Developing a

Solar Drying Machine

for Agricultural Products
RIRDC Publication No. 09/026

RIRDC

Innovation for rural Australia

Developing a Solar Drying

Machine for Agricultural
Products

by Kame Khouzam

February 2009
RIRDC Publication No 09/026
RIRDC Project No QUT-9A (PRJ-000684)

 2009 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.

All rights reserved.

ISBN 1 74151 830 X

ISSN 1440-6845
Development of a desiccant solar drying system for agricultural products
Publication No. 09/026
Project No. QUT-9A (PRJ-000684)
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and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in
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While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct,
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Researcher Contact Details

Dr Kame Khouzam
School of engineering Systems
Queensland University of Technology
George Street
Brisbane QLD 4000
Phone: 07 3138 2483
Fax:
07 3138 1516
Email: k.khouzam@qut.edu.au
In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.
RIRDC Contact Details
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 2, 15 National Circuit
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604
Phone:
Fax:
Email:
Web:

02 6271 4100
02 6271 4199
rirdc@rirdc.gov.au.
http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in February 2009

Printed by Union Offset Printing, Canberra

ii

Foreword
This report presents the technical development of an innovative method to dry agricultural products.
The new liquid desiccant system uses dry (dehumidified) air rather than heated air to dry grain and
seeds.
Drying of agricultural products consumes significant amounts of energy usually by burning diesel or
gas. Hot air drying can cause damage to seeds by breaking essential enzymes; affecting germination
rates and rendering the product not suitable to use. Alternative drying techniques are being developed
to reduce energy, cost and improve product quality. Replacing fossil fuel energy by solar or biomass
energy has also been widely investigated. This project investigated the use of a liquid desiccant
absorber and solar energy. It operates by drying with only a small increase in air temperature,
protecting the product from damage caused by hot air drying.
The prototype desiccant machine operates by drying ambient air in a dehumidifier module by spraying
ambient air with a highly concentrated solution of lithium chloride (LiCl). The dried air is then blown
on to the bin containing the wet product. The resulting diluted desiccant is reconcentrated using solar
energy (or waste heat) via a liquid-air heat exchanger.
The results suggest that desiccant dehumidification outperforms hot air drying techniques and that
LiCl is an effective desiccant. It cuts drying time, energy and cost and replaces fossil fuels with solar
energy. It also preserves seed quality.
The dried air system would make drying grain and other products more viable in the tropics, where
high ambient relative humidity makes heated-air dryers expensive to operate. The system would also
have appeal in the colder parts of the country where high humidity and low temperatures also make
drying expensive.
The project is proceeding to commercialisation, with the liquid desiccant system offering to help create
a new industry in crop drying and preservation which would benefit farmers and producers by
reducing their energy costs. The possibility to broaden the use of solar energy applications into crop
drying will be strengthened with the introduction of a carbon tax in 2010 under the proposed
Australian Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).
The project was jointly funded from RIRDC core funds, which are provided by the Australian
Government, the Queensland University of Technology, and industry partner Agridry RFM Pty Ltd.
This report, an addition to RIRDCs diverse range of over 1800 research publications, forms part of
our Environment and Farm Management R&D program, which aims to foster agri-industry systems
that have sufficient diversity, flexibility and robustness to be resilient and respond to challenges and
opportunities.
Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our
website:

downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/index.html

purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter OBrien
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii

About the Author

Dr. Kame Khouzam received his B.Sc. in electrical engineering in 1977, a M.Sc. in solar thermal
engineering in 1983 and a Ph.D. in photovoltaic system engineering in 1989. He has over 25 years
experience in renewable energy systems and solar applications. He has authored or co-authored over
120 technical papers and reports. He received the Australian Sustainable Energy Industry Award for
his photovoltaic salt-water chlorinator in 2001.

Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the support received for this project through RIRDC and the
assistance and cooperation given to the project by Dr. George Wilson. The technical support and
enthusiasm of the staff at Agridry RFM greatly contributed to the timely completion of this project.

Keywords
Crop Drying
Dehumidification
Liquid Desiccant
Regeneration
Solar Energy

iv

Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... iii
About the Author.................................................................................................................................. iv
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................. iv
Keywords............................................................................................................................................... iv
Executive Summary............................................................................................................................. vii
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Objectives and methodology............................................................................................................. 3
3. System description............................................................................................................................. 4
4. Air dehumidification ......................................................................................................................... 6
5. Desiccant regeneration .................................................................................................................... 12
6. Benefits of desiccant drying ............................................................................................................ 13
7. Commercialisation pathway ........................................................................................................... 14
8. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 18
9. Recommendations............................................................................................................................ 20
10. References ...................................................................................................................................... 21

Tables
Table 1
Table 2

Power rating of equipment used in drying system ................................................................ 5

Worldwide market for farm crop drying fans for grain, hay, and seed over
15,000 c.f.m......................................................................................................................... 14

Figures
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7

Schematic showing the main components of the desiccant system....................................... 5

The desiccant air-dehumidification tower fabricated of fibre reinforced plastic................... 6
Air parameters results versus time......................................................................................... 7
Air dehumidification results showing moisture content versus time..................................... 8
Coupling the dehumidification module to the batch bin for drying ...................................... 9
Inlet and outlet air RH and temperature, desiccant concentration and grain MC................ 10
Drying test showing air temperature and RH at the surface of the grain,
MC and desiccant concentration ......................................................................................... 11
Figure 8 Moisture content of grain in the drying bin......................................................................... 11
Figure 9 Solar hot water system used for the regeneration of the desiccant...................................... 12
Figure 10 A liquid desiccant drying machinery manufactured by Agridry in Toowoomba................ 17

vi

Executive Summary
What this report is about
This report presents a new technique for drying agricultural products (such as cereal grains and seeds).
The project developed and trialled a prototype drying machine based on dry (dehumidified) air rather
than heated air and using a liquid desiccant (drying agent) and solar energy.
Who is the report targeted at?
The report is targeted at farmers, grain dryers and aeration industries as well as fruit and vegetable
drying companies and policy makers involved in alternative energy sources, particularly the use of
solar thermal energy.
Background
Drying of crops is critical for preserving product quality and achieving a storage life of 1-3 years, but
is one of the most energy-intensive processes associated with agricultural production. Drying by
heated air not only consumes a considerable amount of fossil fuel, but can also cause damage to seeds
by breaking essential enzymes; affecting germination rates and rendering the product unsuitable for
use. In humid climates such as in Queensland, crops require higher temperatures to dry, and this
increase in temperature required substantially affects the quality of the product.
The limitations of hot air drying led Agridry RFM Pty Ltd to undertake a collaborative work with
Queensland University of Technology (QUT), with support from RIRDC to develop an innovative
crop dryer different from fossil fuel dryers commonly used in Australia and many other countries. The
new dryer uses a desiccant solution as a drying medium to absorb moisture from the air. Once diluted,
the desiccant is reconcentrated by heating the solution and evaporating absorbed water. This technique
reduces the humidity of the air without significantly increasing air temperature.
A number of techniques to optimise the energy requirement for grain drying have been widely
researched. The quality of dried product and the overall drying costs have been equally important
considerations. Approaches range from modifications of existing dryer systems to development of new
designs and concepts.
This project recognised the need for new drying equipment in Australia which:

is more energy efficient and relies on renewable energy as the main source, and

addresses the problem of damage associated with hot air drying, particularly in humid climates.

Desiccants are used for air dehumidification (and for storage in cool rooms) to allow drying at low
temperatures, thus preserving the natural enzymes and enhancing the quality of produce.
When moist air is passed over the surface or through a mist of liquid desiccant, a dehumidifier process
occurs which lowers the absolute humidity compared with a hot air only drying air stream. As a
result the drying effect when applied to grain is accelerated. The extent of undesirable effects of heat
on the grain can be reduced since the liquid desiccant process only raises grain temperature by a few
degrees as compared with using direct heated air streams.

vii

Aims and objectives

The objectives of this project were:

to demonstrate the technical viability of solar drying using liquid desiccant air dehumidification,
by developing a prototype drying system applicable to a number of agriculture products (such as
peanuts and sorghum)

the system would utilise solar energy as the main energy source with auxiliary electricity for air
blowing and desiccant circulation.

Methods
A prototype system based on liquid desiccant was designed and developed. The system comprises:

a drying bin which holds the product

a dehumidification module for drying ambient air using concentrated solution of lithium chloride

a regeneration module for reconcentrating the lithium chloride solution to its original state, and

a solar hot water collector (or waste heat) to provide thermal energy for desiccant regeneration.

In addition to the main modules, the system includes air fans, desiccant pumps and heat exchangers.
The electricity required to operate the fans and pumps is relatively minor compared to the energy
required for regeneration, which is provided by solar energy at air temperature as low as 50oC. The
packed bed construction was used in both the desiccant regenerator module and the air
dehumidification module.
The system was trialled over 12 months in different climatic conditions and with different products
including sorghum, corn, grass seeds, and bokashi (mixture of rice husks and bran). Using a strong
desiccant solution, a substantial reduction in relative humidity was noted and values below 12% were
reached irrespective of the air intake. This was accompanied by a small increase in air temperature due
to an exothermic reaction of the desiccant.
Results
The work carried out suggests that desiccant dehumidification outperforms hot air drying techniques.
Results showed that the desiccant dehumidification system has the potential to cut drying time, energy
and cost. Besides essentially preserving seed quality, the main benefit of the system is to replace large
amounts of fossil fuel with solar energy. In addition, grain drying with desiccant is not hindered by the
air humidity as it can operate successfully 24 hours a day in virtually all ambient conditions, including
days with very high humidity (rain, mist or fog). This will lead to great reductions in time and in fuel
usage. As a result, it is estimated that over 50% savings in energy cost is achievable. It concluded that
LiCl is a very effective desiccant. At high concentration of 75%, LiCl has the ability to lower air
relative humidity to as low as 10% regardless of ambient condition.
Following the trials of the pilot plant a detailed design was undertaken to manufacture a commercial
unit suitable for small scale application. A machine of desiccant capacity 500-litre with 1000 litres/sec
air was manufactured for the purpose of demonstration at the Agriculture Show in Toowoomba in
September 2007. The machine is currently being field used and will be monitored to evaluate its long
term performance. This will provide important feedback to establish the viability and lifetime of the
desiccant solution and the entire system operation.

viii

Implications for relevant stakeholders

The design and construction of the desiccant system is relatively simple and solves a number of
problems associated with hot air drying. However, the set up cost is rather high particularly when a
solar collector is employed. Their running costs are much lower though and a payback period of 5 to 7
years can be achieved. The niche application of the desiccant technique is realised when dealing with
high value seeds (such as parent seeds) and other heat sensitive crops.
The dry air system would also make drying grain and other agricultural products more viable in the
tropics (e.g. Atherton Tableland, Qld), where high ambient relative humidity makes heated-air dryers
expensive to operate. The system would also have appeal in the colder parts of the country (Victoria
and Tasmania) where high humidity and low temperatures also make drying expensive.
As a result of this research investigation and by taking the results of the project to commercialisation,
the liquid desiccant system offers to help create a new industry in crop drying and preservation which
would benefit farmers and producers by reducing their energy costs. In addition, the use of solar
energy has the potential to replace fossil fuels for drying purposes and to enhance the quality of
produce in a reasonable processing time. The market potential for desiccant and solar powered driers is
likely to improve drastically with the introduction of a carbon tax in 2010 under the proposed
Australian Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).
A market assessment showed that the worldwide latent demand for liquid desiccant air and gas dryers
was valued at US$175 million in 2007. Although the demand for driers in Australia is relatively small,
the demand for desiccant driers is expected to grow in many parts of the world where environmental
legislations, fuel costs, and other climatic conditions make conventional driers expensive to run. Other
incentives to switch to solar power for low and medium heat applications will reinforce the market
pull for the desiccant system; which will help reduce the carbon footprint associated with drying.
This work presented the technical viability of the new technology; and would provide a market push
for desiccant driers. Agridry is now able to manufacture small, manually-operated driers. A machine of
air capacity 1000 L/sec was demonstrated at the Agriculture Show in Toowoomba. To assist its
introduction into the market, a combination of solar and backup power source was implemented to
maintain continuity of operation on cloudy days. Agridry RFM and QUT are currently planning to
scale up the desiccant dryer to larger sizes, incorporate desiccant and hot water storage, and fully
automate the system to optimise its operation with minimal attention by the operator.
Conclusions
In concluding this project the research team believes that the use of solar thermal energy in Australia
has been neglected. Applications such as grain drying, heating water for domestic use, water heating in
hospitals (and resorts) for washing and disinfection, pre-heating in food processing and beverage
industries and other chemical industries are just some examples of several requiring just heat which
can be obtained economically by solar collectors. Our results of the experimentation suggest that the
desiccant drying technology can be expanded to crop storage, grain preservation and other greenhouse
plantation. To improve acceptance into the market, a combination of solar and auxiliary energy source
should be available to maintain operation during cloudy periods. A tank for strong desiccant should be
provided to permit for the entire drying batch and between desiccant regeneration.
Steps are being taken to promote the new desiccant technology and these are expected to yield positive
results. QUT and Agridry have collaborated successfully and benefited from this partnership; research
and development efforts complemented with practical industrial experience and marketing strategies.
Recommendations
Further investments are needed to support commercialization of the solar powered desiccant drying.
Tasks include
ix

Conducting field demonstrations to attract early sales as well as market penetration.

Controlling growth until the product proves itself to avoid dissatisfaction.

Ensuring sufficient demand from high value applications to support initial manufacturing at low
volume.

Selling equipment for a small profit during early stage of commercialization

Emphasizing the inherent benefits of solar drying in early sales as customers willing to switch to
solar will feel personal gratification and satisfaction.

Leasing the system instead of selling to permit early trials by prospective clients.

1. Introduction
Crop drying is the most energy consuming process in all processes on the farm[1]. The purpose of
drying is to remove moisture from the agricultural produce so that it can be processed and/or safely
stored for increased periods of time. Crops are also dried before storage or, during storage, by forced
circulation of air, to prevent spontaneous combustion by inhibiting fermentation. It is estimated that
20% of the worlds grain production is lost after harvest because of inefficient handling and poor
implementation of post-harvest technology[2].
Most grain driers operate by heating ambient air using diesel or LPG burners. Ambient air (without
heating) driers use less energy compared with hot air driers; but they are known to cause damage to
seeds (and grain) due to prolonged exposure to humid air. Solar drying has many advantages over the
previous methods; but relies heavily on weather conditions.
Hot air drying increases the temperature of the air (and product) and lowers the air relative humidity
(RH) and thus allows the air to carry moisture from the product. Forced air ensures continuous supply
of air to replace saturated air. Although this is adequate in relatively dry and less humid weather, it is
not possible to reduce the actual moisture level (absolute humidity) in the air in humid climates. In
tropical climates, high air temperatures and humidity provide a very narrow temperature range in
which fuel-fired seed dryers can operate. As a result, drying by heated air becomes costly, slow and
less effective.
As well as using large amounts of fossil fuels, conventional hot air dryers are subject to significant
shortcomings. High temperature drying can cause breakdown of enzymes, which render the produce
unsuitable for consumption. Fumes from burning diesel and other fuels can impart adverse odour or
taste, and hot cinders can set fire to the easily-ignited dried product causing loss of the product and
destruction of the dryer.
Grain and seeds are normally harvested at a moisture level between 18% and 40% (moisture content;
MC) depending on the nature of the crop. These must then be dried to a level of 7% to 11% depending
on application and market need. The energy requirements for evaporating water from grain range from
4 to 8 MJ/kg of water removed depending on type of product, temperature and operating conditions.
Evaporating water requires heat and, for crop containing 40% moisture, an average of 1,200 MJ of
heat energy is needed to for each tonne of product. To reduce the MC from 40% to about 10% requires
at least 30 litres of diesel fuel or 50 litres of LPG to provide the heat requirement for each tonne of
dried product. The total gaseous emission (mostly CO2) associated with drying is typically 100 kg per
tonne of dried product.
Research work in industrial drying has intensified in recent years to reduce energy use and operating
costs. The approach has changed from modifications of existing dryer systems to development of new
designs and concepts[3, 4]. Replacing fossil fuel energy by solar, waste heat or biomass energy has also
been investigated[5]. Some significant developments in grain drying are dry-aeration, multistage
drying, a combination of high and low temperature drying, layer drying, drying with intermittent rest
periods, recirculating the exhaust air, stir drying and use of grain preservatives.
Desiccant dehumidification was initially investigated for use in air-conditioning in order to reduce
energy consumption and improve efficiency of vapour-compression systems[6, 7]. The advancements
made in desiccant technology led to its expansion into other fields such as crop protection[8], aeration
and cooling of stored grain[9-11], food production [12] and grain drying[13, 14].
Solid desiccant using silica gel has been investigated for use in air-conditioning applications and air
dehumidification systems especially in food processing and beverages[15, 16]. The main drawback of
solid desiccant is the relatively high temperature requirement for regeneration compared with liquid
desiccant. Theoretical and practical work have been carried out by researchers on drying using lithium

chloride[17], calcium chloride[18], mixtures of both[19], and triethylene glycol as desiccants[20]. The
properties of starch and agriculture waste as desiccants have been recently investigated[21, 22]. The basic
concept of these studies was to directly reduce the moisture and warm the air, which would be used for
drying only a few degrees above the ambient temperature. It was concluded that dry air generator
systems require only 20% to 30% of the energy required by hot air driers[23, 24].
This project has been motivated by a desire to investigate an innovative grain drier that can operate on
solar power as the main energy supply and thus can save on fuel costs and associated emissions. The
author approached Agridry RFM in Toowoomba, seeking collaboration into the development of the
new drier using liquid desiccant to achieve the desired air dehumidification. The discussion led the
Queensland University of Technology and Agridry RFM, with support from RIRDC, to undertake a
collaborative work to trial the technology with the ultimate goal of commercialisation.
The developmental work started with the construction of a small scale prototype machine capable of
about 250 l/s of air flow. Various tests were carried out to determine the optimum operating range for
the concentration of the desiccant and the required range of temperature for desiccant regeneration. In
addition, a number of desiccants were trialled in order to identify the most effective and practical
desiccant. The following sections give detailed information on the system design, operation and
performance.

2. Objectives and methodology

The objectives of this project were:

to demonstrate the technical viability of solar drying using liquid desiccant air dehumidification,
by developing a prototype drying system applicable to a number of agriculture products (such as
peanuts and sorghum)

the system would utilise solar energy as the main energy source with auxiliary electricity for air
blowing and desiccant circulation.

The methodology required the design and development of a prototype air dehumidification system.
The system is based on a liquid desiccant to absorb the moisture from the air before blowing on to the
drying bin. As a result, a significant reduction in Relative Humidity is achieved which reduces the
drying time considerably and preserves the quality of produce (as little increase in air temperature
occurs). While drying, little energy, except for circulating pumps and air blowers, is used. Solar energy
is then used to reconcentrate the desiccant (having absorbed moisture) to its optimal condition. A
backup source such as off-peak electricity or fossil fuel may be used to allow for greater reliability.
Many products were tested including sorghum, corn, grass seeds, and bokashi (mixture of rice husks
and bran). The prototype plant was operated continuously in various conditions including days of high
humidity, rain and fog, and day-night. Various tests were also conducted in which the liquid desiccant
concentration, flow rate, regeneration temperature, and airflow rate in the drying system were altered.

3. System description
Drying with dehumidified air is accomplished by reducing the moisture of the air until the partial
pressure of water vapour in the air is less than the partial pressure of water in the grain. Lithium
chloride (LiCl: specific gravity 2.0) was chosen because of its favourable properties; very stable and
has low vapour pressure. In its pure form LiCl is a white crystalline powder, is very susceptible to
setting into hard lumps owing to its extreme affinity for water. The dissolution of LiCl in water is an
exothermic reaction (generates heat).
The liquid desiccant machine consists of the following components:

a drying bin (containing grain or seeds, through which dried air was passed)

an air drying module (using concentrated desiccant solution to absorb moisture from the air)

a regenerator module (to evaporate water from heated desiccant solution), and

a solar water heater.

In addition to the main modules, desiccant pumps, heat exchangers and air blowers are used to supply
and control air parameters. Electricity required to operate the fans and pumps is relatively minor
compared to the heat energy required for evaporation, which is provided by solar energy. The power
ratings of fans and pumps used are given in Table 1. Figure 1 shows a complete schematic of the
system.
The air drying (dehumidification) system provides low temperature drying with only a small increase
in air temperature. This consists of a packed-bed tower dehumidifier, desiccant droplet separator and
an air fan. As air is pumped in the tower, it is dried by the spraying desiccant before being blown on to
the crop. In the dehumidification process, both the solution and air temperature increases due to the
liberation of latent heat of vaporisation of water. Various tests were conducted in which the liquid
desiccant concentration, flow rate, regeneration temperature, and airflow rate in the drying system may
be altered. Strong solution absorbs water from air in the dehumidification tower and the resulting weak
solution is collected in the tank.
The regeneration system consists of a packed column dehumidification tower, solution tank, pumps
and a liquid to -air heat exchanger. In this process, the system heats the incoming air using the heat
exchanger supplied via the solar water heating system, which is then blown on to the tower where the
weak desiccant is sprayed. This process causes the weak liquid desiccant in the regeneration tower to
lose moisture and reconcentrate.
The packed bed structure was chosen in order to give greater flexibility to run the unit either as a
dehumidifier or as a regenerator [25, 26]. The difference between the dehumidification unit and the
regenerator unit is that the first is used to dehumidify the air by spraying the desiccant on to the air
(opposite flow) while the latter is used for drying the desiccant by blowing heated air (desiccant may
also be heated). By varying the airflow and temperature of the desiccant, each module can serve as
either a dryer or regenerator.

Table 1

Power rating of equipment used in drying system

Equipment

Figure 1

Power-kW

Solar hot water circulating pump 3 speed

0.09

Cold water circulating pump for desiccant cooling (auxiliary)

0.18

CP25 Main desiccant pump used on large unit (U1)

0.37

CP11 Auxiliary desiccant pump used on small unit (U2)

0.18

Fan on Dehumidifier (U1)

1.50

Fan on Regenerator (U2)

0.40

Schematic showing the main components of the desiccant system: (a) air
dehumidification module and (b) desiccant regenerator module

4. Air dehumidification
The objective of this testing was to establish the conditions of the air to be used for drying as it exits
the dehumidification system. The desiccant must be able to dehumidify the air significantly to be used
for drying. To form a correlation between the desiccant concentration and level of dehumidification,
first trials were conducted without regeneration and in order to determine the rate at which the
concentration decreases with time and ambient air conditions.
Several dehumidification tests were conducted using a machine constructed of fibre reinforced plastic
(FRP) as shown in Figure 2. The desiccant concentration ranged between 48% and 72% (W/V). A
conductivity meter was used to determine the concentration after being laboratory calibrated. The
desiccant flow rate was adjusted between 2 and 6 litres/min. The airflow rate was measured at 280 l/s.
Pumps and fans were equipped with voltage regulators. A controller allowed reduction of the flow in
order to obtain specimens for testing.

Figure 2

The desiccant air-dehumidification tower fabricated of fibre reinforced plastic. A

liquid-air heat exchanger is used for heating the air for regeneration of desiccant

Testing was done using around 45 litres at concentration of 72% (W/V). A delay of about 20 minutes
was observed between switching on the system and the effect it had on the process air. This may be
reduced if the pump was switched on prior to switching the air blower. Air is passed in the system and
both air temperature and humidity were recorded before and after exposure. The effect of the desiccant
on air continued for about 1 hour after stopping the pump. An explanation is that the air path across
the surface of the desiccant may provide exposure to facilitate moisture absorption at that interface.
Traces of desiccant suspended in the plastic material within the dehumidification tower are likely
another cause. It is postulated that desiccant flow could be reduced by a significant amount thus
6

minimising parasitic power required for pumping. A pump may be then operated on a duty cycle
depending on air RH and desiccant concentration. In the realisation of this, it may be possible to
design a system, which dramatically reduces desiccant pumping, apart from circulation required to
achieve initial solution.
At high concentration the flow rate would drop. At low temperature (8oC) and when the concentration
was high (74% W/V), the flow rate dropped to approximately 1.2 l/min and partial crystallisation was
observed. The filter and spray nozzles had to be cleaned to restore the desiccant flow. This gave an
indication not to increase the concentration beyond 72% when the ambient temperature is low.
Tests were conducted to verify the results and to reach a concentration level too low to provide any
effective dehumidification. A representation of data is shown in Figures 3 and 4 indicating changes in
concentration, air RH and temperature over time. Figure 4 gives the values of absolute humidity. The
decrease in RH can not be considered in isolation to an increase in outlet air temperature, which
occurred over the same period. On the other hand the air temperature increases as it gains some heat in
the dissolution process. The decrease in concentration over time can be clearly seen in the graph.

Figure 3

Air parameters results versus time

When drying using simply a heat source, reduced moisture is achieved by virtue of the reduced RH
that results from increased temperature. However the total water content defined in terms of grams of
water per kg of dry air doesnt change. This is not the case with desiccant dehumidification which
alters the absolute humidity values. While the inlet air data was inherently varied, the outlet data was
very smooth and showed much less fluctuations. An interesting point to note was the way in which the
inlet RH varied drastically over the course of the testing and none of these variations were visible in
the outlet data. The same is not entirely true for the temperatures, which showed some parallel trends
although greatly reduced. The change in the outlet RH would appear to be mainly a function of the
concentration of the desiccant, at least in the range experienced during testing.

Figure 4

Air dehumidification results showing moisture content versus time

From the results, it may be reasonable to assume that the gradient of the outlet RH may be a useful
method for predicting concentration. Another observation was the difference (T) noted between the
inlet air temperature and outlet air temperature. There was strong correlation between desiccant
concentration and temperature difference. At strong concentration (66% 68%), T was 10oC to 12oC,
whereas when the concentration dropped (52% 54%) T was 4oC 6oC. The T may therefore be a
crude indicator of the desiccant concentration.
The desiccant machine was then connected to a drying bin as shown in Figure 5. The initial moisture
content (MC) of the grain (sorghum) was 18%. Other data obtained were:

Inlet and outlet air parameters: RH and T; recorded every 5 minutes during the day.

Air out of drying bin: RH and T; recorded every 5 minutes during the day.

Desiccant concentration: recorded every 30 minutes.

Moisture content: three readings were recorded every 60 minutes.

Figures 6 and 7 show the parameters at the inlet air, outlet air, and the air at the bin versus time. The
concentration of the desiccant and moisture content are also shown. The air flow dropped to around
180 l/sec when the dehumidification tower was connected to the drying bin. Observations were made
regarding the temperature difference between inlet air and outlet air.

The output relative humidity RH (out of the tower) was nearly constant between 8.5% and 9% when
the desiccant concentration ranged from 68% down to 65%. This condition was observed for about 4
hours. The results showed that over the 24-hour period the grain had dried from a 17.7% MC to 13.3%
average MC. The grain was further subjected to dehumidified air overnight. Despite the high RH
experienced throughout the night, the dehumidified air had on average 50% less humidity than the
incoming air. The difference in RH and in temperature between the inlet air and dry air are shown in
Figure 7. Figure 8 shows the moisture content of the grain after 18 and 28 hours of operation.

Figure 5

Coupling the dehumidification module to the batch bin for drying

Figure 6

Inlet and outlet air RH and temperature, desiccant concentration and grain MC

The temperature and humidity at the drying bin were recorded (Figure 7). The temperature at the
surface of the grain was rather cooler at 16oC to 19oC compared with 20oC to 23oC at the inlet of the
bin. The RH at the surface of the bin varied between 39.8% and 73.2%. These numbers suggest that a
closed loop drying is not suitable until the RH (out of the bin) had dropped to below that of ambient
air.

10

Figure 7

Drying test showing air temperature and RH at the surface of the grain, MC and
desiccant concentration. Also shown are the differences in temperature and in RH
between inlet and dried air

Figure 8

Moisture content of grain in the drying bin (expected to reach 12%)

11

5. Desiccant regeneration
As described, as moisture condenses in the desiccant solution, the solution gradually becomes diluted.
Once the concentration of the desiccant falls to about 48%, its ability to absorb moisture is greatly
reduced and it needs to be regenerated.
The desiccant is restored to its optimal concentration in the regenerator module. The packed-bed
structure was used for the regenerator because of its simplicity and also because it allowed the same
machine to run in either mode. A liquid-air heat exchanger was used to supply the thermal energy
requirement of the air via a closed loop circulating hot water system. The solar collector used is shown
in Fig. 9.
First the desiccant solution is heated to about 45oC by hot water from a solar water heater. Then, the
hot desiccant is sprayed and drains through the bed of packing material, creating a large surface area in
contact with air passing upwards through the regenerator. This causes water to evaporate from the
desiccant solution, cooling the solution and increasing its concentration. The exhaust air is generally
more moist and warmer than ambient air. This suggests that a technique may be used to re-claim the
water from the exhaust air.

Figure 9

Solar hot water system used for the regeneration of the desiccant.

As the desiccant concentration increases the minimum temperature of the process air should also be
increased. For example, when the concentration reaches 60% the air temperature should be close to
60oC. Failure to observe the minimum heating temperature will result in the desiccant operation
reversing to dehumidification.

12

6. Benefits of desiccant drying

Tests showed that lithium chloride is a very effective desiccant. At high concentration of 75% LiCl has
the ability to lower air relative humidity (RH) to as low as 12% regardless of air intake. This is
achieved with only a small increase in air temperature. The advantages of low temperature drying can
be summarised in the following:

By not using heated air to lower the RH of the drying air, a method of lowering the RH by
dehumidifying the incoming air removes the risk of causing heat damage or rapid deterioration in
seed viability during the drying process.

There is a clear and significant correlation between the temperature that seed is exposed to during
the drying stage and the resulting seed viability and storage life potential. [e.g. soybean seed dried
to 8% moisture at 37oC had an initial germination of 91% and a germ after 3 months of 87%.
Contrast this with seed dried at 48oC and after 3 months storage was only 5% germination[23].

Minimizing temperatures during the drying process is extremely important to help maximize the
initial and long term viability of both high value hybrid seed and their inbred parent lines (Pacific
Seeds, Toowoomba).

For long term storage or storage under hot tropical conditions it is necessary to dry seed to low
MCs to reduce the seed deterioration rate. The equilibrium relative MCs of seed is below 40%.
Such low RH levels in the drying air are difficult to achieve economically or consistently when
relying on heat to lower ambient RH. Dehumidified air dryers are capable of consistently
achieving these low RH values regardless of ambient weather conditions.

Drying can be maintained during the night by using hot water produced during the day, or by
using desiccant solution that has been regenerated during the day. Storage tanks for desiccant
solution and hot water will enable maximum flexibility to utilise available solar energy, and to
allow heat gained when the desiccant absorbs moisture to be naturally dissipated to the
environment.

Dehumidified air systems have the following benefits:

Seed drying can continue 24 hours per day under all weather conditions, avoiding costly delays in
harvesting, transport, processing and shipping schedules.

The drying rate is easily and accurately controlled, regardless of the ambient air temperature and
relative humidity conditions.

Drying can be done at a predetermined rate. Drying rate can be constant or varied according to
predetermined drying schedules.

The system is relatively easy and quick to retrofit into an existing drying infrastructure making use
of the existing plenum chamber, fans, ducting, bins and handling equipment.

Heating systems in existing drying facilities can also be utilised as part of the desiccant
regeneration system.

The system can be modular, allowing for relatively easy increases in capacity to be achieved
without requiring additional staffing.

13

7. Commercialisation pathway
The worldwide market for desiccant compressed air and gas dryers was valued at US$175 million in
2007 and had a forecast compound annual growth rate of 2.18% for the period 2002-2012. The market
in Asia and Oceania was valued at US$64 million for 2007 making it 36.4% of the worldwide market.
The Australian market was valued at US$1.91 million equating to 3% of the market for Asia and
Oceania[27].
The worldwide demand for farm crop drying fans (over 15,000 cf, at 1 inch pressure) is expected to
increase from US$89 million in 2007 to US$127.4 million in 2012, or 5.95% per annum. Table 2 gives
a breakdown of the data for 2007 by regions. Asia was the region with the highest latent demand of
US$31 million, equating to 34.9% of demand for the globe. Europe and the Middle East was the
second largest region with a demand of US$26 million, followed by North America and the Caribbean
with a demand of US$21 million. When combined Asia, Europe and the Middle East and North
America and the Caribbean equate to 87.9% of the global demand. The Oceania market was valued at
US$1 million with the Australian market for crop drying fans being US$0.96 million.
Table 2

Worldwide market for farm crop drying fans for grain, hay, and seed over 15,000
c.f.m. (at approximately 1 inch pressure) [AIC, April 2007]
Region

Latent Demand US$ Million

% of Globe

Asia

31

34.9

Europe & the Middle East

26

29.3

North America & the Caribbean

21

23.7

Latin America

7.1

Africa

3.7

Oceana

1.3

Total

89

100.0

The market for dryer sales in Australia has been predominantly in QLD, NSW and WA, with several
in SA and a small number in Victoria. The dry-air system would make drying grain and other
agricultural products more viable in the tropics (such as the Atherton Tableland), where high ambient
relative humidity (RH) makes heated-air dryers ineffective. The system would also have appeal in the
colder parts of Australia (Victoria and Tasmania) and New Zealand where humidity and low
temperatures also make drying expensive.
Research has shown that there is a strong need for more energy efficient drying equipment, which
relies on renewable energy. In addition to its cost savings; demand exists for the technology because it
preserves the quality of the produce and dramatically cuts drying time, which are significant factors for
potential buyers. The system can also be modular, allowing for relatively easy increases in capacity to
be achieved.
Presently there is no direct competitor for manufacturing the system in Australia, although R&D has
been conducted overseas. It is believed that there is a huge potential for the system in Australia and
overseas and Agridry is in a good position to capture a large percentage of this market. The close
proximity of Agridry and QUT to the high demand in the Asian region is advantageous in the
development and sale of the drying machinery.
It is worth noting that desiccant dehumidification can be adapted to aeration of stored grains, to control
temperature and moisture levels particularly for high value seeds. New applications for desiccants are
also being investigated such as in car air-conditioning and water desalination.

14

The design and construction of the desiccant system is relatively simple and solves a number of
problems associated with hot air drying. However, the set up cost is rather high particularly when a
solar collector is employed. Research showed that a payback period of usually 5 to 7 years can be
achieved. The niche application of the desiccant technique is realised when dealing with high value
seeds (such as parent seeds) and other heat sensitive crops.
A business plan was undertaken to formulate the strengths, weaknesses and opportunities associated
with the new technology. These are summarised as follows:
The strengths of the technology

high efficiency

improved yield

low risk system

reduced energy use

reduced heat damage

saves time and money

can be easily integrated to conventional systems.

The weaknesses

high initial cost

desiccant cost and life

need for alternative back up

existing prior art may affect licensing

new technology requires time to accept

long payback period especially with solar system.

The threats facing the technology

protection of IP

conventional systems are cheaper

technical issues to overcome (e.g. pressure drop, desiccant leaks)

new technology requires market acceptance (require demonstration).

The opportunities associated with the system

first move advantage

no large companies in the market

strong demand for grain and seed dryers

15

public acceptance of solar power applications

opportunity as energy cost increases with carbon tax in 2010.

A number of activities were taken to publicise and promote the new liquid desiccant technology by
Agridry and QUT. A prototype machine was manufactured and since then has been used for testing
and demonstration. The machine was tested for a number of months using different products obtained
from various companies. Several types of desiccants and packed bed material were used. A list of
contact companies and their representatives can be obtained from the author. A number of Agridry
clients have already expressed interest in the new air drying system especially for low temperature
application.
Following the trials of the prototype a larger machine (Figure 10) was also developed and
demonstrated at the Agriculture Show in Toowoomba in September 2007. Recommendations for
improvement to simplify construction were implemented. The desiccant machine was featured on
Channel 9 (Win TV) on the 6 oclock news on 14 February 2008. A digital copy of the recording can
be obtained directly from Win TV. Agridry also submitted an entry into the 2007/08 DuPont
Australian and New Zealand Innovation Award competition and was a finalist. Further demonstration
of the drying machine will be done at various opportunities.
A large new drying system is now being developed by Agridry and QUT for a company in Pittsworth.
This is likely to be the worlds first commercial desiccant drier. The system will process six tons of
grass seeds per day from 20% moisture content (MC) down to 2%.

16

Figure 10 A liquid desiccant drying machinery manufactured by Agridry in Toowoomba

Agridry has gained adequate experience with the desiccant technology to enable the manufacturing of
modular units of different capacities. Drawings have been prepared to manufacture a machine with a
maximum desiccant capacity of 500 L and with different air flow (up to 2,000 L/s). Although this
model is not automated, it is quite simple to operate and would offer a low cost drying option in the
case of heat sensitive products (such as parent seeds). A rotating drum is currently being investigated
and promises to be more efficient to adapt to the desiccant technology.
17

8. Conclusions
Many forms of nuts, seeds and grains often undergo a drying procedure, which can be improved using
a desiccant assisted system. Although conventional hot air drying methods are already in place to
achieve the required drying, a system using solar power for the regeneration of the desiccant material
would significantly improve product quality, replace large amounts of fossil fuel and reduce running
costs. Many problems associated with hot air drying such as heat damage to seeds and machinery can
thus be avoided.
This report presents the development of a working prototype solar grain drying system based on liquid
desiccant. When moist air is passed through a mist of liquid desiccant, a dehumidifier process occurs
which lowers the absolute humidity compared with hot air only drying air stream. As a result, the
drying effect when applied to grain is accelerated. The extent of undesirable effects of heat on the
grain can be reduced since the liquid desiccant process only raises grain temperature by few degrees as
compared with using direct heated air streams.
Comprehensive testing was done in different climatic conditions (in Toowoomba) and using a variety
of products. Different types of liquid desiccants were trialled and lithium chloride was found to be the
most effective. At high concentration of 75% LiCl has the ability to lower air RH to as low as 10%
regardless of ambient condition. Two types of drying bins were used to find a system which will
reduce back pressure. The desiccant system was trialled in two configurations: open air stream and
closed loop. It was found that halfway during the drying process (when the air RH exiting the drying
bin is lower than the ambient air RH) the air loop may be closed. This would save up to 25% on the
drying time. This feature can only be effective with desiccant technology.
One of the benefits of using liquid desiccant is that it can be adapted to using solar energy (or waste
heat) for the regeneration of the weak solution. The liquid desiccant drying system has the following
advantages:
1. It improves crop yield and offers a more efficient means for crop preservation.
2. Can be adapted to using solar energy or waste heat for the regeneration of the desiccant.
3. It allows much lower air inlet absolute humidity, while keeping the air temperature below harmful
levels for the seeds and has the potential to lower drying time drastically. .
4. Expected to lower drying cost and reduce pollution associated with conventional drying methods.
5. It can be designed for optimum air conditions required for the agricultural product regardless of
ambient conditions.
6. The lower inlet (drying) air temperature offers major advantages in that there is much less risk of
damaging the product qualities, e.g. germination rates and milling qualities.
7. The lack of a naked flame as used in most hot air dryers means that the risk of fire in the drying
vessel is eliminated.
Whilst the market identified for crop drying machinery was small in Australia, the Asian region was
the biggest market, comprising 34.9% of the worldwide market with a total value of US$31 million.
The market potential for desiccant driers is expected to grow dramatically in many parts of the world
especially with the continued escalation in fuel costs. Public pressure to reduce harmful emissions of
carbon based fuels and the introduction of carbon tax will stimulate more demand for solar powered
applications such as in grain drying and heating.

18

Agridry has gained experience in desiccant drying and a new type of machinery has been added to its
line of manufacturing capabilities. The next phase is to produce a fully automated version equipped
with additional storage tanks for liquid desiccant.
The developmental work suggests that the desiccant drying technology can be expanded to grain
storage (in silos) and crop preservation. Although aeration fans are used to help protect the stored
grain, damage still occurs, which forces farmers to use chemicals to control the spread of insects. One
of the immediate uses of the desiccant system is in long-term storage of crops; where normal aeration
fans would not be effective.
The collaborative work between QUT and Agridry was beneficial; research and development efforts
have been complemented with practical industrial experience, networking, marketing tools and media
coverage. Steps have been undertaken to promote the liquid desiccant machine and these are expected
to yield positive results.
Solar energy is expected to play a greater role in many everyday applications: domestic, commercial
and industrial. Solar thermal energy can be used directly in many applications requiring medium and
low heat temperature (without electric conversion). Applications such as grain drying, pre-heating of
water for industrial and commercial use, and air heating are some examples of several requiring just
heat, which can be obtained economically by solar collectors.
Developmental projects such as the solar desiccant drying provide the technology push for product
commercialisation while financial incentives and government policies provide the necessary market
pull. Legislations such as the proposed carbon tax in 2010 and the escalation in fuel prices (diesel
and LPG) will be strong drivers to promote the use of solar energy into the agriculture sector.
To enable its development policies and incentives are needed to promote the spread of solar powered
applications particularly suited to thermal energy. In promoting the technology recognise that

Automation as a key feature in any new development of the machine to reduce labour interference
and produce consistent results.

The ability to operate the machine in either mode (regeneration and dehumidification) would be
advantageous to improve performance, reduce cost and offer modularity to expand.

A backup power supply for operation on cloudy days would be an essential component of the
system to assure clients of energy supply.

Further investigations are needed in the use of the desiccant system in long-term storage and
preservation, particularly given its potential in regions with very high humidity where normal aeration
fans would not be effective.

19

9. Recommendations
Further investments are needed to support commercialization of the solar powered desiccant drying.
Tasks include

Conducting field demonstrations to attract early sales as well as market penetration.

Controlling growth until the product proves itself to avoid dissatisfaction.

Ensuring sufficient demand from high value applications to support initial manufacturing at low
volume.

Selling equipment for a small profit during early stage of commercialization

Emphasizing the inherent benefits of solar drying in early sales as customers willing to switch to
solar will feel personal gratification and satisfaction.

Leasing the system instead of selling to permit early trials by prospective clients.

20

10. References
[1] S. Gunasekaran, Optimal energy management in grain drying, CRC Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition, Vol. 25 Issue 1, pp. 1-48, 1986.
[2] M. D. Lucia and D. Assennato, Agricultural engineering in development Post-harvest
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[3] A. S. Mujumdar, Research and development in drying: Recent trends and future prospects,
Drying Technology, Vol. 22, 2004.
[4] A. S. Mujumdar, An overview of innovation in industrial drying: current status and R&D
needs, Transport in Porous Media, Vol. 66, pp.3-18, 2007.
[5] K. J. Chua and S. K. Chou, Low-cost drying methods for developing countries, Trends in Food
Science & Technology, Volume 14, Issue 12, December 2003, pp. 519-528.
[6] Gershon Grossman and Alec Johannsen, Solar cooling and air conditioning, Progress in
Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 7, Issue 3, 1981, pp. 185-228.
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[9] Y. J. Dai, R. Z. Wang and Y. X. Xu, Study of a solar powered solid adsorptiondesiccant
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[10] T. F. N. Thoruwa, A. D. Grant, J. E. Smith and C. M. Johnstone, A solar-regenerated desiccant
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installation: optimization by numerical simulation, Energy Conversion and Management, Vol.
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Heat Recovery Systems and CHP, Vol. 9, Issue 5, 1989, pp. 467-473.
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dehumidification and desiccant regeneration, Solar Energy, Vol. 72, Issue 4, April 2002, pp.
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[18] T. F. N. Thoruwa, C. M. Johnstone, A. D. Grant and J. E. Smith, Novel, low cost CaCl2 based
desiccants for solar crop drying applications, Renewable Energy, Vol. 19, Issue 4, April 2000,
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[19] A. Ertas, E. E. Anderson and I. Kiris, Properties of a new liquid desiccant solutionLithium
chloride and calcium chloride mixture, Solar Energy, Vol. 49, Issue 3, September 1992, pp. 205212.
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structured packed column, Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 48, Issue 1, January 2007,
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21

[22] J. Khedari, R. Rawangkul, W. Chimchavee, J. Hirunlabh and A. Watanasungsuit, Feasibility

study of using agriculture waste as desiccant for air conditioning system, Renewable Energy,
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22

Developing a Solar Drying Machine

for Agricultural Products
RIRDC Publication No. INSERT PUB NO. HERE
bu Kame Khouzam
RIRDC Publication No. 09/026

This report presents a new technique for drying agricultural

products such as cereal grains and seeds. The project developed and
trialled a prototype drying machine based on dry (dehumidified) air
rather than heated air and using a liquid desiccant (drying agent)
and solar energy.

Our business is about developing a more profitable, dynamic and

sustainable rural sector. Most of the information we produce can be
downloaded for free from our website: www.rirdc.gov.au. Books can
be purchased by phoning 02 6271 4166 or online at: www.rirdc.
gov.au.

The report is targeted at farmers, grain dryers and aeration

industries as well as fruit and vegetable drying companies and policy
makers involved in alternative energy sources, particularly the use of
solar thermal energy.
The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
(RIRDC) manages and funds priority research and translates results
into practical outcomes for industry.

This publication can be viewed at our website

www.rirdc.gov.au. All RIRDC books can be
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Innovation for rural Australia