CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Before knowing how the super conductors acts as surge current protectors let us concentrate
on what is surge current? What it does to the power system? And what are super conductors?
Meissner Effect and different types of super conductor fault current limiters.
Damage from a short circuit is a constant threat to any electric power system. Insulation
damaged by aging, accident or lightning strike can unloose immense fault currents practically,
the only limit on their size being the impedance of the system between their location and
power sources. Conventional protection devices are installed for protection of excessive fault
current in electric power systems, especially at the high voltage substation level, are the circuit
breakers tripped by over-current protection relay which has a response time delay that allows
initial two or three fault current cycles to pass through before getting activated. But,
superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL) is innovative electric equipment which has the
capability to reduce fault current level within the first cycle of fault current. The first-cycle
suppression of fault current by a SFCL results in an increased transient stability of the power
system carrying higher power with greater stability. The comparison of conventional methods
used for protection of single phase systems provides the information regarding the working of
all types of relays especially overcurrent protection relays operation and its construction. The
importance of SFCL, its features, advantages of SFCL over other protection devices has to be
studied in detail in order to differentiate the operation of the SFCL clearly.
The application of the SFCL would not only decrease the stress on device but also offer an
interconnection to secure the network. They can improve reliability and stability of power systems
by reducing the fault current. There are several kinds of SFCLs, which can be classified in three
types such as the resistive type, the inductive type and bridge type SFCL. Each type of SFCL has
its merits and demerits. Many studies have focused on the topology and capability of SFCLs. The
inductive type SFCL is able to suppress the voltage drop and limit the fault current. The resistive
type SFCL can consume the energy of the fault current and limit it. This capability can improve
the power system stability. The bridge type SFCL is a kind of SFCL, which has zero impedance .

CHAPTER 2
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SURGE CURRENT
2.1 THEORY
The maximum instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first it is turned
on is defined as surge current. It is also known as Inrush current or Input Surge Current or
Switch-on Surge.
Alternating current electric motors and transformers may draw several times their normal fullload current when first energized, for a few cycles of the input waveform. Power converters
also often have inrush currents much higher than their steady state currents, due to the
charging current of the input capacitance. The selection of overcurrent protection devices such
as fuses and circuit breakers is made more complicated when high inrush currents must be
tolerated. The over current protection must react quickly to overload or short circuit but must
not interrupt the circuit when the (usually harmless) inrush current flows.

Figure 1: Waveform Of Surge Current

The only limits of the surge current are the line impedance, input rectifier drop and the
capacitor equivalent series resistance.

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High inrush current can affect the electrical systems by tripping fuses and circuit breakers
unnecessarily. If inrush protection is not in place, relays and circuit breakers must be rated that
are rated higher than any possible inrush current. Inrush Current can also cause pitted contacts
on switches and relays due to arcing of the contacts. Inrush Current can be as high as 100
times the normal steady state current and lasts for less than half a normal 60 hertz cycle.
This surge current can cause component damage and/or failure within the equipment itself,
blown fuses, tripped circuit breakers and may severely limit the number of devices connected
to a common power source.
For example, incandescent light bulbs have high inrush currents until their filaments warm up
and their resistance increases. Alternating current electric motors and transformers may draw
several times their normal full-load current when first energized, for a few cycles of the input
waveform. Power converters also often have inrush currents much higher than their steady
state currents, due to the charging current of the input capacitance. The selection of
overcurrent protection devices such as fuses and circuit breakers is made more complicated
when high inrush currents must be tolerated. The overcurrent protection must react quickly to
overload or open circuit but must not interrupt the circuit when the (usually harmless) inrush
current flows. Inrush current protection can be provided by an active circuit that uses a
combination of power resistors, thyristors, and triacs. Active circuits are generally expensive
and difficult to design. Another option for inrush current protection is an NTC thermistor.
Ametherm manufactures a special type of NTC thermistor designed specifically for inrush
current protection called Inrush Current Limiters.
It is estimated that 90% of inrush current limiting applications use inrush current Limiters.
Circuits using Inrush Current Limiters are easy to design and are inexpensive compared to
active circuits. A Inrush Current Limiter is used in series with the line voltage. At turn on, it
presents a high resistance to inrush current and quickly removes itself from the circuit
allowing the electrical system to behave normall

CHAPTER 3

SUPER CODUCTOR
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
An element, inter-metallic alloy or compound that will conduct electricity without resistance
below a certain temperature. The Dutch Physicist Heike KamerlinghOnnes of Leiden
University was the first person to observe superconductivity in mercury. Superconductivity is
a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance certain materials when cooled below a
characteristic critical temperature. It is a quantum mechanical phenomenon.
A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity or transport electrons from one
atom to another with no resistance. This means no heat, sound or any other form of energy
would be released from the material when it has reached "critical temperature" (T c), or the
temperature at which the material becomes superconductive. Unfortunately, most materials
must be in an extremely low energy state (very cold) in order to become superconductive.
Research is underway to develop compounds that become superconductive at higher
temperatures. Currently, an excessive amount of energy must be used in the cooling process
making superconductors inefficient and uneconomical.

Figure 2:Super conductor

Types of Superconductors:

Low Temperature Superconductor

High temperature Superconductors

LTS are the substances that lose all resistivity close to 4K, a temperature attainable only by
liquid helium.

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HTS are the substances that lose all resistance below temperature main tamable by liquid
nitrogen.
Examples of LTS: Lead and Mercury common LTS Other LTS are Ti, V, Zr, Nb etc.,
Examples of HTS: YBCO, BSCCO, LSCO, etc.,

3.2 MEISSNER EFFECT

The Meissner effect is the expulsion of the magnetic field from a superconductor during its
transition to the superconducting state. The German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert
Ochsenfeld discovered the phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field distribution
outside superconducting tin and lead samples.
The samples, in the presence of an applied magnetic field, were cooled below
their superconducting transition temperature. Below the transition temperature the samples
cancelled nearly all interior magnetic fields. They detected this effect only indirectly because
the magnetic flux is conserved by a superconductor: when the interior field decreases, the
exterior field increases. The experiment demonstrated for the first time that superconductors
were more than just perfect conductors and provided a uniquely defining property of the
superconducting state.
Any perfect conductor will prevent any change to magnetic flux passing through its surface
due to ordinary electromagnetic induction at zero resistance. The Meissner effect is distinct
from this: when an ordinary conductor is cooled so that it makes the transition to a
superconducting state in the presence of a constant applied magnetic field, the magnetic flux is
expelled during the transition. This effect cannot be explained by infinite conductivity alone.
Its explanation is more complex and was first given in the London equations by the
brothers Fritz and Heinz London. It should thus be noted that the placement and subsequent
levitation of a magnet above an already superconducting material does not demonstrate the
Meissner effect, while an initially stationary magnet later being repelled by a superconductor
as it is cooled through its critical temperature does. Present day overhead cables will be replaced
by buried superconducting cables.

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3.3 ADVANTAGES OF SUPERCONDUCTOR

Advantage 1: Transforming the Electricity Grid
The electric power grid is among the greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century.
Demand, however, is about to overwhelm it. For example, the north American blackout of
2003, which lasted about four days, affected over 50 million persons and caused about $6
billion in economic loss. Superconductor technology provides loss-less wires and cables and
improves the reliability and efficiency of the power grid. Plans are underway to replace by
2030 the present power grid with a superconducting power grid. A superconducting power
system occupies less real estate and is buried in the ground, quite different from present day
grid lines.

Advantage 2: Wide Band Telecommunication

Wide-band telecommunications technology, which operates best at gigahertz frequencies, is
very useful for improving the efficiency and reliability of cell phones. Such frequencies are
very difficult to achieve with semiconductor-based circuitry. However, they have been easily
achieved by Hypres's superconductor-based receiver, using a technology called rapid single
flux quantum, or RSFQ, integrated circuit receiver. It operates with the aid of a 4-kelvin
cryocooler. This technology is showing up in many cell phone receiver transmitter tower.

Advantage 3: Aiding Medical Diagnosis

One of the first large-scale applications of superconductivity is in medical diagnosis. Magnetic
resonance imaging, or MRI, uses powerful superconducting magnets to produce large and
uniform magnetic fields inside the patient's body. MRI scanners, which contain liquid helium
refrigeration system, pick up how these magnetic fields are reflected by organs in the body..

CHAPTER 4

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FAULT CURRENT LIMITER

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A Fault Current Limiter is a device which limits the prospective fault current when a fault
occurs. Generally fault current limiters are superconductor fault current limiters.
Superconducting Fault Current Limiters are described as being in one of the two major
categories:

Resistive

Inductive.
First applications for FCLs are likely to be used to help control medium-voltage electricity
distribution systems, followed by electric-drive ships: naval vessels, submarines and cruise
ships. Larger FCLs may eventually be employed in high voltage transmission systems.
Fault-current limiters using high temperature superconductors offer a solution to controlling
fault-current levels on utility distribution and transmission networks. These fault-current
limiters, unlike reactors or high-impedance transformers, will limit fault currents without
adding impedance to the circuit during normal operation. Development of superconducting
fault-current limiters is being pursued by several utilities and electrical manufacturers around
the world, and commercial equipment is expected to be available by the turn of the century.
FCL is a variable-impedance device connected in series with a circuit to limit the current
under fault conditions. The FCL should have very low impedance during normal condition
and high impedance under fault condition (Vibhor,C., Rishi, P. S. and Seema, D., 2012). A
complete circuit of this is shown in (EEI Chicago, IL page 14). RSFCL. It has potential to
reduce fault level on the electricity power networks and may ultimately lead to lower rated
components being used or to increased capacity on existing systems (Vibhor et al., 2012).
As mentioned earlier, the role of the FCL is to limit prospective fault current levels to a
manageable level without a significant impact on the distribution system. Consider a simple
power system model, as shown in Figure 1(a), consisting of a source with voltage VS, internal
impedance Zs, load impedance Zload, and fault impedance Zfault.
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In steady state,
I = + . . . .
When a fault occurs in a system,
= + , << .
Since the supply impedance ZS, is much smaller than the load impedance, Equation (2) shows
that the short circuiting of the load will substantially increase the current flow. However, if a
FCL is placed in series, as shown in the modified circuit Figure 1(b), Equation (3) will hold
true;
= + + . .
Equation (3) tells that, with an insertion of a FCL, the fault current will now be a function of
not only the source ZS and fault impedance ZFAULT, but also the impedance of the FCL.
Hence, for a given source voltage and increasing ZFCL will decrease the fault current
IFAULT. Ideal fault current limiter characteristics Before discussing any further, it is
important that some of the ideal characteristics be laid out for an FCL. An ideal FCL should
meet the following operational requirements. (Manish V., 2009) :- 1) Virtually inexistent
during steady state. This implies almost zero voltage drop across the FCL itself 2) Detection of
the fault current within the first cycle (less than 16ms for 60Hz and 20ms for 50Hz) and
reduction to a desirable percentage in the next few cycles. 3) Capable of repeated operations
for multiple faults in a short period of time 4) Automatic recovery of the FCL to pre-fault state
without human intervention 5) No impact on voltage and angle stability 6) Ability to work up
to the distribution voltage level class. The quench process in the superconductor is different in
detail between superconductors. Some superconductors quench directly in response to a high
current density. High temperature superconductors quench in FCLs because a small amount of
non-superconducting current heats the material and raises it above the critical transition
temperature.
GridON Ltd has developed the first commercial inductive FCL for distribution & transmission
networks. Using a unique and proprietary concept of magnetic-flux alteration - requiring no
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superconducting or cryogenic components - the self-triggered FCL instantaneously increases

its impedance tenfold upon fault condition. It limits the fault current for its entire duration and
recovers to its normal condition immediately thereafter. This inductive FCL is scalable to extra
high voltage ratings.

4.2 FAULT CURRENT PROBLEMS

Electric power system designers often face fault-current problems when expanding existing
buses. Larger transformers result in higher fault-duty levels, forcing the replacement of
existing bus work and switchgear not rated for the new fault duty. Alternatively, the existing
bus can be broken and served by two or more smaller transformers. Another alternative is use
of a single, large, high-impedance transformer, resulting in degraded voltage regulation for all
the customers on the bus. The classic tradeoff between fault control, bus capacity, and system
stiffness has persisted for decades. Fault-current limiters using high temperature
superconductors offer a solution to controlling fault-current levels on utility distribution and
transmission networks. These fault-current limiters, unlike reactors or high-impedance
transformers, will limit fault currents without adding impedance to the circuit during normal
operation. Development of superconducting fault-current limiters is being pursued by several
utilities and electrical manufacturers around the world, and commercial equipment is expected
to be available by the turn of the century.
Other common system changes can result in a fault control problem:

in some areas, such as the United States, additional generation from co generators and
independent power producers (IPPs) raises the fault duty throughout a system

older but still operational equipment gradually becomes underrated through system growth;
some equipment, such as transformers in underground vaults or cables, can be very expensive
to replace

customers request parallel services that enhance the reliability of their supply but raise: the
fault duty

CHAPTER 5
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SUPERCONDUCTIVE FCL
5.1 THEORY
Superconductors offer a way to break through system design constraints by presenting
impedance to the electrical system that varies depending on operating conditions.
Superconducting fault-current limiters normally operate with low impedance and are
"invisible" components in the electrical system. In the event of a fault, the limiter inserts
impedance into the circuit and limits the fault current. With current limiters, the utility can
provide a low-impedance, stiff system with a low fault-current level, as Fig. 4.5 shows.

Figure 3:Fault Control With aFault Current Limiter

In Fig. 2, a large, low-impedance transformer is used to feed a bus. Normally, the FCL does
not affect the circuit. In the event of a fault, the limiter develops an impedance of 0.2 per unit
(Z = 20%), and the fault current I SC is reduced to 7,400 A. Without the limiter, the fault current
would be 37,000 A.
The development of high temperature superconductors (HTS) enables the development of
economical fault-current limiters. Superconducting fault-current limiters were first studied
over twenty years ago. The earliest designs used low temperature superconductors (LTS),
materials that lose all resistance at temperatures a few degrees above absolute zero. LTS
materials are generally cooled with liquid helium, a substance both expensive and difficult to
handle. The discovery in 1986 of high temperature superconductors, which operate at higher
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temperatures and can be cooled by relatively inexpensive liquid nitrogen, renewed interest in
superconducting fault-current limiters.
Superconductor-based fault current limiters offer an alternative solution to controlling fault
levels on the network. A superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL), unlike reactors or highimpedance transformers, will limit fault current without adding impedance to the circuit
during normal operation. Most SFCLs are based on the superconducting and normal (SN)
transition property. Superconductors are the only materials that change their resistance
automatically from zero to a high value when a certain critical current is surpassed. Early
superconducting fault current limiters were too expensive for wide application in electrical
utilities, since they were based on superconducting materials, which can only operate under
extremely low

temperatures

(-269C). With the

discovery of high temperature

superconductors (HTSs) twenty five years ago, the cooling problem has been greatly reduced.
These new materials can be operated at much higher temperatures (-196C) and can be cooled
simply by using liquid nitrogen (Xueguang W., Joseph M., Nick J. and Goran S., 2003). There
are various types of SFCLs as earlier mentioned, but in this paper, a resistive SFCL is
considered.

5.2 RESISTIVE SFCL MODEL

A resistive SFCL utilizes resistance increase upon quench of a superconductor. It has
advantages such as simpler structure, smaller size, and possibly lower capital cost than other
types. During normal operation, the superconducting element is in its superconducting state
and the normal load current passes with theoretically no loss. In the case of a short circuit, the
circuit current rises sharply and the superconductor undergoes a transition to its normal state,
so a certain value of nonlinear resistance is created by selfsensing and self-triggering, thus
limiting the fault current level (Firouzi et al., 2012). A diagram of the resistive SFCL is shown
in Figure 2. The fault current pushes the superconductor into a resistive state directly .

CHAPTER 6

FAULT CURRENT LIMITER

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6.1 APPLICATION
Fault-current limiters can be applied in a number of distribution or transmission areas.
Three main applications areas are shown in Figs. 4.6, 4.7, and

Figure 4: Fault-current limiter in the main position. The fault-current limiter FCL
protects the entire bus.

Figure 5:FCL in Feeder

In Fig. 4 Fault-current limiter in the feeder position. The fault-current limiter FCL protects an
individual circuit on the bus. Underrated equipment can be selectively protected as needed in
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this manner. Fig. 4.8. Fault-current limiter in the bus-tie position. The two buses are tied, yet a
faulted bus receives the full fault current of only one transformer.

Figure 6: Fault-current limiter in the bus-tie position.

The two buses are tied, yet a faulted bus receives the full fault current of only one transformer.
The most direct application of a fault-current limiter is in the main position on a bus (Fig. 5).
Benefits of an FCL in this application include the following:

a larger transformer can be used to meet increased demand on a bus without breaker upgrades

a large, low impedance transformer can be used to maintain voltage regulation at the new
power level

I2t damage to the transformer is limited

reduced fault-current flows in the high-voltage circuit that feeds the transformer, which
minimizes the voltage dip on the upstream high-voltage bus during a fault on the mediumvoltage bus
An FCL can also be used to protect individual loads on the bus (Fig. 4.7). The selective
application of small and less expensive limiters can be used to protect old or overstressed
equipment that is difficult to replace, such as underground cables or transformers in vaults.
In the past, when power requirements increased, the only solution was to increase the voltage
in order to meet the limitations of nominal current and short-circuit current. This meant using
transformers to step-up the generated voltage to 33kV or higher, and then to step the voltage
ACERC/DOEEI2014-15/SEMINAR/13

back down with substation transformers in order to supply the loads. These step-up and stepdown transformers together with the additional switchgear for their protection greatly
increased the amount of space required for the installation of the electrical distribution
equipment. For grass-roots on-shore sites this design philosophy is still used since it allows
the use of standard electrical equipment. For existing sites and for off-shore facilities there is
often insufficient room for the transformers. Should step-up and step-down transformers not
be used, it is necessary that the switchgear be able to handle the very high values of
shortcircuit current resulting from the use of a lower distribution voltage. Since the shortcircuit current will exceed both the peak and the interrupting current ratings of standard
switchgear, the only choice is to limit the value of short-circuit current that can occur.
An FCL can be used in the bus-tie position (Fig. 4.8). Such a limiter would require only a
small load current rating but would deliver the following benefits:

separate buses can be tied together without a large increase in the fault duty on either bus

during a fault, a large voltage drop across the limiter maintains voltage level on the unfaulted
bus

the paralleled transformers result in low system impedance and good voltage regulation; tapchanging transformers can be avoided

excess capacity of each bus is available to both buses, thus making better use of the
transformer rating

CHAPTER 7

SUPERCONDUCTIVE FAULT CURRENT LIMITER

CONCEPT
7.1 THE RESISTIVE FAULT CURRENT LIMITER
The simplest superconducting limiter concept, the series resistive limiter, exploits the
nonlinear resistance of superconductors in a direct way. A superconductor is inserted in the
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circuit. For a full-load current of I FL, the superconductor would be designed to have a critical
current of 2IFL or 3IFL. During a fault, the fault current pushes the superconductor into a
resistive state and resistance R appears in the circuit.
The superconductor in its resistive state can also be used as a trigger coil, pushing the bulk of
the fault current through a resistor or inductor. The advantage of this configuration, shown in
Fig. 4.9, is that it the limits the energy that must be absorbed by the superconductor. The faultcurrent limiter FCL normally is a short across the copper inductive or resistive element Z.
During a fault, the resistance developed in the limiter shunts the current through Z, which
absorbs most of the fault energy

Figure 7: Fault-current limiter with HTS trigger coil

The trigger coil approach is appropriate for transmission line applications, where tens of
megawatt-seconds would be absorbed in a series resistive limiter. The trigger coil
configuration also allows an impedance of any phase angle, from purely resistive to almost
purely inductive, to be inserted in the line.

7.2 THE INDUCTIVE LIMITER

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Another concept uses a resistive limiter on a transformer secondary, with the primary in series
in the circuit. This concept, illustrated in Fig. 4.10, yields a limiter suitable for high-current
circuits (IL> 1000 A). One phase of the limiter is shown. A copper winding W Cu is inserted in
the circuit and is coupled to an HTS winding WHTS. During normal operation, zero impedance
is reflected to the primary. Resistance developed in the HTS winding during a fault is reflected
to the primary and limits the fault.
The inductive limiter can be modeled as a transformer. The impedance of this limiter in the
steady state is nearly zero, since the zero impedance of the secondary (HTS) winding is
reflected to the primary. In the event of a fault, the large current in the circuit induces a large
current in the secondary and the winding loses superconductivity. The resistance in the
secondary is reflected into the circuit and limits the fault.

Figure 8: Inductive Fault Current Limiter

CHAPTER 8

JAPANESE FCL PROGRAM

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The driving factors for current limiters in Japan are somewhat different from those in the
United States, given that IPPs and co generators are not as prevalent in Japan. Rather, the
demand for power in Japanese metropolitan areas continues to grow because of economic
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growth and increased consumer use of electricity. In addition, industrial use of computers and
other power-quality-sensitive equipment has forced the utilities to provide higher quality and
more reliable power. The quite successful approach to improved power quality in Japan has
been to increase connections between various power systems and to concentrate generation
capacity in larger, more efficient units. Increasing interconnection does, however, increase the
maximum fault current available at any point in the system, and this is rapidly leading to the
need for breaker upgrades and system reconfigurations. Adding to the complexity of the
situation in Japan is the limited room at substation sites, which can preclude breaker upgrades.
The primary need, as expressed by management of the Tokyo Electric Power Company
(TEPCO), is for a limiter for the nucleus of the Japanese transmission system, the 500 kV
transmission grids.
In response to this real market pull there has been a series of programs to develop faultcurrent
limiters using a variety of methods, with recent focus on superconducting limiters (Nakade
1994). Although FCLs are not a component of the NEDO budget, TEPCO has reported that it
spends about 100 million per year (~$1 million) on this program, and some resistive FCL
work is apparently included in the NEDO budget under the topic
"Research of Superconducting Materials and Devices."
In the late 1980s, Seikei University manufactured a small-scale three-phase currentlimiting
reactor and demonstrated successful operation. This three-phase system introduces a large
unbalanced reactance in the system to limit currents in the case of a single-phase short and
quenches to introduce resistance in the circuit in the case of a three-phase fault.
Mitsubishi Electric Company (MELCO) has been participating in a MITI/NEDO FCL
program since 1990. This is a resistive limiter approach using HTS films on a strontium
titanate substrate that has demonstrated limiting of 400 A currents to 11.3 A. The Central
Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) has developed the inductive limiter
shown in Fig. 4.11 (Ichikawa and Okazaki 1995). This approach, similar to those of ABB and
Siemens-Hydro Quebec, uses a cylinder of bulk BSCCO-2212 or BSCCO2223 to separate a
normal copper coil from an iron core. In normal operation, the field from the copper coil does
not penetrate the superconductor; under fault conditions, however, the current induced in the
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superconductor is sufficient to drive it normal, and the magnetic field links the iron yoke. This
greatly increases the inductance of the copper coil, thus providing current limiting. CRIEPI
work has focused on ac magnetic shielding performance of bulk superconductors and their
responses to fault currents. In addition, introduction of a "control ring" in the system to absorb
some of the energy deposited during a fault has reduced the cooldown time of the shield
following a faulted state.

Figure 9: Schematic diagram of the CRIEPI inductive FCL

(Ichikawa and Okazaki 1995).

The most extensive FCL program in Japan has been the collaboration between TEPCO and
Toshiba. The long-term goal of this program is the development of a 500 kV limiter with a
rated current of 8,000 A. Initial development has been focused on a distributionlevel limiter
designed for 6.6 kV.
As shown in Fig. 4.12, the FCL is formed by connecting four superconducting coils in a
series-parallel configuration so the total inductance is minimized. One set of coils is used for
each phase of the device, and limiting is accomplished by quenching the coils. The current
version of the FCL shown in Fig. 4.13 uses a special low ac loss Nb-Ti conductor. Tests in a
circuit with a nominal short circuit current of 25.8 kA have successfully demonstrated limiting
to about 4,000 amps (Fig. 4.14).

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Figure 10: Configuration of coils in the TEPCO/Toshiba FCL (Nakade 1994, 34).

Figure 11: Exterior view of the 6.6 Kv , 2000 A-class current limiter. The coil is 420 mm
in diameter and 640 mm long (Nakade 1994, 35)

Recent work has included the introduction of HTS current leads to reduce the refrigeration
load of the system to levels that can be handled by a 4 K Gifford McMahon refrigerator. Over
three generations of the device, the heat leak has been reduced from 13.8 watts to 3.4 watts,
which is nearing the required level.

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Figure 12: Current limiting characteristics of FCL

CHAPTER 9

SWISS AND GERMAN FCL PROGRAM

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10.1 INTRODUCTION
Two sites the WTEC panel visited in Europe addressed FCL: ABB in Baden-Daetwil,
Switzerland, and Siemens in Erlangen, Germany. ABB is pursuing a fault-current limiter
concept very similar to that described above for the CRIEPI program. It is referred to as the
"shielded iron core concept." It uses a warm iron core enclosed by a superconducting shield in
a fiberglass Dewar. The copper primary coil is wound external to this Dewar. ABB has
constructed and tested a 100 kW prototype using a stack of four Bi-2212 rings 8 cm long, and
20 cm in diameter. Operation was at 480 V with fault currents of 8 kA. A new ABB threephase 1.2 MW FCL is now in operation in a power station in Lntsch, Switzerland.
Siemens is following two routes for FCL in a collaborative program with Hydro-Quebec
Canada. At the Siemens corporate labs in Erlangen, the focus has been on resistive limiters
using YBCO thin film meander lines on YSZ or on YSZ and sapphire (Gromoll et al. 1996).
The advantage of this approach is that the YBCO film has a high normal state resistance and is
not shunted by normal metal, as would be the case in a composite powder-in-tube conductor.
The film also has very low heat capacity, which leads to rapid switching to the normal state (<
1 ms) and the possibility of rapid cool down. Analysis as of 1996 has determined that both
peak let-through current and steady state limiting current decrease as J c is raised. In addition,
the design of a limiter of usable size depends strongly on Jc -- higher Jc enables a more
compact design. The major focus of the program has, therefore, been the fabrication of
uniform high-Jc films of YBCO. Techniques investigated have included pulsed laser
deposition (PLD), thermal co evaporation, and magnetron sputtering on buffered p-YSZ,
unbuffered p-YSZ, and sapphire. Bi axially textured YSZ buffer layers have been fabricated
on part of the pYSZ substrates by ion beam assisted deposition. Current densities up to 3x10 6
A/cm2 have been achieved, as have good limiting performance and recovery times on the
order of 1 second. The next milestone for the project is construction of a 100 KVA limiter
using a cry cooler. Further details of this program are given in the Siemens site visit report
(Appendix D).
Two additional German FCL projects began in January 1997. The first is a system study that
will be followed by construction of a demonstration FCL. This project is a joint effort by the
German utilities RWE, VEW, and Badenwerk, and by EUS GmbH and FZK. The second
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project involving the development of a small inductive limiter is under the auspices of the
German Israel Foundation. The German participants are FZK, Hoechst AG, and the utility
Badenwerk; the Israeli participants are Tel Aviv and Ben Gurion Universities. The work at
Hydro-Quebec has resulted in the construction and test of a number of devices since 1992
(Fig. 4.15). The latest system operated at 450 V and 95 amps for a nominal power of 43 KVA.
Two different materials were evaluated for the superconducting shield: melt-cast Bi-2212 from
Hoechst, and composite reaction textured (CRT) material from Cambridge. Although
successful current limiting was demonstrated, the limiter that used the Hoechst material failed
during a 480 V shortcircuit test due to a fracture of the superconductor (Cave et al. 1996).
Subsequent analysis by Hydro-Quebec indicated that thermal stress in the bulk superconductor
gave rise to the failure. The near-term future direction of this program will be concerned with
improving the homogeneity, critical current density, and resistivity of the bulk superconductor.

Figure 13: Power rating of the inductive limiter models built/tested at Hydro-Quebec
1992-95 (Cave et al. 1996)

FUTURE SCOPE
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TEPCO will develop a three-phase limiter over the next three to four years and test it in the
grid within this century. There are few distribution-level FCL applications seen in the TEPCO
grid, however, and the current plan is to introduce solid state breakers for distribution before
installing superconductive FCL. The true application for the superconducting FCL is at
transmission voltages of 500 kV. The view of TEPCO researchers is that this voltage range
will require the introduction of HTS coils (rather than LTS) to eliminate the helium gas from
the system. Introduction of a transmissionlevel FCL on the grid is anticipated about 2010

CONCLUSION

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The purpose of this paper was the study of surge current protection using superconductors.
The Superconductor Fault Current Limiters offers efficient advantages to power systems and
opens up a major application for superconducting materials.

REFERENCE
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1. KE Gray, DE flower superconducting fault current limiters

2. IEEE transaction on applied superconductivity, march 1997
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