EE 254 Surge Protection

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute

University of the Philippines Diliman

Switching Transients
A switching transient arises whenever an electric
circuit is energized or de-energized. There are two
types, depending on the magnitude of the overcurrents and/or over-voltages that are produced.
These are:
1. Simple Switching Transients
2. Abnormal Switching

Simple Switching Transients

Simple Switching Transients result in over-voltages
or over-currents that do not exceed 2 per unit.
These are the most prevalent type of transient in
power systems.
There are two types:
1. Circuit closing transient transient initiated
by the closing of a switch;
2. Circuit opening transient transient initiated
by the opening of a switch.

Example: Circuit Closing Transient

R
In the circuit shown, the
+
switch is closed at t=0
i
v(t)
to simulate the
occurrence of a fault.
Find the fault current i.

The steady-state response can be shown to be

where
and

t=0

The transient response is

The complete response is

At t = 0+, i(0+) = 0. We get

or

Thus, the complete response is

Case 1: If = , no transient is initiated. We get

This steady-state fault current persists until the

fault is interrupted by circuit breaker action.

Case 2: If

, we get the worst transient.

.....
.
.
.
.... ...
...
. ....
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
.. .
....
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.....
... ....
.. ...
Note: The DC offset may cause severe
CT saturation and relaying problems.

Example: Circuit Opening Transients

230 kV
System

CB
50 MVA
230/69 kV
Z=10%

x
3 Phase
Fault

Open

A three-phase fault occurs at the 69-kV side of a

50 MVA transformer. Assuming a total capacitance
to ground of 10 nF at the 69-kV side, find the
transient recovery voltage across the first circuit
breaker pole to open. For simplicity, neglect the
impedance of the system.

The transformer leakage reactance at the 69-kV

side
which gives

The three-phase fault current is

Assuming the circuit breaker pole opens at t = 0,

we get the equivalent circuit using current injection
ik
L
L=25.26 mH
C=10 nF
where
From KCL, we get for t 0,

or

+ v(t) -

The natural frequency is given by

The natural frequency is 167 times the system

frequency. The differential equation can be
approximated by

The transient response is

Let the steady-state response, vss = A, a constant.

Substitute in the differential equation
or
The complete response

Initial Conditions: From current injection, we

know that
and
Thus,

From KCL, we get at t = 0+,

or
Evaluate the Constants: From the solution and
its derivative, we get
and

At = 0+,
or

Also at t = 0+,
or
Finally, we get

Substitution gives

Note: This high-frequency transient voltage is

referred to as the transient recovery voltage, which
is one rating specified for circuit breakers.

The resistance of the system was neglected to

simplify the analysis of the problem. With
resistance, the transient recovery voltage will
exponentially decay to zero. A plot is shown below.

System Voltage

Transient Recovery
Voltage

Fault Current

Abnormal Switching Transients

Abnormal Switching Transients result in overvoltages or over-currents that exceed 2 per unit.
They involve the release of energy that has been
previously trapped in the system.
1. Back-to-Back Switching of Capacitor Banks a
very large inrush current results when an incoming
capacitor bank is energized on the same bus where
a previously-energized capacitor bank is connected
2. Double Frequency Transients over-voltages
may appear when capacitor banks at different
voltage levels are switched

3. Over-voltages Produced by Re-ignition the deenergization of a capacitive circuit such as a long

transmission line or cable, or a capacitor bank may
result in large over-voltages due to the trapped
charges in the capacitance of the system.
4. Current Chopping switching-off a vacuum
circuit breaker may cause large over-voltages to
appear on connected equipment
5. Arcing Ground Fault a single line-to-ground
fault on ungrounded or high-impedance grounded
power systems may result in large over-voltages
6. Ferroresonance a series resonant circuit that
involves an iron-core inductance

Example: Back-to-back Switching of Capacitors

34.5 kV
Bus

50 ft
+

Ls

vk
-

Bank 1

Bus inductance
is 0.5 H/ft

Bank 2

The system inductance Ls is 15 mH. Each capacitor

bank is wye-grounded and rated 3 MVA, 34.5 kV. At
t=0, the system voltage is at its peak value, and
the switch is closed. Assuming the incoming bank is
uncharged, find the inrush current.

Using the voltage-injection method, the inrush

current is the sum of two components:
1. The current in the incoming capacitor if the
switch is not closed this component is zero.
2. The current in the incoming capacitor due the
injected voltage source vk, with all sources
and initial conditions set to zero.
Equivalent circuit
for t 0
Ls=15 mH
Lb=25 H

Ls

Lb
C1

i(t)
C2

vk(t)

Let us find the capacitance of a wye-connected

bank in terms of its MVAR and kV ratings.
The reactive power in one phase is

VLN
-

Since VAR3p=3VARp and VLL=

we get

VLN,
or

or, using MVAR and kV

XC

XC XC

The given capacitor banks are rated 3 MVAR at

34.5 kV. We get

We expect the natural frequency of the transient

response to be very high. This means
1. We can neglect Ls.
2. We can assume vk is constant.

Lb

Equivalent Circuit:
Lb=25H
C1=C2=6.686F
Vs=28.17kV

C1

i(t)
C2

We get C = 3.343 F.

Note: n is 290 times the power frequency.

Vs

Since the incoming capacitor is uncharged, we get

kA
The rated capacitor current is
A, RMS
= 71 A, peak
Note: The inrush current is 145 times the rated
current.

Problems Associated with Back-to-Back

Switching of Capacitors:
1. Nuisance capacitor fuse blowing
2. Ruptured capacitor tank
3. Severe duty on switching devices
ANSI C37.06-1987 distinguishes between two
types of circuit breakers:
1. General Purpose Circuit Breaker
2. Definite Purpose Circuit Breaker
A Current Limiting Inductance is used to reduce the
magnitude and frequency of the inrush current.

Example: What value of inductance should be

added to each capacitor if the magnitude of the
inrush current is to be limited to 25 times the rated
value?
Lb
Equivalent Circuit:
Vs
i(t)
Lb=25H
+
Lc
Lc
C1=C2=6.686F
C1
C2
V =28.17kV
s

The peak value of the inrush current

Ipk = 25(71) = 1,775 Amps

The new surge impedance

From the definition of surge impedance, we get

where CT = 3.343 F and LT = Lb+2Lc. Substitution

gives

We get Lc = 410 H.

Question: What is the effect of the currentlimiting inductor on the reactive power delivered
by the capacitor?
At 60 Hz, the impedance of the current-limiting
inductor is

At the same frequency, the impedance of the

capacitor is 396.75 .
Note: The impedance of the inductor is less than
0.045% of the impedance of the capacitor bank.

General Purpose Circuit Breaker

Rated Capacitance Switching Current (1),(2)
Rated Max Rated ISC
kA rms
kV rms

Rated ICONT
kA rms (3)

Overhead
Line, A rms

Isolated I
A rms (3)

121
121
121
242
242
242

20
40
63
40
50
63

1.2
1.6, 2.0, 3.0
2.0, 3.0
2.0, 3.0
2.0
2.0, 3.0

50
50
50
160
160
160

50
50
50
160
160
160

550
550

40
63

2.0, 3.0
3.0

400
400

400
400

Part of Table 3A, ANSI C37.06-1987

Definite Purpose Circuit Breaker

Rated Capacitance Switching Current (2)
Shunt Capacitor Bank or Cable
Back-to-Back
Inrush Current(4)
Rated Max Overhead Isolated I Current Peak I
kA
kV rms Line, A rms A rms (3) A rms(3)

Freq.
Hertz

121
121
121

160
160
160

315
315
315

315
315
315

16
16
16

4250
4250
4250

242
242
242

200
200
200

400
400
400

400
400
400

20
20
20

4250
4250
4250

Part of Table 3A, ANSI C37.06-1987

Notes for Table 3A:

(1) No ratings for back-to-back shunt capacitor
bank or cable switching applications are
established for general-purpose circuit breakers.
(2) The capacitance switching current ratings are
the highest values that the circuit breaker shall
be required to switch at any voltage up to the
rated maximum voltage.
(3) When applied to shunt capacitor banks, the
current rating shall be selected to include the
effects of tolerance in capacitance, system and
capacitor bank grounding, and additional current
magnitude and heating due to harmonics.

(4) The rated transient inrush current peak is the

highest magnitude that the circuit breaker shall be
required to to close at any voltage up to the rated
maximum voltage, and shall be as determined by
the system and unmodified by the circuit breaker.
The rated transient inrush current frequency is the
natural frequency that the circuit breaker is
required to close at 100% of its rated back-to-back
shunt capacitor bank or cable switching current.
For application at less than 100 % of rating, the
product of the inrush current peak and natural
frequency shall not exceed the product of the rated
transient current peak and the rated transient
inrush current frequency.

ANSI/IEEE C37.012-1979: IEEE Application

Guide for Capacitance Current Switching for AC
High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a
Symmetrical Current Basis
4.7.1 Capacitor Bank Current. The actual
capacitance current should include the following
effects:
(1) Voltage Factor. This factor can be as large
as 1.1 since capacitors can be operated
continuously up to 10% above rated voltage.
(2) Capacitor Tolerance. A multiplier in the
range of 1.05 to 1.15 should be used to take
into account the allowable capacitor tolerance.

(3) Harmonic Component. Capacitor banks

provide a low-impedance path for the flow of
harmonic currents. When capacitor banks are
ungrounded, no path is provided for the zerosequence harmonics (3rd, 6th, 9th, etc.). A
multiplier of 1.1 is generally used for grounded
neutral bank and 1.05 for ungrounded neutral.
Note: In the absence of specific information on
multipliers for the above factors, it will usually be
conservative to use a total multiplier of 1.25 times
the nominal capacitor current at rated capacitor
voltage for ungrounded neutral operation and 1.35
times the nominal current for grounded neutral
operation.

4.7.2 Isolated Capacitor Bank. A capacitor bank is

considered isolated if the maximum rate of change,
with respect to time, of transient inrush current on
energizing an uncharged capacitor bank does not
exceed the maximum rate of change of the
symmetrical interrupting current at the voltage at
which the circuit breaker is supplied. The limiting
value is

Ir = rated rms short-circuit current, Amps

s = system frequency, Hz

4.7.3 Back-to-Back Capacitor Bank. A capacitor

bank is considered switched back-to-back if the
highest rate of change of inrush current on closing
exceeds that specified for isolated capacitor banks.
4.7.4. Inrush Current. The energization of a
capacitor bank by the closing of a circuit breaker
will result in a transient inrush current. The
magnitude and frequency of this inrush current is a
function of the following: applied voltage (point on
the voltage wave at closing), capacitance of the
circuit, inductance of the circuit (amount and
location), any charge on the capacitor bank at the
instant of closing, and damping due to the resistors
in the circuit.

4.7.4. Inrush Current, cont. When capacitor banks

are switched back to back, transient currents of
prospective high magnitude and with a high natural
frequency may flow between the banks on closing
of the switching device or in the event of a restrike
on opening. This oscillatory current is limited only
by the impedance of the capacitor bank and the
circuit between the energized bank or banks and
the switched bank. This transient current usually
decays to zero in a fraction of a cycle of the system
frequency. In the case of back-to-back switching,
the component supplied by the source is at a lower
frequency and so small it may be neglected.

Inrush Current and Frequency for Switching

Capacitor Banks
Condition

Quantity

Energizing
an isolated
bank

imax pk, A

Energizing a
bank with
another on
the same bus

imax pk, A

f, Hz

f, kHz

Table 1 of ANSI/IEEE C37.012-1979

When Using Current

Inrush Current and Frequency for Switching

Capacitor Banks, cont.
Condition

Quantity

Energizing a
bank with
an equal
bank on the
same bus

imax pk, A

When Using Current

f, kHz

fs = system frequency, Hz
Leq = total equivalent inductance per phase
between capacitor banks, H
Isc = symmetrical rms short-circuit current, Amps

I1,I2 = currents of bank being switched and of

bank already energized, respectively.
Capacitor bank being switched is assumed
uncharged, with closing at a voltage crest
of the source voltage. The current should
include the effect of operating the bank at
voltages above nominal and the effect of
capacitor tolerance. In the absence of
specific information, 1.15 times nominal
capacitor current is recommended.
imax pk = A peak value calculated without damping.
In practical circuits, it will be about 90
percent of this value.
VLL = rated maximum voltage, kilovolts

Example: Energizing an Isolated Capacitor Bank

The switch is closed when
the system voltage is at its
peak value.

Bus

Equivalent circuit using voltage injection

vk
Ls
+
Ls = system inductance
Lc = bank inductance
i(t)

Lc
C

If Vp is the rms line-to-neutral voltage, we get

Solving for the peak value of the current, we get

or

where
Isc = system short-circuit current, A rms
Ic = capacitor current, A rms

Solving for the natural frequency, we get

or

where fs = system frequency in Hz, and fn is the

natural frequency, also in Hz.

Example: Back-to Back Switching of Equally-Sized

Capacitor Banks
Bus
The switch is closed when
the system voltage is at its
C
C
peak value.
Equivalent circuit using voltage injection
Ls = system inductance
Lc = bank inductance
Note: since Ls>>Lc, we
can neglect Ls at the
transient frequency.

Ls

Lc
C

vk

i(t)

Lc
C

Equivalent circuit
LT = 2Lc
CT = C/2

Lc
C

vk

i(t)

Lc
C

Solving for the peak value of the current, we get

Vp is the rms line-to-neutral voltage in volts. Let us

use line-to-line kV. We get

In this expression, LT is expressed in Henry. Let us

use the inductance in H.

or

Solving for the natural frequency, we get

or

Simplifying, we get
in Hz

4.7.4.1 Method for Calculating Transient Inrush

Current. A typical circuit for back-to-back switching
is shown.
Source

LC1

C1

L1 SW1

Bank 1

Lbus

SW2

L2

C2

LC2

Bank 2

Notes:
(1) The inductance of the bus can be calculated
similar to a transmission line.
(2) The inductance within the capacitor bank
itself is not easy to obtain, but in general it
is of the order of 10 H for banks above 46
kV, and 5 H for banks below 46 kV.
(3) Inherent resistance of the circuit causes
rapid decay of the transient current so that
the first peak actually may only reach 90%
to 95% of the maximum value calculated.

Typical Values of Inductance Between

Capacitor Banks
Rated Max. Inductance/ Typ. Inductance
Voltage, kV phase, H/ft Bet. Banks,* H
15
38
48.3
72.5
121
145
169
242

0.214
0.238
0.256
0.256
0.261
0.261
0.268
0.285

Table 2 of ANSI/IEEE C37.012-1979

10
15
20
25
35
40
60
85

20
30
40
50
70
80
120
170

4.7.4.2 Considerations for Transient Inrush Current.

Consider the 115 kV system shown.
35 ft
CB2

Ls
144 ft

I2
Lbus

25 ft

L3

25 ft

L2

35 ft

L1

CB1

I1

35 ft

Figure 5 of ANSI/IEEE C37.012-1979

Bank 3
12 MVAR
Bank 2
12 MVAR

Bank 1
12 MVAR

The capacitor banks have a nominal rating of 12

MVAR. The nominal current per bank is 60 Amps.
The maximum voltage is 121 kV. The system
inductance is 10 mH or a reactance of 3.77 . The
short-circuit current at the bus is 18,600 Amps at
121 kV.
Note: In Figure 5, Ls is the system inductance,
while L1, L2, and L3 are the inductances between
the circuit breakers and capacitor banks, including
the inductances of the capacitor banks, and Lbus is
the inductance of the bus between the switching
devices.

Rating of Definite Purpose Circuit Breaker:

Rated maximum voltage = 121 kV
Rated Continuous Current = 1,600 Amps
Rated Short Circuit Current = 40 kAmps
Rated Isolated and Back-to-Back Capacitance
Switching Current = 160 Amps
Rated Inrush Current = 10 kAmps, peak
Rated Inrush Frequency = 5.3 kHz
Multipliers for Capacitor Current:
Voltage Factor = 121/115 = 1.05
Capacitor Tolerance = 1.1
Harmonic Component = 1.1

Total Multiplier for Isolated and Back-to-Back

Capacitor Current:
1.05 x 1.1 x 1.1 = 1.27
For Capacitor 1: I1 = 1.27 x 60 = 76 Amps
For Capacitor 2: I2 = 76 Amps or 152 Amps
Bus Inductances:
The bus is an extruded aluminum tube with 8-foot
spacing between phases. The section between
breakers is 3 inch iron pipe size (IPS) while the
section between breakers and capacitors is 2 inch
IPS.
L (3 in) = 0.261 H/ft
L (2 in) = 0.285 H/ft

Capacitor Bank Inductance:

Lbank = 10 H
Calculate Inductances:
Lbus = 0.261 x 144 = 37.6 H
L1 = 0.285 x 35 + 10 = 20 H
L2 = L3 = 0.285 x (35+25) + 10 = 27.1 H
Multiplier for Capacitor Current in Table 1:
1.05 x 1.1 = 1.15
For Capacitor 1: I1 = 1.15 x 60 = 69 Amps
For Capacitor 2: I2 = 69 Amps or 138 Amps

Case 1: Energization of Capacitor Bank 1

(isolated switching)

Calculate the rate-of-rise of the inrush current

Compare with the rate-of-rise of the rated short

circuit current of 40 kAmps at 60 Hz.

Since the rate-of-rise of the inrush current is less

than the rate-of-rise of the rated short-circuit
current, there is no problem wit isolated switching.
Note: Given the sinusoidal function

Case 2: Energization of Capacitor Bank 1 with Bank

2 Energized on the Bus
The equivalent inductance between the banks is
L1 +Lbus +L2 = 84.7 H.

Note: The circuit breaker ratings of 10 kA peak and

5.3 kHz are exceeded.
Current-Limiting Inductor: Let a 0.6 mH inductor
be added to each capacitor bank. The equivalent
inductance between the banks is 84.7 H + 600 H.

Case 3: Energization of Bank 1 with Banks 2 and 3

Energized on the Bus
The equivalent inductance between the banks is
L1 +Lbus +0.5L2 = 71.2 H.

Note: Again, the circuit breaker ratings of 10 kA

peak and 5.3 kHz are exceeded.
ANSI/IEEE C37.99-1980: IEEE Guide for the
Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks
The magnitude and consequent effects of inrush
current to a switched capacitor bank may be greatly
reduced by the use of series reactors or a capacitor
switching device furnished with pre-insertion
resistors.

Example: Double Frequency Transient in Capacitor

Bank Energization
115
kV

10 MVAR
115 kV

10 MVA
115/34.5 kV
Z=6%

Bank 1

Industrial
Plant

1 MVAR
34.5 kV

Bank 2

The three-phase short circuit MVA is 1,420 at the

115-kV bus. At t=0, the system voltage is at its
peak value and the switch is closed. Find the
voltage that appears at the terminals of bank 2.
Assume bank 1 is initially uncharged.

Equivalent Circuit: For the system, we get

kA, RMS

For the transformer,

For the 115-kV capacitor bank

For the 34.5-kV capacitor bank

, referred to the
34.5-kV side

, referred to
the 115-kV side

Prior to switching, the equivalent circuit is

XC2 = 13,225.4
Xs = 9.3
Xt = 79.4
fs = 60 Hz
vs = 66.4 kV, rms

Xt

Xs
vs

+
-

XC2

vC2
-

Since XC2 >> (Xs+Xt), then

. If the switch
is not closed, the voltage across C2 is equal to the
system voltage.
Using the voltage injection method, we get the
equivalent circuit for t 0.
Ls
Lt
L = 24.7 mH
s

Lt = 210.5 mH
C1 = 2 F
C2 = 0.2 F

C1

vk

vC2
-

C2

Note: We expect the transient frequency to be

high, thus vk can be assumed constant.

It can be shown that the voltage across bank C2

due to the injected voltage source is

where

The total voltage across bank C2 is the sum of two

components:
1. The voltage across C2 if the switch is not
closed. This is approximately constant and
equal to the peak line-to-neutral voltage.
2. The voltage across C2 due to the injected
voltage source vk, with all sources and initial
conditions set to zero.
We get

Substitution gives

where Vpk = 28.17 kV. A plot is shown below.

4Vpk
3Vpk
2Vpk
Vpk
-Vpk
-2Vpk

.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... ....
.
....
... ...
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
. . . ..
.
..
... ..
.
.
..
.
.
.
0.8
..1.6 .. 2.4 t, msec
... ..
.... Note: The voltage
vC2

reaches up to 4 p.u.

Further analysis shows that:

1. The highest voltage appears when 1 is of
the same order as 2.
2. The over-voltage increases as the surge
impedance of the second loop becomes large
compared to the surge impedance of the first
loop.
The problem can be avoided by:
1. Switching the high-voltage bank in sections
2. Using a pre-insertion resistor in the highvoltage capacitor bank
3. Synchronous switching

Example: Over-voltages Produced by Re-ignition

34.5 kV
Bus

Ls
i

vC
-

The system inductance Ls is 1 mH. The capacitor

bank is wye-grounded and rated 5 MVA, 34.5 kV.
The switch is opened to de-energize the capacitor.
Sketch the voltages and current before and after
the switch is opened.

Equivalent circuit for t < 0

Ls = 1 mH
fs = 60 Hz
Vs = 34.5 kV, rms
line-to-line

Ls
vs

+
-

vC
-

The reactance of the system is negligible compared

to the capacitors reactance. This means that
(1)
(2) the current leads the voltage by 90o
A, rms
Note: The current is not immediately interrupted
when the circuit breaker contact opens. Initially, an
arc jumps the gap to sustain the current. The arc is
extinguished when the current crosses its normal
zero value.

A sketch of the current and voltages is shown

below.
vs, vC
A
0

B
vs
vC

Assume that the arc is extinguished at point A. The

peak value of the system voltage is trapped in the
capacitor. One half cycle (8.33 ms) later at point B,
the voltage across the open breaker contact
reaches twice the peak line-to-neutral value.

If the dielectric strength of the open contact is not

sufficient to overcome the magnitude of the
voltage, an arc will jump the gap and the circuit
closes anew. This phenomenon is called a restrike.
Equivalent Circuit: Assuming there is a restrike,
we get the circuit below. For convenience we reset
time so that the restrike occurs at t=0.
Ls

Ls = 1 mH
C = 11.14 F
vC(0+) =-28.17 kV
vs = 28.17 cos st kV

vs

+
-

vC
-

The natural frequency of the transient response is

The natural frequency is 25 times the power

frequency. We get the circuit below.
Ls

Ls = 1 mH C = 11.14 F
vC

(0+)

=-28.17 kV

E = 28.17 kV

vC
-

Note: This is a series LC circuit with the voltage

source approximated by a constant.

The capacitor voltage and current are described by

where

Substitution gives

Plots of vc and i are shown below.

84.51

kV

vC

56.34
28.17
C

-28.17
The rated capacitor current is
A, RMS

Since the transient current is 50 times the rated

current, the circuit breakers will trip to interrupt
the current.
(1) If the arc is extinguished at point D, the
capacitor voltage will remain at 28.17 kV.
(2) If the arc is extinguished at point C, the
capacitor voltage will be at 84.51 kV. This is
3 times the peak line-to-neutral voltage.
Assume that the current is interrupted at point C.
One half cycle (8.33 ms) later, the voltage across
the open breaker contact reaches 4 times the peak
line-to-neutral voltage. The possibility of a restrike
is even bigger.

ANSI/IEEE C37.99-1980: IEEE Guide for the

Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks
5.2 Transient Overvoltage. An important consideration for application of circuit breakers for capacitor
switching is the transient overvoltage which may be
generated by restrike during the opening operation.
At current zero, the capacitor is left charged to
nearly full peak line voltage The capacitance
current arc is usually interrupted at the first current
zero after the circuit breaker contacts open. One
half cycle later, the voltage across the breaker
contacts will reach nearly twice the peak line
voltage and a breakdown may occur.

The possibility of restrike may be eliminated by

using a circuit breaker with pre-insertion resistor.
C1
C2

The circuit breaker has two contacts. During the

opening operation, contact C1 opens first, putting
the resistor in series with the capacitor. Then
contact C2 is opened. The sequence is reversed
during the closing operation. The resistor brings the
current and capacitor voltage closer in phase and
also acts as a voltage divider.

Example: Current Chopping

34.5 kV
Bus

Vacuum
CB
No Load
5 MVA
34.5-4.16 kV

The transformer has a 2% magnetizing current. At

t=0, the current is at its peak value and the circuit
breaker is opened to de-energize the transformer.
Assume that the total capacitance at the 34.5 kV
side is 6,000 pF. Find the voltage across the
transformer for t 0.

The rated current of the transformer

A, RMS
The magnetizing current and inductance
A, RMS
= 2.37 A, pk

The capacitive reactance

Note: When the magnetizing current is chopped at

its peak value, the system voltage is zero.
Equivalent Circuit: Using current injection, we
get the equivalent circuit for t 0.
ik
L
ik = 2.37 cos st A
s
s = 60 Hz
CT = 6 nF
Lm = 31.57 H

CT

v(t) Lm
+

The natural frequency of the transient response is

Note: The natural frequency is 6 times the power

frequency. To simplify the analysis of the problem,
let us assume ik is constant. We get for t 0

or

Solving for v(t), we get

whose derivative is

From current injection, we know that vC(0+)=0 and

iL(0+)=0. Thus, we get at t=0+,
and

or
At t=0+, we get

or
Thus, we get
or

The total voltage across the transformer is the sum

of two components:
1. The voltage across the transformer if the
switch is not opened. This is given by
2. The voltage across the transformer due to
the injected current source ik.
The second component is the dominant term.
Note: The voltage across the transformer is 6
times the normal value.

The over-voltage can be reduced by connecting a

surge capacitor across the transformer. Suppose we
want to limit the over-voltage to twice the rated
line-to-neutral voltage.
Cs

At 60 Hz,

CT

Lm

Arcing Ground Fault

Arcing ground fault is common in high-impedance
grounded systems where the single line-to-ground
fault current is small.
CL

Ls

Ls

Ls
Zg

CL
CL

x Fault

Equivalent Circuit: Assuming the grounding

impedance is a reactor, we get the equivalent
circuit of the faulted phase.
Xs
Assumption:
+
Xg>>Xs or XL
This means:

Vs

Xg

XC

1. The fault current i is very small and the arc may

extinguish by itself;
2. The fault current i lags the system voltage vs by
90o.

A plot of the fault current and system voltage is

shown.
vs
i
A
B
0

Assume that the arc extinguishes by itself at point

A. At this time,
1. The voltage across the line capacitance XC is
nearly zero;
2. The system voltage vs is at peak value.

Ls

Equivalent Circuit:
vC(0)=0

Vpk

CL

Lg
A plot of the capacitor
voltage is shown,
2Vpk
where
Vpk

vC

vC
-

The arcing ground fault is usually caused by a

puncture in the line insulation. When the voltage vC
is at peak value, the fault may re-ignite. The
equivalent circuit is shown. This time the capacitor
voltage oscillates between 2Vpk
and 2Vpk.
CL

2Vpk

-2Vpk

vC

The arc may still extinguish since the fault current

is small. If this happens at point D, a voltage 2Vpk
will be trapped in the capacitor. This time the
capacitor voltage will oscillate between 2Vpk and
+4Vpk.
4Vpk
Note: The
magnitude of the
capacitor voltage
is progressively
increasing. This
phenomenon is
called ringing.

2Vpk
Vpk

-2Vpk

vC

Ferroresonance
1. Ferroresonance is a no-load problem.
2. It involves a series RLC circuit where L is an
iron-core inductance.
3. The capacitance is due to the presence of shunt
capacitor banks, cable circuits, overhead lines
and the internal capacitance of equipment.
4. It is prevalent where single-pole switching is
used.
5. The problem is aggravated by an ungrounded
transformer primary.

When ferroresonance is present in a distribution

system, it usually causes one or more of the
following abnormalities which are easily measured
or observed:
1. High voltage phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground,
or both with peak voltages which may be five or
more times the normal system voltage;
2. Extremely jagged and irregular voltage and
current wave shapes; and
3. Excessively loud noise in the transformer due
primarily to magnetostriction at high flux
densities.
Source: ANSI/IEEE C57.105-1978

A typical ferroresonant circuit is shown below.

Effectively
Grounded
Source

Shielded
Cable

Single-Pole
Switches

CL

CL
C

CL
Figure 13 of ANSI/IEEE C57.105-1978

Unloaded
Transformer

Xm
Xm

Xm

When the single-pole switch for phase A is closed,

two phases of the transformer are energized by a
path through the cable capacitances from phases B
and C to ground. At the instant the switch in phase
A is closed, the capacitance to ground on phases B
and C appears as a short circuit, and the
transformer windings of legs A-B and A-C start to
draw normal inrush current or exciting current.
The transformer iron during the first cycle of
applied voltage may saturate due to closing at or
near voltage zero, or due to residual flux in the
transformer core or both. Saturation results in a
large current pulse through the transformer
windings and capacitances of phases B and C.

Next the transformer iron drops out of saturation

leaving a substantial trapped charge (voltage) on
the cable capacitance. In subsequent cycles the
transformer iron may go into saturation in the
opposite direction, thereby changing the polarity of
the trapped voltage on the capacitance.
If the transformer continues to go into and out of
saturation in either a cyclical or random fashion,
high sustained overvoltages will occur phase-tophase and phase-to-ground. These sustained
overvoltages can cause overexcitation of the
transformer, surge arrester failure, and even failure
of major insulation in the transformer or system.

The path of the current, after one pole is closed, is

shown.
+

Va

CL

Lm

Lm

CL
CL
The Equivalent
Ferroresonant Circuit

Va

Lm

Connections Susceptible to Ferroresonance

Single-Pole
Switch

Open Wire or
Cable Circuit

Transformer
Bank
H

No Load

Part of Table 2 of ANSI/IEEE C57.105-1978

For the connections shown, ferroresonance does

not usually occur if the primary voltage is 15 kV or
lower and the lateral circuit is overhead line (open
wire) provided the length of line between the
single-pole devices and transformer bank does not
exceed ordinary lengths.
Ferroresonance is also likely if the primary voltage
is 12 kV or higher (effectively-grounded system)
and the lateral circuit is single-conductor shielded
cable or three-conductor shielded cable.
In 25 kV and particularly in 35 kV multi-grounded
neutral overhead systems, ferroresonance is most
likely with the connections shown in Table 2.

The following measures can be applied to minimize

the probability of ferroresonance with ungrounded
primary connection:
1. The use of properly adjusted 3-pole switches at
the source-end of the cable to prevent singlephasing. However, this is a costly solution.
2. A sufficient load at the secondary of the
transformer. In general, a 10% resistive load
(based on the transformer rating) will prevent
ferroresonance.
3. Switching at the transformer
4. Resistance grounding of wye-connected primary
Source: ANSI/IEEE C57.105-1978

Connections Which Prevent or are Least

Susceptible to Ferroresonance
Single-Pole
Switch

Open Wire or
Cable Circuit

Transformer
Bank
H

Part of Table 2 of ANSI/IEEE C57.105-1978

No Load

 The Lecture Notes are prepared by the Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Institute initiated by Prof. Artemio P. Magabo
With contributions from Dr. Allan C. Nerves and Prof. Rowaldo D. del Mundo