrificial anodes are ineffective. Third, the power potential in a rectifier

system carries with it the danger that at excessive current densities, coatings
on the structure may be damaged or destroyed or that accidental reversal of
the polarity of the impressed current source may cause highly-accelerated
corrosion of the structure instead of protecting it.
General installations procedure, Impressed current systems appropriate for
protection of larger structures and are more effective in handling the more
complicated corrosion problems than are sacrificial anodes. The correct
installation of such systems ordinarily requires a preliminary field survey of the
structure and surrounding terrain to obtain soil resistivities and other
information and data. A temporary anode ground bed may be installed and a
temporary source of direct current such as a welding machine used to supply
current to determine current and other system requirements necessary to
assure correct distribution. After the permanent system has been designed
and installed, follow up measurements should be made to assure that
adequate protection has been supplied where required and that no excessive
voltages occur. The design and installation of an impressed current system
calls for specialized knowledge and considerable experience in this field. The
operation and maintenance of a rectifier system is more complex than for a

sacrificial anode system, and field personnel will usually require instruction to
obtain the best results.

Figure 1 Protection of buried pipe by impressed current rectifier method.

Figure 2 Artificial source of current

Figure 3 Impressed current systems to protect small tank.

Advantages of an impressed current
1.Can be designed for wide range of voltage and current
2.High ampere year output available from a single ground bed
3.Large areas can be protected by single installation
4.Variable voltage and current output

5.Applicable in high-resistively environments

6.Effective in protecting uncoated and poor coated structures
Limitations of an impressed current
1.Can cause cathodic interference problems with adjacent pipelines
2.Subject to power failure and vandalism
3.Requires periodic inspection and maintenance
4.Requires external power, which involves costs
5.Overprotection can cause coating damage
3 Sacrificial anode systems
Theory, Sacrificial anodes, metallically connected to a corroding structure and
suitably immersed in the electrolyte (water or moist soil), create a simple
galvanic cell in which the structure is the cathode or protected surface. By this
device, detrimental corrosion is replaced by localized and controlled corrosion
of an expendable anode which can readily be examined and replaced as
necessary.

Figure 4 corrosion of iron pipe

Figure 4 shows a typical problem and its solution. In Figure 4A an iron pipe
with a break in the mill scale is in moist soil or water. Since the pipe metal is
anodic to the mill scale and all elements of a corrosion cell are present, current
flows and corrosion (formation of ferrous ion, Fe+ +) progress at the break in
the mill scale as in figure 4B; and if left for a sufficient period of time, a pit is
likely to develop possibly, resulting in eventual perforation and failure of the
pipe. However, as shown in figure 4C installation of a magnesium anode has
created a new corrosion cell in which the corrosion (formation of magnesium
ion, Mg+ +) is now taking place at the anode. The iron of the pipe (as well as
the mill-scale coating) has become the cathode of the new cell and is said to
be catholically protected. This type of cathodic protection is easily recognizable
as the sacrificial anode type since the cell generates all of the current for
protection, there being no external sources involved.
Anode metals, Reference to table 1 show that magnesium heads the list as
the most anodic metal and is widely separated from iron in the galvanic series.
Magnesium coupled to iron provides sufficient galvanic potential to provide

positive protection. An important feature of a sacrificial anode system is that it

is inherently a safe system because the normal potentials generated are
insufficient to damage coatings present on the surface to be protected.
Because of the low potentials generated, sacrificial systems can be used only
in low-resistance soils, i.e., with a resistively less than 3000 ohm-centimeters.
Assumptions of protective current requirements and bare metal areas, To
obtain a starting point, certain general assumptions have been found helpful.
1.For bare metal in the ground, a current of 11 to 22 mA/m2 (1 to 2 mA/ ft2) of
bare metal surface has been found adequate, except under extreme or
unusual conditions. This value must then be modified to suit the particular
conditions.
2.For coated pipe, the current required is difficult to estimate without field
tests. The primary reason is the unknown condition of the protective coat
which can vary from nearly 0 to 98 percent coverage. For a fairly new
protective coat properly applied, assume 2 percent bare and 22 mA/m2 (2
mA/ft2) for use in tentative calculations. Field test may show that this figure
should be modified.
3.Bare pipelines can usually be protected by 11 to 22 mA/m2 (1 to 2 mA/ ft2).

This is seldom justifiable economically for extensive or long lines, however,

and the necessary protection is usually afforded by the application of
cathodic protection to localized areas called "hot spots."
4.Bare steel tanks are treated the same as bare pipelines. Inside steel
surfaces in contact with fresh water at zero or low velocities require from 22
to 65 mA/m2 (2 to 6 mA/ ft2), depending on the nature of the water. The low
value is used for water which is scale forming. That is, the water will form a
calcareous coating on the surface of the metal.
5.Protecting steel surfaces in contact with water in motion presents another
problem. Water in motion produces a scouring effect which prevents the
formation of the above-mentioned coating and even the formation of a
hydrogen film. Therefore, surfaces exposed to water in motion require a
higher current density. The amount required is hard to predict. In this case,
an experimental determination of the current requirement should be made.
Anode spacing, After determining the number of anodes required in an
installation, the success or failure of the system is dependent primarily upon
the proper location and installation of the galvanic anodes. Figure 5 show
locating galvanic anodes along a comparatively short bare pipeline in

homogeneous soil is quite simple as the required number of anodes can be

equally spaced along the pipeline and connected to the line with insulated
wires. The same thing is true of a long-coated pipeline under identical
conditions. However, the problem is not usually that simple as the proper
spacing along a continuous structure depends upon the varying physical
condition of the structure surface and the surrounding soil. For example, an
evenly-coated pipeline located in soil that changes from mildly corrosive (5,000
to 10,000 ohm-centimeters) to very corrosive (1,000 ohm-centimeters or less),
the spacing of the anodes along the line would vary. Closer spacing of anodes
along the pipeline would be required for the part of the pipe in the very
corrosive soil to afford the same protection being received by the pipeline
section in the mildly corrosive soil with greater distances between the anodes.
The same closer spacing of anodes is required if the soil conditions are found
to be constant, but it is known that the condition of the protective coating
varies. A closer grouping of the anodes is required where the protective
coating is inferior. In the case of a bare pipe of considerable length, it is usually
not economical to protect the entire pipeline.

Figure 5 Distribution of anodes

However, a bare pipeline located in the above-mentioned soil condition can
usually be protected economically by protecting with sacrificial anodes the pipe
sections in the very corrosive soils. This type of protection is referred to as "hot
spot" protection and is economically justifiable in that the useful life of the
entire pipeline has been extended by the cathodic protection of the severely
corroding areas. Sacrificial anodes should be placed around the structure
symmetrically to provide good current distribution and to increase anode
efficiency. Some structures, however, are very irregular and care must be
taken to distribute the anodes to provide adequate protection to as much of the
metal work as possible. Installation of the anodes should be made at a
distance of 3 to 10 m (10 to 30 feet) from the structure.
Anode Installation, Anodes should be buried a minimum of 0.6 m (2 ft) into a
low-resistivety material. This may necessitate deep holes to reach moist soil.
Clays are common, low-resistivety materials. In order to assure minimum
electrical resistance between the anode and ground, a chemical backfill is
used. Anodes are sometimes supplied pre-packed, with the chemical backfill in

a cloth bag around the magnesium. If pre-packed anodes, which are preferred,
are used, no additional chemical backfill is required. If bare anodes are used,
chemical backfill should be tamped around the bare anodes as shown in figure
6. The anode and backfill shall be placed in a water-filled hole and tamped.
The anode leads should be buried a minimum of 0.5 m (18 in) and the free end
should be attached to the structure by thermosetting resin, welding, or brazing.
If resin is used, care must be taken to ensure a metal-to-metal contact. This
connection should be protected by a suitable protective coating. Another lead
should be connected to the structure in a similar manner and the other end
brought to the surface to terminate in a test structure as shown in figure 7. This
lead should have at least 0.3 m (1 ft) of slack to facilitate testing. This lead may
be used by a corrosion engineer to determine (by a pipe-to-soil potential test)
whether the cathodic protection system is working properly and whether the
anodes have been consumed. The anode-to-structure lead should be
constructed of No. 10 or 8 AWG type TW copper wire. Splice connections
should be made using a split, bolt-type electrical connector of the proper size.
The connection should be wrapped with three layer of plastic electrician's tape,
followed by three layers of self-vulcanizing, rubber insulating tape and the joint
encased in a suitable electrical waterproofing compound. In low resistivity

soils, a resistor is often required in the anode lead to reduce the current
supplied to the structure to the amount necessary to maintain the proper
protection.

Figure 6 Installation of galvanic anode

Figure 7 Two types of test load insulations

Figure 8 Sacrificial anode systems

Advantages of galvanic systems
1. No external power required
2. Low maintenance

3.
4.

Uniform distribution
Easy to install

Limitation of galvanic systems

1.Limited driving potential
2.Low / limited current output / unit
3.Can be ineffective in a high-resistivity environment
Isolation and sectionalization
Purposes, Two purposes can be served by the use of insulated joints in
cathodic protection, that of isolation and that of sectionalization. Isolation is the
application of insulated joints to prevent a galvanic cell from being formed with
a portion of the structure being the sacrificial metal or to insulate a structure
being protected from others that would add an excessive drain on a cathodic
protection system. Sectionalization is the dividing of a group of structures into
smaller units for cathodic protection because of different current requirements
or merely to simplify a system. Although both purposes are mentioned here,
the most common application in power plant work would be that of isolation.

Examples using insulating joints, A typical example of an isolation

application is shown in figure 9. Figures 9(A and B) show an installation
subject to severe corrosion, depending, of course, on the soil characteristics.
In figure 9A the direct connecting of the dissimilar metals provides an ideal
path for the flow of current from the iron to the copper through the ground
(electrolyte). The iron in this case is anodic, or the sacrificial metal. The same
conditions are provided in figure 9B as the copper ground mat is connected
directly to the steel pipe, and both are in a common electrolyte, the ground.
The flow of current in this case is from the steel pipe to the copper ground mat.
The steel pipe is anodic, or the sacrificial metal. The condition depicted in
figures 9(C and D) is identical to that shown in figures 9(A and B) with the
exception that the wire connection in figure 9D has been isolated from the
copper ground mat by the installation of an insulated joint. Under this
condition, the only corrosion action is local, caused by in-homogeneity in the
metal or contacting solution. Therefore, in figure 9C, the condition will still
permit the flow of current from an anodic section of the steel plate to a
cathodic section of the steel plate to a cathodic section of the same plate. The
same is true in figure 9D One section of the pipe can be anodic with respect to

another section of the pipe and, therefore, deteriorate at that point. The
examples in figures 9(E and F) are identical to the examples in figures 9(C and
D) except that a sacrificial anode of magnesium has been added. Since the
magnesium anode is the least noble of the three metals in the ground
(electrolyte), it becomes the sacrificial metal and deteriorates from the
corrosive action in lieu of the iron plate and steel pipe.