Pure FP3

Revision Notes

May 2013

Contents
1

Hyperbolic functions............................................................................................................3
Definitions and graphs...............................................................................................................................................3
Addition formulae, double angle formulae etc..........................................................................................................3
Osbornes rule....................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Inverse hyperbolic functions......................................................................................................................................4

Graphs................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Logarithmic form.................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Equations involving hyperbolic functions.................................................................................................................5

Further coordinate systems..................................................................................................6

Ellipse.........................................................................................................................................................................6
Hyperbola...................................................................................................................................................................6
Parabola......................................................................................................................................................................7
Parametric differentiation...........................................................................................................................................7
Tangents and normals.................................................................................................................................................8
Finding a locus...........................................................................................................................................................9

Differentiation......................................................................................................................10
Derivatives of hyperbolic functions.........................................................................................................................10
Derivatives of inverse functions..............................................................................................................................10

Integration............................................................................................................................12
Standard techniques.................................................................................................................................................12
Recognise a standard function.............................................................................................................................................12
Using formulae to change the integrand..............................................................................................................................12
Reverse chain rule............................................................................................................................................................... 12
Standard substitutions.......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Integration inverse functions and ln x.................................................................................................................................14

Reduction formulae..................................................................................................................................................14
Arc length.................................................................................................................................................................18
Area of a surface of revolution................................................................................................................................19

Vectors...................................................................................................................................22
Vector product..........................................................................................................................................................22
The vectors i, j and k...............................................................................................................................................22
Properties.................................................................................................................................................................22
Component form......................................................................................................................................................23
Applications of the vector product...........................................................................................................................23
Volume of a parallelepiped.......................................................................................................................................24
Triple scalar product................................................................................................................................................24
Volume of a tetrahedron...........................................................................................................................................25
Equations of straight lines........................................................................................................................................25

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Vector equation of a line...................................................................................................................................................... 25

Cartesian equation of a line in 3-D......................................................................................................................................26
Vector product equation of a line.........................................................................................................................................26

Equation of a plane..................................................................................................................................................27
Scalar product form............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Cartesian form..................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Vector equation of a plane...................................................................................................................................................28
Distance from origin to plane..............................................................................................................................................29
Distance between parallel planes.........................................................................................................................................30

Distance of a point from a plane..............................................................................................................................31

Line of intersection of two planes............................................................................................................................32
Angle between line and plane..................................................................................................................................33
Angle between two planes.......................................................................................................................................34
Shortest distance between two skew lines...............................................................................................................34

Matrices................................................................................................................................35
Basic definitions.......................................................................................................................................................35
Dimension of a matrix......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Transpose and symmetric matrices......................................................................................................................................35
Identity and zero matrices....................................................................................................................................................35

Determinant of a 3 3 matrix..................................................................................................................................35
Properties of the determinant...............................................................................................................................................36

Singular and non-singular matrices..........................................................................................................................36

Inverse of a 3 3 matrix........................................................................................................................................36
Cofactors............................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Finding the inverse.............................................................................................................................................................. 37
Properties of the inverse...................................................................................................................................................... 37

Matrices and linear transformations.........................................................................................................................38

Linear transformations......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Base vectors

i, j , k

................................................................................................................................................... 38

Image of a line..........................................................................................................................................................40
Image of a plane 1....................................................................................................................................................40
Image of a plane 2....................................................................................................................................................40

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors.............................................................................................41

Definitions................................................................................................................................................................41
2 2 matrices...........................................................................................................................................................41
Orthogonal matrices.................................................................................................................................................42
Normalised eigenvectors..................................................................................................................................................... 42
Orthogonal vectors.............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Orthogonal matrices............................................................................................................................................................ 42

Diagonalising a 2 2 matrix....................................................................................................................................43
Diagonalising 2 2 symmetric matrices..................................................................................................................44
Eigenvectors of symmetric matrices....................................................................................................................................44
Diagonalising a symmetric matrix.......................................................................................................................................44

3 3 matrices...........................................................................................................................................................46
Finding eigenvectors for 3 3 matrices...............................................................................................................................46
Diagonalising 3 3 symmetric matrices..............................................................................................................................47
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3
2

1
6

1
1

52
4

Hyperbolic functions
2
3

Definitions and
graphs
1
4

x
6

1
1
2

1 x x
sinh x= ( e e )
2
2

tanh x=

x
x
sinh x ( e e )
= x x
cosh x ( e + e )

4 y

4 y

4 y

1
4

63

54

45

x
5

1 x x
cosh x = ( e + e )
2

x
2

62

5 3

4 4

3 5 2

You should be able to draw the graphs of cosech x, sech x and coth x from the above:
cosech x

sech x

coth x

Addition formulae, double angle formulae etc.

The standard trigonometric formulae are very similar to the hyperbolic formulae.

Osbornes rule
If a trigonometric identity involves the product of two sines, then we change the sign to write
down the corresponding hyperbolic identity.
Examples:
sin ( A + B )=sin A cos B+cos A sin B

sinh ( A + B )=sinh A cosh B+ cosh A sinh B

but

cos ( A+ B )=cos A cos Bsin A sin B

no change

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cosh ( A+ B )=cosh A cosh B+sinh A sinh B

and 1 + tan2 A

product of two sines, so change sign

= sec2 A

tan 2 A=

1 tanh A = sech A
3
2

Inverse hyperbolic functions

1
4 y

4 y

3
2

1
Graphs
5

, product of two sines, so change

4 y

sign

sin 2 A
cos 2 A

x
1

2 1
3

y=f (x)

2
Remember
that the graph of

1
6

is the reflection of

x
1

y = arsinh x

Notice

1
y=f ( x ) y=x
2
.

y = arcosh x

y = artanh x

arcosh x is a function defined so that arcosh x 0.

there is only one value of arcosh x.

However, the equation cosh z = 2, has two solutions, +arcosh 2 and arcosh 2.

Logarithmic form
1)

2)

y = arsinh x

1
sinh y= ( e y ey ) =x
2

e 2 y 2 x e y 1=0

e y=

But

e y> 0

y=arsinh x=ln ( x + x2 +1 )

2 x 4 x2 + 4
=x + x2 +1
2

or

x x2 +1

x x2 +1<0

e y =x + x 2 +1

and

only

y = arcosh x

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1 y y
cosh y= ( e + e ) =x
2

e 2 x e + 1=0

2 x 4 x2 4
e =
=x x 21
2

y=arcosh x=ln ( x+ x 21 )

2y

It can be shown that

both roots are positive

or

ln ( x x 21 )

ln ( x x 1 ) =ln ( x+ x 1 )
2

y=arcosh x= ln ( x + x 21 )

But arcosh x is a function and therefore has only one value (positive)

y=arcosh x=ln ( x+ x 21 )

3) Similarly artan x =

( x 1)

1
1+ x
ln
2
1x

( )

(|x|<1 )

Equations involving hyperbolic functions

It would be possible to solve

6 sinh x2 cosh x=7

using the

) technique
R sinh

from trigonometry, but it is easier to use the exponential form.

6 sinh x2 cosh x=7

Example: Solve
Solution:

6 sinh x2 cosh x=7

1 x x
1 x x
6 ( e e )2 ( e + e ) =7
2
2

2 e2 x 7 e x 4=0

( 2 e x + 1 )( e x 4 ) =0

e=

x = ln 4

1
2

(not possible)

or 4

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In other cases, the trigonometric solution may be preferable

Example: Solve cosh 2x + 5 sinh x 4 = 0
Solution:

cosh 2x + 5 sinh x 4 = 0

1 + 2 sinh2 x + 5 sinh x 4 = 0

2 sinh2 x + 5 sinh x 3 = 0

(2sinh x 1)(sinh x + 3) = 0

note use of Osborns rule

1
sinh x= 3
2
x = arsinh 0.5 or arsinh (3)
x=ln ( 0.5+ 0.52+1 )

or

ln ( (3)+ (3)2 +1 )

using log form of

inverse

x=ln

( 1+2 5 )

or

ln ( 103 )

Further coordinate systems

y

Ellipse
b

Cartesian equation
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2

x
a

a
b

Parametric equations
x=a cos , y=b sin
y

Foci at S (ae, 0) and S (ae, 0)

x
ae

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x=

ae

x=

Directrices at x =

a
e

Eccentricity e < 1, b2 = a2(1 e2)

An ellipse can be defined as the locus of a

point P which moves so that PS = e PN,
where S is the focus, e < 1
and N lies on the directrix.

P
N
x
S

x=

Hyperbola
Cartesian equation

y=

x2 y2
=1
a2 b 2
Parametric equations
x=a cosh , y =b sinh

( x=a sec , y=b tan

Asymptotes

y=

also work)

x
y
=
a
b

Foci at S (ae, 0) and S (ae, 0)

Directrices at x =

a
e
P

Eccentricity e >1, b2 = a2(e2 1)

A hyperbola can be defined as the locus of a

point P which moves so that PS = e PN,
where S is the focus, e > 1 and N lies on the directrix.
y2 x2
=1
c2 d 2

x=

a
e

is a hyperbola with foci on the y-axis,

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Parabola
Cartesian equation
2

y =4 ax

Parametric equations
x=a t 2 , y=2 at
Focus at S (a, 0)
Directrix at x = a

A parabola can be defined as the locus of a

point P which moves so that PS = PN,
where S is the focus, N lies on the directrix
and eccentricity e = 1.

Parametric differentiation
From the chain rule

dy
dy d
=
dx dx
d

dy dy dx
=
d dx d

or

dy
dy dt
=
dx dx
dt

using any parameter

Tangents and normals

It is now easy to find tangents and normals.
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Example: Find the equation of the normal to the curve given by the parametric equations

x = 5 cos , y = 8 sin at the point where =

3 ,

When =

Solution:

x=

5
2 ,

cos =

1
2

y = 4 3

dy
dy d 8 cos
8
= =
=
dx dx 5 sin 5 3
d

and

gradient of normal is

equation of normal is

5 3 x8 y =

3
sin =
2

and

when

5 3
8
y4 3=

5 3
5
x
8
2

( )

17 3
2

Sometimes normal, or implicit, differentiation is (slightly) easier.

Example: Find the equation of the tangent to xy = 36, or x = 6t,

y=

6
t

, at the point where

t = 3.
Solution:

When t = 3, x = 18 and y = 2.
dy
dx

can be found in two (or more!) ways:

dy
dy dt 6 t 2
= =
dx dx
6
dt

10

dy 1 1
= =
dx t 2
9 ,

xy = 36

when

dy 36
= 2
dx
x

dy 36
=
dx 182

y=

1
= 9

36
x

when

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t=3

x = 18

y2=

equation of tangent is

1
( x18 )
9

x + 9y 36 = 0

Finding a locus
First find expressions for x and y coordinates in terms of a parameter, t or , then eliminate
the parameter to give an expression involving only x and y, which will be the equation of the
locus.
Example: The tangent to the ellipse

x2 y2
+ =1 , at the point P, (3 cos , 4 sin ), crosses
9 16

the x-axis at A, and the y-axis at B.

Find an equation for the locus of the mid-point of AB as P moves round the
ellipse, or as varies.

Solution:

dy
dy d 4 cos
= =
dx dx 3 sin
d

equation of tangent is

y4 sin =

4 cos
( x3 cos )
3 sin

3 y sin +4 x cos =12 cos2 + 12 sin2 = 12

Tangent crosses x-axis at A when y = 0,

and crosses y-axis at B when x = 0,

mid-point of AB is
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x =

y=

3
cos ,

4
sin

( 2cos3 , 2 sin4 )
11

3
2 cos

Here x =

cos =

and

2
sin

3
2
sin =
2x
y

equation of the locus is

y=

9
4
+ 2 =1
2
4x y

since

cos +sin =1

Differentiation

Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

1
y=sinh x= ( e x ex )
2

dy 1 x x
= (e +e )
dx 2

and, similarly,

Also,

= cosh x

d ( cosh x )
=sinh x
dx

y=tanh x=

sinh x
cosh x

dy cosh x cosh xsinh x sinh x

1
2
=
=
=sech x
2
2
dx
cosh x
cosh x

In a similar way, all the derivatives of hyperbolic functions can be found.

12

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f ( x)

f ' (x )

sinh x
cosh x
tanh x

cosh x
sinh x
sech2x

all positive

coth x
cosech x
sech x

cosech2x
cosech x coth x
sech x tanh x

all negative

Notice: these are similar to the results for sin x, cos x, tan x etc., but the minus signs do not
always agree.
The minus signs are wrong only for cosh x and sech x

( cosh1 x )

Derivatives of inverse functions

y = arsinh x
sinh y = x

cosh y

dy
1
1
=
=
dx cosh y 1+ s inh2 y

d ( arsinh x )
1
=
dx
1+ x 2

dy
=1
dx

The derivatives for other inverse hyperbolic functions can be found in a similar way.
You can also use integration by substitution to find the integrals of the
f ( x)

arcsin x

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f '(x)
1
1x 2

f ' (x )

column

substitution needed for integration

1 sin2 u = cos2 u

use x = sin u

13

arccos x

1
1x 2

arctan x

1
1+ x 2

arsinh x

1
1+ x 2

arcosh x

1
x 21

artanh x

1
1x 2

1
1+ x
ln
2
1x

( )

Note that

1 cos2 u = sin2 u

use x = cos u

1 + tan2 u = sec2 u

use x = tan u

1 + sinh2 u = cosh2 u

use x = sinh u

cosh2 u 1 = sinh2 u

use x = cosh u

1 tanh2 u = sech2 u

use x = tanh u

1
1x 2

partial fractions, see example below

1
1
1
1
1
1+ x
dx=
+
dx= ln
2
2 1+ x 1x
2
1x
1x

( )

+c

With chain rule, product rule and quotient rule you should be able to handle a large variety of
combinations of functions.

14

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Integration

Standard techniques
Recognise a standard function
Examples:

sec x tan x dx=sec x

+c

sech x tanh x dx=sec x

+c

Using formulae to change the integrand

Examples:

tan2 x dx= 1+ sec2 x dx=x+ tan x

+c

cos 2 x dx= 12 1+cos 2 x dx= 12 ( x+ 12 sin2 x )+ c

sinh2 x dx= 12 cosh 2 x1 dx= 12 ( 12 sinh 2 xx )+c

Reverse chain rule

Notice the chain rule pattern, guess an answer and differentiate to find the constant.
Example:

cos 2 x sin x dx

looks like

u2

u
x

so try u3

cos3 x

d ( cos 3 x )
dx

Example:

= 3cos2 x ( sin x) = 3cos2 x sin x

cos 2 x sin x dx
x 2 ( 2 x 37 )
d ( 2 x 37 )
dx

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so divide by 3

1
3
cos x +c
3
4

dx

looks like

5 ( 2 x 37 ) 6 x 2

u
x

so try u5

( 2 x3 7 )

3
= 30 ( 2 x 7 )

so divide by 30

15

 x 2 ( 2 x 37 )

Example:

dx

5
1
( 2 x3 7 ) +c
30

sech4 x tanh x dx

sech3 x ( sech x tanh x ) dx

d ( sech 4 x )
dx

u
x

so try u4 = sech4 x

4 sech x sech x tanh x

sech4 x tanh x dx=

looks like

u3

so divide by 4

1
sech4 x +c
4

Standard substitutions
1

a2 +b 2 x 2 dx

1
dx
a +b2 x2
2

a2b2 x 2 dx

1
dx
b x 2a2
2

bx=a tanu

better than bx = a sinh u when there is no

bx=a sinh u

better than bx = a tan u when there is

bx=a tanh u

or use partial fractions

bx=a cosh u

better than bx = a sec u when there is

For more complicated integrals like

1

p x 2 +qx +r dx
complete the square to give

or

1
dx
p x + qx+ r
2

p ( x +a )2+ b and then use a substitution similar to one of the four

above.

16

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Example:

1
dx
4 x 8 x5

4 x 8 x 5

4 ( x2 2 x +1 )9=4 ( x1 ) 9

Substitute 2(x 1) = 3 cosh u

4 ( x1 ) 9
2

dx

2 dx = 3 sinh u du

3 sinhu
du
9 ( cosh u1 ) 2

1
du
2

= u+c =

1
2

arcosh

( 2 x2
3 )

+ c

Important tip

x
dx
a2 x 2

is best done with the substitution

u (or u2) = a2 x2, when n is odd,

or a trigonometric or hyperbolic function when n is even.

Integration inverse functions and ln x

To integrate inverse trigonometric or hyperbolic functions and ln x we use integration by parts
with

dv
dx

Example:

Solution:

=0
Find

I=

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arctan x dx
arctan x dx

take u = arctan x

du
1
=
dx 1+ x 2

17

dv
dx

and

I = x arctan x

I=

Example:

Find

Solution:

I=

=1

v = x

x 1+ x 2 dx

arctan x dx

1
2

= x arctan x

ln (1 + x 2) + c

arcosh x dx
arcosh x dx

take u = arcosh x

dv
dx

and

I = x arcosh x

I=

arcosh x dx

=1

du
1
= 2
dx x 1

v = x

1
dx
x 21

= x arcosh x

x21

+ c

Reduction formulae
The first step in finding a reduction formula is usually often integration by parts (sometimes
twice). The following examples show a variety of techniques.
Example 1:
(a)
(b)

I n= x e dx .

Find a reduction formula,

I0
Find
, and (c) find

I4

Solution:
(a)

Integrating by parts
u=x

18

du
dx

n x

n1

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dv x
=e
dx

and

v=ex
x

n1

I n=x e n x

I n=x n e x n I n1
x

I 0 = e dx

(b)
(c)

e dx

= ex + c

Using the reduction formula

I 4=x 4 e x 4 I 3=x 4 e x 4 ( x 3 e x 3 I 2)
x 4 e x 4 x3 e x +12 ( x 2 e x 2 I 1 )
x 4 e x 4 x3 e x +12 x 2 e x 24 ( x e x I 0 )
4

x e 4 x e +12 x e 24 x e +24 e +c

since

I 0 =e +c

Example 2: Find a reduction formula for

I n= sin x dx .
0

Use the formula to find

I 6 = sin 6 x dx
0

Solution:

I n= sinn x dx
0

sin n1 x sin x dx
0

take u = sin

and

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dv
dx

n1

du
dx

= (n 1) sin n 2 x cos x

= sin x v = cos x

19

I n=[ cos x sinn 1 x ]

2
0

cos x (n 1)sin n 2 x cos x dx

2
2
n2
= 0 + (n 1) cos x sin x dx
0

2
2

n2

(n 1) ( 1sin x ) sin x dx

( n 1 ) sin n 2 x dx(n 1) sin n x dx

In
In

= (n 1) In2 (n 1) In
n1
In2 .
n

Now

I6

5
6

I4

I6

5
1 dx
16 0

5 3

6 4

5
32

I n= sec x dx= sec

n2

I n= sec n x dx .
2

x sec x dx

take u = secn 2x

and
20

dv
dx

I0

Example 3: Find a reduction formula for

Solution:

5 3 1

6 4 2

I2 =

= sec2 x

du
dx

= (n 2) secn 3x sec x tan x

v = tan x
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In

= secn 2x tan x

( n 2 ) tan 2 x sec n2 x dx

= secn 2x tan x

( n 2 ) ( sec 2 x 1 ) sec n 2 x dx

= secn 2x tan x

( n 2 ) I n + ( n 2 ) I n2

(n 1) I n

Example 4:
Solution:

= secn 2x tan x + ( n 2 ) I n2

Find a reduction formula for

I n= tan x dx .

I n= tan n x dx= tan n2 x tan 2 x dx

I n= tan n2 x ( sec 2 x 1 ) d x

tann2 x sec2 x d x

tan x ( n 2 ) secn 3 x sec x tan x dx

= secn 2x tan x

In

1
n1

tann2 x d x

tann 1x In 2 .

Example 5:

Find a reduction formula for

In

xn ( 1+ x )2 dx
1

Solution:

In

xn ( 1+ x )2 dx

take u = xn

and

dv
dx

.
du
dx

= nxn 1

= (1 + x)2 v =

1
( 1+ x )3
3

In

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1
x n (1+ x )3
3
1

nx n1 13 (1+ x) dx
1

21

In

In

In

n+3
3

In

n
x n1( 1+ x )2 ( 1+ x ) dx

3 1

= 0
0

Example 6:

n
x n1(1+ x )2 dx
3 1

n
3

In

I n1
n
3

=
n
n+3

n
x n (1+ x)2 dx
3 1

n
3

In

I n1

I n1

Find a reduction formula for

In

x n cos x dx
0

Solution:

In

x n cos x dx

take u = xn

and

In

[ x n sin x ]

dv
dx

du
dx

= nxn 1

= cos x v = sin x

2
0

n sin x x n1 dx
0

take u = xn1

and

22

In

()

x
cos
x n1

dv
dx

du
dx

= sin x v = cos x

cos x (n1)x n2 dx
0

= (n1) xn 2

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In

In

Example 7:

Solution:

()
()

n 0 +

(n1) x n2 cos x dx
0

I n2

n (n1)

In

Find a reduction formula for

In

sin nx

sin x

dx

sin[ ( n2 ) x +2 x ]
sin x

sin ( n2 ) x cos 2 x +cos ( n2 ) x sin 2 x

sin x

sin ( n2 ) x (12 sin x)+ cos ( n2 ) x 2 sin x cos x

sin x

dx

dx

In

sin ( n2 ) x
sin x

In 2 + 2

In 2 +

dx + 2

cos ( n1 ) x
2
n1

dx

cos ( n2 ) x cos xsin ( n2 ) x sin x

dx

dx

using cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B

sin(n 1)x .

Arc length
y

All
s the formulae you need can be remembered from this diagram
P x

arc PQ line segment PQ

( s)2 ( x)2 + ( y)2

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23

s 2
y
1+
x
x

( ) ( )

and as x 0
ds 2
dy
=1+
dx
dx

( ) ( )

ds
dy
= 1+
dx
dx

arc length = s =

( )

dy 2
dx
dx

( )

1+

Similarly
2

s
x

+1
y
y

( ) ( )

s 2 x 2 y

+
t
t
t

s =

dx 2
+1 dy
dy

( ) ( ) ( )

and

15

10

s =

( ) ( )

dx 2 dy 2
+
dt
dt
dt

or

s =

x 2+ y2 dt

for parametric equations.

10

15

Example 1:

Find the length of the curve

2
y= x 2
3

, from

the

point where x = 3 to the point where x = 8.

Solution:

The equation of the curve is in Cartesian form so we use

dy 2
dx
dx

( )

1+

2
y= x 2
3

.
dy
dx

24

1+ x dx
3

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

20

Example 2:
cycloid
Solution:

3 8

2
(1+ x ) 2
3

2
= 12 3

2
2
( 9 )2 ( 4)2
3
3

t=0

t=2

Find the length of one arch of

x = a(t sin t), y = a(1 cos t).

the

The curve is given in parametric form

we use s =

x 2+ y2 dt

so

x = a(t sin t), y = a(1 cos t)

dx
dt

x 2+ y 2

x2 + y 2

= a(1 cos t), and

dy
dt

= a sin t

= a2(1 2 cos t + cos2t + sin2t) = 2a2(1 cos t)

a 2 1 12 sin 2

( )])
t
2

2 a sin

( 2t )

s =

2 asin ( 2t ) dt

s =

4 a cos

( )]
t
2

= 4a 4a = 8a.

Area of a surface of revolution

A curve is rotated about the x-axis.
y

To find the area of the surface formed

between x = a and x = b, we consider a small
section of the curve, s, at a distance of y
from the x-axis.

y
x
a

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

25

When this small section is rotated about the x-axis, the shape formed is approximately a cylinder
of radius y and length s.
The surface area of this (cylindrical) shape 2 rl 2 ys
b

2 ys

The total surface area

2 y ds

and, as s 0, the area of the surface is A =

ds
2 y dx
A=
dx
a

And so

ds
dy
= 1+
dx
dx

We can use

or

( )

A=

ds
=
dt

or

dt
2 y ds
dt
a

dx 2 dy
+
dt
dt

) ( )

as appropriate,

( s)2 ( x)2 + ( y)2

remembering that

Example 1: Find the surface area of a sphere with radius r,

, between the planes x = a and x = b.
Solution:

The Cartesian form is most suitable here.

b

A=

ds
dx
2 y dx
a

x 2 + y 2 = r2
dy
=0
dx

2 x +2 y

and

ds
dy
= 1+
dx
dx

dy x
=
dx y

( )

2 y 1+
a

x2
dx
2
y

2 y 2+ x 2 dx
a

26

2 r dx
a

since x2 + y2 = r2

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

[ 2rx ]ba =2r ( ba)

since r is constant

Notice that the area of the whole sphere is from a = r to b = r giving

surface area of a sphere is 4 r2.

Historical note.
Archimedes showed that the area of a sphere is equal to
the area of the curved surface of the surrounding cylinder.
Thus the area of the sphere is
A = 2 rh = 4 r2

h = 2r

since h = 2r.

Example 2: The parabola, x = at2, y = 2at, between the origin (t = 0) and P (t = 2) is rotated about
y

the x-axis.
Find the surface area of the shape formed.
Solution:

The parametric form is suitable here.

P, (t = 2)

A=

and

dt
2 y ds
dt

ds
=
dt

dx 2 dy
+
dt
dt

dx
=2 at
dt

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

) ( )
and

dy
=2a
dt

27

ds
2
2
= ( 2 at ) + ( 2 a )
dt

2 a t 2 +1

2 2 at 2 a t2 +1 dt
0

= 8a2

28

3 2

1
( t 2 +1 ) 2
3

8 a2
3

3
2

(5 1)

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

Vectors

Vector product
The vector, or cross, product of a and b is
a b = ab sin
where

n^

n^

is a unit (length 1) vector which is

perpendicular to both a and b, and is the angle between a and b.

The direction of

n^

is that in which a right hand corkscrew would move when turned

through the angle from a to b.

b

Notice that b a = ab sin

^n , where

^n

is in the

n^ , since the corkscrew would move in

opposite direction to

the

opposite direction when moving from b to a.

Thus b a = a b.

The vectors i, j and k

For unit vectors, i, j and k, in the directions of the axes
i j = k,

j k = i,

i k = j,

k i = j,

j i = k,

k j = i.
i

Properties
aa = 0
ab = 0

since = 0

a is parallel to b

since sin = 0 = 0 or

or a or b = 0
a (b + c) = a b + a c

remember the brilliant demo with the straws!

a b is perpendicular to both a and b

from the definition

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

29

Component form
Using the above we can show that

ab =

()( )(

a1
b1
a2 b 3a 3 b 2
a 2 b2 = a1 b3 +a3 b1
a3
b3
a1 b 2a 2 b1

) |
=

i
j k
a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b 3

Applications of the vector product

Area of triangle OAB =

1
ab sin
2

area of triangle OAB =

b
O

1
2 a b

Area of parallelogram OADB is twice the area

of the triangle OAB
area of parallelogram OADB = a b

O
a
A

Example: A is (1, 2, 1), B is (2, 3, 0) and C is (3, 4, 2).

Find the area of the triangle ABC.

Solution:

The area of the triangle ABC =

AB

30

= ba =

()
3
1
1

and

AC|
|12 AB

AC

= ca =

()
4
2
3

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

AB
AC

area ABC =

| ()

i j k
3 1 1
4 2 3

1 2 2 2
1 +5 +3
2

1
5
2

1
35
2

Volume of a parallelepiped
In the parallelepiped
h = a cos

and area of base = bc sin

volume

= h bc sin

= a bc sin cos
and (i)
(ii)

is the angle between

n^

and a

bc sin is the magnitude of b c

a . (b c) = a bc sin cos
volume of parallelepiped = a . (b c)

Triple scalar product

a . (b c)

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

() (

b
( 1c 2b2 c1 )
a1 ( b2 c 3b 3 c 2 ) +a 2 (b1 c 3 +b3 c 1 ) +a3

a1
a2
a3

b2 c 3b3 c 2
b1 c 3 +b3 c 1
b1 c 2b 2 c 1

)
31

| |
a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b 3
c1 c 2 c 3

By expanding the determinants we can show that

a . (b c) = (a b) . c

keep the order of a, b, c but change the order of the and .

For this reason the triple scalar product is written as {a, b, c}

{a, b, c} = a . (b c) = (a b) . c
It can also be shown that a cyclic change of the order of a, b, c does not change the value,
but interchanging two of the vectors multiplies the value by 1.

{a, b, c} = {c, a, b} = {b, c, a } = {a, c, b} = {c, b, a} = {b, a, c}

Volume of a tetrahedron
The volume of a tetrahedron is
1
Area of base h
3
h

The height of the tetrahedron is the same as the

the parallelepiped, but its base has half the area

volume of tetrahedron =

volume of tetrahedron

1
6

a
c

height of
b

volume of parallelepiped

|LINK Word . Document .12 C:\\Users\\simon\\Documents\\Maths\\Revision Notes\\FP 3 Revision Notes

Example: Find the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD,
given that A is (1, 0, 2), B is (1, 2, 2), C is (1, 1, 3) and D is (4, 0, 3).

32

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

Solution:

Volume =

AD ,
AC ,
AB }|
|16 {

()

AD =da= 0
1

()

AC = 1
5

()

AB= 2
0

0 1
1 5 =3 10+2=32
2 2 0

{
AD ,
AC ,
AB }= 0

volume of tetrahedron is

1
6

1
32 = 5 3

Equations of straight lines

Vector equation of a line
l

r = a + b is the equation of a line through the point A

parallel to the vector b,

or

()() ()
x
l

=
+

y
m

z
n

and

.
b

Cartesian equation of a line in 3-D

Eliminating from the above equation we obtain
xl ym zn
=
=

(= )

is the equation of a line through the point (l, m, n) and parallel to the vector

()

This strange form of equation is really the intersection of the planes

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

33

xl ym
=

y m zn
=

and

( xl = zn )

Vector product equation of a line

AP

= r a and is parallel to the vector b

AP

or

b = 0

(r a) b = 0
parallel to b.

is the equation of a line through A

and
b

r b = a b = c is the equation of a line parallel to b.

Notice that all three forms of equation refer to a line through the point A and parallel to the
vector b.
Example: A straight line has Cartesian equation
x=

2 y + 4 3z
=
5
2

Find its equation (i) in the form r = a + b, (ii) in the form r b = c .

Solution:
First re-write the equation in the standard manner
x0 y2 z3
=
=
1
2.5
2

(i)

34

the line passes through A, (0, 2, 3), and is parallel to b,

() ()
1
2.5
2

or

2
5
4

()( )

0
2
2 + 5
3
4

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

(()()
0
2
r 2 5
3
4

(ii)

=0

( ) ( )( ) |

1
r 2.5
2

2
r 5
4

0
2
2 5
3
4

( ) ()
=

7
6
4

| ()

i
j
k
0 2 3
2 5 4

7
6
4

Equation of a plane
Scalar product form

Let n

be a vector perpendicular to the plane .

Let A be a fixed point in the plane, and P be a

general point, (x, y, z), in the plane.
Then is parallel to the plane, and therefore
perpendicular to n

AP

.n=0

(r a) . n = 0

r. n = a . n = a constant, d
r. n = d is the equation of a plane perpendicular to the vector n .

Cartesian form
If n =

()

then r . n =

( )( )
x
y .
z

= x+y+z

x + y + z = d is the Cartesian equation of a plane perpendicular to

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

()

35

Example: Find the scalar product form and the Cartesian equation of the plane through the
points A, (1, 2, 5), B, (1, 0, 3) and C, (2, 1, 2).

Solution:

We first need a vector perpendicular to the plane.

A, (3, 2, 5), B, (1, 0, 3) and C, (2, 1, 2) lie in the plane

AB

AB

AB

()

AC

AC

4
2
2

and

AC

()
1
1
7

are parallel to the plane

is perpendicular to the plane

| ( )

i
j
k
4 2 2
1 1 7

12
26
2

( )
6
13
1

= 2

using smaller numbers

6x 13y + z = d
but A, (3, 2, 5) lies in the plane

d = 6 3 13 2 + 5 = 3

Cartesian equation is 6x 13y + z = 3

and scalar product equation is r .

( )
6
13
1

= 3.

Vector equation of a plane

P

r = a + b + c is the equation of a plane, , through A

to the vectors b and c.

and parallel
a
r
b
O

Example: Find the vector equation of the plane through the points A, (1, 4, 2), B, (1, 5, 3)
and C, (4, 7, 2).
36

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

We want the plane through A, (1, 4, 2), parallel to

Solution:

AB

()
0
1
5

and

AC

()
3
3
4

( ) () ()
1
0
3
+

4
1
3
2
5
4

vector equation is r =

Distance from origin to plane

Example: Find the distance from the origin to the plane
4x 2y + 4z = 7.
Solution: Let M be the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane.
distance of the origin from the plane is OM.

The

We must first find the intersection of the line OM with the plane.
OM is perpendicular to the plane

()
4
2
4

and so is parallel to n =

the line OM is r =

()
0
0
0

( )( )
4
4
=
2 2
4
4

since it passes through (0, 0, 0)

and the point of intersection of OM with the plane is given by

4(4) 2( 2) + 4 (4 ) = 7
16 + 4 + 16 = 7
=

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

7
36

37

OM

distance =

()

7 4
2
36
4

|
OM|

7
4 2+ 22+ 42 = 76
36

The distance of the origin from the plane is 1

1
6 .

Distance between parallel planes

1

Example: Find the distance between the parallel planes

L

1: 2x 6y + 3z = 9 and 2: 2x 6y + 3z = 5
Solution: Let l be the line which passes through the origin and which is
perpendicular to both planes.

2
M

The distance between the planes will be the length of LM, where L and
the points of intersection of the line l and the planes 1 and 2.

M are
l

()

2
n= 6
3

the equation of l is

38

()

2
r= 6
3

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

L is given by 2 2 6 (6) + 3 3 = 9

OL

Similarly

OM

ML

ML =

()

9 2
6
49
3

()

5 2
6
49
3

9
49

() () ()

9 2
5 2
4 2
6
6 =
6
49
49
49
3
3
3

|
ML|

4
2
2
2
2 +6 +3

49

The distance between the planes is

4
7

4
49
49

4
7

Distance of a point from a plane

Example: Find the distance from the point K, (5, 4, 7), to the plane 3x 2y + z = 2.
Solution: Let M be the foot of the perpendicular from K to the plane. The distance from the
point, K, to the plane is KM.
M
We must first find the intersection of the line KM with the plane.

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

39

KM is perpendicular to the plane

()
3
2
1

and so is parallel to n =

It also passes through K, (5, 4, 7),

the line KM is r =

()
5
4
7

()
3
2
1

, which meets the plane when

3(5 + 3) 2(4 2) + (7 + ) = 2
15 + 9 + 8 +4 + 7 + = 2
= 2

() ()
5
4
7

m ==

KM

=m k =

|
KM|

distance =

3
2
1

( ) ( )( )
5
4
7

3
5
2 4
1
7

= 2

()
3
2
1

2 32+ 22+12 =2 14

For the general case, the above method gives

The distance from the point (, , ) to the plane n1x + n2y + n3z + d = 0 is

|n1 + n2 +n3 +d|

2
1

+n2 +n3

This formula is in the formula booklet, but is not mentioned in the text book
In the above example the formula gives the distance as

|3 52(4 )+ 172|

3 +2 +1
2

28
=2 14
14

notice that the d is on the L.H.S.

of the equation

40

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

Line of intersection of two planes

Example: Find an equation for the line of intersection of the planes

and

Solution:

x + y + 2z = 4

2x y + 3z = 4

II

Eliminate one variable

I + II

3x + 5z = 8

We are not expecting a unique solution, so put one variable, z say, equal to and find the
other variables in terms of .
z= x=

or

85
3

y = 4 x 2z = 4

()

x
y =
z

()

x
y =
z

8
3
4 +
3
0

85
3

2 =

() ( )
() ( )

4
3

5
3
1
3
1

8
3
5
4 + 1
3
3
0

making the numbers nicer in the direction vector

only

which is the equation of a line through

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

8 4
, ,0
3 3

and parallel to

()
5
1
3

41

Angle between line and plane

Let the acute angle between the line and the plane be .
First find the angle between the line and the normal vector, .
There are two possibilities as shown below:
l

(i)

n and the angle are on the same side (ii)

of the plane
= 90

Example: Find the angle between the line

n and the angle are on opposite

sides of the plane
= 90

x +1 y2 z3
=
=
2
1
2

and the plane 2x + 3y 7z = 5.

Solution:

42

The line is parallel to

()
2
1
2

, and the normal vector to the plane is

()
2
3
7

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

a . b = ab cos
cos =

7
62

22+12 +22 22 +3 2+7 2

21 =

cos

= 27.3o

the angle between the line and the plane, = 90 27.3 = 62.7o

plane
plane
2 1

Angle between two planes

If we look end-on at the two planes, we can see that the angle between the planes, , equals the
angle between the normal vectors.

Example: Find the angle between the planes

2x + y + 3z = 5

Solution:

and

The normal vectors are

a . b = ab cos
cos =

10
14

2x + 3y + z = 7

()
2
1
3

10 =

and

()
2
3
1

22+12 +32 22 +12+ 32

cos

= 44.4o

Shortest distance between two skew lines

l1

r=a+ b

Y
FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

43

l2

r=c+ d

It can be shown that there must be a line joining two skew lines which is perpendicular to both
lines.
This is XY and is the shortest distance between the lines.
Suppose that A and C are points on l1 and l2.
The projection of AC onto XY is of length AC cos , where is the angle between AC and
XY
XY = AC cos =

AC . n^

n^

where

is a unit vector (length 1) parallel to XY and so

perpendicular to l1 and l2.

But b d is perpendicular to l1 and l2

n^

bd
|b d|

shortest distance between l1 and l2 is d = XY =

d =

( c a) .

AC . n^

bd
|b d|

This result is not in your formula booklet, SO LEARN IT

please

Matrices

Basic definitions
Dimension of a matrix
A matrix with r rows and c columns has dimension r c.

Transpose and symmetric matrices

The transpose, AT, of a matrix, A, is found by interchanging rows and columns

A =

( )
a b c
d e f
g h i

(AB)T = BTAT

A =

a d g
b e h
c f i

- note the change of order of A and B.

A matrix, S, is symmetric if the elements are symmetrically placed about the leading
diagonal,
44

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

or if S = ST.

Thus, S =

( )
a b c
b d e
c e f

is a symmetric matrix.

Identity and zero matrices

The identity matrix

and the zero matrix is

I =

( )

0 =

( )

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

Determinant of a 3 3 matrix
The determinant of a 3 3 matrix, A, is

det (A) =

| |
a b c
d e f
g h i

| | | | | |

a e f b d
h i
g

f +c d e
i
g h

aei afh bdi + bfg + cdh ceg

Properties of the determinant

1) A determinant can be expanded by any row or column using

+++++

e.g

2)

| |
a b c
d e f
g h i

| | | | | |

d b c + e a c f a b
h i
g i
g h

using the middle row and

leaving the value unchanged
.

Interchanging two rows changes the sign of the determinant

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

45

| |
a b c
d e f
g h i

| |
d e f
a b c
g h i

which can be shown by evaluating both

determinants

3) A determinant with two identical rows (or columns) has value 0.

| |
a b c
a b c
g h i

interchanging the two identical rows gives = = 0

4) det(AB) = det(A) det(B)

this can be shown by multiplying out

Singular and non-singular matrices

A matrix, A, is singular if its determinant is zero, det(A) = 0
A matrix, A, is non-singular if its determinant is not zero, det(A) 0

Inverse of a 3 3 matrix
This is tedious, but no reason to make a mistake if you are careful.

Cofactors
In

( )
a b c
d e f
g h i

the cofactors of a, b, c, etc. are A, B, C etc., where

A =+

| |
e f
h i

D =

| |

G = +

| |

b c
h i

b c
e f

B =

| |
d f
g i

E = +

| |

H =

| |

C = +

a c
g i

a c
d f

| |
d e
g h

F =

| |

I = +

| |

a b
g h

a b
d e

These are the 2 2 matrices used in finding the determinant, together with the correct sign

+++++
from

46

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

Finding the inverse

1) Find the determinant, det(A).

If det(A) = 0, then A is singular and has no inverse.

2) Find the matrix of cofactors C =

3) Find the transpose of C, CT =

A
B
C

A B
D E
G H

C
F
I

D G
E H
F I

4) Divide C by det(A) to give A =

1
det ( A )

A
B
C

D G
E H
F I

See example 10 on page 148.

Properties of the inverse

1) A1A = AA1 = I
2) (AB)1 = B1A1
Proof (AB)1 AB = I

- note the change of order of A and B.

from definition of inverse

(AB)1 AB (B1A1) = I (B1A1)

(AB)1 A (BB1)A1 = B1A1

(AB)1 A I A1 = B1A1

(AB)1 A A1 = B1A1

3) det(A1) =

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

(AB)1 = B1A1

1
det ( A )

47

Matrices and linear transformations

Linear transformations
T is a linear transformation on a set of vectors if
(i)

T (x1 + x2) = T (x1) + T (x2)

(ii)

T (kx) = kT (x)

Example:

Solution:

() ( )
2x
x+ y
z

is a linear transformation.

( )( ) ( )
x1
x2
y1 + y2
z1
z2

T (x1 + x2) = T

for all vectors x

x
y
z

Show that T

(i)

for all vectors x and y

2 ( x1 + x 2 )
x 1+ x2 + y 1 + y 2
z 1z 2

x 1+ x 2
y 1+ y 2
z 1+ z 2

= T

) ( ) ( )
=

2 x1
x1 + y1
z 1

2 x2
x2 + y2
z2

= T (x1) + T (x2)

T (x1 + x2) = T (x1) + T (x2)

( ( )) ( ) ( ) ( )
x
k y
z

(ii)

T (kx) = T

T (kx) = kT (x)

=T

kx
ky
kz

2 kx
kx + ky
kz

=k

2 x1
x1 + y1
z 1

= kT

(x)

Both (i) and (ii) are satisfied, and so T is a linear transformation.

All matrices can represent linear transformations.

Base vectors

i, j, k

() () ()

1
0
0
i= 0 , j= 1 , k = 0
0
0
1

48

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

( )
a b c
d e f
g h i

Under the transformation with matrix

() ()

the first column of the matrix

() ()

the second column of the matrix

() ()

the third column of the matrix

1
a

0
d
0
g
0
b
1 e
0
h
0
c
0 f
1
i

This is an important result, as it allows us to find the matrix for given transformations.
Example: Find the matrix for a reflection in the plane y = x

Solution:

Also

The z-axis lies in the plane y = x so

the third column of the matrix is

() ()
1
0
0 1
0
0

() ()
0
1

1
0
0
0

() ()
0
0
0 0
1
1

()
0
0
1

the first column of the matrix is

the second column of the matrix is

the matrix for a reflection in y = x is

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

( )
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1

()
0
1
0

()
1
0
0

49

Example: Find the matrix of the linear transformation, T, which maps (1, 0, 0) (3, 4, 2),
(1, 1, 0) (6, 1, 5) and (2, 1, 4) (1, 1, 1).
Solution:

Firstly

() ()

Secondly

() ()

1
0
0

1
1
0

3
4
2

6
1
5

()
3
4
2

first column is

() () () ()
1
1
0

but

1
0
0

0
1
0

3
4
2

+T

()
0
1
0

() () () ( )
0
1
0

6
1
5

3
4
2

3
3
3

second column is

() ( )

()
3
3
3

() ()
2
1
4

Thirdly

()
2
1
4

but

50

() () ()
1
0
0

= 2

() ( )

() ()

3
4
2

0
0
1

3
3
3

1
1
1

2
1
2

0
1
0

4T

0
0
1

3
4
2

3
3
3

4T

()
0
0
1

() ( )
0
0
1

1
1
1

third column is

()
2
1
2

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

T =

3 3 2
4 3 1
2 3 2

Image of a line
Example: Find the image of the line r =

where T =

Solution:

3 2 1
1 3 4
2 1 1

3
2
1

under T,

As T is a linear transformation, we can find

( ) ( ))
2
3
+
0
2
3
1

T (r) = T

() ()
2
0
3

T (r) =

T (r) =

( )

r =

3 2 1
1 3 4
2 1 1
3
10
1

( )
3
10
1

()

) () (
2
0
3

= T

2
0
3

()

()
14
1
9

14
1
9

+ T

()
3
2
1

)( )

3 2 1 3
1 3 4 2
2 1 1 1

and so the vector equation of the new line is

Image of a plane 1
Similarly the image of a plane r = a + b + c , under a linear transformation, T, is
T (r) = T (a + b + c) = T (a) + T(b) + T (c).

Image of a plane 2
To find the image of a plane with equation of the form ax + by + cz = d, first construct a vector
equation.
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51

Example: Find the image of the plane 3x 2y + 4z = 7 under a linear transformation, T.

Solution:

To construct a vector equation, put x = , y = and find z in terms of and .

3 2 + 4z = 7

()(

()

y =
73 +2
z
4

x
y
z

z =

73 +2
4

) () ( ) ()
=

0
0 +
7
4

( ) ( ) ()
0
4
0
0
+ 0 + 2
7
3
1
4

1
0 +
3
4

0
1
1
2

making the numbers nicer in the parallel vectors

and now continue as for in image for a plane 1.

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Definitions
1) An eigenvector of a linear transformation, T, is a non-zero vector whose direction is
unchanged by T.
So, if e is an eigenvector of T then its image e is parallel to e, or e = e

e = T (e) = e.

e defines a line which maps onto itself and so is invariant as a whole line.
If = 1 each point on the line remains in the same place, and we have a line of invariant
points.
2) The characteristic equation of a matrix A is det(A I) = 0
Ae = e

52

(A I) e = 0

A I is a singular matrix

det(A I) = 0

the solutions of the characteristic equation are the eigenvalues.

has non-zero solutions

eigenvectors are non-zero

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2 2 matrices
Example: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the transformation with matrix
A =
Solution:

(21 14)

The characteristic equation is det(A I) = 0

1
1 =0
2 4

(1 )(4 ) + 2 = 0

2 5 + 6 = 0

1 = 2 and 2 = 3

For 1 = 2

(21 14)( xy )

= 2

( xy )

x + y = 2x

x=y

and

2x + 4y = 2y

x=y

eigenvector e1 =

(11)

we could use

(3.7
3.7 )

, but why make things nasty

For 2 = 3

(21 14)( xy )

= 3

( xy )

x + y = 3x

2x = y

and

2x + 4y = 3y

2x = y

eigenvector e2 =

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

(12)

choosing easy numbers.

53

Orthogonal matrices
Normalised eigenvectors
A normalised eigenvector is an eigenvector of length 1.

In the above example, the normalized eigenvectors are e1 =

1
2
1
2

()

, and e2 =

1
5
2
5

()

Orthogonal vectors
A posh way of saying perpendicular, scalar product will be zero.

Orthogonal matrices
If the columns of a matrix form vectors which are
(i)
(ii)

mutually orthogonal (or perpendicular)

each of length 1

then the matrix is an orthogonal matrix.

Example:
1
5
2
5

()
1
5
2
5

and

()
2
5
1
5

() ()
M =

54

2
5
1
5

( )
1
5
2
5

2
5
1
5

are both unit vectors, and

2 2
+
5 5

= 0, the vectors are orthogonal

is an orthogonal matrix

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

Notice that

( ) ( )
1
5
2
5

M TM =

and so

2
5
1
5

1
5
2
5

2
5
1
5

(10 01)

the transpose of an orthogonal matrix is also its inverse.

This is true for all orthogonal matrices

think of any set of perpendicular unit vectors

Another definition of an orthogonal matrix is

M 1 = M T

M TM = I

M is orthogonal

Diagonalising a 2 2 matrix
Let A be a 2 2 matrix with eigenvalues 1 and 2 ,
and eigenvectors

then A e1 =

u1
v1

e1 =

()

u1
v1

()

( )
u1 u2
v1 v 2

u2
v2

()

and e2 =

1 u1
1 v 1

( )

and

2 u2
2 v 2

1 u1
1 v 1

A e2 =

u2
v2

()

2 u2
2v2

( )

( ) ( )
u1 u2
v1 v 2

1 0
0 2

Define P as the matrix whose columns are eigenvectors of A, and D as the diagonal matrix,
whose entries are the eigenvalues of A

P =

AP = PD

( )
u1 u2
v1 v 2

and D =

1 0
0 2

P 1AP = D

The above is the general case for diagonalising any matrix.

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55

In this course we consider only diagonalising symmetric matrices.

Diagonalising 2 2 symmetric matrices

Eigenvectors of symmetric matrices
Preliminary result:
x

x1
x2

()

and

The scalar product

but (x1 x2)

xT

y1
y2

()
y

y1
y2

()

x1
x2

y1
y2

().()

= x1y1 + x2y2

= x1y1 + x2y2

This result allows us to use matrix multiplication for the scalar product.

Theorem: Eigenvectors, for different eigenvalues, of a symmetric matrix are orthogonal.

Proof:

Let A be a symmetric matrix, then A T = A

Let A e1 = 1 e1 , and A e2 = 2 e2 ,

1 2.

1 e1T = (1 e1) T = (A e1)T = e1T A T = e1T A

since AT = A

1 e1T = e1T A

1 e1T e2 = e1T A e2 = e1T 2 e2 = 2 e1T e2

1 e1T e2 = 2 e1T e2

(1 2) e1T e2 = 0

But

1 2 0

the eigenvectors are orthogonal

e1T e2 = 0

e1 . e2 = 0
or perpendicular

Diagonalising a symmetric matrix

The above theorem makes diagonalising a symmetric matrix, A, easy.
1)
56

Find eigenvalues, 1 and 2, and eigenvectors, e1 and e2

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2)

Normalise the eigenvectors, to give

3)

Write down the matrix P with

e^ 1

e^ 1

e^ 2

and

e^ 1

P will now be an orthogonal matrix since

P TA P will be the diagonal matrix D =

Example: Diagonalise the symmetric matrix A =

Solution:

as columns.
e^ 2

and

are orthogonal

P 1 = P T

4)

e^ 2

and

(6 )(9 ) 4 = 0

2 15 + 50 = 0

= 5 or 10

(26 29 )

1 0
0 2

6 2 = 0
2 9

The characteristic equation is

( 5)( 10) = 0

For 1 = 5

(26 29 )( xy)=5( xy )

6x 2y = 5x

x = 2y

and

2x + 9y = 5y

x = 2y

e1 =

(21)

and normalising

e^ 1

2
5
1
5

()

For 2 = 10

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57

(26 29 )( xy)=10( xy )

6x 2y = 10x

and

2x + 9y = 10y

e2 =

2x = y
2x = y

(21 )
e^ 2

and normalising

1
5
2
5

()

Notice that the eigenvectors are orthogonal

( )
2
5
1
5

1
5
2
5

P =

D = P TA P =

1 0
0 2

(50 100 )

3 3 matrices
All the results for 2 2 matrices are also true for 3 3 matrices (or n n matrices). The proofs
are either the same, or similar in a higher number of dimensions.

Finding eigenvectors for 3 3 matrices.

Example: Given that = 5 is an eigenvector of the matrix

3 1 2
M = 2 1 1
4 1 2

, find the corresponding eigenvector.

Solution: Consider Me = 5e

58

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

)( ) ( )

3 1 2 x
x
=5
2 1 1 y
y
4 1 2 z
z

3x y + 2z = 5x

2x y + 2z = 0

2x + y z = 5y

2x 4y z = 0

II

4x y 2z = 5z

4x y 7z = 0

III

Now eliminate one variable, say x:

I II 3y + 3z = 0

y = z

We are not expecting to find unique solutions, so put z = t, and then find x and y in terms of
t.

from I,

y = t, and,
2x = 2z y = 2t + t = 3t

x = 15t

e =

( )
1 5 t
t
t

()
3
2
2

or

choosing t = 2

check in II and III

O.K.

Diagonalising 3 3 symmetric matrices

Example: A =

2 2 0
2 1 2
0
2 0

Find an orthogonal matrix P such that P TAP is a diagonal matrix.

Solution:
1)

Find eigenvalues

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59

The characteristic equation is det(A I) = 0

2 2
0
2 1 2
0
2

= 0

(2 )[ (1 ) 4] + 2 [2 0] + 0 = 0

3 32 6 + 8 = 0

By inspection = 2 is a root ( + 2) is a factor

2)

( + 2)(2 5 + 4) = 0

( + 2) ( 1) ( 4) = 0

= 2, 1 or 4.

Find normalized eigenvectors

1 = 2

)( ) ( )

2 2 0 x
x
2 1 2 y =2 y
0
2 0 z
z

2x 2y = 2x
2x + y + 2z = 2y
2y = 2z

I y = 2x,

e1 =

and III

()
1
2
2

I
II
III

y = z

and e1 = e1 =

choose x = 1 and find y and z

9 = 3

e^ 1

1
3
2
3
2
3

()
60

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

2 = 1

)( ) ( )

2 2 0 x
x
=1
2 1 2 y
y
0
2 0 z
z

2x 2y = x
2x + y + 2z = y
2y = z

I
II
III

I x = 2y, and II z = 2y

3 = 4

e2 =

e^ 2

()
2
1
2

choose y = 1 and find x and z

and e2 = e2 =

2
3
1
3
2
3

()

)( ) ( )

2 2 0 x
x
2 1 2 y =4 y
0
2 0 z
z
2x 2y = 4x
2x + y + 2z = 4y
2y = 4z

I
II
III

I x = y, and III y = 2z

FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

9 = 3

e3 =

e^ 3

()
2
2
1

and e3 = e3 =

choose z = 1 and find x and y

9 = 3

()
2
3
2
3
1
3

61

3)

Find orthogonal matrix, P

4)

P =

( e^ 1

P =

( )
1
3
2
3
2
3

e^ 2 ^e3 )
2
3
1
3
2
3

2
3
2
3
1
3

is required orthogonal matrix

Find diagonal matrix, D

P TAP = D =

)(

1 0 0
2 0 0
0 2 0 = 0 1 0
0 0 4
0 0 3

A nice long question! But, although you will not be asked to do a complete problem,
the examiners can test every step above!

Index
Differentiation
hyperbolic functions, 10
inverse hyperbolic functions, 10

Further coordinate systems

hyperbola, 6
locus problems, 9
parabola, 7
parametric differentiation, 7
tangents and normals, 8

Hyperbolic functions
addition formulae, 3
definitions and graphs, 3
double angle formulae, 3
inverse functions, 4
inverse functions, logarithmic form, 4
Osbornes rule, 3
solving equations, 5

Integration
area of a surface, 19
62

inverse hyperbolic functions, 14

inverse trig functions, 14
ln x, 14
reduction formulae, 14
standard techniques, 12

Matrices
cofactors matrix, 36
determinant of 33 matrix, 35
diagonalising 22 matrices, 43
diagonalising symmetric 22 matrices, 44
diagonalising symmetric 33 matrices, 47
dimension, 35
identity matrix, 35
inverse of 33 matrix, 36
non-singular matrix, 36
singular matrix, 36
symmetric matrix, 35
transpose matrix, 35
zero matrix, 35
FP3 29/03/2015 SDB

Matrices - eigenvalues and eigenvectors

22 matrices, 41
characteristic equation, 41
for 3 x 3 matrix, 46
normalised eigenvectors, 42
orthogonal matrices, 42
orthogonal vectors, 42

Matrices - linear transformations

base vectors, 38
image of a line, 40
image of a plane, 40

Vectors
triple scalar product, 24
vector product, 22
volume of parallelepiped, 24
volume of tetrahedron, 25

cartesian equation of line in 3-D, 26

distance between skew lines, 34
line of intersection of two planes, 32
vector equation of a line, 25
vector product equation of a line, 26

Vectors - planes
angle between line and plane, 33
angle between two planes, 34
Cartesian equation, 27
distance between parallel planes, 30
distance of origin from a plane, 29
distance of point from a plane, 31
line of intersection of two planes, 32
vector equation, 28

Vectors - lines
angle between line and plane, 33

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63