SPE/IADC 79917

Continuous Direction and Inclination Measurements Lead to an Improvement in

Wellbore Positioning
E.J. Stockhausen, SPE, ChevronTexaco and W.G. Lesso, Jr., SPE, Schlumberger
Copyright 2003, SPE/IADC Drilling Conference
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1921 February 2003.
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paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers or the
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Abstract
The measurement of continuous real-time inclination provides
near instantaneous calculations of the build-up rate tendency
of a bottom hole assembly in both rotary and slide drilling
modes. The addition of an azimuthal measurement now
allows for the calculation of wellbore position with this
continuous data. The true nature of the wellbore curvature in
slide/rotate directional drilling with steerable systems is lost
when using the typical 90-foot survey interval. Continuous
surveying shows this effect. When wellbore position is
calculated with the continuous surveys, a significant positional
discrepancy from the stationary surveys can occur.
A study was conducted using both stationary and continuous
survey data from over 20 wells in Nigeria, Angola, the Gulf of
Mexico, the North Sea and Indonesia. The objective was to
determine the magnitude and scope of TVD positional error
caused by the different slide and rotate curvatures between
stationary surveys on a wide range of wells. These curvatures
are not reamed out as commonly thought. They can still be
seen in continuous gyro surveys taken after drilling has
finished. This positional effect is not a function of the sensor
accuracy, but it is a result of the environment in which surveys
are measured. We show that in a horizontal well the effect can
accumulate up to plus/minus 25 ft TVD. The implications of
these results are far reaching. Survey positions are used in
creating structure and reservoir maps, which are used in
determining reserves and recovery efficiencies, and in turn for
making field management decisions.
This paper highlights the results of the field studies. A review
of rotary steerable system operations shows that the effect is
much less than with steerable motors, but can still be
of concern.

A low-cost solution for effectively determining when to slide

and rotate with respect to the stationary survey is presented.
This procedure results in a positional accuracy that can be
maintained without changing survey data management
practices.
Introduction
For more than 15 years the directional well surveying industry
has settled on a standard method of calculating the position of
a wellbore from inclination and azimuth measurements. This
method, called minimum curvature, determines the smallest
radius curvature between two survey stations1,2. The position
coordinates for the second survey, in terms of easting (X),
northing (Y) and true vertical depth (Z), can then be
calculated. A basic assumption is that there is no appreciable
change in the curvature between the surveys.
Two things happened in the early 1990s that have altered this
assumption. First, positive displacement motors (PDMs) with
bent housings made it possible to drill directionally with a
high curve rate (5-10 deg/100ft) when slide drilling and then
switch to drilling in rotary mode with curve rates usually less
than 1 deg/100ft. Second, top drives on offshore and some
land rigs made it possible to drill three 30-ft joints of pipe (or
a stand) without stopping to make connections. MWD tools
usually take a directional survey when the mud pumps are
cycled off and then on when a connection is made. This
means that surveys gradually came to be taken every 90 feet
instead of every 30 feet.
These two developments meant that the probability of
differing curve rates between survey points increased
dramatically; the interpolation between the surveys did not
reflect the actual trajectory of the wellbore. It became difficult
to model and predict curve rates for various PDMs, and there
was speculation that the location of the wellbore at any point
may be incorrect. This positional difference would be in
addition to the positional uncertainty that results from sensor
accuracy and alignment specifications3,4. Directional drillers
took extra surveys or check shots to help with trajectory
tendency work, but little was done to determine the effect on
wellbore position.

SPE/IADC 79917

MWD service companies have modified their downhole data

streams to include sampling of accelerometer and
magnetometer data during pumping operations, most notably
drilling. This means that a simplified single-axis survey can
be transmitted to the surface in the same way that gamma ray
and resistivity data are transmitted. This is in contrast to
stationary surveys, which are three-axis measurements that are
taken when the drill pipe is held in a stationary position
usually just after making a connection.
These continuous direction and inclination measurements
(cDNI) are made every 30-90 seconds which results in surveys
that are two to four feet apart when drilling. The data is
processed downhole to reduce the effects of vibration on the
sensors during drilling and is routinely used by directional
drillers for tendency work5. These surveys are of sufficient
quality, and can be used in calculations of wellbore position.
Work on error models for cDNI data is not complete so
continuous surveys cannot yet reliably be used as
definitive surveys.
Figure 1 shows stationary and continuous survey data over
500 feet of a build section in a directional well. The stationary
surveys are shown as yellow squares and triangles for
inclination and azimuth respectively. The straight lines
connecting the stationary surveys indicate a constant rate of
curvature between these surveys. Continuous inclination data
are shown as red circles while continuous azimuth is shown as
light blue triangles. The vertical lines on this plot divide this
drilling sequence into slide and rotate drilling modes. The
pink data points near the bottom of the plot show the gravity
tool face (GTF) data during the slide states. The changes in
slope of the continuous inclination are indicative of the
vertical build/drop rate achieved while slide versus rotary
drilling. The PDM motor delivered about 13 deg/100ft
building when sliding with these GTF settings. The BHA
dropped at about 4 deg/100ft when rotated. This is a dramatic
but not unusual occurrence resulting from a less than optimal
choice of BHA. The curve rate between the stationary surveys
is about 3.5 deg/100ft. It is fairly obvious that the minimum
curvature method assumption of constant curvature between
those stationary survey points is invalid.
Positional Error from Non-Constant Curvature
As mentioned above, the positional location of a survey point
calculated with the minimum curvature method assumes a
constant curvature between the survey points. Changes in
three-dimensional curvature can be determined by analyzing
cDNI data. Reviewing cDNI data has identified four sources
of non-constant curvature between longer spaced stationary
surveys. They are:
1)
2)

Pattern slide/rotate directional drilling during

build/drop and/or turn sections of wells using
PDM steerable systems
Systematic use of PDM steerable systems to
compensate for build,drop, or walk tendencies
when attempting to maintain or hold a constant

3)
4)

inclination and azimuth in a tangent section of

a well
Changing modes with rotary steerable systems
between stationary survey points
Lithology changes between stationary survey
points such as tight streaks or changes in rock
strength and changing bed dip angles that alter
formation directional tendencies.

Currently, concerns about position concentrate on differences

in true vertical depth (TVD). The positioning of a horizontal
drainhole relative to fluid contacts and the construction of
geological structure maps are based on TVD position.
Changes in azimuthal location, while a valid concern, are, at
this stage, of lesser importance. Continuous direction (or
azimuth, as it is commonly called today) measurements have a
wider fluctuation than the continuous inclination
measurements. This can be seen in the character of these data
in Figure 1. For these reasons and simplicity, this paper will
focus on differences in TVD position, but the argument can be
made for both TVD and azimuthal position.
Figure 2 shows the assumption of constant curvature between
two survey stations. Here a well path is building at a constant
rate, and the position calculated for TVD for the next survey,
x+1, would correctly model the actual location of
the wellbore.
If there were a non-constant curvature between these two
survey points, the actual TVD location of survey x+1 could be
shallower or deeper than the calculated position.
Pattern Slide/Rotate Directional Drilling
Figures 3 and 4 show how differing curve rates between
surveys affect positional calculations. Figure 3a shows a
modeled trajectory between two surveys. Here a rotate section
with a zero curve rate follows a slide drilling section with a
moderately high curve rate of 5 deg/100ft. Figure 3b shows a
similar modeled section except this time the rotate section
with no curve rate is performed first followed by the slide
section. The surveys at the end points for both of these figures
have the same inclination and will result in the same TVD
when the minimum curvature calculation is made. Yet the
figures show that the actual TVD for Figure 3b is deeper, and
the actual TVD in Figure 3a is shallower than the TVD
calculated using the end points or stationary surveys.
Figure 3c shows a model of a slide section placed between two
rotate sections. The actual TVD position for this section will
be very close to the same as the TVD calculated from the
stationary surveys. The changes in curvature shown in these
models are examples of pattern slide rotate directional
drilling. They could not be detected without taking additional
stationary surveys or using continuous surveys.
Figure 4a shows a model of what happens when the pattern of
slide followed by rotary drilling relative to the stationary
surveys, as shown in Figure 3a is repeated many times in the

SPE/IADC 79917

build section of a horizontal well. The difference between the

TVD calculated using the stationary inclinations (taken at the
endpoints of each pattern), and the continuous inclinations
accumulates to where the TVD from the continuous
inclination is about 25 feet shallow of the TVD from
stationary inclination. This model shows a perfect slide/rotate
pattern that generates the maximum TVD difference.
Figure 4b shows the opposite extreme. Here the pattern is to
rotate first then slide as shown in Figure 3b. When this pattern
is carried out in the build of a horizontal well, the TVD from
continuous inclination is 25 feet deeper than the TVD
calculated from the stationary survey inclinations. Figure 4c
shows the results for the pattern where the slide is placed in
the middle as in Figure 3c. There is very little difference
in TVD.
These figures show that patterns in slide/rotate sequences can
result in a positional difference in TVD between 25 ft shallow
and 25 ft deep in a horizontal well. This TVD difference
could be proportionally less if the build was to an inclination
less than 90 degrees. It could also be greater if the contrast
between the slide and rotate curvatures is larger. In practice,
directional drillers do not execute the perfect patterns shown
in these models, but systematic patterns do present themselves.
TVD differences are also affected by the BHA configuration,
the distance from the bit to the survey sensors, joint or stand
lengths, and relative amount of slide and rotary footage in
a sequence.
PDM Steerable System Work in Tangent Sections
A tangent section is the angle hold section in a standard slant
or S trajectory or the lateral section of a horizontal well.
Active directional drilling, that is performing slide sections
when the objective is to hold angle in a tangent section is
sometimes necessary. The tendency of a BHA can change
with differing formations and operational parameters such as
flow rate, weight-on-bit and rotation speed (RPMs). PDM
steerable systems can be used to counter the effects of
undesired rotary drilling tendencies. A slide section is added
to the drilling sequence as discussed in the previous section.
The difference is that the slides are usually much shorter.
Figure 5 shows a model of what stationary and continuous
survey data looks like when drilling a lateral section with a
BHA that drops at 1 deg/100ft when rotary drilling. The
objective is to maintain the wellbore at 90 degrees. This is
accomplished by adding a slide section to each stand being
drilled that, in this case delivers, 6 deg/100ft. A slide for 14
feet at building 6 deg/100ft will neutralize a rotary section of
86 feet dropping at 1 deg/100ft in a 100-foot drilling section.
If the slide is performed immediately after the stationary
survey depth, the stationary surveys will all read 90 degrees
when this pattern is repeated. The continuous surveys will
show the actual inclination for this pattern and will have
values greater than 90 degrees (except at the stationary survey
point). The wellbore TVD position calculated from the
continuous surveys will drift shallow as compared to the

position calculated from the stationary surveys. In this case

the drift rate is 3.7 feet in every 500 feet drilled.
Figure 6 shows how this drift can impact decisions in drilling
a horizontal well. It sketches a typical geosteering objective.
A 1500-foot lateral section is to be placed six feet below a
formation pay top. The formation has 17 feet of pay before an
oil water contact (OWC) is encountered. Figure 7a shows
how geosteering progress would probably be interpreted if the
slide/rotate pattern in figure 5 was used to drill this section.
The stationary surveys would show that the wellbore was
holding at 90 degrees and that there is no change in TVD.
After about 810 feet of drilling the formation top is
encountered. The most likely interpretation of the data is that
the formation is dipping downward. A decision to stop
drilling would be reasonable. Recoverable reserves estimates
would also be lowered. Figure 7b is a sketch of the modeled
trajectory where TVD is calculated from the continuous
surveys. The well path drifts shallow at the 3.7 feet per 500
feet. The pay top, which remains flat, is encountered after 810
feet of drilling. The ultimate recovery for the project will be
less than anticipated due to the shorter lateral section. By
monitoring well position in real-time using the cDNI
measurements these situations can be avoided.
Figures 8 and 9 show actual cases of using slide sections to
compensate for rotary dropping tendency during planned hold
sections. Figure 8 shows a horizontal well where the situation
developed in a similar fashion to the model in Figure 5. The
slides are used to maintain 90 degrees when the rotary
tendency is to drop. The TVD difference drifts shallow.
Figure 9 shows a well where inclination is being held at about
47 degrees. The slide sections are placed at different positions
relative to the stationary surveys. While there are large
fluctuations in the TVD difference, the net effect over this
4000 foot interval is only about two feet.
Positional Differences with Rotary
Steerable Systems
The introduction of rotary steerable systems eliminates the
need for the large changes in curve rates between slide and
rotary drilling sections resulting from the use of steerable
motors. Rotary steerable systems produce curve rates based
on the selection of a tool face angle and percentage of side
force in the direction of the tool face angle. To increase angle
and turn slightly to the right, a rotary steerable system would
be set at a tool face of 20 degrees with 35% of total force
available. The power setting could be changed to 100% in
order to steer more aggressively. A neutral setting would be
0%, and the tool face angle would be irrelevant. This type of
directional drilling produces longer, more consistent curve
rates that are smooth and predictable. This, plus the ease of
use of rotary steerable systems and higher rates of penetration
are the major reasons that rotary steerable systems are rapidly
changing the nature of directional drilling. But, a TVD
difference can develop when settings are changed between
survey points.

Figure 10 shows an example of this. This well from the North

Sea is in the final build to horizontal. A bit run using a
steerable system motor finished at about 3100 feet. A rotary
steerable system is used in the following run, and the figure
shows four different tool settings applied over the interval
from 3100 to 4000 feet. The continuous inclination shows the
consistency in build angle for each set and clearly defines
where a set ends and the next one starts. The stationary
surveys are taken at the completion of drilling each stand of
pipe. Note that in two cases the stationary surveys are not at
the depths where the rotary steerable settings are changed.
There is a rounding the corner effect between the continuous
and stationary inclinations. These corners can cause up to a
two-foot TVD difference for each occurrence.
Lithology Effects on Non-Constant Curvature
Lithology changes such as tight streaks, changes in rock
strength, and changing bed dip angle can alter directional
tendencies. When these are encountered between survey
stations, a rounding the corner effect similar to what happens
with rotary steerable systems can result in TVD positional
differences. These events tend to be isolated incidences and
they are difficult to detect with longer survey intervals. Tight
streaks can result in a large dogleg over a short interval. This
can cause drilling and completion problems in addition to
TVD differences. By monitoring the cDNI data in real-time,
these events can be identified and remedial action taken to
minimize their effects.
Figure 11 shows the reaction of a rotary steerable drilling
assembly with a high density tight streak in a horizontal
wellbore. The trajectory is decreasing from 95 to 82 degrees
inclination. The bit hits the bottom of a hard streak at 5750
feet and bounces down as evidenced by the continuous
inclination. BHA stiffness causes the inclination to recover
and the bit hits the hard streak a second time before the
general downward tendency in inclination continues. The
stationary surveys do not see this event. In this case, the TVD
positional differences cancel out. The density image log, by
itself, indicates two tight streaks. The continuous surveys
show that the wellbore approached one tight streak twice.
Horizontal Well Position Study
There is no standard set of procedures for incorporating the
continuous directional data into survey calculations for dogleg
severity or hole positioning. We wanted to determine the
extent of this problem and methods for ameliorating it, at least
for TVD positional error on present, future, and then past
wells.
A study was commissioned in August 2001 to determine the
extent of wellbore TVD error resulting from pattern
slide/rotate drilling practices. Three or more horizontal wells
from Nigeria, Angola and Indonesia were selected for a total
of thirteen wells. The survey data, both stationary and
continuous, was captured and processed.
Directional
operations data, BHA reports, and slide sheets were also
gathered together. The table shown in Figure 12 details the

SPE/IADC 79917

results of this study. Figure 13 shows the positional

calculation results of the study graphically. Eight of the wells
have TVD differences greater than 5 feet. The largest
difference was in the GBK a where the continuous
inclination places the final true vertical depth 22 feet deeper
than the TVD calculated from the stationary surveys.
The three wells from Indonesia have the lowest positional
errors. A review of the directional drilling procedures there
showed that these rigs did not have top drives, and drilling was
accomplished using a standard Kelly. Surveys were taken at
every joint of pipe or roughly every 30 feet. A slide/rotate
pattern developed with slides usually 15 feet in length. The
shorter survey interval of 30 feet did not allow differences in
inclination to develop into a significant TVD positional
difference.
For purposes of this study, surveys were
eliminated from the 30-foot list to simulate a 90-foot survey
spacing. A significant TVD difference still did not develop.
This is due to the shorter slide lengths. Top drive use in the
other countries allowed for longer slide sections
between surveys.
The delta TVD values presented reflect the well status only at
final depth. Minor changes in procedures could cause the
delta TVD to first drift shallower and then later drift deeper.
Figure 14 shows the stationary and continuous inclination data
for the GBK a well in Nigeria. The data covers the entire
directional well from kick-off point through build and tangent
sections and finally through the horizontal or lateral section to
TD at 9033 feet. A comparison between the TVD calculated
from the continuous inclination and the stationary inclination
shows that the well would be 22 feet deeper at total depth
based on the continuous inclination. The delta TVD curve on
the plot shows how that error accumulated. The error both
increased and decreased based on changing directional drilling
practices. It reached a maximum at 7310 feet where the
continuous surveys indicated that the well was 23.7
feet deeper.
The section of borehole represented by the dashed box in
Figure 14 is enlarged and shown in Figure 15. It shows a
portion of the final build to horizontal from 6000 to 7000 feet.
Here the true nature of pattern slide/rotate directional drilling
can be seen. The continuous inclination shows that angle
builds during the slide sections and simply holds angle during
the rotary drilling sections. The stationary inclination survey
points at approximately a 90-foot spacing do not see this
effect. The line drawn between the stationary inclination
points indicates the constant rate of curvature assumed by the
minimum curvature method. When the non-constant curvature
shown by the continuous surveys is below this line, the delta
TVD accumulates indicating that the wellbore is increasingly
deeper. Continuous surveys above the line result in delta TVD
moving shallower. During this section, the continuous
inclination is mostly below the stationary survey line. Thus,
the delta TVD is accumulating from 14 to 23 feet deeper.
There are a few points where the continuous inclination is
above the stationary survey line, and the delta TVD decreases
or moves shallower in these instances.

SPE/IADC 79917

It is important to note that in this well almost all of the TVD

difference occurs as a result of attempting to build or drop
angle. During the drilling of the hold sections (3600 5700
feet and 7100 9033 feet) the bottom hole assembly did a
good job of holding angle when rotary drilling. The
continuous inclination tended to directly overlay the line
connecting the stationary surveys and little or no delta TVD
developed. Only when correction slides were made (near
4700 and 7700 feet) did TVD differences occur.

sections using positive displacement motors would be reamed

out by pipe rotation and tripping actions as the well
progresses. It was thought that the tortuosity and positional
difference were eliminated, and a smooth borehole was the
end result. There has not been an easy way to check this
assumption until recently when the continuous surveys made
during drilling could be compared to continuous gyro surveys.
Gyro surveys are generally taken after the completion of the
drilling of the hole size section.

There are two conclusions from this study: first, a significant

positional error is possible on 60% of horizontal wells studied;
and second, that positional error can be greatly influenced by
directional drilling procedures. The probability is high that
horizontal wells drilled with PDM steerable systems on a top
drive rig will have a TVD positional problem large enough to
cause problems with the well placement. The obvious
criticism of these conclusions is that 13 wells is not a large
enough sample. Additional wells have been reviewed from
the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico and also from the three
countries of the original study. The process is on going, but
the percentage seems to be holding.

Figure 16 shows the stationary and continuous MWD surveys

along with a continuous gyro survey data set for 1000 feet of a
North Sea well. Slide sections are plotted with gravity tool
face data indicating a build section. The gyro survey was
taken after this 12 hole section was drilled. It shows that
while there was some reduction in the curve rates, a majority
of it remains, and the two continuous data sets can be
easily correlated.

Landing Horizontal Wells

The effect of TVD positional differences in horizontal wells
can lead to poorly placed drainhole sections or even missing
the target reservoir completely. Since both the operator
personnel and service company directional drillers are not
aware of this problem caused by non-constant curvature in
surveys, the problem usually is attributed to an unexpected
change in geological structure. Forty percent of gestured
horizontal wells encounter a geological surprise6 was a
statement made in 1996. These surprises were usually in the
range of a 10 to 20 feet TVD shift. How many of these shifts
were the result of non-constant curvature in the survey
calculations as opposed to problems in structural mapping?
During geosteering operations, marker beds above the target
reservoir are used to help determine the relative position of the
wellbore to the target. Adjustments are made to the trajectory
to refine the landing point when correlations are made with
these marker beds assuming the vertical thickness and dip
angles of the intermediate beds remains constant. The
modeling of petrophysical data and navigation techniques
developed over the past ten years made it possible to deal with
most of the unexpected changes that occur by making an
evasive maneuver in landing a horizontal well. But additional
TVD positional error can accumulate during the final approach
to the landing resulting in an overshooting or undershooting of
the desired landing location. This may result in the loss of
some lateral section. Additionally, the projection of bed dips
ahead of the bit may be misinterpreted leading to poor
targeting further in the horizontal section or on
subsequent wells.
Gyro Comparisons
It has long been assumed by many that these fluctuations in
curvature caused by alternating between slide and rotary

The Relationship between Positional Error from Nonconstant Curvature and Survey Sensor Accuracy
The positional difference found when computing the location
from directional surveys with non-constant curvature is not to
be confused with the positional accuracy calculated using the
accepted error models in references 3 and 4.
These
computations are based on the design, capabilities, and
packaging of the actual sensors. An ellipsoid of uncertainty is
usually defined in terms of a major and minor axis and a
vertical component. A confidence interval is defined and
accuracy is stated such that there is a 95% or a 99%
confidence that the wellbore at a survey point is within the
ellipsoid. Since this accuracy is expressed in terms of the
lengths of the ellipsoid axes, it is possible to compare the
length of the vertical component of the ellipsoid to the TVD
positional difference using minimum curvature with nonconstant curvature.
Such a comparison is misleading. One is an accuracy based
on characteristics of the sensors, while the other is an effect
based on the use of those sensors. Both of these attributes of
survey analysis are real and independent of each other. There
are distinct and separate methods for reducing both the effects
of sensor accuracy and non-constant curvature. The survey
accuracy issue affects every directional well. The nonconstant curvature issue affects wells where curvature changes
significantly, and survey spacing is greater than 45 feet. The
population of wells with this positional problem is clearly a
subset of wells where sensor accuracy is an issue.
Possible Solutions
The problem of positional difference resulting from nonconstant curvature in wellbores has gradually crept into
directional drilling practices. Several solutions are available
based on modifying directional drilling methods, survey
calculations and procedures in drilling measurements.

Return to a Survey Interval of 30 Feet

The obvious solution to this problem would be to go back to
taking surveys every 30 feet. Analyses made during the
studies presented in this paper indicate that the positional
difference would be reduced by more than 90% by returning to
30-foot surveys. Figure 17 shows graphically how using 30foot stationary surveys drastically reduces the TVD difference
between continuous and stationary inclination.
Since there is not yet a methodology for combining stationary
and continuous survey data and maintain manageable sensor
error models, returning to 30-ft survey stations is the simplest
way to consistently minimize this problem. It would not
require the introduction of new procedures to the directional
drilling industry. However, it would greatly reduce a popular
feature of top drive drilling by interrupting the drilling of 90foot sections of hole. It also takes time and, therefore, costs
money in drilling operations. It is estimated that the time
required for adding back the two surveys in each stand would
cost an additional $50,000 per well (offshore non-deepwater
operations). Since data exists in the continuous survey
measurements to resolve this problem, it is hard for these
authors to accept that the best solution is to ignore this data
and return to an older and less efficient procedure. Several
alternatives exist.
Balanced Slide Method
A closer look at how this positional difference develops shows
that it is the relationship between where the stationary surveys
are taken and where the directional driller makes the slide
section within each stand of drill pipe that causes the problem.
Two things could be changed: first, the surveys could be taken
at different depths; and second, the depths of the slide sections
could be changed. The surveys are taken upon the completion
of drilling the stand as close to the bottom of the hole as
possible without increasing the risk of sticking the pipe. This
procedure is nearly universal in directional drilling. The slide
section planned for each stand of pipe is much more
discretionary. The directional driller decides the footage
needed for each slide section to achieve trajectory objectives.
The slide is usually placed in the first part of the stand being
drilled. Most of the remaining reasons for slide placement are
based on hole cleaning procedures and the avoidance of hole
sticking problems. These procedures are not universal and
could be altered to include consideration of the
positional problem.
The location of a slide section within the drilling of a stand of
pipe can be balanced to minimize the effect of non-continuous
curvature on wellbore position. This would not eliminate the
contrasting curvatures found with PDM drilling, but it would
alter the locations of these curvatures so that they cancel out
development of positional differences. Half of the difference
between continuous and stationary survey data would be
above the line drawn between stationary surveys, and half
would be below. The net difference would be zero.

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Several factors must be considered in balancing a slide

section. These are: the length of the stand, the distance from
the bit to the MWD survey sensor, the standard distance offbottom where stationary surveys are taken, and the length of
the intended slide section. Figure 18 shows how these factors
come together to produce the desired result. This is a
computation that the directional driller can make for each
stand of pipe. The result is that he has a recommended
footage to drill in rotary mode in the stand before starting the
slide section. Hole cleaning, stability, or sticking problems
can override this recommendation. In this case, the location of
the stationary survey could be changed to balance the slide.
The authors are testing operational procedures for
implementing this solution. This includes real-time analysis of
continuous and stationary survey data to minimize the delta
TVD difference between the two survey sets.
Other Alternatives
A new method for calculating position from survey data that
accounts for non-constant curvature can be devised. Several
approaches are possible. These are usually based on previous
knowledge of the curve rates for slide and rotary directional
drilling. The location and tool face for slide sections,
commonly found in the directional drillers slide sheets, could
be used in this type of survey calculation. This may be the
best solution for historical data where continuous survey data
is not available but records of directional tactical operations
are contained in well reports.
Simulated surveys could be added to the stationary survey data
based on continuous survey results. These simulated surveys
would have the effect of altering the positional calculation in
the stationary surveys so that it matches the position calculated
from the continuous surveys alone. This approach achieves
the desired result, but it has problems. One problem is that
there are many ways to make the calculation. Another is the
number of simulated surveys to be used between the
stationary surveys.
Continuous surveying will allow these solutions to be further
developed and tested. Using this data in real-time to compare
and contrast survey results as shown throughout this paper
would help to significantly improve the placement of
directional wells.
Conclusions
There is a positional difference that results from non-constant
curvature between stationary surveys taken at spacings of 90
feet or greater. This error has crept into directional drilling
with the wide use of PDM steerable motors and top
drive systems.
Both continuous MWD and continuous gyro survey data have
quantified this effect. They show that survey frequency
matters and that traditionally placed 90-foot surveys are
inadequate when TVD position is important.

SPE/IADC 79917

A study of 13 horizontal wells shows that 60% of those wells

were significantly affected.
Returning to taking stationary surveys every 30 feet can solve
this problem, but this is a costly and reactionary approach.
The data exists to get better positional results without
returning to older methods.
Positional differences result from the relationship between the
location of stationary surveys and the nature of pattern
slide/rotate directional drilling. Balancing the location of the
slide sections is a non-intrusive, low-cost method of greatly
reducing these differences.
Rotary steerable systems produce wellbores with a more
constant curvature. Thus positional differences are greatly
reduced. Care must be taken to obtain survey data at points
where the settings are changed.
Monitoring positional differences between continuous and
stationary measurements in real-time and taking additional
stationary surveys when necessary is an effective means of
minimizing the four sources of TVD positional differences
discussed in this paper.
New methods of calculating the position of a wellbore from
stationary survey data are possible and numerous. This
presents a problem for the directional drilling industry, which
has for more than 15 years enjoyed the effective use of the
minimum curvature method as the standard.
Longer term, it is the view of the authors that improvements in
the accuracy of continuous survey data and the development
of an appropriate error model will allow it to be combined
with normal stationary surveys taken every stand, so that it can
indeed be used for definitive survey purposes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Stan Franklin
(ChevronTexaco), Stan Ingham (Schlumberger), and Mike
Sullivan (ChevronTexaco) for bringing this issue to our
attention and supporting our efforts by providing many of the
data sets used in our analysis. We would also like to thank
Connor OKelly (Schlumberger) for the work he did on
organizing and analyzing the data in the horizontal well study.
The table in Figure 12 reflects a large concentration his of
effort. Additionally we would like to recognize John Potter
and John Lofton (ChevronTexaco) for their support in data
analysis and recommendations on procedures.

References
1

Bourgoyne, Jr, A.T., Millheim, K.K, Chenevert, M.E.,

Young, Jr, F.S.: Applied Drilling Engineering, SPE,
1986, pgs 364-366.

2.

American Petroleum Institute, API Bulletin D20:

Directional Drilling Survey Calculation Methods and
Terminology, First Edition, Dec 31, 1985.

3.

Wolff, C.J.M and de Wardt, J.P.: Borehole Position

Uncertainty Analysis of Measurement Methods Error,
SPE 9223, Journal of Petroleum Technology, Dec 1981.

4.

Williamson, H.S.: Accuracy Prediction for Directional

Measurement While Drilling, SPE 67616, SPE Drilling
and Completions, Dec 2000.

5.

Lesso, W.G., Cooper, I.M. and Chau, M.: Continuous

Direction and Inclination Measurements Revolutionize
Real-Time Directional Drilling Decision-Making, paper
IADC/SPE 67752 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 Feb 1 Mar
2001.

6.

Lesso, Jr, W.G. and Kashikar, S.V.: The Principles and

Procedures of Geosteering, paper IADC/SPE 35051
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New
Orleans, Louisiana, 12-15 Mar 1996.

SPE/IADC 79917

60

INCL & AZI (deg)

55

50
Continuous
INCLINATION

Stationary
INCLINATION

Stationary
AZIMUTH

45

Continuous
AZIMUTH
40

+180

GTF

35
2500

-180
2550

2600

2650

2700

2750
MD (ft)

Figure 1. Continuous direction and inclination

measurements versus standard stationary survey
measurements during a build section using pattern
slide/rotary drilling practices with a PDM steerable
system. The gravity tool face angle (GTF) data
indicates where the slide sections were drilled. GTF is
nearly zero for these slides indicating mostly building
action with very little turn or change in azimuth.

ius
rad
t
n
sta
con

ure
vat
r
u
of c

survey X

calculated
position
survey X+1
Figure 2. The minimum radius of curvature method for calculating the
position of a wellbore between surveys assumes a constant radius of
curvature between the survey points

2800

2850

2900

2950

3000

-50

90

-45

80

-40

70

-35

60

-30

50

-25

40

-20

30

-15

20

-10

10

-5

ure
vat
r
u
c

rotate

actual
position
calculated
position

0
0

rotate

ra

slide
rotate

1600

1800

0
2000

Model/Continuous

Stationary Measurements

dTVD

-20

90

-15

80

-10

70

-5

60

50

40

10

30

15

20

20

10

25

200

400

Design

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

30
2000

Model/Continuous

Stationary Measurements

dTVD

Figure 4b. Here the rotate then slide pattern of Figure 3b is repeated
with the same curve rates. The well position will be 25 ft deeper than
what would be calculated using the stationary surveys and a constant
curvature.

100

-45

90

-40

80

-35

70

-30

60

-25

50

-20

40

-15

30

-10

20

-5

10

0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

5
2000

Measured Depth
Design

Figure 3c. The slide drilling section is balanced between the rotate
sections that have been cut in half. There remain different curvatures
between the survey points but the actual and calculated positions
remain approximately the same.

1400

Measured Depth

ture

calculated
and actual
position

1200

100

Inclination

rotate

e
slid

1000

Figure 3b. The rotate drilling section happens first followed by the slide
section with a shorter radius of curvature. The actual position will be
deeper than what would be calculated assuming a constant curvature
between the survey points.

a
urv
of c
s
diu

800

Figure 4a. The slide then rotate pattern of Figure 3a is repeated for an
entire build to horizontal section where the slide curve rate is 10
deg/100ft and the rotate rate is zero. The well position will be 25 ft
shallower than what would be calculated using stationary surveys.

calculated
position
actual position

slide

600

Measured Depth

Inclination

a
er
s lid

fc
so
u
i
d

400

Design

Figure 3a. A rotate section with no curvature follows a slide drilling

section with a moderately high curve rate or shorter radius of
curvature. The actual position will be shallower than what would be
calculated assuming a constant curvature between the survey points.

re
atu
urv

200

<-- deeper delta TVD (ft)

slide

delta TVD (ft) shallower -->

of
ius
rad

100

Inclination

e
slid

delta TVD (ft) shallower -->

SPE/IADC 79917

Model/Continuous

Stationary Measurements

dTVD

Figure 4c. The balanced slide/rotate pattern of Figure 3c is repeated

here for a build to horizontal. Small variations in the well position occur
but the difference between actual and calculated remains small at TD.

10

SPE/IADC 79917

110

Figure 5. A simulation of PDM steerable directional drilling in

a horizontal section. The motor delivers a 6 deg/100ft build
when sliding that counters the rotary drop tendency of 1
deg/100ft. The steering is section is performed immediately
following the stationary survey. In this situation all the
stationary surveys will return a value of 90 degrees.

plan curve rate = 0.0 deg/100ft

PDM rate = 6.0
ROT rate = -1.0
slide offset = 0 ft

105

Continuous INCL svy calc is 2.0 ft TVD shallow after 500 ft

INCL (deg)

100

95

Continuous INCLINATION
90

Stationary INCLINATION
85
3800

3850

3900

3950

All stationary surveys show 90.0 deg

4000

4050

4100

4150

4200

4250

4300

MD (ft)

VSEC (ft)
500
3930

1000

1500

2000

2500

Figure 6. A sketch of a typical geosteering objective in a

horizontal well. The lateral section is to be placed 6 feet
below the top of the pay zone, which is 17 feet in TVD
thickness before an oil water contact (OWC).

TVD (ft)

3940

Pay Top
3950

Target is 6 feet below pay top

3960

OWC
3970

VSEC (ft)
500
3930

1000

1500

2000

VSEC (ft)

2500
500
3930

7a

1000

1500

2000

2500

7b

3940

pay top encountered

after 810 feet
interpretation: top is flat
need to steer down

3950

decision: drilling stops

not worth chasing
formation down
3960

trajectory calculated with

stationary surveys, all
at 90 degrees inclination

TVD (ft)

TVD (ft)

3940

pay top encountered

after 810 feet
interpretation: top is dipping down

3950

3960

OWC

(planned trajectory)

trajectory calculated with

continuous surveys
well drifts shallow
OWC

3970
3970

Figures 7a & 7b. 7a shows the TVD calculation for the horizontal well using the stationary surveys if the well was drilled as in Figure 5. The horizontal
section is at 90 degrees and in the geosteering process, the pay top is encountered. This can be interpreted as the top is dipping down or the zone is
pinching out. Figure 7b shows what the drilled well path (in red) would look like if the TVD position accounted for the slide/rotate pattern in Figure 5. The
well position is actually drifting shallow at a rate of 3.7 feet/500ft and thus the well will progress the six feet to the pay top in just over 800 feet.

SPE/IADC 79917

11

95

-25
continuous INCLINATION

90

-20

-15

80

-10

INCL (deg)

85

delta TVD

75

delta TVD (ft) shallow -->

stationary INCLINATION

-5
+180
0 GTF

70
7000

-180
7100

7200

7300

7400

7500

7600

7700

7800

7900

0
8000

MD (ft)

Figure 8. Artificially maintaining a constant inclination in a horizontal section. Slide sections with curve rates between 5 and 15 deg/100ft push the
inclination above 90 degrees while during the rotary sections the wellbore drops inclination. The TVD positional difference between the continuous and
stationary inclination (delta TVD) increases from about 7 to 15 feet shallow.
-15

50

continuous MWD
INCLINATION

49

48

-10

INCL (deg)

46

stationary
INCLINATION

45

continuous gyro
INCLINATION

44
-5

delta TVD (ft) shallow -->

47

43

delta TVD
(cont MWD stationary INCL)

42

41

0
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
MD (ft)
Figure 9. Active directional drilling during a tangent section where the inclination is held to about 45 degrees. The continuous inclination shows pattern
slide/rotate sections that are confirmed by the continuous gyro data. The TVD position from this continuous data varies between 4 and 7 ft shallow of the
stationary survey position.
40
5500

6000

6500

7000

12

SPE/IADC 79917
90

85

-15
INCLINATION

rotary
<< steerable system
drilling

motor >>
drilling

-14

-13
349deg@
100%
-12
349deg@
100%

75

neutral
0 deg@
10%

-11

-10
70

-9
delta TVD

delta TVD (ft) shallower -->

INCL&AZI (deg)

80

-8

65

-7
60
AZIMUTH

-6

GTF=0
55
3000

3100

3200

3300

3400

3500

3600

3700

3800

3900

-5
4000

MD (ft)

2.6 1.85G/C32.85
1.7
DEG 100

6100

6000

5900

5800

5700

5600

5500

80
1850 FEET 1800

ROBU_1
STN_SURVEY.INCL_1

TVDSS_CONT_1

DEG 100
DEPTH80

TVDSS_STN_1

1850 FEET 1800 FEET

FEET 14
4

CONT_SURVEY.INCL_1

REFERENCE.TVDDIF_1

ROSI

1.85G/C32.85

ROBB_1

Figure 10. Survey data from a North Sea well using a rotary steerable system in the final build to horizontal. There is a difference between the
continuous and stationary inclinations where the rotary steerable system sets are changed. The delta TVD curve shows that this can result in an up to
two foot TVD difference for each occurrence.

tight streak

Figure 11. LWD Density, directional survey data and geosteering sketch over 500 ft of a horizontal well in Angola. The density image shows an
improbable double formation fold within 200 feet. The continuous inclination (red) shows that the wellbore bounced off of a hard streak and that the
image anomaly is actually a double inflection point in the well path.

SPE/IADC 79917

13

Horizontal Well Position Study Results

GBK"b"
Nigeria

GBK"c"
Nigeria

MRN st1
Nigeria

MRN st2
Nigeria

MRN st3
Nigeria

AMP "a" BKP org BKP st1

KGL lat0 KGL lat1
Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Angola
Angola

Well
Country

GBK"a"
Nigeria

BZL lat1
Angola

BZL lat2
Angola

TD Date
Final MD
Final TVD

13-Apr-01 26-Apr-01 13-May-01 17-Dec-00 27-Dec-00 31-Dec-00 04-May-01 17-May-01 27-May-01 23-Apr-01 01-May-01 25-Apr-01 09-May-01
9076
9020
9428
8393
9050
8785
7250
3067
3953
8156
8700
7705
7540
4824
4272
4921
6508
6482
6458
5186
2268
2281
2977
2931
1964
1887

continuous surveys depth interval (feet)

beg depth
330
238
496
end depth
9034
8977
7859
interval
8704
8739
7363
svy spacing
5.2
3.8
3.6

3292
8278
4986
4.1

4774
8972
4198
2.5

6916
8706
1790
2.0

3938
7175
3237
1.3

987
2987
2000
2.2

2650
3874
1224
1.4

445
8108
7663
2.0

3664
8653
4989
1.7

1300
7648
6348
2.6

3400
7492
4092
2.1

number of surveys
stationary
94
continuous
1687

56
1220

44
1688

18
911

105
2503

61
923

87
859

88
3783

56
2897

71
2407

46
1941

max dTVD
s/d
depth
dTVD at TD
delta TVD
s/d

95
2328

97
2031

23.7
deeper
7300

17.0
deeper
8970

13.4
9.8
2.4
deeper
shallower shallower
7800
8100
6945

2.1
deeper
7400

3.0
1.9
2.1
deeper
shallower shallower
6400
2950
3850

11.0
deeper
6000

11.3
deeper
5066

22.0
deeper

17.0
deeper

12.9
9.6
deeper
shallower

1.3
deeper

1.0
1.9
1.8
deeper
shallower shallower

5.7
deeper

6.2
1.1
6.4
deeper
shallower shallower

2.3
deeper

5.3
6.4
deeper
shallower
3350
7492

Figure 12. 13 horizontal wells drilled in 2000-01 were analyzed to determine the extent of TVD positional difference between stationary and continuous
inclination data. The eight highlighted wells had TVD differences greater than five feet (either shallower or deeper).

-15

-10

continuous inclination shows well shallower

-5

delta TVD ft (cDNI-Ssvy)

10

15

continuous inclination shows well deeper

20
at TD
25

MAX

30
GBK"a"

GBK"b"

GBK"c"

MRN st1

MRN st2

MRN st3

AMP "a"

BKP org

BKP st1

KGL lat0

KGL lat1

BZL lat1

BZL lat2

Figure 13. The true vertical depth differences for the 13 wells in the study. Stationary inclination is subtracted from continuous inclination. The left hand
column (blue) is the maximum difference seen in the wellbore while the right hand column shows the difference seen at total depth of the well.

14

SPE/IADC 79917
100

-5

90

80
5

10

INCL (deg)

60

S INCL
(squares)

50

15
cont INCL
(red circles)

40

delta TVD

20

<-- deeper delta TVD (ft)

70

30
25
20
30

10

35
10000

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

MD (ft)

Figure 14. Delta TVD plot for GBK a well in Nigeria. Continuous surveys were available for the entire well from kick-off point to horizontal and
including the drainhole section. The maximum TVD difference occurs at 7310 ft with the continuous surveys indicating that the well is 23.7 ft deeper than
the stationary surveys. The well at TD was 22.0 ft deeper based on the continuous data. The dashed square indicates the data for the next figure.
14

90

85
16
80

18

INCL (deg)

75

70

delta TVD

S INCL
(squares)

20

65
22
60

+180
GTF

55

50
6000

-180
6100

6200

6300

6400

6500

6600

6700

6800

6900

24

26
7000

MD (ft)

Figure 15. A section of the Delta TVD plot for GBK a from 6000 to 7000 ft measured depth. This is in the build section to horizontal. The slide
sections with tool face data have been added. Note that the black delta TVD curve moves with the nature of the continuous inclination.

<-- deeper delta TVD (ft)

cont INCL
(circles)

SPE/IADC 79917

15

65

Continuous
MWD
INCLINATION
(red)

60

INCL (deg)

55

Continuous
GYRO
INCLINATION
(green)

Stationary
INCLINATION

50

45

40

+180
35

30
2000

GTF

-180
2100

2200

2300

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

MD (ft)

Figure 16. Stationary inclination, continuous drilling and continuous gyro inclination data for a build section of a North Sea horizontal well. The build
was accomplished using a PDM motor and the tool face data for the slide sections is also shown. Note that the continuous gyro inclination taken after
the entire build was finished still reflects the slide/rotate nature seen in the drilling continuous inclination. This indicates that this tortuosity is not reamed
out and that the positional differences will still exist.

-10

75

INCLINATION
90-ft surveys (blue line/yellow boxes)
30-ft surveys (green diamonds)
continuous surveys (red circles)

70

-8

-6

-4

-2

60

delta TVD cINCL - 30ft S INCL

0

55

50

delta TVD (ft) shallower -->

INCL (deg)

65

delta TVD
cINCL - 90ft S INCL

45
8

40
6000

6100

6200

6300

6400

6500

6600

6700

6800

6900

10
7000

MD (ft)

Figure 17. This is inclination data for part of the build section for a well in Nigeria. Surveys were taken every joint of pipe or 30 feet. A second grouping
of the surveys every stand of pipe or 90 feet was made. The 30-ft surveys closely track the continuous and the TVD positional difference remains nearly
constant about 2 ft shallow. The 90 ft surveys do not track the continuous and delta TVD drifts six feet deeper in this 1000 foot section of data.

16

SPE/IADC 79917

svy
X+1
svy
X
d) length of intended slide
e) footage to drill rotary before slide
a) dist bit to svy sensor

joint 1

joint 2

b) off bottom dist

joint 3

c) length of stand

one stand

Figure 18. The balanced slide approach to reducing positional error. The directional driller delays the start of a slide section in a stand of pipe by rotary
drilling. This rotary footage is calculated using: a) distance from the bit to the survey sensor, b) off bottom survey distance and c) the length of the stand
to be drilled are used along with the d) directional drillers intended slide length. The footage that should be rotary drilled before starting the slide e) is
calculated as c-(a + b) + (c d)/2. The differing curve rates remain (red line) but the area (orange shading) will be equally above and below the constant
curvature line between the two surveys (X and X+1).