Effective Instructional Strategies in Science Revisited

Author(s): David D. Kumar

Source: American Secondary Education, Vol. 21, No. 3 (1993), pp. 9-14
Published by: Dwight Schar College of Education, Ashland University
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Effective
Instructional
Strategiesin Science
Revisited
David D.Kumar
Introduction
Effective
Instructional
Strategies
Whichinstructional
constitute
A
review
oftheliterature
strategies
yieldedthe
effective
ninecategoriesofinstructional
teachingremainunresolved.In early
following
behaviorsin thecognitive,
affective
and societal
times,teacherswereevaluatedbased on the
of
to
the
of
science
education:
1) scientifically
personalopinions students, ability
aspects
and the
correct
ofthe
content;2) appropriateness
discipline,thechoiceofsubjectmatter,
of
instructional
In
other
concreteness
of
the
3)
lesson;
instruction;
quality
delivery.1
teacherswereevaluatedbased on
instances,
4) questioningforconceptualunderstanding;
for
5) questioning
subjectiveratings
their
critical
by
superiors2
thinking
Teacherswho use interesting
and
and thecognitive
and problemsolvscienceactivities,and relate
challenging
natureofthe
ing;6) redirecting
classroomscienceto contemporary
contentreflecting
studentquestions;
7) wait-time;
societalissuesimprovestudent
Piagetianconcepts
and experiments.3
8)
achievement
and attitudetowardsscience. developing
betterattitudes
Contemporary
towardscience;
process-product
researchsince"Project
has defined
and 9) relatingscienceto societalissues. The
Synthesis"
in termsofcognitive,
teachereffectiveness
firstseveninstructional
behaviorsare cognitive
affective
and societalaspectsofscience
in naturewhereasthelattertwobehaviorsare
educationleadingto studentachievement.4
affective
and societalin nature.
respectively
for
has
science
1.
correct
content Effective
Teaching
cognitivegrowth
Scientifically
forstudents1
academicpreparation teachersuse scientifically
correct
contentin
implications
and careersin scienceand technology.In
theirexplanations
and representations
and
skills
benefit
in
order
to
reduce
student
addition,highercognitive
examples
misconcepstudent'sdecisionmakingand problemsolving tionsinscience.5Tobinand Fraser,in a large
if
skillsin theirpersonallives. Similarly,
scalestudy,foundthateffective
teachersused
teacherscoulddevelopa betterstudentattitude scientifically
correctexplanations
and representowardssciencethentheycould helptoreduce
tationsreflective
oftheirunderstanding
ofthe
studentmisconceptions
and "phobia"about
contenttheytaught.6Boulanger'smetascienceand scientists,
and helpdevelopan
analysis,and studiesconductedbyMinstrell,
forscience.Finally,whenteachers also showedeffective
teachersusingscientifiappreciation
lessons
with
societal
science
relevant
correct
cally
present
explanationsand representations,
issues,ithelpsthestudentssee theroleof
includingexamples.7
2. Appropriateness
sciencein theirdailylives.
ofthelesson: Effective
teachersorganizeand sequencetheirinstruc-

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and at appropriate
tionin smallincrements,
For
levels.8
difficulty
example,at theprimary
areused toacquaintstudents
levelactivities
withvariousphenomena,
whereasat the
middlelevelstudentsareexpectedtocarryout
theprocesseswhichlead totheunderstanding
ofphenomena.9
StudiesbyBonstetter,
Penick
and Yager,Tobinand Capie,and Wiseand
between
Okeyshoweda positiverelationship
oflessonsand various
appro-priateness
outcomes
includingachievement.10
learning

Whenteacherspresentscience
lessonswithrelevantsocietalissuesf
it helpsthestudentssee theroleof
sciencein theirdaily lives.
3. Concretenessoftheinstruction:
Studentslearnbetterwhentheinformation
presentedin a lessonis linkedtoconcrete
Forexample,cognitive
experiences.11
has
psychology shownthatstudentsoften
createorattempt
tocreatementalpicturesof
thescientific
conceptsand theirrelationships
whilelearning.12
The mentalrepresentation
of
will
be
if
facilitated
concepts
considerably
studentscreatetheirownmentalimage
moreconcretelearningmaterials.13
through
one oftheimportant
Therefore,
aspectsof
effective
scienceteachinginvolvestheuse of
sufficient
materials
thestudentscouldvisualize
and preferably
actupon inordertogaina
mentalimageofthescientific
principlesand
learn.14
relationships
they
Barronetal. rankedtheconcreteness
of
methodsdesignedto enhance
instructional
in thefollowing
studentunderstanding
demonstradescendingorder:manipulatives,
A compation,pictorialstimuli,textmaterial.15
rativestudybyYager,Engen,and Snider
indicatedthatstudentswhoused a laboratory
ofthesciencethey
had greaterunderstanding
learnedthanthosewho wereexposedto
Hands-onapproachesto
demonstrations.16
learninghave beenlinkedtopositivestudent
In a survey,Lawrenzfoundthat
outcomes.17
75% ofscienceteachersagreedthat"laboratorythan
basedscienceclassesare moreeffective
determined
classes."18
non-laboratory
Egelston
thatlaboratory
methodsofteachingbiology
10

weremoreeffective
in termsofstudent
outcomesthanwas lecture-recitation.19
In
anotherstudyHollidayfoundthatpictorial
stimuliweremoreeffective
thanverbalstimuli
on student'sunderstanding.20
A studyofexemplary
scienceteachersby
Tobinand Fraserrevealedthateffective
teachersused variouslearningmaterialstohelp
studentsgaina meaningful
of
understanding
scientific
et
al.
arrived
at
a
concepts.21
Yager
similarconclusionafterstudying162most
effective
and 159leasteffective
science
teachers.22
Themeta-analyses
ofBoulangerand
Wiseand Okeyalso revealeda positive
correlation
betweenteachers'use ofmanipulativesand studentachievement
inscience.23
4. Questioningforconceptualunderstanding: Questioningis an old buteffective
instructional
strategy.AccordingtoSoarand
and
Soar,
Coker,Lorentz,and Coker,successful
instructional
practicesincludequestionswhich
students
guide
througha processand those
whichrequirespecificexplanations.24
As
Barronetal. explained,in thefirst
categoryof
the
"teacher
is
questioning,
makinga deliberate
to
students
whatthey
attempt help
interpret
havelearnedand,applytheknowledgeor
conceptsin othercontexts".Thesecond
categoryofquestioninginvolves"theutilization
ofscientific
factsand conceptstodescribea
particular
phenomena,"becausestudents
illustrate
a morepowerfuland observable
ofscientific
understanding
conceptswhen
askedto explainhowsomething
worksorhow
ithappens.25

. . . highercognitiveskills benefit
students9
decisionmakingand
problemsolvingskills in their
personallives.
Searlesand Kudekiin a studyofteacherand
identified
effective
science
principalperception,
teachersas thosewho makeefforts
to
students
to
and
encourage
develophypotheses
theories.26
to
Tobin
and
Fraser,
According
scienceteachersused questionsto
exemplary
Lawrenz
"proveformisunderstanding."27
foundthatscienceteachersplacemoderateto
veryheavyemphasison questionsthatrequire
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studentstoexplainconceptsin theirown
words.28Boulangerand Wiseand Okeydeterminedthatteacherquestioningimproved
inscience.29
studentachievement

. . . effective
scienceinstruction
involvespresenting
scientifically
correctcontentat theappropriate
levelofthelearner. . .
5. Questioningforcriticalthinkingand
problemsolving:Teacherscould improve
studentachievement
throughtheuse of
comprehension,
applicaquestionsrequiring
Forexample,Tobin
tion,oranalysisskills.30
and Capie foundthatthecognitivelevelof
to betterstudent
questioningcontributed
Wiseand Okeyassertthat
achievement31
in a film,comprehension
questionsinserted
levelquestionsat thestartofa unit,and use of
highlevelquestionsall correlatewithincreased
studentachievement.32
Boulangerfounda positiverelationship
and
betweenteachingscientific
thinking
and
studentachievement.33
Whimbey Tobin
and Capie havenoticedthatteacherswho
problemsolvingskills
developedstudents1
their
learningalso.34Forexample,
improved
teachersofsuccessfulstudentsused purposeful
thethinking
appropriate
questionstofacilitate
motiforthelearningtasktobe accomplished,
the
assistthestudentsindefining
vateinquiry,
and
problem, suggestpossiblehypotheses.
studentquestions: Effective
6. Redirecting
students'
teachersprovidedcues and redirected
to
them
to
arrive
in
order
enable
at
questions
students
arrive
at
answers.35
theirown
Helping
a correctanswerbyaskingsimplequestions,
thequestions,and
providingcues orrephrasing
with
the
for
process obtainingthe
givinghelp
correctsolutionwereall relatedtostudent
In a teachereffectiveness
achievement.36
study,
teachers
Tobinand Fraserfoundthatexemplary
rephrasedtheoriginalquestionsorasked
questionsuntilthestudent
supplementary
could contribute.37
wait-time
has been
7. Wait-time:Sufficient
forimproving
thequality
foundto be important
Wait-time
ofstudentresponsesinscience.38
of
refersto theduration silentpausesbetween

teachers'questionsand students'answers.39
Researchhas shownthatstudentachievement
and teacher-student
interaction
improvedwhen
teachersextendedthewait-time
from3 to5
seconds.40
to
According Boulangerand Rowe,
an increasedwait-time
improvedthefollowing:
of
student
averagelength
response,frequency
ofunsolicitedbutappropriatestudentresponses, incidentsofspeculativeresponses,student
tostudentcomparisonofdata,drawinginferencesfrominformation,
and studentinitiated
questions.41
8. Developingbetterattitudestowards
science: Consideringtheroleofsciencein
everydaylife,itis essentialthateffective
teachingdevelopbetterstudentattitudes
towardsscience.42
Accordingto Barronetal.,
"thiscategoryofbehaviorinvolvesopportunitiesprovidedforstudentstothinkabout
sciencein waysthatseem tobe a departure
fromtheordinary.1143
Forexample,teachers
use
activities,
may
synetics-type
fantasytrips,
or creativewritingto initiatemetaphoric
thinking.44
In a survey,Lawrenzfoundthat92% of
scienceteachersbelieveteachingscienceshould
"motivate
studentsto studyscience."45
Searles
and Kudekiidentified
thateffective
science
in fact,giveroomfor"studentinterteachers,
ests"in theirinstruction.46
Also,effective
teachersused "safetynets"in orderto involve
all studentsin scienceinstruction.47
Students
werenotsubjectedto embarrassment
when
made
teachers
instead
treated
mistakes;
they
studentsand theirresponseswithrespect.
Accordingto Taltonand Simpson,providing
roomforhands-onlearningin thescience
curriculum
notonlyimprovedstudents'
attitudestowardsciencebutalso enhanced
achievements.48
Besides,Taltonand Simpson
notedthatteacherencouragement
tolearn
scienceand funactivitiesinscienceclassare
twooftheotherfactorsthataffected
student
attitudeand achievement.
9. Relatingscienceto societalissues: Relasocietalissuesis
tingscienceto contemporary
an effective
of
way enhancingstudentunderstandingoftheroleofsciencein societyand the
futuresurvivaland prosperity
ofstudents.49
In
a surveyof161scienceteachers95% placed
moderateto veryheavyemphasison thefact
11

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thatone oftheobjectivesofteachingscienceis
of
tomakestudentsawareoftheimportance
sciencein dailylife.50
Teachingscienceshouldhelpstudents
and technicians
are
thatscientists
"recognize
and
human
characteriswith
people
personal
tics"51
and mustpromotecareerawareness.52
AccordingtoYager,scienceshouldmake
and deal withreal-world
studentsunderstand
issuesand helpthemmakecareerchoices.53
on
Besides,teachersmustdeviatefromfocusing
contentand providestudentswithlessonsand
activities
whichexaminetheroleofsciencein
relationtosocietalproblemssuchas acid rain,
nuclearenergy,
and landfills.54
ofthe"realworld"
Scienceis an exploration
and ittakesplacein the"realsociety."55
For
the
(STS)
example, Science-Technology-Society
approachtoscienceeducationrelatesclassroom
sciencetoitsroleand applicationsin thesociety
discussionsand projectswhichinclude
through
opendiscussionon STS issuessuchas acid rain,
effect.Tobinand Fraser
AIDS, and greenhouse
foundthatexemplary
scienceteachersencouin suchnonragetheirstudentstoparticipate
traditional
and
instruction.56
Booth,Krockover
Woodsand Finsonand Enochshave identified
betweensociety-based
positiverelationships
scienceinstruction
and studentattitudetowardsscience.57
Summary
Effective
scienceteachinginvolves
and
overtinstructional
strategies
employing
addressescognitive,
affective
and societal
aspectsoflearning.Based on thestudies
scienceinstruction
involves
reviewed,effective
content
at the
correct
scientifically
presenting
levelofthelearner,usingconcrete
appropriate
materials,
usingquestioningstrategies
learning
thatenhanceconceptualunderstanding,
and
that
usingquestioning
strategies develop
criticalthinking
and problemsolvingskills.
Effective
teachershelpstudentsto arriveat
studentquestionsand
answersbyredirecting
science
providinglongerwait-time.Effective
suitablefor
teachersuse lessonsand activities
studentattitudestowards
developingbetter
and
science.Teacherswho use interesting
and
relate
classactivities
science
challenging
societalissues
roomsciencetocontemporary
12

and attitudes
improvestudentachievement
towardsscience.
Implications
As Glassonceopined,"... in education,the
arefragile;theyvaryinconfusing
findings
across.. ." countlessvariables.58
irregularity
Consideringthisfact,itmaynotbe possibleto
a "myriad"
ofteacher
qualitatively
synthesize
effectiveness
studiescompletely.Thefindings
ofthisqualitativereviewshouldprovide
scienceeducatorswitha guidefordesigning
and comparingfindings
about
experiments
whichinstructional
relate
well
with
strategies
effective
The
instructional
behaviors
teaching.
in thisresearchmightbe usefulfor
identified
in developingclassroomobserresearchers
vationinstruments.
Also thefindings
should
helpscienceteachereducatorstofocuson the
effective
instructional
behaviorsthatneed tobe
stressedin preservice
training.
Scienceteachereducatorsneedto focusmore
on thecause fortheseinstructional
directly
strategies.Forexample,theremaybe several
reasonswhyeffective
teachinginvolvescertain
instructional
behaviors.FindingsofYageretal.
indicatedthatmosteffective
teachershavehad
moreinserviceworkshopsthanhaveleast
effective
teachers.59
ifwhatcauses
Therefore,
certainteacherstouse theseinstructional
can be clearlyidentified,
thenthe
strategies
scienceeducators'taskofpreparingeffective
teacherswillbe easier.
NOTES

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13

March,1993

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Toward Classroom EnvironmentwithAttitudeToward and

Achievementin ScienceAmong TenthGrade BiologyStudents/'
journalofResearchin ScienceTeaching,24, 6, (1987): 507-525.
49. K.D. Finson & L.G. Enochs, "StudentAttitudesToward
Resultingfrom Visitationto a
Science-Technology-Society
ofResearchin Science
Science-TechnologyMuseum/'Journal
Teaching24, 7, (1987): 593-609.
50. Lawrez, (1990).
51 Harms & Yager,(1981).
52. R.E Yager, "AchievingUsefulScience: Reformingthe
Reformsof the 'Os,"EducationalLeadership,
46, 1, (1988): 53-54.
53. Ibid.
54. Barronetal,(1990).

55. R.E. Yager, "ProblemSolving: The STS Advantage,"

CurriculumReview,26, 3, (1987): 19-21.
56. Tobin & Fraser,(1990).
57. J.H.Booth,G.H. Krockover& P.R. Woods, CreatweMuseum
Methodsand EducationalTechniques(Springfield,IL: Charles C
Thomas Publisher,1982); Finson& Enochs, (1987). .
58. G.V. Glass, "Primary,Secondary,and Meta-Analysisof
Research," EducationalResearcher,
5, 3,(1976): 8.
59. Yager, et al (1988).

Thanksto StanleyHelgeson,
Acknowledgement:
Professor
ofScienceEducationat TheOhioState
forcritiquing
thisreview.
University,

David D Kumar is a Postdoctoral

Fellowat theNationalCenter
andLearning
at The
forScienceTeaching
OhioStateUniversity,
OH.
Columbus,

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