Tsunami

3/28/2015
TsunamiWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Tsunami
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Atsunami(plural:tsunamisortsunamifrom
Japanese:,lit."harbourwave"[1]English
pronunciation:/sunmi/or/tsunmi/[2]),also
knownasaseismicseawaveorasatidalwave,is
aseriesofwavesinabodyofwatercausedbythe
displacementofalargevolumeofwater,generally
inanoceanoralargelake.Earthquakes,volcanic
eruptionsandotherunderwaterexplosions
(includingdetonationsofunderwaternuclear
devices),landslides,glaciercalvings,meteorite
impactsandotherdisturbancesaboveorbelow
waterallhavethepotentialtogeneratea
tsunami.[3]Inbeinggeneratedbythedisplacement
ofwater,atsunamicontrastsbothwithanormal
oceanwavegeneratedbywindandwithtides,
whicharegeneratedbythegravitationalpullofthe
moonandthesunonbodiesofwater.
2011Thokuearthquakeandtsunami,Anaerialview
ofdamageintheSendairegionwithblacksmoke
comingfromtheNipponOilSendaioilrefinery
Tsunamiwavesdonotresemblenormalseawaves,becausetheirwavelengthisfarlonger.Ratherthan
appearingasabreakingwave,atsunamimayinsteadinitiallyresemblearapidlyrisingtide,andforthis
reasontheyareoftenreferredtoastidalwaves.Tsunamisgenerallyconsistofaseriesofwaveswith
periodsrangingfromminutestohours,arrivinginasocalled"wavetrain".[4]Waveheightsoftensof
metrescanbegeneratedbylargeevents.Althoughtheimpactoftsunamisislimitedtocoastalareas,
theirdestructivepowercanbeenormousandtheycanaffectentireoceanbasinsthe2004IndianOcean
tsunamiwasamongthedeadliestnaturaldisastersinhumanhistorywithatleast230,000peoplekilled
ormissingin14countriesborderingtheIndianOcean.
TheGreekhistorianThucydidessuggestedinhislate5thcenturyBCHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,
thattsunamiswererelatedtosubmarineearthquakes,[5][6]buttheunderstandingofatsunami'snature
remainedslimuntilthe20thcenturyandmuchremainsunknown.Majorareasofcurrentresearch
includetryingtodeterminewhysomelargeearthquakesdonotgeneratetsunamiswhileothersmaller
onesdotryingtoaccuratelyforecastthepassageoftsunamisacrosstheoceansandalsotoforecasthow
tsunamiwaveswouldinteractwithspecificshorelines.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami
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TakenatAoNang,KrabiProvince,Thailand,during
the2004IndianOceanearthquakeandtsunamiin
Thailand
Contents
1Terminology
1.1Tsunami
1.2Tidalwave
1.3Seismicseawave
2History
3Generationmechanisms
3Dtsunamisimulation
3.1Seismicity
3.2Landslides
3.3Meteotsunamis
3.4Manmadeortriggeredtsunamis
4Characteristics
5Drawback
6Scalesofintensityandmagnitude
6.1Intensityscales
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6.2Magnitudescales
7Warningsandpredictions
7.1Forecastoftsunamiattack
probability
8Mitigation
9Seealso
10Footnotes
11References
12Furtherreading
13Externallinks
Terminology
VarioustermsareusedinEnglishspeakingcountriestodescribe
wavescreatedinabodyofwaterbythedisplacementofwater.
Noneofthetermsincommonuseareentirelyaccurate.
Tsunami
Thetermtsunami,meaning"harborwave"inliteraltranslation,
comesfromtheJapanese,composedofthetwokanji
(tsu)meaning"harbour"and(nami),meaning"wave".(For
theplural,onecaneitherfollowordinaryEnglishpracticeand
addans,oruseaninvariablepluralasintheJapanese.[7])
Tsunamiwarningbilingualsignin
UleeLheue,BandaAcehinAcehnese
andIndonesian
Thereareonlyafewotherlanguagesthathaveanequivalent
nativeword.InAcehneselanguage,thewordsareibeuna[8]or
alnbuluk[9](dependingonthedialect).InTamillanguage,itisaazhiperalai.OnSimeulueisland,off
thewesterncoastofSumatrainIndonesia,inDevayanlanguagethewordissmong,whileinSigulai
languageitisemong.[10]
InSingkil(inAcehprovince)andsurrounding,thepeopleusethewordgloro/galorofortsunami.[11][12]
InNiaslanguage,itiscalledoloro/galoro[13]andinEndeitiscalledaemesinukatanalala[14]
Tidalwave
Tsunamiaresometimesreferredtoastidalwaves.[15]Thisoncepopulartermderivesfromthemost
commonappearanceoftsunami,whichisthatofanextraordinarilyhightidalbore.Tsunamiandtides
bothproducewavesofwaterthatmoveinland,butinthecaseoftsunamitheinlandmovementofwater
maybemuchgreater,givingtheimpressionofanincrediblyhighandforcefultide.Inrecentyears,the
term"tidalwave"hasfallenoutoffavor,especiallyinthescientificcommunity,becausetsunami
actuallyhavenothingtodowithtides,whichareproducedbythegravitationalpullofthemoonandsun
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ratherthanthedisplacementofwater.Althoughthemeaningsof"tidal"include"resembling"[16]or
"havingtheformorcharacterof"[17]thetides,useofthetermtidalwaveisdiscouragedbygeologists
andoceanographers.
Seismicseawave
Thetermseismicseawavealsoisusedtorefertothephenomenon,becausethewavesmostoftenare
generatedbyseismicactivitysuchasearthquakes.[18]Priortotheriseoftheuseoftheterm"tsunami"in
Englishspeakingcountries,scientistsgenerally
encouragedtheuseoftheterm"seismicseawave"
ratherthantheinaccurateterm"tidalwave."
However,like"tsunami,""seismicseawave"isnota
completelyaccurateterm,asforcesotherthan
earthquakesincludingunderwaterlandslides,
volcaniceruptions,underwaterexplosions,landor
iceslumpingintotheocean,meteoriteimpacts,or
eventheweatherwhentheatmosphericpressure
changesveryrapidlycangeneratesuchwavesby
displacingwater.[19][20]
History
TsunamiaftermathinAceh,Indonesia.
WhileJapan
mayhavethelongest
recordedhistoryof
tsunamis,thesheer
destructioncausedbythe
2004IndianOcean
earthquakeandtsunami
eventmarkitasthemost
devastatingofitskindin
Lisbonearthquakeandtsunamiin
moderntimes,killing
1755
around230,000
people[21].TheSumatran
regionisnotunusedtotsunamiseither,withearthquakesof
varyingmagnitudesregularlyoccurringoffthecoastofthe
island.[22]
TheRussiansofPavelLebedev
LastochkininJapan,withtheirships
tossedinlandbyatsunami,meeting
someJapanesein1779
TsunamisareanoftenunderestimatedhazardintheMediterraneanSearegionandEuropeingeneral.Of
historicalandcurrent(withregardtoriskassumptions)importancearee.g.the1755Lisbonearthquake
andtsunami(whichwascausedbytheAzoresGibraltarTransformFault),the1783Calabrian
earthquakes,eachcausingseveraltenthousanddeathsandthe1908Messinaearthquakeandtsunami.
Thelattertookmorethan123,000livesinSicilyandCalabriaandisamongthemostdeadlynatural
disastersinmodernEurope.TheStoreggaSlideintheNorwegianseaandsomeexamplesofTsunamis
affectingtheBritishIslesrefertolandslideandmeteotsunamispredominatlyandlesstoearthquake
inducedwaves.
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Asearlyas426BCtheGreekhistorianThucydidesinquiredinhisbookHistoryofthePeloponnesian
Waraboutthecausesoftsunami,andwasthefirsttoarguethatoceanearthquakesmustbethe
cause.[5][6]
"Thecause,inmyopinion,ofthisphenomenonmustbesoughtintheearthquake.Atthe
pointwhereitsshockhasbeenthemostviolenttheseaisdrivenback,andsuddenly
recoilingwithredoubledforce,causestheinundation.WithoutanearthquakeIdonotsee
howsuchanaccidentcouldhappen."[23]
TheRomanhistorianAmmianusMarcellinus(ResGestae26.10.1519)describedthetypicalsequence
ofatsunami,includinganincipientearthquake,thesuddenretreatoftheseaandafollowinggigantic
wave,afterthe365ADtsunamidevastatedAlexandria.[24][25]
Generationmechanisms
Theprincipalgenerationmechanism(orcause)ofatsunamiisthedisplacementofasubstantialvolume
ofwaterorperturbationofthesea.[26]Thisdisplacementofwaterisusuallyattributedtoeither
earthquakes,landslides,volcaniceruptions,glaciercalvingsormorerarelybymeteoritesandnuclear
tests.[27][28]Thewavesformedinthiswayarethensustainedbygravity.Tidesdonotplayanypartin
thegenerationoftsunamis.
Seismicity
Tsunamicanbegeneratedwhentheseafloorabruptlydeformsandverticallydisplacestheoverlying
water.TectonicearthquakesareaparticularkindofearthquakethatareassociatedwiththeEarth's
crustaldeformationwhentheseearthquakesoccurbeneaththesea,thewaterabovethedeformedareais
displacedfromitsequilibriumposition.[29]Morespecifically,atsunamicanbegeneratedwhenthrust
faultsassociatedwithconvergentordestructiveplateboundariesmoveabruptly,resultinginwater
displacement,owingtotheverticalcomponentofmovementinvolved.Movementonnormalfaultswill
alsocausedisplacementoftheseabed,butthesizeofthelargestofsucheventsisnormallytoosmallto
giverisetoasignificanttsunami.
Drawingoftectonicplateboundarybefore
earthquake
Overridingplatebulgesunderstrain,
causingtectonicuplift.
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Plateslips,causingsubsidenceand
releasingenergyintowater.
Theenergyreleasedproducestsunami
waves.
Tsunamishaveasmallamplitude(waveheight)offshore,andaverylongwavelength(oftenhundredsof
kilometreslong,whereasnormaloceanwaveshaveawavelengthofonly30or40metres),[30]whichis
whytheygenerallypassunnoticedatsea,formingonlyaslightswellusuallyabout300millimetres
(12in)abovethenormalseasurface.Theygrowinheightwhentheyreachshallowerwater,inawave
shoalingprocessdescribedbelow.Atsunamicanoccurinanytidalstateandevenatlowtidecanstill
inundatecoastalareas.
OnApril1,1946,amagnitude7.8(RichterScale)earthquakeoccurredneartheAleutianIslands,
Alaska.ItgeneratedatsunamiwhichinundatedHiloontheislandofHawai'iwitha14metrehigh
(46ft)surge.TheareawheretheearthquakeoccurrediswherethePacificOceanfloorissubducting(or
beingpusheddownwards)underAlaska.
ExamplesoftsunamioriginatingatlocationsawayfromconvergentboundariesincludeStoreggaabout
8,000yearsago,GrandBanks1929,PapuaNewGuinea1998(Tappin,2001).TheGrandBanksand
PapuaNewGuineatsunamiscamefromearthquakeswhichdestabilisedsediments,causingthemtoflow
intotheoceanandgenerateatsunami.Theydissipatedbeforetravelingtransoceanicdistances.
ThecauseoftheStoreggasedimentfailureisunknown.Possibilitiesincludeanoverloadingofthe
sediments,anearthquakeorareleaseofgashydrates(methaneetc.).
The1960Valdiviaearthquake(Mw9.5),1964Alaskaearthquake(Mw9.2),2004IndianOcean
earthquake(Mw9.2),and2011Thokuearthquake(Mw9.0)arerecentexamplesofpowerfulmegathrust
earthquakesthatgeneratedtsunamis(knownasteletsunamis)thatcancrossentireoceans.Smaller(Mw
4.2)earthquakesinJapancantriggertsunamis(calledlocalandregionaltsunamis)thatcanonly
devastatenearbycoasts,butcandosoinonlyafewminutes.
Landslides
Inthe1950s,itwasdiscoveredthatlargertsunamisthanhadpreviouslybeenbelievedpossiblecouldbe
causedbygiantsubmarinelandslides.Theserapidlydisplacelargewatervolumes,asenergytransfersto
thewaterataratefasterthanthewatercanabsorb.Theirexistencewasconfirmedin1958,whenagiant
landslideinLituyaBay,Alaska,causedthehighestwaveeverrecorded,whichhadaheightof524
metres(over1700feet).[31]Thewavedidn'ttravelfar,asitstrucklandalmostimmediately.Twopeople
fishinginthebaywerekilled,butanotherboatamazinglymanagedtoridethewave.
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Anotherlandslidetsunamieventoccurredin1963whenamassivelandslidefromMonteTocwentinto
theVajontDaminItaly.Theresultingwaveovertoppedthe262m(860ft)highdamby250metres
(820ft)anddestroyedseveraltowns.Around2,000peopledied.[32][33]Scientistsnamedthesewaves
megatsunami.Scientistsdiscoveredthatextremelylargelandslidesfromvolcanicislandcollapsesmay
beabletogeneratemegatsunamisthatcancrossoceans.
Ingeneral,landslidesgeneratedisplacementsmainlyintheshallowerpartsofthecoastline,andthereis
conjectureaboutthenatureoftrulylargelandslidesthatendinwater.Thisisproventoleadtohuge
effectinclosedbaysandlakes,butanopenoceaniclandslidebigenoughtocauseatsunamiacrossan
oceanhasnotyethappenedsincebeforeseismologyhasbeenamajorareaofscientificstudy,andonly
veryrarelyinhumanhistory.SusceptibleareasfocusfornowontheislandsofHawaiiandLasPalmas
intheCanaryIslands,wherelargemassesofrelativelyunconsolidatedvolcanicshieldonslopesoccur.
Considerabledoubtexistsabouthowlooselylinkedtheseslopesactuallyare.[34]
Meteotsunamis
Somemeteorologicalconditions,especiallydeepdepressions
suchastropicalcyclones,cangenerateatypeofstormsurge
calledameteotsunamiwhichraiseswaterheightsabovenormal
levels,oftensuddenlyattheshoreline.[35]
Inthecaseofdeeptropicalcyclones,thisisduetoverylow
atmosphericpressureandinwardswirlingwindscausingan
uplifteddomeofwatertoformunderandtravelintandemwith
thestorm.Whenthesewaterdomesreachshore,theyrearupin
shallowsandsurgelaterallylikeearthquakegeneratedtsunamis,
typicallyarrivingshortlyafterlandfallofthestorm'seye.[36][37]
DevastationwroughtbyHurricane
Ike'smeteotsunamicstormsurgeover
theBolivarPeninsulain2008.
Manmadeortriggeredtsunamis
Therehavebeenstudiesandatleastoneattempttocreatetsunamiwavesasatectonicweaponor
whetherhumanbehaviormaytriggertsunamis,e.g.inthe(debunked)Clathrategunhypothesis.
InWorldWarII,theNewZealandMilitaryForcesinitiatedProjectSeal,whichattemptedtocreate
smalltsunamiswithexplosivesintheareaoftoday'sShakespearRegionalParktheattemptfailed.[38]
Therehasbeenconsiderablespeculationonthepossibilityofusingnuclearweaponstocausetsunamis
neartoanenemycoastline.EvenduringWorldWarIIconsiderationoftheideausingconventional
explosiveswasexplored.NucleartestinginthePacificProvingGroundbytheUnitedStatesseemedto
generatepoorresults.OperationCrossroadsfiredtwo20kilotonnesofTNT(84TJ)bombs,oneinthe
airandoneunderwater,aboveandbelowtheshallow(50m(160ft))watersoftheBikiniAtolllagoon.
Firedabout6km(3.7mi)fromthenearestisland,thewavestherewerenohigherthan34m(9.8
13.1ft)uponreachingtheshoreline.Otherunderwatertests,mainlyHardtackI/Wahoo(deepwater)and
HardtackI/Umbrella(shallowwater)confirmedtheresults.Analysisoftheeffectsofshallowanddeep
underwaterexplosionsindicatethattheenergyoftheexplosionsdoesn'teasilygeneratethekindofdeep,
alloceanwaveformswhicharetsunamismostoftheenergycreatessteam,causesverticalfountains
abovethewater,andcreatescompressionalwaveforms.[39]Tsunamisarehallmarkedbypermanentlarge
verticaldisplacementsofverylargevolumesofwaterwhichdon'toccurinexplosions.
Characteristics
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Tsunamiscausedamagebytwomechanisms:thesmashingforce
ofawallofwatertravellingathighspeed,andthedestructive
powerofalargevolumeofwaterdrainingoffthelandand
carryingalargeamountofdebriswithit,evenwithwavesthat
donotappeartobelarge.
Whileeverydaywindwaveshaveawavelength(fromcrestto
crest)ofabout100metres(330ft)andaheightofroughly2
metres(6.6ft),atsunamiinthedeepoceanhasamuchlarger
wavelengthofupto200kilometres(120mi).Suchawave
travelsatwellover800kilometresperhour(500mph),but
owingtotheenormouswavelengththewaveoscillationatany
givenpointtakes20or30minutestocompleteacycleandhas
anamplitudeofonlyabout1metre(3.3ft).[40]Thismakes
tsunamisdifficulttodetectoverdeepwater,whereshipsare
unabletofeeltheirpassage.
ThereasonfortheJapanesename"harbourwave"isthat
sometimesavillage'sfishermenwouldsailout,andencounterno
unusualwaveswhileoutatseafishing,andcomebacktolandto
findtheirvillagedevastatedbyahugewave.
Whenthewaveentersshallowwater,
itslowsdownanditsamplitude
(height)increases.
Thewavefurtherslowsandamplifies
asithitsland.Onlythelargestwaves
crest.
Asthetsunamiapproachesthecoastandthewatersbecome
shallow,waveshoalingcompressesthewaveanditsspeeddecreasesbelow80kilometresperhour
(50mph).Itswavelengthdiminishestolessthan20kilometres(12mi)anditsamplitudegrows
enormously.Sincethewavestillhasthesameverylongperiod,thetsunamimaytakeminutestoreach
fullheight.Exceptfortheverylargesttsunamis,theapproachingwavedoesnotbreak,butrather
appearslikeafastmovingtidalbore.[41]Openbaysandcoastlinesadjacenttoverydeepwatermay
shapethetsunamifurtherintoasteplikewavewithasteepbreakingfront.
Whenthetsunami'swavepeakreachestheshore,theresultingtemporaryriseinsealevelistermedrun
up.Runupismeasuredinmetresaboveareferencesealevel.[41]Alargetsunamimayfeaturemultiple
wavesarrivingoveraperiodofhours,withsignificanttimebetweenthewavecrests.Thefirstwaveto
reachtheshoremaynothavethehighestrunup.[42]
About80%oftsunamisoccurinthePacificOcean,buttheyarepossiblewherevertherearelargebodies
ofwater,includinglakes.Theyarecausedbyearthquakes,landslides,volcanicexplosions,glacier
calvings,andbolides.
Drawback
Allwaveshaveapositiveand
negativepeak,i.e.aridgeand
atrough.Inthecaseofa
propagatingwavelikea
tsunami,eithermaybethefirst
Anillustrationoftherhythmic"drawback"ofsurfacewaterassociatedwith
toarrive.Ifthefirstpartto
awave.Itfollowsthataverylargedrawbackmayheraldthearrivalofa
arriveatshoreistheridge,a
verylargewave.
massivebreakingwaveor
suddenfloodingwillbethe
firsteffectnoticedonland.Howeverifthefirstparttoarriveisatrough,adrawbackwilloccurasthe
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shorelinerecedesdramatically,exposingnormallysubmergedareas.Drawbackcanexceedhundredsof
metres,andpeopleunawareofthedangersometimesremainneartheshoretosatisfytheircuriosityorto
collectfishfromtheexposedseabed.
Atypicalwaveperiodforadamagingtsunamiisabout12minutes.Thismeansthatifthedrawback
phaseisthefirstpartofthewavetoarrive,theseawillrecede,withareaswellbelowsealevelexposed
after3minutes.Duringthenext6minutesthetsunamiwavetroughbuildsintoaridge,andduringthis
timetheseaisfilledinanddestructionoccursonland.Duringthenext6minutes,thetsunamiwave
changesfromaridgetoatrough,causingfloodwaterstodrainanddrawbacktooccuragain.Thismay
sweepvictimsanddebrissomedistancefromland.Theprocessrepeatsasthenextwavearrives.
Scalesofintensityandmagnitude
Aswithearthquakes,severalattemptshavebeenmadetosetupscalesoftsunamiintensityormagnitude
toallowcomparisonbetweendifferentevents.[43]
Intensityscales
ThefirstscalesusedroutinelytomeasuretheintensityoftsunamiweretheSiebergAmbraseysscale,
usedintheMediterraneanSeaandtheImamuraIidaintensityscale,usedinthePacificOcean.The
latterscalewasmodifiedbySoloviev,whocalculatedtheTsunamiintensityIaccordingtotheformula
where
istheaveragewaveheightalongthenearestcoast.Thisscale,knownastheSoloviev
Imamuratsunamiintensityscale,isusedintheglobaltsunamicataloguescompiledbythe
NGDC/NOAA[44]andtheNovosibirskTsunamiLaboratoryasthemainparameterforthesizeofthe
tsunami.
In2013,followingtheintensivelystudiedtsunamisin2004and2011,anew12pointscalewas
proposed,theIntegratedTsunamiIntensityScale(ITIS2012),intendedtomatchascloselyaspossible
tothemodifiedESI2007andEMSearthquakeintensityscales.[45]
Magnitudescales
Thefirstscalethatgenuinelycalculatedamagnitudeforatsunami,ratherthananintensityataparticular
locationwastheMLscaleproposedbyMurty&Loomisbasedonthepotentialenergy.[43]Difficultiesin
calculatingthepotentialenergyofthetsunamimeanthatthisscaleisrarelyused.Abeintroducedthe
tsunamimagnitudescale ,calculatedfrom,
wherehisthemaximumtsunamiwaveamplitude(inm)measuredbyatidegaugeatadistanceRfrom
theepicentre,a,bandDareconstantsusedtomaketheMtscalematchascloselyaspossiblewiththe
momentmagnitudescale.[46]
Warningsandpredictions
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Drawbackscanserveasabriefwarning.Peoplewhoobserve
drawback(manysurvivorsreportanaccompanyingsucking
sound),cansurviveonlyiftheyimmediatelyrunforhighground
orseektheupperfloorsofnearbybuildings.In2004,tenyear
oldTillySmithofSurrey,England,wasonMaikhaobeachin
Phuket,Thailandwithherparentsandsister,andhavinglearned
abouttsunamisrecentlyinschool,toldherfamilythatatsunami
mightbeimminent.Herparentswarnedothersminutesbefore
thewavearrived,savingdozensoflives.Shecreditedher
geographyteacher,AndrewKearney.
Inthe2004IndianOceantsunamidrawbackwasnotreportedon
Tsunamiwarningsign
theAfricancoastoranyothereastfacingcoaststhatitreached.
Thiswasbecausethewavemoveddownwardsontheeastern
sideofthefaultlineandupwardsonthewesternside.ThewesternpulsehitcoastalAfricaandother
westernareas.
Atsunamicannotbepreciselypredicted,evenifthemagnitudeandlocationofanearthquakeisknown.
Geologists,oceanographers,andseismologistsanalyseeachearthquakeandbasedonmanyfactorsmay
ormaynotissueatsunamiwarning.However,therearesomewarningsignsofanimpendingtsunami,
andautomatedsystemscanprovidewarningsimmediatelyafteranearthquakeintimetosavelives.One
ofthemostsuccessfulsystemsusesbottompressuresensors,attachedtobuoys,whichconstantly
monitorthepressureoftheoverlyingwatercolumn.
Regionswithahightsunamirisktypicallyusetsunamiwarningsystemstowarnthepopulationbefore
thewavereachesland.OnthewestcoastoftheUnitedStates,whichispronetoPacificOceantsunami,
warningsignsindicateevacuationroutes.InJapan,thecommunityiswelleducatedaboutearthquakes
andtsunamis,andalongtheJapaneseshorelinesthetsunamiwarningsignsareremindersofthenatural
hazardstogetherwithanetworkofwarningsirens,typicallyatthetopofthecliffofsurroundings
hills.[47]
ThePacificTsunamiWarningSystemisbasedinHonolulu,Hawaii.ItmonitorsPacificOceanseismic
activity.Asufficientlylargeearthquakemagnitudeandotherinformationtriggersatsunamiwarning.
WhilethesubductionzonesaroundthePacificareseismicallyactive,notallearthquakesgenerate
tsunami.ComputersassistinanalysingthetsunamiriskofeveryearthquakethatoccursinthePacific
Oceanandtheadjoininglandmasses.
TsunamihazardsignatBamfield,
BritishColumbia
Atsunamiwarningsignona
seawallinKamakura,Japan,
2004
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Themonumenttothevictimsof
tsunamiatLaupahoehoe,Hawaii
Tsunamimemorial ATsunamihazard TsunamiEvacuation

inKanyakumari
sign(Spanish
Routesignagealong
beach
English)in
U.S.Route101,in
Iquique,Chile.
Washington
AsadirectresultoftheIndianOceantsunami,areappraisalofthetsunamithreatforallcoastalareasis
beingundertakenbynationalgovernmentsandtheUnitedNationsDisasterMitigationCommittee.A
tsunamiwarningsystemisbeinginstalledintheIndianOcean.
Computermodelscanpredicttsunamiarrival,usuallywithinminutesof
thearrivaltime.Bottompressuresensorscanrelayinformationinreal
time.Basedonthesepressurereadingsandotherseismicinformationand
theseafloor'sshape(bathymetry)andcoastaltopography,themodels
estimatetheamplitudeandsurgeheightoftheapproachingtsunami.All
PacificRimcountriescollaborateintheTsunamiWarningSystemand
mostregularlypracticeevacuationandotherprocedures.InJapan,such
preparationismandatoryforgovernment,localauthorities,emergency
servicesandthepopulation.
Somezoologistshypothesisethatsomeanimalspecieshaveanabilityto
sensesubsonicRayleighwavesfromanearthquakeoratsunami.If
correct,monitoringtheirbehaviorcouldprovideadvancewarningof
Oneofthedeepwaterbuoys
earthquakes,tsunamietc.However,theevidenceiscontroversialandis
usedintheDARTtsunami
notwidelyaccepted.ThereareunsubstantiatedclaimsabouttheLisbon
warningsystem
quakethatsomeanimalsescapedtohigherground,whilemanyother
animalsinthesameareasdrowned.Thephenomenonwasalsonotedby
mediasourcesinSriLankainthe2004IndianOceanearthquake.[48][49]Itispossiblethatcertainanimals
(e.g.,elephants)mayhaveheardthesoundsofthetsunamiasitapproachedthecoast.Theelephants'
reactionwastomoveawayfromtheapproachingnoise.Bycontrast,somehumanswenttotheshoreto
investigateandmanydrownedasaresult.
AlongtheUnitedStateswestcoast,inadditiontosirens,warningsaresentontelevisionandradiovia
theNationalWeatherService,usingtheEmergencyAlertSystem.
Forecastoftsunamiattackprobability
KunihikoShimazaki(UniversityofTokyo),amemberofEarthquakeResearchcommitteeofThe
HeadquartersforEarthquakeResearchPromotionofJapanesegovernment,mentionedtheplantopublic
announcementoftsunamiattackprobabilityforecastatJapanNationalPressClubon12May2011.The
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forecastincludestsunamiheight,attackareaandoccurrenceprobabilitywithin100yearsahead.The
forecastwouldintegratethescientificknowledgeofrecentinterdisciplinarityandaftermathofthe2011
Thokuearthquakeandtsunami.Astheplan,announcementwillbeavailablefrom2014.[50][51][52]
Mitigation
Insometsunamipronecountriesearthquakeengineeringmeasureshave
beentakentoreducethedamagecausedonshore.
Japan,wheretsunamiscienceandresponsemeasuresfirstbegan
followingadisasterin1896,hasproducedevermoreelaborate
countermeasuresandresponseplans.[53]Thatcountryhasbuiltmany
tsunamiwallsofupto12metres(39ft)hightoprotectpopulatedcoastal
areas.Otherlocalitieshavebuiltfloodgatesofupto15.5metres(51ft)
highandchannelstoredirectthewaterfromincomingtsunami.
However,theireffectivenesshasbeenquestioned,astsunamioften
overtopthebarriers.
TheFukushimaDaiichinucleardisasterwasdirectlytriggeredbythe
AseawallatTsu,Japan
2011Thokuearthquakeandtsunami,whenwavesthatexceededthe
heightoftheplant'sseawall.[54]IwatePrefecture,whichisanareaat
highriskfromtsunami,hadtsunamibarrierswallstotalling25kilometres(16mi)longatcoastaltowns.
The2011tsunamitoppledmorethan50%ofthewallsandcausedcatastrophicdamage.[55]
TheOkushiri,HokkaidtsunamiwhichstruckOkushiriIslandofHokkaidwithintwotofiveminutes
oftheearthquakeonJuly12,1993createdwavesasmuchas30metres(100ft)tallashighasa10
storybuilding.TheporttownofAonaewascompletelysurroundedbyatsunamiwall,butthewaves
washedrightoverthewallanddestroyedallthewoodframedstructuresinthearea.Thewallmayhave
succeededinslowingdownandmoderatingtheheightofthetsunami,butitdidnotpreventmajor
destructionandlossoflife.[56]
Seealso
DeepoceanAssessmentandReportingofTsunamis
Disasterpreparedness
EarthquakeEarlyWarning(Japan)
HigherGroundProject
Indexofwavearticles
Listofearthquakes
Listofnaturaldisasters
Minoaneruption
Roguewave
Seiche
Sneakerwave
Supervolcano
12/18
3/28/2015
Tauredunumevent
Tsunamisinlakes
Tsunamiproofbuilding
TsunamiSociety
TsunamisintheUnitedKingdom
KaikouraCanyonlandslidetsunamihazard
Footnotes
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6. Smid,T.C.(April1970).'Tsunamis'inGreekLiterature.Greece&Rome17(1)(2nded.).pp.100104.
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u.ac.jp/kimata/ref/ICTW08_paper_CPM12JP.pdf)
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&sig=V7PmAnPptfO7BNMWBAC5aWMGKGI&hl=id&sa=X&ei=etrET
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&f=false)
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16. "Tidal",TheAmericanHeritageStedman'sMedicalDictionary.HoughtonMifflinCompany.11November
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lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1)
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20140226.
33. Duff,Mark(20131010)."ItalyVajontanniversary:Nightofthe'tsunami' "
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aftertheeyepassed,wholehousescamebyusat30milesanhour.""
37. Eyewitnessvideo(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rS0gv4Xbw7w)ofSupertyphoonHaiyan's
meteotsunamicstormsurgeonNovember6,2013
38. "TheHaurakiGulfMarinePark,Part2".InsettoTheNewZealandHerald.3March2010.p.9.
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40. Earthsci.org(http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/tsumami/tsunami.html),Tsunamis
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UnitedStatesGeographicalSurvey.22October2008.Retrieved20090909.
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43. GusiakovV."TsunamiQuantification:howwemeasuretheoverallsizeoftsunami(Reviewoftsunami
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44. NationalGeophysicalDataCenter/(NGDC/WDS)GlobalHistoricalTsunamiDatabase
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45. LekkasE.,AndreadakisE.,KostakiI.&KapouraniE.(2013)."AProposalforaNewIntegratedTsunami
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47. Chanson,H.(2010).TsunamiWarningSignsontheEnshuCoastofJapan
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49. Kenneally,Christine(20041230)."SurvivingtheTsunami:WhatSriLanka'sanimalsknewthathumans
didn't"(http://www.slate.com/id/2111608).SlateMagazine.
50. Forecastofearthquakeprobabilityiswithin30yearsahead,howeverTsunamiattackprobabilityismuch
lowerthanearthquakesothattheplanissettobewithin100yearsahead.YomiuriShimbun20110513
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51. IndiaTimes(http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=tsunamiwaveofchange)KunihikoShimazaki
speaksduringapressconferenceinTokyoThursday,May12,2011
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20120530.Retrieved20120612.
54. PhillipLipscy,KenjiKushida,andTrevorIncerti.2013."TheFukushimaDisasterandJapansNuclearPlant
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55. KyodoPress"Tsunamitoppledmorethan50%ofseawallinIwateprefecture"(JA)
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References
IOCTsunamiGlossary(http://itic.iocunesco.org/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=en)bytheIntergovernmental
OceanographicCommission(IOC)attheInternationalTsunamiInformationCentre(http://itic.ioc
unesco.org/index.php)(ITIC)ofUNESCO
TsunamiTerminology(http://nthmphistory.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.html)atNOAA
InJune2011,theVOASpecialEnglishserviceoftheVoiceofAmericabroadcasta15minute
programontsunamisaspartofitsweeklyScienceintheNewsseries.Theprogramincludedan
interviewwithaNOAAofficialwhooverseestheagency'stsunamiwarningsystem.Atranscript
andMP3oftheprogram,intendedforEnglishlearners,canbefoundatTheEverPresentThreat
ofTsunamis.(http://www.voanews.com/learningenglish/home/sciencetechnology/Large
TsunamisDoNotHappenOftenButtheThreatisAlwaysPresent123226568.html)
abelard.org.(http://www.abelard.org/briefings/tsunami.php)tsunamis:tsunamistravelfastbutnot
atinfinitespeed.retrievedMarch29,2005.
Dudley,WalterC.&Lee,Min(1988:1stedition)Tsunami!ISBN0824811259website
(http://tsunami.org/references.html)
Iwan,W.D.,editor,2006,SummaryreportoftheGreatSumatraEarthquakesandIndianOcean
tsunamisofDecember26,2004andMarch28,2005:EarthquakeEngineeringResearchInstitute,
EERIPublication#200606,11chapters,100pagesummary,plusCDROMwithcompletetext
andsupplementaryphotographs,EERIReport200606.ISBN193288419Xwebsite
(http://www.eeri.org/)
Kenneally,Christine(December30,2004)."SurvivingtheTsunami."Slate.website
(http://www.slate.com/id/2111608/)
Lambourne,Helen(March27,2005)."Tsunami:Anatomyofadisaster."BBCNews.website
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3/28/2015
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stm)
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Furtherreading
BorisLevin,MikhailNosov:Physicsoftsunamis.Springer,Dordrecht2009,ISBN97814020
88551.
Kontar,Y.A.etal.:TsunamiEventsandLessonsLearned:EnvironmentalandSocietal
Significance.Springer,2014.ISBN9789400772687(print)ISBN9789400772694(eBook)
KristyF.Tiampo:Earthquakes:simulations,sourcesandtsunamis.Birkhuser,Basel2008,ISBN
9783764387563.
LindaMariaKoldau:Tsunamis.Entstehung,Geschichte,Prvention,(Tsunamidevelopment,
historyandprevention)C.H.Beck,Munich2013(C.H.BeckReiheWissen2770),ISBN9783
406646560(inGerman).
WalterC.Dudley,MinLee:Tsunami!UniversityofHawaiiPress,1988,1998,Tsunami!
UniversityofHawai'iPress1999,ISBN0824811259,ISBN9780824819699.
Externallinks
World'sTallestTsunami
(http://geology.com/records/biggesttsunami.shtml)
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoTsunami.
geology.com
TsunamiDataandInformation(http://ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu.shtml)NationalGeophysical
DataCenter
IOCTsunamiGlossary(http://itic.iocunesco.org/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=en)InternationalTsunami
InformationCenter(UNESCO)
Tsunami&EarthquakeResearchattheUSGS(http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/)United
StatesGeologicalSurvey
IntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission(http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural
sciences/iococeans/)IntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission
17/18
3/28/2015
Tsunami(http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/)NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration
WaveThatShookTheWorld(http://www.pbs.org/nova/tsunami/)Nova
RecentandHistoricalTsunamiEventsandRelevantData
(http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/database_devel.html)PacificMarineEnvironmentalLaboratory
RawVideo:TsunamiSlamsNortheastJapan(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4w27IczOTk)
AssociatedPress
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&oldid=653833604"
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