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STP418-EB/Jul.

1967

Weldablity o f Austeniti c Stainles s Steel s


as Affecte d b y Residua l Elements

REFERENCE: G . E . Linnert , "Weldabit y o Austeniti c Steel s a s Af fected by Residua ] Elements," Effects of Residual Elements on Properties
of Austenitic Stainless Steels, ASTM STP 418, Am . Soc . Testin g Mats. ,
1967, p . 105 .
ABSTRACT: Th e effect s o f residua l element s i n austeniti c stainles s steel s
are o f considerabl e importanc e i n welding . Man y unusua l occurrence s
suspected t o b e relate d t o residua l element s hav e bee n encountered , in cluding cracking , porosity , sla g formation , corrosio n susceptibility , an d
embrittlement. Residual element s ar e difficul t t o contro l an d trace becaus e
the wel d meta l ma y accumulat e th e residua l elemen t fro m suc h source s
as th e bas e metal , fille r metal , fluxes , an d shieldin g gases . Becaus e grea t
effort regularl y i s mad e t o circumven t difficultie s throug h th e weldin g
procedure, man y phenomen a believe d t o b e relate d t o residual s escap e
investigation an d ar e no t documented . Thre e proble m area s o f curren t
interest ar e reviewed : (a) slag formatio n o n wel d meta l whic h interfere s
with th e joinin g process, (b) porosity i n wel d metal a s produce d b y nitrogen containin g compound s i n th e bas e metal , an d (c ) crackin g i n wel d
metal an d th e heat-affecte d zones . A nee d i s show n fo r mor e exactin g
knowledge of the atomisti c distributio n of residua l elements i n the variou s
forms o f austenitic stainless steels, suc h as wel d metal an d wrough t or cas t
base metal , becaus e thei r behavio r i n weldin g varie s greatl y wit h micro structural condition .
KEY WORDS : metals, stainles s steels , precipitatio n hardening , welding ,
austenitic stainles s steels , slags , blowholes , porosity , cracking , fluxes ,
heat-affected zone , residua l elements , ho t cracking , arc welding , electro n
beam weldin g

The effect s o f residua l element s in weldin g austeniti c stainles s steel s


are considerabl y more complex tha n i n thei r manufacture o r an y other
phase o f fabricatio n an d use . Complication s aris e i n weldin g because
residual elements which have the propensity to affec t weldability , in addition to being present in the base metal, also may be introduced by other
materials employe d in th e joinin g operation. Man y times, w e ar e con cerned not with the level of a residual in the base metal, but whether the
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Supervisor, weldin g research , researc h an d technology , Armc o Stee l Corp. ,


Middletown, Ohio .
105

Copyright 1967 by ASTM International

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1 06 RESIDUA

L ELEMENT S IN STAINLES S STEEL S

accumulated amoun t o f a n elemen t from al l contributing source s ha s in creased t o a n influentia l level . Th e element s carbon , boron , sulfur , an d
hydrogen are but a few residuals which can be introduced into a particular
region o f a weld joint by a surprising number o f sources .
Many unusua l occurrences, suspecte d t o b e th e effect s o f residual ele ments, hav e bee n encountere d i n weldin g th e austeniti c stainles s steels .
These incident s hav e include d a wid e variet y o f difficultie s an d defects ;
such a s cracking , porosity , sla g formation, corrosio n susceptibility , an d
embrittlement. Thes e effect s ca n vary with the welding process bein g employed. Consequently , th e weldin g enginee r an d th e welde r ar e ofte n
tempted t o tr y an y new procedure tha t offer s promis e o f overcomin g th e
unwanted effect . Whil e a successful procedur e spell s relief fo r th e imme diate problem, little is learned abou t the basic cause to prevent recurrence .
In general , to o littl e wor k ha s bee n conducte d t o firml y establis h th e
mechanisms by which the suspec t residuals exer t thei r effects .
As illogica l a s it ma y seem , a grea t man y o f th e so-calle d "residual "
elements whic h can b e pointe d ou t a s harmfu l t o th e weldabilit y o f on e
group o f th e austeniti c stainles s steel s als o wil l b e foun d usefull y em ployed a s alloyin g element s in othe r group s o f thes e steels . Briefly , th e
effect imparte d b y a given element will vary greatl y wit h th e overall allo y
composition, microstructure, and condition of the steel. The complexities
of this situation preven t th e formulation o f simple, generalized statement s
regarding th e influenc e o f particular residual element s upon weldability .
Furthermore, thos e wit h preconceive d idea s abou t widesprea d adverse
effects o f residual elements will be surprised to learn tha t importan t benefits hav e been found attributabl e to certain residua l elements i n particula r
welding operations. There hav e been a number of cases wher e fervor fo r
producing stainles s stee l with the lowes t possibl e leve l o f all residual ele ments resulted in a final product tha t displaye d inferio r weldability .
A numbe r of residual elements exer t multipl e effects . Instance s ca n b e
cited wher e increasing amounts of a residual element will cause deteriora tion i n on e property , bu t a t th e sam e tim e wil l exer t improvemen t i n
another property . Suc h case s usuall y requir e determinatio n o f a com promise rang e for th e particular element , an d thi s may cal l fo r consider able skil l on the part o f the steelmake r to kee p a trac e elemen t withi n a
relatively narrow range. Ther e ar e effect s i n welding which ar e produce d
by two or more residual elements. At this time, little quantitativ e data are
available to show whether the tota l influenc e o f these element s is additive
or multiplicative .
Although a n element-by-element review would be useful, a better per spective o f the residua l element problem i n welding can b e presente d b y
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LINNERT O N WELDABILIT Y 10

FIG. l Slag or dross on top surface of solidified welds made in five different
austenitic stainless steels by the gas tungsten-arc process. The specimens represent
progressively increasing slag-forming propensity from virtually no slag (No. 1) to
considerable slag (No. 5) .

FIG. 2 Slag or dross on root of full-penetration weld bead of same specimens


as illustrated in Fig. 1. Note that even though welding was performed in flat position, slag is accumulated on bottom of weld by surface tension forces. Steel in
Specimen 3 produces small amount of slag which coalesces in small spots distributed at intervals. Specimens numbered 4 and 5 have more-or-less continuous
slag covering along weld bead.

characteristics o f stainless steel s which ar e affecte d b y residua l elements,


such as corrosion resistance, als o can be o f importance i n a weldment.
Slag Formatio n i n Weldin g
Certain residual elements may cause viscous, refractory slag or dross to
form
o n the molten weld pool o f stainless steel during fusion welding . The
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l 08 RESIDUA

L ELEMENT S IN STAINLESS STEEL S

illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. This is a troublesome conditio n because (a ) the


slag ma y interfer e wit h manipulatio n o f th e molte n metal , (b) th e sla g
may become entrapped in the weld, and (c) the slag may reduce the exten t
of penetration by the weld bead. The sla g is more ap t t o be notice d an d
regarded as objectionable in welding processes whic h do not use a protec tive flux or slag cover, suc h as oxyacetylene, gas tungsten-arc, ga s metal arc, o r electron-bea m welding .
The slag problem ha s been more troublesome i n gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW), wher e the weld pool normall y is expected t o be free o f slag
or othe r oxide . Occasionally , a particular hea t o f base metal , o r o f filler
wire, will be employed which persists in forming small patches o r globules
of sla g on the surfac e o f the molten weld . In manua l welding operations ,
the welde r ofte n ca n manipulat e th e torc h t o contro l thes e sla g globules
and disperse them on the solidifying wel d surface. However, i n automatic
GTAW operations , suc h a s makin g a n autogenou s wel d i n tubing , th e
slag globules can cause several problems.
As th e sla g globules quickly move abou t o n th e wel d pool , the y frequently move into the area directly under the electrode and cause momentary arc instability. This is reflected in a variation i n weld bead size, shape,
, and penetration. Lac k of complete penetration may b e cause for rejection.
i Usually, slag particles cling very tenaciously to th e surfac e and hav e been
the cause of defects i n subsequent rolling an d col d drawin g operations .
The origin o f the slag, or the mechanism b y which it forms, is complex .
Laboratory stud y to dat e has no t trace d th e sla g back t o the observabl e
nonmetallic inclusion s in th e stee l prio r t o welding . Yet , ther e i s stron g
evidence that the slag-makin g elements are alread y in the oxidize d form .
In work with Types 304 an d 316 steels, specimen s from steels containin g
widely varyin g amount s o f nonmetalli c inclusions , a s observe d metallo graphically, produced equa l amounts of weld slag using the sam e GTA W
procedure. Weldin g experiment s performe d i n a "dr y box " ( a speciall y
purged welding chamber) o n very clean steel s which previously produce d
weld sla g i n regula r GTA W operation s continue d t o produc e a n equa l
amount o f slag . Thi s performanc e suggested , o f course , tha t th e sla g
globules represente d a n accumulatio n o f submicroscopi c oxid e particle s
already in the steel rather than the formation of new particles by oxidation.
When th e sla g globule s wer e mechanicall y dislodge d fro m th e surfac e
of the solid weld made in a dry box an d only the weld metal again melted
under th e gas tungsten-arc torch , no sla g appeare d durin g th e remelting .
This resul t suggested that the offending , slag-formin g compounds o r par ticles were eliminated from the weld metal during the first fusion operation .
Attempts hav e bee n mad e t o identif y th e slag-formin g element s b y
analyzing the globules whic h can be scraped of f the weld surface. Result s
exchanged an d discussed among investigators all point t o element s which
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LINNERT O N WELDABILIT Y 1

09

elements aluminum , calcium, magnesium , titanium, an d zirconiu m have


been mentione d mos t frequently . O f course , th e analys t als o find s th e
oxides o f chromium, manganese, silicon , an d iro n presen t i n substantia l
quantities. The analytical work on weld slag has not been extensive enoug h
to clearly define the circumstances under which certain element s will enter
into the formation of an objectionable slag . It i s not possible t o single out
particular element s suc h a s aluminum , o r titanium , an d maintai n tha t
these elements cannot be tolerated abov e certain levels without weld slag
formation. Indeed, certain types of stainless steels are made which contain
substantial alloying amounts of these elements and yet they can be GTAW
welded without objectionable sla g formation.
The answe r to th e wel d slag puzzle appear s t o li e in th e overal l com position o f the slag that forms a s nonmetallic inclusions in the base metal
and filler metal accumulat e on th e surfac e o f the weld . It i s well known
that weld metal formed by the GTAW process contains noticeabl y fewe r
nonmetallic inclusion s tha n the base metal fused t o form th e weld. Ther e
has no t bee n a methodical investigation , however , of the compositio n of
the final slag as affected b y (a) nonmetallics present in base or filler metals,
and (> ) chemical reaction s between metal and sla g during sla g formation .
Even thoug h element s whic h for m refractor y oxide s ma y b e present , i t
appears possibl e t o hav e th e fina l sla g o f a compositio n whic h i s quit e
fluid a t weldin g temperatures . However , i f circumstance s lea d t o th e
formation o f a slag composition whic h is very viscous at welding temperatures, th e accumulatio n o f sla g globules o r patche s suddenl y makes th e
welder aware that his manipulative efforts ar e being hampered by troublesome foreign material on the surfac e o f the wel d pool.
Another subtle form of slag formation occasionally is experienced in gas
tungsten-arc welding the stainless steels which appears a s a very light film
or dros s over th e entir e surfac e of the molte n weld pool. Thi s film is n o
more than a cloudy effec t o n the molten wel d metal, an d it does not see m
to affec t th e fluidit y o f the molte n meta l o r t o preclud e th e welde r fro m
making a sound joint. However, th e film sometimes noticeably decrease s
the extent o f penetration o f the weld into the base metal. In a production
operation usin g the GTAW process, th e unexpected presence of the dross
film on th e wel d poo l ma y resul t i n defectiv e (incompletel y penetrated )
welds. Althoug h n o researc h wor k ha s bee n reporte d o n th e mechanic s
by which th e film forms o n th e poo l an d reduce s wel d penetration , i t i s
hypothesized tha t th e film represents a readily oxidize d residua l elemen t
(or elements), the oxid e of which enters into the thermionic syste m of the
arc. Th e dissimila r liberatio n o f hea t a t th e anod e an d cathod e o f a
tungsten-arc i n inert gas is well known, but littl e information i s availabl e
on the changes which occur in heat balance when unusual ion or electro n
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l l O RESIDUA

L ELEMENT S I N STAINLESS STEEL S

appeared tha t th e presence of rare earth s (tha t is , cerium, lanthanum) in


stainless steel s can promote thi s effec t i n GTAW welding .
Remedial change s whic h ca n b e mad e i n weldin g procedur e t o over come sla g or dros s film vary greatly wit h the weldmen t being produced .
While th e introductio n o f a fluxin g agen t might see m t o b e a n effectiv e
countermeasure, this seldom is a convenient or practical remedy. The flux
approach ha s bee n explore d t o th e poin t o f addin g smal l amount s of
special "fluxing gases" to the inert gas shield used in the GTAW process .
These attempt s at gas fluxing have not achieve d complet e succes s i n any
instance becaus e of problems wit h toxicity , wel d contamination, an d s o
forth. Th e us e o f heliu m shielding is mor e effectiv e tha n argo n i n con trolling wel d sla g o r dros s film . Smal l addition s o f hydroge n (approxi mately 2 t o 5 pe r cent ) t o th e iner t ga s shiel d als o ma y b e helpfu l i n
raising the thermal output of the GTAW ar c and dispersing a troublesome
slag.
Porosity i n Wel d Meta l
Blowholes sometime s appear in the surfac e o f austenitic stainles s stee l
weld metal. Internal porosity, als o caused by a gas, may be encountered.
The mos t frequen t caus e o f thi s unsoundnes s i s th e elemen t hydrogen .
The amoun t o f residua l hydroge n containe d i n th e austeniti c stainles s
steel bas e metal and filler metal usually is in th e orde r o f 1 to 1 2 ppm,
which ordinarily proves to be within the solubility limit for the conditions
of temperatur e an d solidificatio n rat e durin g welding. Therefore , hydro gen-induced porosity occurs when the residual hydrogen is supplemented
by anothe r sourc e whic h raises th e tota l amoun t o f hydroge n abov e th e
solubility limit . O f course, al l materials intende d fo r weldin g operation s
on stainless steels are designed to be "low-hydrogen " i n character. How ever, a few examples of deceptiv e sources o f hydrogen ar e dam p fluxes ,
improperly compounde d electrod e coverings, and imperfectly sealed joint s
in welding torch coolin g system s which bleed water vapor .
Another caus e o f wel d meta l porosity i s residua l nitrogen . However ,
the mechanism by which this elemen t produces unsoundness i s quite un like that involvin g hydrogen. Th e residua l nitrogen conten t o f austenitic
stainless steel s generally is in th e rang e o f abou t 0.0 2 t o 0.0 5 pe r cent .
Some specia l steel s whic h mak e us e o f nitroge n a s a n alloyin g elemen t
may contai n a s much as 0. 5 pe r cent . Th e for m an d distributio n o f th e
nitrogen i s determined by th e natur e o f alloyin g elements present i n th e
steel's composition . Nitroge n hel d a s a compoun d sometime s threaten s
the soundnes s o f th e wel d metal .
Stainless steels containing only residual nitrogen, but bearin g additions
of stron g nitride-formin g elements , suc h a s aluminum , titanium , zirco nium,
d columbium
, 18often
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LINNERT O N WELDABILIT Y

111

FIG. 3 Longitudinal section through GTAW weld showing small gas pockets
along fusion line at upper boundary of weld in Cr-Ni-Al stainless steel. Porosity was
caused by thermal decomposition of aluminum nitride inclusions in base metal immediately adjacent to weld. Etchant: mixed acids (XIO).

FIG. 4 Typical gas pocket along fusion line of GTAW weld in Cr-Ni-Al stainless steel containing approximately I per cent aluminum. Traces of undissociated
aluminum nitride are shown remaining along lower edge of cavity. Unetched
(X500).

inclusions i n th e bas e meta l a t th e ver y edg e o f th e wel d ar e pron e t o


dissociate under the thermal conditions imposed by welding. If the gaseous
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1 1 2 RESIDUA

L ELEMENT S I N STAINLES S STEEL S

interface becaus e o f its origi n i n the bas e meta l immediatel y adjacen t t o


the weld .
The propensity t o fusion lin e porosity wil l be dependent upo n the number, size , an d kind of nitride inclusions in the base metal, and th e welding
conditions employed . Aluminu m nitride s ar e readil y dissociate d b y th e
heat of welding. The nitride s of titanium and zirconiu m have a somewha t
higher decompositio n temperatur e an d displa y a significantl y lesse r
tendency to produce fusion lin e porosity. Weldin g conditions pla y a larg e
part i n determinin g whether the ga s whic h is liberate d a t th e fusio n lin e

FIG. 5 Typical cracking in austenitic stainless steel weld metal. Open crack
at surface is readily visible to the naked eye and would be called a "hot crack."
Several internal "microfissures" are present. Weld metal was formed by GTAW
process and has a wholly austenitic microstructure. Etchant: mixed acids (X50).

will escap e t o th e wel d surface . Trave l spee d i s especially importan t be cause rapi d solidificatio n increases the numbe r of gas bubbles entrapped .
Fusion lin e porosit y occasionall y ha s bee n troublesom e i n weldin g
Types 32 1 an d 347 . Thes e steel s frequentl y contain varyin g amounts of
titanium o r columbiu m carbonitride s a s microscopi c inclusions . Newe r
stainless steels ar e bein g introduced whic h contain stron g nitride-forming
elements an d wel d metal porosity ma y prov e a problem unles s correctiv e
measures ar e taken. Som e years ago , 17-7PH , a semiaustenitic Cr-Ni-Al
precipitation hardenin g stainless steel, was reported t o give difficulty wit h
fusion lin e porosity, as shown in Fig. 3 , in joints welded b y the automati c
GTAW proces s [I].2 Th e presenc e o f aluminu m nitrid e inclusion s wa s
established as the cause, as illustrated i n Fig. 4 [2] . A remedy wa s effecte d
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UNNERT O N WELDABILiT Y

113

by adding a small amount of titanium or zirconium to preferentially form


nitride inclusions havin g bette r thermal stabilit y [3].
Cracking i n Wcldmcnt s

Cracking i s the principal defec t to be avoided in welding the austeniti c


stainless steels , an d residua l element s appea r t o pla y importan t role s i n
many of the cracking phenomena observed. The literature contains a large
number o f excellen t dissertation s o n th e variou s form s o f crackin g i n
welded joints and their suspected cause s [4]. Crackin g has bee n foun d t o

FIG. 6 Photomicrograph of typical microfissure in wholly austenitic stainless


steel weld metal deposited by E3W-I5 shielded metal-arc electrode. Grain boundary
marked "A" is in earliest detectable stage of fissuring. Grain boundary marked "B"
contains concentration of particles that apparently induces fissuring susceptibility.
Etchant: mixed acids (X500) .

occur i n welded joint s of austeniti c stainless stee l both i n the wel d metal
and in the base metal heat-affected zone.
Weld metal cracking i n austeniti c stainles s steel s ha s bee n separate d
into fou r types , whic h have acquire d suc h commo n names as : (1 ) crate r
cracks, (2 ) star cracks, (3 ) hot cracks or microfissures, an d (4) root crack s
[5]. There are reasons t o believe that al l four types of cracking ar e simply
manifestations o f the same basic kind of cracking; namely, "hot cracking "
or, whe n present i n its earlies t stage , "microfissuring " [6]. Ho t crackin g
and microfissuring, as illustrated in Fig. 5 , gave much difficulty som e years
ago, but toda y enoug h is known about thi s for m o f cracking to avoi d its
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114 RESIDUA

L ELEMENT S I N STAINLES S STEEL S

feet stil l pose s a seriou s weldin g problem fo r certai n type s o f stainles s


steels. Althoug h investigator s hav e continue d t o stud y th e proble m o f
microfissures, ther e i s much to be learned abou t th e influenc e o f residua l
elements in controlling their occurrence.
Hot cracks or microfissures occur intergranularly or interdendritically as
shown i n Fig . 6 . Th e grai n boundar y identifie d b y th e lette r "A " ha s
fissured, and wil l propagat e a s a crac k unde r certai n condition s o r will
open a s a tear or crack durin g plastic deformation . Grain boundary "B"
has not fissured but contains a n abnorma l concentratio n o f particles tha t
appears to induc e fissuring susceptibility. The formatio n of microfissures

FIG. 7 Microstructure o f weld metal containing approximately 5 pe r cent


delta or free jerrite in the austenitic matrix. Etchant: mixed acids (X500).

seems to be controlled by five principal factors : (1) the microstructure of


the weld metal upon solidification, (2) the composition o f the weld metal,
particularly the level of certain residual elements, (3) the amoun t of stress
imposed on the weld as it cools through the high temperature range, (4) the
hot ductility of the weld metal a t high temperatures, an d (5) the presenc e
of notche s that for m incipien t crack s a t the edg e of the weld .
Microfissures ca n develop in the as-deposite d wel d metal shortl y afte r
solidification. Recen t wor k has show n tha t microfissure s als o can occu r
in th e heat-affecte d zone s of previously deposited (sound ) beads o f weld
metal [7,8]. Surprisingly , heat treatmen t o f wel d beads a t hig h tempera tures intende d to dispers e segregate s does no t necessaril y eliminate sus ceptibility to fissuring in multipass heat-affected zones .
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LINNERT O N WELDABILIT Y 1

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dendritic region s durin g solidificatio n i s responsible fo r crac k formatio n


at these locations. Severa l hypothese s have been advance d to explai n the
mechanics through which the defec t initiates . Th e experimenta l evidenc e
as a whol e indicate s tha t mor e tha n on e ho t crackin g mechanis m ca n
operate to form microfissures in weld metal. Regardless of the uncertainty
over the exact nature of the rupture mechanics, there is good agreement on
the residual elements whic h promote microfissuring. Th e mos t frequently
dealt wit h offendin g elements , i n approximat e orde r o f decreasin g po tency, ar e boron , phosphorus , sulfur , selenium , tin , silicon , columbium ,
and tantalum . Eve n oxyge n an d hydroge n hav e bee n pointe d ou t a s
promoters o f microfissure s in austeniti c stainles s stee l wel d metal , bu t
with limited evidence to substantiat e th e assertion .
With the worst offending residua l elements designated, it might seem a
simple task to ascertai n the tolerable level for each. This has not proved
practicable becaus e o f th e amoun t o f an y elemen t tha t ca n b e tolerate d
is dependen t upo n th e fiv e principa l factor s mentione d earlier . Micro structure wa s th e firs t wel d meta l featur e mentione d whic h strongl y
affects microfissuring suspectibility. Weld metal having a wholly austenitic
microstructure is considerably more sensitive to conditions whic h promote
microfissuring tha n weld metal containing some delta or free ferrit e in an
austenitic matri x a s show n i n Fig . 7 .
To illustrat e th e influenc e o f microstructure , wel d meta l o f Typ e 31 0
(25Cr-20Ni) composition, which ordinarily has a wholly austeniti c microstructure, can be shown to undergo an increase in microfissuring susceptibility unde r rigorou s tes t condition s a s it s phosphoru s conten t i s raised
above 0.01 0 pe r cent . O n th e othe r hand , i f th e chromiu m an d nicke l
contents of a weld metal of similar total alloy content ar e adjusted to secure
about 5 per cent delta ferrite in the weld deposit , the n a phosphorus con tent exceeding abou t 0.1 per cent would be required to produce a similar
increase in microfissuring susceptibility. Eve n when consideration i s limited t o wel d metal s wit h a wholl y austeniti c microstructure, th e secon d
feature mentioned, overall chemica l composition, will affec t toleranc e for
residual elements . A s examples , microfissurin g ha s bee n show n t o b e
reduced by : (a ) a smal l increas e i n carbo n conten t [9] , (> ) a substantial
increase in manganese [10], an d (c ) increasing the nitroge n conten t [11].
Consequently, attempt s a t quantitativ e evaluatio n o f th e influenc e o f
residual elements o n cracking hav e been limited t o specifi c type s of steel
and weldin g condition s [72] .
To summarize the present statu s of the weld metal microfissuring prob lem in terms of residual elements, it can be said that two different practice s
are followe d dependin g upo n th e microstructur e o f th e weld . Whereve r
possible, a ferrite-containing austenitic weld structur e i s employed . With
proper
contro
of wel
d 18meta
ferrit
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116

RESIDUAL ELEMENT S I N STAINLES S STEEL S

elements present i n the base metal and all other material s which contribute
to th e wel d composition .
When a wholly austenitic weld structure must be employed, the practice
with respec t t o residua l element s i s simpl y to : (a ) hol d al l recognize d
crack-promoters a s low as can be achieved with available technology an d
permissible costs, an d (b ) make all possible adjustment s in regula r alloying elements (tha t is , carbon, manganese , silicon , columbium ) known t o
improve cracking resistance. Eve n wit h the bes t obtainable materials an d
most favorabl e weldin g procedure , wholl y austeniti c wel d deposit s ar e

FIG. 8 Underbead microcracking in Type 34 7 base metal o f shielded metal-arc


welded joint in as-welded condition. Etchant: mixed acids (X500).

recognized t o b e mor e crack-sensitiv e tha n th e ferrite-containin g types .


Therefore, greate r car e mus t b e exercise d i n al l phase s o f weldin g an d
inspection whe n weld metal of this microstructural character i s employed.
Base metal heat-affected zone cracking i n welde d austeniti c stainles s
steels wa s no t know n t o b e a proble m unti l greate r us e o f (a ) heavie r
sections, o r (b) mor e elaboratel y alloye d type s o f steel s began . Perhap s
the first serious encounte r wit h bas e meta l crackin g occurre d wit h Typ e
347 (18Cr-8Ni-Cb) i n about 194 9 when this steel was employed i n heavywall pressure vessel s for nuclea r power units . Although Type 34 7 ha d a
good reputatio n a s a weldable steel i n th e for m o f shee t an d ligh t plate ,
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LINNERT O N WELDABILITY 1

l7

Fig. 8. Cracking was observed to occur in this region both in the as-welde d
condition an d afte r postwel d stress-relie f hea t treatment . Shortl y after ward, an d muc h t o th e disma y of stea m powe r engineers , Typ e 34 7 i n
heavy-wall pipin g of higher-temperature central stea m station s bega n t o
exhibit susceptibility to failure b y cracking in the base metal heat-affecte d
zone after seemingl y sound weld joints had bee n i n elevate d temperature
service fo r som e tim e [13].
Much research has been directed to the weld joint cracking in Type 347
and at least two mechanisms appear to operate: (1 ) an intergranular for m
of ho t shortnes s whic h occurs durin g welding , whereupo n th e crackin g
develops because of grain boundary liquation, o r embrittlement , and (2 )
a complex phenomenon involving strain-induced precipitation in the heataffected zon e during postweld heat treatment , or servic e at elevate d tem perature, wherei n th e chang e i n mechanica l propertie s result s i n stress rupture failur e unde r certai n condition s [14]. Th e Britis h painstakingl y
determined that the precipitation o f columbium carbide in the dislocation s
present i n th e stresse d heat-affecte d zone s wa s th e ke y t o th e problem .
The British als o found tha t a s little as 0.10 per cen t columbium , present
as a residual element , coul d produce th e strain-induce d precipitatio n an d
set the stage for failure by cracking [15].
Base metal heat-affected zone cracking ha s been reporte d i n relativel y
light sections of the more complex-alloyed austenitic stainless steels [16].
Although the microstructures of these steels contai n man y kinds of compounds whic h alon e giv e caus e fo r concer n i n welding , ther e ha s bee n
enough variation in the susceptibilit y of differen t lot s o f the sam e type of
alloy t o suspec t tha t residual element s ma y b e exertin g a n influenc e o n
overall weldin g performance.
Summary

Residual elements in austenitic stainless steels exert both favorable and


unfavorable influence s o n th e weldabilit y o f thes e steels . Th e circum stances throug h whic h various residua l element s reac h influentia l level s
often ar e deceptive , an d th e mechanism s b y whic h th e element s exer t
specific effect s ar e no t wel l understood . T o illustrat e th e complexit y of
the rol e o f residual elements , severa l troublesom e condition s hav e been
reviewed; t o wit :
1. Sla g formation on the surface of the molten weld metal during fusion
joining is promoted b y such elements as aluminum, calcium, magnesium ,
titanium, an d zirconium , bu t th e mer e presenc e o f the elemen t doe s no t
invariably result i n slag . Studie s sugges t that submicroscopi c particle s o f
compounds o f thes e element s agglomerat e t o for m sla g durin g fusion .
When the agglomeration represents a high-melting point, viscous slag , or
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l l 8 RESIDUA

L ELEMENT S IN STAINLESS STEEL S

commonly caused b y hydrogen. However, nitroge n also can produce thes e


forms o f unsoundness. Th e mechanic s involv e thermal decompositio n o f
metal nitrid e paritcles alon g the fusion lin e during welding.
3. Crackin g i n wel d meta l i s promote d b y a numbe r o f elements , in cluding boron , phosphorus , sulfur , an d columbium . Thi s defect , com monly called "ho t cracking " or "microfissuring" is highly dependent upo n
weld metal composition, microstructure , an d high-temperature properties ;
as well a s the weldin g procedure an d condition s associate d wit h the joint
being welded.
4. Crackin g i n the base meta l heat-affected zones ha s proved t o be a n
unexpectedly sever e problem , bu t onl y i n certai n steel s unde r specifi c
conditions. A t leas t tw o cracking mechanism s hav e bee n detecte d b y in vestigators: namely ; (1 ) intergranula r crackin g resultin g fro m grai n
boundary liquidation , o r embrittlement , an d (2 ) stress-ruptur e failur e
arising out of strain-induced precipitatio n hardening .
Concluding Remark s
There i s a stron g nee d fo r mor e exactin g knowledg e o f th e atomisti c
distribution o f residua l elements i n th e austeniti c stainles s steel s an d th e
formation an d behavio r o f compound s an d phase s involvin g these ele ments during the usual thermal cycles of welding. With th e increasing us e
of ne w research tool s an d techniques, there i s good reaso n t o believ e tha t
more welding problems will be analyzed to greater depth in the near future .
While some work of this kind has been carried ou t [77,75] , the importanc e
of welding as our most widely used joining process and the need for greate r
weld reliability calls for muc h mor e effor t i n this direction .
References
[] Funk , C . W. , an d Granger , M . J. , "Metallurgica l Aspect s o f Weldin g Pre cipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels," The Welding Journal, Researc h Supplement, Vol. 23, No. 10, Oct. 1954 , pp. 496s-508s.
[2] Linnert , G. E. , "Weldin g Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels," The Welding Journal, Vol. 36 , No. 1 , Jan. 1957 , pp. 9-27 .
[3] U. S. Paten t No. 3,117,861 , Jan . 14, 1964 , Linnert , G. E. , and Espy , R. H. ,
"Stainless Stee l and Article. "
'f[4] Borland , J . C. , an d Younger , R . N. , "Som e Aspect s o f Crackin g in Welde d
Cr-Ni Austeniti c Steels," British Welding Journal, Vol . 7 , No . 1 , Jan. I960 ,
pp. 22-59.
[5] Poole , L . K. , "Th e Incidenc e o f Crackin g in Weldin g Type 34 7 Steels, " The
Welding Journal, Vol . 32 , No . 8 , Researc h Supplement , Aug . 1953 , pp .
403s-412s.
[6] Linnert , G. E. , "Weldin g Type 34 7 Stainles s Stee l Pipin g and Tubing, " Welding Research Council Bulletin Series , No. 43 , Oct. 1958.
[7] Cordea , J . N. , Rammer , P . A. , an d Martin , D . C. , "Cause s o f Fissurin g in
Nickel-Base an d Stainles s Stee l Allo y Wel d Metals, " The Welding Journal,
Vol. 43, No. 11 , Research Supplement, Nov. 1964 , pp. 481s^91s.
Copyright [8]
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, D.
M. , Wed
an dJunBaker
, R.
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British Welding Journal, Vol . 12 , No. 8 , Aug. 1965 , pp. 411-419 .
Petrofac (Petrofac) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorized.
[9] Campbell , H. C. , an d Thomas , R . D. , Jr. , "Th e Effec t o f Alloyin g Element s

DISCUSSION O N WELDABILIT Y 1

19

on th e Tensil e Propertie s o f 25-2 0 Weld Metal, " The Welding Journal, Vol .
25, No . 11 , Research Supplement , Nov . 1946 , pp. 760s-768s . Als o discussio n
Vol. 26, No. 2 , 1947 , pp. 119s-120s .
[10] U . S . Paten t No . 2,894,833 , Jul y 14 , 1959 , Linnert , G . E. , an d Larrimore ,
R. M., "Stainless Steel for Weld. "
[11] U . S . Patent No . 2,871,118 , Jan . 27 , 1959 , Perkins, R. A. , and Binder , W. O. ,
"Resistance t o Hot-Cracking o f Chromium-Nickel Steel Welds. "
[72] Hoerl , A. , an d Moore , T . J. , "Th e Weldin g o f Typ e 34 7 Stainles s Steels, "
The Welding Journal, Vol . 36 , No . 9 , Researc h Supplement , Sept . 1957 ,
pp. 442s-448s.
[13] Moore , N . E. , an d Griffiths , J . A. , "Microstructura l Cause s o f Heat-Affecte d
Zone Crackin g i n Heav y Sectio n 18-12-N b Austeniti c Stainles s Stee l Welde d
Joints," Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol . 197 , Jan. 1961 , pp . 29 39.
[14] Younger , R . N. , Haddrill , D . M. , an d Baker , R . G. , "Post-Wel d Hea t Treat ment o f Hig h Temperatur e Austeniti c Steels, " Journal of the Iron and Steel
Institute, Vol . 201, Aug. 1963 , pp. 693-698.
[75] Haddrill , D . M. , an d Baker , R . G. , "Effec t o f Cobal t o n th e Susceptibilit y of
Welded Austeniti c Steel s t o Heat-Affecte d Zone Crackin g Durin g Heat Treat ment," British Welding Journal, Vol. 11 , No. 9 , Sept. 1964 , pp . 453-461 .
[76] Linnert , G . E. , "Th e Weldabilit y o f Alloy s fo r High-Temperatur e Service, "
The Welding Journal, Vol . 27 , No . 8 , Researc h Supplement , Aug . 1948 , pp .
385s-405s.
[77] Heuschkel , J., "Initial Characteristic s of Chromium-Nickel Steel Weld Metals, "
The Welding Journal, Vol. 34 , No. 10 , Oct. 1955 , pp. 484s-504s.
[75] Makin , S . M., et al , "Distributio n o f Phosphorus and Sulfu r i n Fully Austenitic
Stainless Stee l Welds," British Welding Journal, Vol. 7 , No. 10 , Oct. 1960 , pp .
595-599.

DISCUSSION
H. C. Campbell1 (written discussion)Do residua l metalli c element s
affect weldabilit y whe n present a s atoms , o r mus t the y becom e sulfides ,
oxides, etc., in order to be noticed?
G. E. Linnert (author)In almos t all cases, residual elements combine
with other availabl e element s in the stee l to for m compounds , o r alloyed
phases. Naturally , th e propertie s o f the compoun d o r phas e the n deter mine it s influenc e upo n weldability . Surprisin g effect s ma y b e observe d
depending upon such properties a s density, melting point, solid and liquid
solubility, an d dissociatio n temperature . A s indicate d a t th e conclusio n
of the paper, ver y little quantitative data have been obtaine d on the com position an d propertie s o f offendin g phase s an d compound s observe d t o
take part i n th e mechanic s of welding problems. Consequently , many of
our evaluation s of residual element s a s they affec t weldabilit y ar e purely
empirical. Hydroge n i s a n exceptiona l residua l elemen t inasmuc h a s i t
apparently act s t o for m blowhole s an d porosit y withou t enterin g int o
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Director o f research, Arcos Corp., Philadelphia, Pa.

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