1

Chapter-1

Particle Properties of Wave

Contains: (Blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, Compton effect)

2.1: Blackbody radiation

A significant hint of the failure of classical physics arose from investigations of thermalradiation (Planck, 1900).
According to Einstein (1905) electromagnetic radiation is quantized in photons.
1. Photons and Plancks quantum of action:
Photons () : The energy quanta of the electromagnetic field
Photon energy (EPh) : It is proportional to the frequency f or the angular frequency =2 f . Usually it is given
in electron volts (eV),
E Ph hf

, is the wavelength
Photon momentum ( PPh ): It is proportional to the wave number vector k with k

of the electromagnetic radiation),

PPh k,
PPh k h /

The vector k points along the propagation direction of the electromagnetic radiation.

Plancks quantum of action: An universal constant,

h 6.6 26 1 0 3 4 Js ,

h
1.0545 1034 Js 6.582 11022 MeV s.
2

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2. Thermal radiation and the blackbody radiator:
Thermal radiation, temperature radiation, the electromagnetic radiation of a body at finite temperature. The
body also absorbs a fraction of the thermal radiation from its environment. There is a permanent exchange of
energy between the body and its environment.
In the end, this process leads to temperature equilibrium. Blackbody radiator, a body with the reflectance
zero. A blackbody absorbs any incident radiation completely.

Cavity radiator model of a blackbody radiator (Fig. 2.1): a box with a small aperture in the wall. The wall
is impenetrable for radiation from inside (ideally reflecting) and has a denite temperature. The probability that
a photon enters the cavity through the aperture and, after multiple reflection by the inner walls, leaves the
cavity through the aperture again, is negligible (absorptance = 1). The aperture appears absolutely black.
Cavity radiation, the thermal radiation leaving the aperture of a cavity radiator. The spectral distribution of the
radiation energy density of the cavity radiation depends on the temperature of the cavity radiator.
According to Kirchhoffs law (The absorptance is equal to the emittance), the spectral radiance Le, f of an
arbitrary thermal radiator may be reduced to that of a black body.
For the radiation field in the interior of the cavity, one denes

3. Plancks radiation law:

This law describes the frequency and temperature dependence of the radiant energy density of the cavity
radiation:

4. Connection between radiant energy density and frequency:

The dependence of the spectral radiant energy density of the cavity radiation on the angular frequency or
wavelength reads as follows:
u , T u f f , T .

df
1

.u f f , T ,
d 2

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u , T

3
1
df
f2
,
u

,
T

u
f
,
T
.

.u f f , T

f
2 c3 e / kT 1
d
c

8 hc
1
5
hc / k T
e
1
5. Wiens displacement law and limiting cases of Plancks formula:
Wiens law: for hf >> kT
u , T

hf
8 f 3h kT
u f f ,T
e
c3
Rayleigh-Jeans law: for hf << kT

8 f 2
kT
c3
Wiens displacement law: With increasing temperature, the maximum of the spectral radiant energy density
uf (f,T) is shifted to higher photon energy, i.e., to higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) (Fig. 2.2)
u f f ,T

(Figure 2.2: Radiant energy density uf (f, T ) for various temperatures according to Plancks radiation law.
Dashed-dotted line: Rayleigh-Jeans law.)
6. Stefan-Boltzmann law:
Integration of the spectral radiant energy density over all frequencies yields the total radiant flux tot of a
radiation emitted by an area A. The total radiant ux tot is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature
T.

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2.2 Photoelectric Effect:

Photoeffect- photons eject electrons from a material.
1. Properties of photoelectrons
Electrons emitted, from metal when the frequency of light was sufficiently high, this phenomena is called
photoelectric effect. And the emitted electrons are called photo-electrons.
Light waves carry energy, and some of the energy absorbed by metal may somehow concentrate on individual
electrons and reappear as their kinetic energy.
Photoelectric Einstein equation, describes the kinetic energy Ekin of electrons ejected from the body by the
incident radiation:

The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiation, but not on the
radiation intensity (Fig. 2.3). The radiation intensity determines only the intensity of the photocurrent (Fig. 2.4).
2. Work function
Work function, WA, the minimum energy required for the ejection of an electron from a material. The work
function typically amounts to several electron volts.
Work function WA of several elements (in eV): K 2.30, Na 2.75, Hg 4.49, Ge 5.0.For any material there is
a threshold frequency for the photoeffect (red limit). Below this threshold frequency f0, no photoeffect occurs
(Fig. 2.3):
f0

WA
h

(Figure 2.3: Left: experimental set-up for measuring the photoelectricffect. Right: dependence of the kinetic
energy of photoelectrons on the frequency f of the incident radiation.).
The chemical structure and surface properties determine the work function WA, and hence the threshold
frequency f0. The photoeffect may be explained only in the framework of the photon model of electromagnetic
radiation.

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When a suppression voltage is applied, the photocurrent vanishes at a threshold voltage VG, which is related to
the maximum velocity vmax of the photoelectrons by eVG mv 2 max/2 . The quantum of action h can be
determined by measuring the incident frequency f and the threshold voltage VG . The measurement yields a
linear relation between the suppression voltage at which the photocurrent vanishes, and the frequency (Fig.
2.3). The slope of the straight line yields Plancks constant, or quantum of action, h e dVG / df .

(Figure 2.4: Photocurrent I as function of the applied voltage V for different intensities I of the incident radiation.)

2.3: Compton Effect

1. Scattering of photons by electrons
Compton effect, a shift of the wavelength (and hence the frequency) in the elastic scattering of photons by free
electrons. The shift increases with the scattering angle, but does not depend on the wavelength of the incident
radiation (Fig. 2.5):

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