University of Zakho

Faculty of Engineering
Petroleum Eng. Dep.

Catalytic
Cracking

Prepared by:
Rezhin Kamal Ahmed
Saman H. Rasul
Shayma Emad
Supervised by:

Dr. Lokman

1.1

Introduction:

Cracking is used to produce lower molecular weight hydrocarbon

from higher molecular weight, to increase the quality of the
product and to make it lighter because lighter hydrocarbons are
more expensive and all what we need is to make more money.
Catalytic cracking is a process in refining processes called
(conversion process), we have four types of cracking:
Thermal Cracking
Catalytic Cracking
Steam Cracking
Hydro Cracking
And in this assignment were going to talk about catalytic
cracking and mention some sides of it
Catalytic cracking: the process that the carbon bond of a long
chain broken by been heated to 500 C in an oxygen free
environment in the presence of zeolite, which may be aluminum
or silica or oxygen as the catalyst.
Thermal cracking: is oldest process of cracking the mixture is heated to 750900c and pressurized of 700 kpa and these process produce alkene such as ethane
and propene.
Hydrocracking: in hydrocracking crude oil is heated in very high pressure
usually about 5000kpa in the presence of hydrogen with the material catalyst
such as platen, nickel, it used to produce saturated hydrocarbon (alkane).
Steam cracking: the hydrocarbon is briefly heated about 850c without oxygen

1.1.1

Theory:

Catalytic cracking breaks complex hydrocarbons into simpler

molecules in order to increase the quality and quantity of
lighter, more desirable products and decrease the amount of
residuals. This process rearranges the molecular structure of
hydrocarbon compounds to convert heavy hydrocarbon

feedstock into lighter fractions such as kerosene, gasoline,

LPG, heating oil, and petrochemical feedstock.
Catalytic cracking is similar to thermal cracking except that
catalysts facilitate the conversion of the heavier molecules
into lighter products. Use of a catalyst (a material that assists
a chemical reaction but does not take part in it) in the
cracking reaction increases the yield of improved-quality
products under much less severe operating conditions than in
thermal cracking. Typical temperatures are from 850-950 F
at much lower pressures of 10-20 psi. The catalysts used in
refinery cracking units are typically solid materials (zeolite,
aluminum hydro silicate, treated bentonite clay, fuller's earth,
bauxite, and silica-alumina) that come in the form of powders,
beads, pellets or shaped materials called extrudites.
There are three basic functions in the catalytic cracking
process:

Reaction - Feedstock reacts with catalyst and cracks into

different hydrocarbons;

Regeneration - Catalyst is reactivated by burning off

coke; and

Fractionation - Cracked hydrocarbon stream is separated

into various products.

The three types of catalytic cracking processes are fluid

catalytic cracking (FCC), moving-bed catalytic cracking, and
Thermofor catalytic cracking (TCC). The catalytic cracking
process is very flexible, and operating parameters can be
adjusted to meet changing product demand. In addition to
cracking, catalytic activities include dehydrogenation,
hydrogenation, and isomerization.
Catalytic cracking is the most important and widely used renery
process for converting heavy oils into more valuable gasoline and lighter
products, with 10.6 MMBPD (over 1 million tons/day) of oil processed in the
world. In the United States today, uid catalytic cracker (FCC) naphtha
provides 35 to 45% of the blending stocks in renery gasoline blending pools.
Originally, cracking was accomplished thermally, but the catalytic process has
almost completely replaced thermal cracking because more gasoline, having a
higher octane and less heavy fuel oils and light gases, is produced. The light
gases produced by catalytic cracking contain more olens than those produced
by thermal cracking. The cracking process produces carbon (coke), which
remains on the catalyst particle, covers its surface and rapidly lowers its
activity. To maintain the catalyst activity at a useful level, it is necessary to
regenerate the catalyst by burning off this coke with air. As a result, the

catalyst is continuously moved from reactor to regenerator and back to reactor.

The cracking reaction is endothermic, and the regeneration reaction
exothermic. Some units are designed to use the regeneration heat to supply
that needed for the reaction and to heat the feed up to reaction temperature.
These are known as heat balance units. Average riser reactor temperatures
are in the range 900 to 1050F (480 to 566C), with oil feed temperatures from
500 to 800F (260 to 425C) and regenerator exit temperatures for the catalyst
from 1200 to 1500F (650 to 815C). The catalytic cracking processes in use
today can all be classied as either moving-bed or uidized bed units. There
are several modications under each of the classes depending upon the
designer or builder, but within each class, the basic operation is very similar.
The Thermafor catalytic cracking (TCC) process is representative of the
moving-bed units, and the uid catalytic cracker is representative of the
uidized bed units. There are very few TCC units in operation today, and the
FCC unit has taken over the eld. The FCC units can be classied as either
bed or riser (transfer line) cracking units, depending upon where the major
fraction of the cracking reaction occurs. Today, almost all of the FCC units
have been recongured to operate with riser cracking. The process ows of
both types of processes are similar. The hot oil feed is contacted with the
catalyst in either the feed riser line or the reactor. As the cracking reaction
progresses, the catalyst is progressively deactivated by the formation of coke
on the surface of the catalyst. The catalyst and hydrocarbon vapors are
separated mechanically, and oil remaining on the catalyst is removed by steam
stripping before the catalyst enters the regenerator.
The oil vapors are taken overhead to a fractionation tower for separation into
streams having the desired boiling ranges. The spent catalyst ows into the
regenerator and is reactivated by burning off the coke deposits with air.
Regenerator temperatures are carefully controlled to prevent catalyst
deactivation by overheating and to provide the desired amount of carbon burnoff. This is done by controlling the air ow to give a desired CO2/CO ratio in
the exit ue gases or the desired temperature in the regenerator. The ue gas
and catalyst are separated by cyclone separators and electrostatic precipitators.
The catalyst in some units is steam-stripped as it leaves the regenerator to
remove adsorbed oxygen before the catalyst is contacted with the oil feed.

1.2

Catalytic Cracking Processes:

Feedstock

From

Process

Deasphalted
oils

Deasphalted

Decompo0siti
on, alteration

Typical products - to - unit

Middle distillates To
Hydro treat, blend, or

recycle

Gas oils

1.2.1

Towers, Coker
visbreaker

Decompositio
n, alteration

Petrochem feedstock
To Petrochem or other

Residue To Residual
fuel blend

Gasoline To Treater or
blend

Gases To Gas plant

Fluid Catalytic Cracking:

The most common process is FCC, in which the oil is cracked

in the presence of a finely divided catalyst, which is
maintained in an aerated or fluidized state by the oil vapors.
The fluid cracker consists of a catalyst section and a
fractionating section that operate together as an integrated
processing unit. The catalyst section contains the reactor and
regenerator, which, with the standpipe and riser, form the
catalyst circulation unit. The fluid catalyst is continuously
circulated between the reactor and the regenerator using air,
oil vapors, and steam as the conveying media.
A typical FCC process involves mixing a preheated
hydrocarbon charge with hot, regenerated catalyst as it enters
the riser leading to the reactor. The charge is combined with a
recycle stream within the riser, vaporized, and raised to
reactor temperature (900-1,000 F) by the hot catalyst. As
the mixture travels up the riser, the charge is cracked at 10-30
psi. In the more modern FCC units, all cracking takes place in
the riser. The "reactor" no longer functions as a reactor; it
merely serves as a holding vessel for the cyclones. This
cracking continues until the oil vapors are separated from the
catalyst in the reactor cyclones. The resultant product stream
(cracked product) is then charged to a fractionating column
where it is separated into fractions, and some of the heavy oil
is recycled to the riser.
Spent catalyst is regenerated to get rid of coke that collects
on the catalyst during the process. Spent catalyst flows
through the catalyst stripper to the regenerator, where most

of the coke deposits burn off at the bottom where preheated

air and spent catalyst are mixed. Fresh catalyst is added and
worn-out catalyst removed to optimize the cracking process.

Fig. (1.1): Schematic of FCC unit

1.2.2

Moving Bed Catalytic Cracking

The moving-bed catalytic cracking process is similar to the

FCC process. The catalyst is in the form of pellets that are
moved continuously to the top of the unit by conveyor or
pneumatic lift tubes to a storage hopper, then flow downward
by gravity through the reactor, and finally to a regenerator.
The regenerator and hopper are isolated from the reactor by
steam seals. The cracked product is separated into recycle
gas, oil, clarified oil, distillate, naphtha, and wet gas.

1.2.3

Thermofor Catalytic Cracking

In a typical thermofor catalytic cracking unit, the preheated

feedstock flows by gravity through the catalytic reactor bed.
The vapors are separated from the catalyst and sent to a
fractionating tower. The spent catalyst is regenerated, cooled,
and recycled. The flue gas from regeneration is sent to a
carbon-monoxide boiler for heat recovery.

1.3
1.3.1

Considerations:
Safety Considerations

Liquid hydrocarbons in the catalyst or entering the heated

combustion air stream are controlled to avoid exothermic
reactions. Because of the presence of heaters in catalytic
cracking units, the possibility exists for fire due to a leak or
vapor release. In some processes, caution is taken to prevent
explosive concentrations of catalyst dust during recharge or
disposal. When unloading coked catalyst, iron sulfide may
ignite spontaneously when exposed to air. It is usually wetted
with water to prevent it from igniting vapors. Coked catalyst
may be either cooled below 120 F before it is dumped from
the reactor, or dumped into containers that have been purged
and inerted with nitrogen and then cooled before further
handling.
Because the catalytic cracker is a closed system, there is
normally little opportunity for exposure to hazardous
substances during normal operations. The possibility exists of
exposure to extremely hot (700 F) hydrocarbon liquids or
vapors during process sampling or if a leak or release occurs.
In addition, exposure to hydrogen sulfide and/or carbon
monoxide gas may occur during a release of product or vapor.
Catalyst regeneration involves steam stripping and decoking,
and produces fluid waste streams that may contain varying
amounts of hydrocarbon, phenol, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide,
mercaptan, and other materials depending upon the
feedstock, crudes, and processes. Inadvertent formation of
nickel carbonyl may occur in cracking processes using nickel
catalysts, with resultant potential for hazardous exposures.

1.3.2

Corrosion Considerations:

Corrosives or deposits in the feedstock can foul gas

compressors. Inspections of critical equipment including
pumps, compressors, furnaces, and heat exchangers may be
conducted as needed. When processing sour crude, corrosion
may be expected where temperatures are below 900 F.
Corrosion takes place where both liquid and vapor phases
exist, and at areas subject to local cooling such as nozzles and
platform supports.
When processing high-nitrogen feedstock, exposure to
ammonia and cyanide may occur, subjecting carbon steel
equipment in the FCC overhead system to corrosion, cracking,
or hydrogen blistering. These effects may be minimized by
water wash or corrosion inhibitors. Water wash may also be
used to protect overhead condensers in the main column
subjected to fouling from ammonium hydrosulfide. Inspections
should include checking for leaks due to erosion or other

malfunctions such as catalyst buildup on the expanders,

coking in the overhead feeder lines from feedstock residues,
and other unusual operating conditions.

1.4

Discussion and conclusion:

The catalytic cracking process is a process in which large

hydrocarbon molecules are broken down into smaller and more
useful ones by contacting them with powdered catalyst at a high
temperature and moderate pressure. In oil refineries the various
fractions obtained from the distillation of crude oil and the
associated gases have to be treated further to make them useful.
The most valuable fractions for the chemical industry, and for
producing petrol, are liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), naphtha,
kerosene and gas oil. These are treated in several ways including
catalytic cracking. Thus the catalytic cracking process is used as a
chemical process in refineries in order to produce light and more
desirable products like (kerosene, gasoline, LPG ) from heavy
and non-desirable products.
The disadvantages of this process are moderate yields (ca. 60%)
and very small fractions. Additionally, the activity of the catalysts
is lowered by the ammonia formed in the process. To circumvent
these problems, a multi-stage process has been developed in
which the undesired by-products, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide,
are removed in a special reactor before entering the actual
cracking process.
But also the catalytic cracking process has many advantages like
lowering the production of C1 and C2 hydrocarbons to the credit
of higher yields of C3 and C4 hydrocarbons, which can be used for
the manufacture of Isoparaffins for motor gasoline via alkylation
and polymerization processes. And lower cracking temperatures,
which result in a reduced production of olefins, thus improving the
oxidation stability of the gasoline fractions. And also it can be
used to higher the octane ratings of gasoline by increased
formation of branched alkanes, naphthenes (cycloalkanes) and
aromatic. And finally to higher the cracking reaction rates,
allowing smaller dimensioning of plant equipment.