Mechanical Vibration

and Shock
Measurements
Brel & Kjr

Mechanical Vibration
and
Shock Measurements
by
Professor Je n s Trampe Broch
Dipl Ing. E T.H.

Revised by:
Jolle Cour re ch , Dr. Ing.
J o h n H assall, M . Sc., M .1.0.A.
P h ilip HoIHngbery, M .A ., M.I.E.E.
Torben L ic h t, M.Sc.
Hans M rs k -M e lle r, M .Sc.
R. B. Randall, B. Tech., B.A.
D avid R e d fe rn , H.N.C. Mech.
Hans Jorgen R in d o rf, M.Sc.
J o n a th a n Wort, M .S c ., M I.M ech. E.

April 1984

ISBN 87 87355 3 4

2nd edition 3rd impression

PRINTED IN D EN M AR K: K. LARSEN & SON A /S . DK-2860

FOREWORD

The book "M echanical V ib ra tio n and Shock M e a su re m e n ts has long been
a m ainstay in Brel & K j r's series of books on th e fu n dam entals of physical
m easurem ent and analysis. A lth o u g h the basic th e o ry is s till va lid , a great
m any developm ents have occurred since the book w as last revised by Profes
sor Jens Trampe Broch in M ay 1 9 7 2 , and it w a s decided in 1 9 7 9 to bring
th e book fu lly up-to-date, p a rtly by a revision o f existing m a te ria l, and partly
by adding new chapters w h e re relevant. It w a s decided to keep as closely as
possible to Professor Trampe B roch's o rig in a l te xt, and he has had the oppor
tu n ity to approve the m o difications. Even so, it is probably as w e ll to make it
clear how m uch of the present book is taken from the o rig in a l, and how
m uch is com pletely new.
Chapter 2 w as revised by Bob Randall, and fo llo w s th e o rig in a l very
closely. Some m aterial has been added on d ig ita l frequency analysis, a field
w h ich has developed rapidly in the last fe w years.
Chapter 3 w as revised by Jolle Courrech and also fo llo w s th e original
quite closely. The discussion of n o n -lin e a r system s has been expanded som e
w h a t, and in addition to th e exact tre a tm e n t o f the vibration of continuous
stru ctures, as given by Professor Tram pe Broch, a brief in tro d u ctio n is given
to tw o approxim ate m ethods w h ic h have increased in im portance in recent
years, viz. fin ite elem ent te ch n iq u e s and sta tis tic a l energy analysis.
The origin al Chapter 4 has been sp lit into tw o , both revised by John Hassall. Chapter 4 covers th a t part of th e o riginal w h ic h considered th e effects of
vibrations and shock on m echanical system s, w h ile Chapter 5 discusses the
quite d iffe re n t topic of the effects of vib ra tio n and shock on m an (Human V i
bration). There have been included some new developm ents in both areas, for
example a discussion of m ean stress effects and acoustic fa tig u e in Chapter
4, and m ore detailed in fo rm a tio n on hand-arm vibration in C hapter 5, but o th
erw ise these sections are based on the o rig in a ls.
Chapter 6 on the selection of in s tru m e n ta tio n is com pletely n e w and was
w ritte n by David Redfern. Not o n ly w e re very fe w of the in s tru m e n ts de
scribed in the original book s till available, but th e re has also been a consider

able expansion of the range of e q u ip m e n t available. The basic discussion of

practical topics such as accelerom eter m ounting m ethod and charge vs. v o l
tage pream plifiers is adapted from the o rig in a l.
C hapter 7 on the frequency analysis of shock and vib ra tio n is likew ise com
plete ly new and w as w ritte n by Bob Randall. M ain em phasis is put on tw o
topics w hich are considered to be c u rre n tly most relevant; on the one hand
analogue serial analysis using battery-operated portable equipm ent, and on
th e o ther hand d ig ita l real-tim e analysis w h ich has n o w superseded analogue
analysis in the laboratory.
C hapter 8 is a ne w addition, a discu ssio n of a rapidly developing area o f ap
plica tio n of vibration m easurem ent and analysis, viz. m achine health m o n ito r
ing. It w as w ritte n by Hans M rsk-M lle r, and gives a guide to how th e o p ti
m um economic be n e fit can be derived from the in tro d u ctio n of system atic
a n d /o r perm anent assessm ent of th e vib ra tio n of o p e rating machines.
A coustic Em ission, w h ic h is treated in Chapter 9, is not a m echanical v ib ra
tio n in the classical sense, but has been included here because of its
connection w ith C hapter 8 . It represents another non destructive testing te c h
n ique, although its application tends to be more in th e study of static stress
s itu a tio n s , such as in pressure vessels, rather th a n rotating m achines.
Torben Licht, Hans Jrgen Rindorf and David Redfern all contributed to th is
chapter.
C hapters 10 and 1 1 cover topics w h ic h w ere discussed in the o riginal book,
but th e arrangem ent has been a lte re d som ew hat. Both chapters w ere
adapted by Jonathan W o rt and Philip H ollingbery. C hapter 10 discusses the
use of electrodynam ic shakers for the application of vib ra tio n and shock sig
nals to physical con stru ctio n s both fo r endurance te s tin g purposes, and also
to m easure th e ir d ynam ic properties. It covers basically the same to p ics as
S ections 7 .3 and 7 .4 of the original book on vibration and shock te stin g and
also section 8.1 on m echanical im pedance and m obility. Chapter 1 1 on b a la n
cing serves as an in tro d u ctio n to m ethods of vibration control. It has been
adapted from the m a te ria l of sections 4 .2 and 7.5 of th e original book, b u t in
cludes discussions of both field b alancing and special purpose balancing m a
chines.
C hapter 12 discusses the rem aining m ethods of shock and vibration co n
tro l, viz, isolation and dam ping, treated in sections 7.1 and 7 .2 of the o rig i
nal book. It has been adapted by Jo h n Hassall and fo llo w s the original quite
closely.
F inally, the appendices have been revised by Bob Randall or Jolle Courrech, depending on w h ic h section of th e m ain text th e y are related to. A p p e n
dix E on electronic integration has been expanded to include the inte g ra tio n

of im pulses as w e ll as co n tin u o u s sig n a ls. The o rig in a l Appendices F and G

have been dropped, the firs t (on low est measurable v ib ra tio n levels) because
th is inform ation can best be found from th e product data of the m uch w id e r
range of equipm ent now available (if not adequately covered by Fig. 6 .5) and
the second (on the fre q u e n cy analysis o f impulses) because th is to p ic is
covered in Chapter 7 and in more detail in the B & K book "Frequency A n a ly
s is ".
It is perhaps w o rth m entioning that th e subjects cross correlation, crossspectral density and coherence (Section 8 .2 of the o rig in a l book) have not
been included because th e y are discussed in some d e ta il in the B & K book
"Frequency A n a lysis ". L ikew ise, the to p ic of dynamic s tra in has not been in
cluded because it is covered in the B & K book "S tra in M easurem ents .
R.B. R a n d a ll

CONTENTS

IN T R O D U C T IO N ......................................................................................................1 3
1 .1 .

GENERAL REFERENCES .......................................................................17

C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F V IB R A TIO N A N D S H O C K ................................ 2 0
2.1 .
2 .2 .
2 .3 .
2 .4 .
2 .5 .

PERIODIC VIBRATION .............................................................................. 20

STATIONARY RANDOM VIBRATION .................................................. 2 6
TRANSIENT PHENOMENA A N D SHOCKS ......................................... 33
NON-STATIONARY RANDOM VIBRATION ........................................ 36
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................... 38

R E S P O N S E OF M E C H A N IC A L S Y S T E M S TO
V IB R A T IO N S A N D S H O C K S ............................................................................. 40
3.1 .
3 .2 .
3 .3 .
3 .4 .
3 .5 .
3 .6 .
3 .7 .
3 .8 .
3 .9 .

RESPONSE OF LINEAR M ECHANICAL SYSTEMS

TO VIBRATIONS. RESONANCE ........................................................... 4 0
SOME RESPONSE PROPERTIES OF NON-LINEAR SYSTEMS .. 4 6
ROTATIONAL AND TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS ................................53
RESPONSE OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS TO
STATIONARY RANDOM VIBRATIONS .............................................. 55
SHOCK RESPONSE AND SHOCK SPECTRA .................................. 57
VIBRATIONS IN STRUCTURES. MECHANICAL W AVES ............ 6 0
SHOCK AND VIBRATION ANA LY SIS USING
FINITE ELEMENT TECHNIQUES ......................................................... 65
STATISTICAL ENERGY ANALYSIS ................................................... 6 9
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................. 70

EFFECTS OF V IB R A T IO N S A ND S H O C K
ON M E C H A N IC A L S Y S TE M S ............................................................................. 7 2
4.1 .

DAMAGING EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS.

MECHANICAL FATIGUE ......................................................................... 72

4 .2 .
4 .3 .

5.

EFFECTS OF V IB R A T IO N S A N D S H O C K ON M A N .................................... 8 5
5 .1 .
5 .2 .
5 .3 .

6.

4 .1 .1 . Effect o f M ean Stress ...............................................................7 8

4 .1 .2 . A co u s tic Fatigue .........................................................................79
DAMAGING EFFECTS OF SHOCK AND TRANSIENTS ...
82
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................... 8 3

WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION ...............................................................

HAND-ARM VIBRATION ...........................................................
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................... 94

85
91

V IB R A T IO N M E A S U R IN G IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N
A N D T E C H N IQ U E S ............................................................................................... 9 7
6 .1 .
6 .2 .

GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS ......................... 9 7

SELECTION OF ACCELEROMETER .............................................. 1 0 0
6 .2 .1 . E nvironm ental C onditions ...........................................
108
6 .3 .
SELECTION OF ACCELEROMETER PREAMPLIFIERS ...... 1 12
6 .4 .
CALIBRATION A N D SYSTEM PERFORMANCE CHECKS ......... 1 1 5
6 .5 .
FORCE AND IMPEDANCE TRANSDUCERS ................................1 2 0
6 . 6 . PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MOUNTING
ACCELEROMETERS ............................................................................... 1 2 2
6 .7 .
PORTABLE BATTERY OPERATED INSTRUMENTS ................... 1 2 9
6 .7 .1 . The G eneral Purpose V ib ra tio n M e te r............................ 1 2 9
6 .7 .2 . The S ound Level M e te r (SLM) as a
V ib ra tio n M e t e r ...................................................................... 1 35
6 .7 .3 . The Tape Recorder in V ib ra tio n W o r k ..............................1 3 8
6 .7 .4 . Stroboscopic M otion A n a lysis ........................................... 141
6 .7 .5 . W aveform Studies ................................................................. 143
6 .7 .6 . M o n ito rin g for M echanical Bumps and Shocks ...........1 4 4
6 .7 .7 . Portable Level Recorders .....................................................1 4 6
6 .8 .
LABORATORY ORIENTATED MAINS-OPERATED
INSTRUMENTATION .......................................................................... 1 4 7
6 . 8 . 1 . M e asuring A m plifiers ...........................................................1 4 7
6 .8 .2 . Separate Filters ..................................................................... 14 8
6 .8 .3 . Frequency Analyzers ............................................................ 14 9
6 .8 .4 . Real-Time Analyzers ............................................................. 1 52
6 .8 .5 . Digital Data Recording ......................................................... 1 56
6 . 8 . 6 . G raphical Recorders (M a in s Operated)
1 57
6 .9 .
A SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 1 58
6 .1 0 . BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................ . . . . .'. '.. '. .^ '. 1 5 9

7.

F R E Q U E N C Y A N A LY S IS OF V IB R A T IO N A N D SHO CK .....................1 6 0
7 .1 .

7 .2 .

7 .3 .

7 .4 .

7 .5 .

8.

V IB R A T IO N M E A S U R E M E N T S FOR M A C H IN E
HEALTH M O N IT O R IN G ...................................................................................... 19 7
8 .1 .
8 .2 .
8 .3 .
8 .4 .

8 .5 .

9.

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 160

7 .1 .1 . Response Properties of Filters,
Detectors and Recorders ....................................................... 1 60
7 .1 .2 . Digital F ilters .............................................................................163
7 .1 .3 . FFT A nalysis .............................................................................. 1 64
7 .1 .4 . Choice of B a n d w id th , Frequency Scale
and A m p litu d e Scale .............................................................. 168
SERIAL ANALYSIS OF STATIONARY SIGNALS .............................171
......................................... 171
7 .2 .1 . Choice of A veraging Tim e
7 .2 .2 . Choice of A nalysis Speed
......................................... 1 73
REAL-TIME ANALYSIS OF STATIONARY AND
TRANSIENT SIGNALS .......................................................................... 175
7 .3 .1 . FFT A nalysis of S tationary S ig n a ls ................................ 1 76
7 .3 .2 . Digital Filter A n a lysis of S ta tio n a ry Signals .................. 1 84
7 .3 .3 . Impulse A n a lysis by FFT and
Digital Filter T echniques ....................................................... 185
ANALYSIS OF NON-STATIONARY SIG NALS .................................192
7 .4 .1 . Choice of A nalysis Param eters ............................................ 1 93
7 .4 .2 . Example ...................................................................................... 1 94
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................196

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................... 197

THE RELATIONSHIP FORCE - VIBRATION .....................................1 97
FREQUENCY RANGE - DYNAMIC RANGE PARAMETERS ...... 2 0 0
USE OF VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE 2 0 4
8 .4 .1 . M aintenance System s ........................................................... 2 0 4
8 .4 .2 . M aintenance S taff ................................................................... 205
8 .4 .3 . Instrum ents fo r O n-C ondition M aintenance ...................206
8 .4 .4 . Perm anent M o nito rin g ........................................................... 208
8 .4 .5 . Cost Effectiveness ................................................................... 210
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 211

A C O U S T IC E M IS S IO N
9 .1 .
9 .2 .
9 .3 .
9 .4 .

..................................................................................... 2 1 2

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 212

DEFINITION .............................................................................................. 212
AE SOURCES .......................................................................................... 213
PROPAGATION ....................................................................................... 21 4

9 .5 .
9 .6 .
9 .7 .
9 .8 .
9 .9 .

AE TRANSDUCER PRINCIPLES AND CALIBRATION ....................2 1 5

SIG NAL AMPLIFICATION .................................................................. 2 2 0
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION .........................................2 2 0
ACOUSTIC EMISSION SOURCE LOCATION ................................ 2 2 4
FIELDS OF APPLICATION .................................................................. 2 2 5
9 .9 .1 . Advantages and Lim itations .................................................. 2 2 7
9 .1 0 . EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION ........................................................... 2 2 7
9.1 0 .1 . Tensile Test on a Brass Specim en ...................................2 2 8
9.1 0 .2 . Tensile Test on Carbon-Fibre Braid ...............................2 2 9
9.1 0 .3 . Test on a Pressure Vessel ................................................2 3 0
9.1 0 .4 . AE Source Location on a Pressure Vessel ..................2 3 2
9 .1 0 .5 . AE Source Location using Tw o
M easuring C hannels ............................................................2 3 2
9 .1 1 . SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................ 2 3 6

10.

V IB R A T IO N A N D SH O C K T E S T IN G ...........................................................2 3 7
1 0 .1 .

1 0 .2 .

1 0 .3 .

11.

VIBRATING TESTING ...........................................................................2 3 7

1 0 .1 .1 . The Exciter ...............................................................................2 3 8
1 0 .1 .2 . C haracteristics o f the E lectrodynam ic Exciter ................2 3 9
1 0 .1 .3 . The Influences o f the Resonances
on the V ibration Signal ........................................................2 4 3
1 0 .1 .4 . Sinusoidal E xcitation ............................................................ 2 4 4
1 0 .1 .5 . Random V ib ra tio n Testing ...................................................2 4 8
1 0 .1 .6 . Force Testing and S tructural Response ........................... 251
SHOCK TESTING ................................................................................... 2 5 6
1 0 .2 .1 . Laboratory T esting ..................................................................2 5 6
1 0 .2 .2 . Service Testing ........................................................................261
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................2 6 4

B A L A N C IN G OF R O TATIN G M A C H IN E S .................................................2 6 8
1 1 .1 .
1 1 .2 .
1 1 .3 .
11 .4 .
11 .5 .
11 .6 .
1 1.7.

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 2 6 8
UNBALANCE OF RIGID ROTORS ................................................... 2 6 8
ROTOR SUPPORT SYSTEM ............................................................ 2 7 0
SETTING THE STANDARDS ............................................................. 2 7 3
BALANCING MACHINES .................................................................... 2 7 6
FIELD BALANCING ............................................................................. 2 7 8
DIFFICULT BALANCING TASKS ...................................................... 2 8 5
1 1 .7 .1 . Fine Balancing .........................................................................2 8 5
1 1 .7 .2 . Flexible Rotors .........................................................................2 8 5
1 1 .7 .3 . Crankshaft B alancing ......................................................... 2 8 7
1 1 .7 .4 . M ultiple-S pan S hafts .........................................................2 8 8
1 1 . 8 . SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................ 2 8 9

12.

F U N D A M E N T A L S OF SHO CK A N D V IB R A T IO N C O N TR O L ............2 9 2
1 2 .1 .

ISOLATION OF VIBRATION AND SHOCK ......................................2 9 2

1 2 .1 .1 . V ib ra tio n Iso la tio n ................................................................ 2 9 2
1 2 .1 .2 . Shock Isolation ...................................................................... 3 0 4
1 2 .2 . DYNAMIC VIBRATION CONTROL AND
VIBRATION D A M P IN G ...........................................................................311
1 2 .2 .1 . The Dynamic V ib ra tio n Absorber ...................................... 311
1 2 .2 .2 . A pplication of D am ping Treatm ents ................................3 1 8
1 2 .3 . SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ...............................................................3 2 6

A P P E N D IC E S ................................................................................................................ 3 2 7
APPENDIX A
On th e S tatistical In te rp reta tio n of the R M S-Value .................... 3 2 8
APPENDIX B
Response Versus E xcitation C haracteristics fo r
Linear S in g le Degree-of-Freedom System s
............................. 3 3 0
APPENDIX C
On th e W ave-Shape D is to rtio n in
N on-Linear M echanical System s ................................................... 3 3 4
APPENDIX D
C onnection Between th e Fourier S pectrum of a
Shock Pulse and the Residual Shock S p e ctru m ........................ 3 3 7
APPENDIX E
E lectronic Integration o f Accelerom eter
O utput S ignals ...................................................................................... 3 3 9
APPENDIX F
On th e Use of Decibels ...................................................................... 3 4 5
APPENDIX G
C onversion Charts, Tables e tc ........................................................... 3 5 0
APPENDIX H
S tandards Related to V ib ra tio n and
Shock M easurem ents ......................................................................... 3 5 5

IN D E X

362

1. INTRODUCTION

M echanical vib ra tio n s and shock are dynamic phenom ena, i.e. th e ir in
tensity varies w ith tim e . Both th e m axim um in te n s ity , however, and the rate
of change in in te n sity w ith tim e , spread over w id e m easurem ent ranges and
often require h ighly specialized equipm ent for th e ir precise d e te rm in atio n .
Ground m otions caused by fa r-o ff earthquakes (or explosions) m ay, fo r in
stance, be barely detectable w h ile vibrations caused by large com bustion en
gines can cause severe m echanical fatigue damage.
A lthough in m ost cases m echanical shocks and vibrations are undesired
byproducts of o th e rw is e useful processes, and g reat efforts are s p e n t to re
duce th e ir effects, some vib ra tio n s are produced on purpose. Typical exam
ples are the vib ra tio n s produced by conveying and screening m achines, me
chanical ham m ers, ultrasonic c le a n in g baths, etc., w h ile desirable shock-effects are built into riveting ham m ers and pile-drivers.
As the same m ethods of d escription and m e asurem ent apply, in general,
w h e th e r the vib ra tio n s or shocks being characterized are w a n te d or un
w anted , no clear distin ctio n has been made th ro u g h o u t th is book. The various
chapters have been laid out w ith a view m ainly to describe m easurem ent
data and techniques necessary to characterize vib ra tio n s and shocks and to
evaluate th e ir effects on a responding m edium . For more com prehensive
treatm ents of the ore tica l aspects th e reader is re fe rre d to standard textbooks
and to literature cited in the bibliography.
Chapter 2 re vie w s briefly the basic characteristics of mechanical vibrations
and shocks and th e various q u a n titie s used to characterize them . S ection 2.1
deals w ith periodic (discrete frequency) signals w h ile section 2.2 extends the
discussion to station a ry random fu n c tio n s w h ich m u st be described in terms
of th e ir statistical param eters. In both cases it is seen how d e scription in
term s of RMS (Root Mean Square) values can be advantageous because of
th e ir relation to the pow er c o n te n t of the vibrations, and how the d is trib u tio n
of power w ith frequ e n cy can be determ ined using th e Fourier tra n s fo rm . Sec13

tio n 2 .3 describes h ow the F o urier transform te ch n iq u e can also be appliecT

to tran sie nt phenom ena and shocks, although th e spectra are th e n in term s
of energy ra th e r than "p o w e r". Finally, section 2 .4 introduces th e concept
of non-stationary data and gives som e typical exam ples.
Chapter 3 deals w ith the response of m echanical systems to v ib ra tio n s and
shocks, starting w ith a single-degree-of-freedom system and th e n extending
the discussion to th e more general case. Firstly, in section 3.1 it is shown
th a t for d e te rm in istic excitation, th e response of a system reduces in the fre
quency domain to th e product o f th e excitation spectrum and th e frequency
response of the system , this corresponding in th e tim e domain to a convolu
tio n of the excitation signal w ith th e impulse response of the system . The con
cept of resonance is introduced and tied to the n u m b e r of degrees o f freedom
of the system.
In section 3 .2 th e re is a discu ssio n of the v a rio u s types of n o n -lin e a rity
and how they a ffe ct the sim pler re su lts obtained fo r linear system s. The most
com m on case, of n o n -lin e a rity in th e spring e le m e n t, is treated in m ost de
ta il. Section 3 .3 discusses to rsio n a l vibration, d e m o n stra tin g the d ire ct analo
gies w ith lateral vib ra tio n , w h ile section 3.3 s h o w s th a t the basic principles
of section 3.1 also apply to s ta tio n a ry random s ig n a ls , in that th e p o w e r spec
tru m of a response can be obtained as the product o f the input spectrum w ith
th e (squared am p litu d e of the) fre q u e n c y response fu n c tio n .
Section 3.5 intro d u ce s another w a y of describing shock responses, the socalled shock response spectrum , w h ic h differs fro m the Fourier spectrum in
th a t it takes some account of the dam ping of the excited structure and also of
the maximum response before th e system has se ttle d down. The connection
betw een them is m ade clear in A p pendix D.
Sections 3 .6 , 3 .7 and 3 .8 all discuss extensions of the basic p rin cip le s to
th e continuous s tru c tu re s n o rm a lly m et w ith in pra ctice . Section 3 .6 consid
ers the exact equa tio n s of m otion fo r w hich exact solutions o n ly e xist for a
num ber of idealised cases, e.g. sim ple bars, beam s and plates. Section 3.7
introduces Finite E le m e n t te ch n iq u e s w hich a llo w n um erical so lu tio n of prac
tica l problems by m odelling actual structures as assem blies of d iscre te ele
m ents, w hile section 3 .8 b riefly indicates that even greater s im p lifica tio n s
can be made in th e case w here th e re is a high m o d a l density so th a t it is no
longer necessary to determ ine th e individual modes but su fficie n t to average
over a number of th e m , and also to make spatial averages.
Chapter 4 describes some effects of vibration and shock on m echanical sys
tem s, in particular w ith respect to fa tig u e . It is s h o w n how results on fatigue
life of metals, obtained w ith sin u so id a l excitation, can be extended to random
excitation , but w a rn s at the same tim e that it m ay be more re liable in prac
tice to actually generate the data using random s ig n a ls . A section is included
14

on mean stress e ffe cts, since m ost structural e le m e n ts have to bear a steady
load in addition to th e dynamic o n e , and another section deals b rie fly w ith
th e case of intense acoustic e x cita tio n w hich has been found to cause failure
of aerospace and oth e r stru ctu re s. Section 4 .2 discusses briefly th e dam ag
ing effects of shocks and tra n s ie n ts , w hich may give sudden b rittle fa ilu re as
opposed to fatigue fa ilu re .
Chapter 5 sum m arise s the m ost im portant effects o f vibration and shock on
m an, ranging fro m K inetosis (m o tio n sickness) in th e fractional H ertz range,
thro u g h Whole B ody Vibration in th e range 1 8 0 Hz, and in clu d in g Handa rm vibration in th e range 8 1 0 0 0 Hz. Some c rite ria are included from the
relevant standards.
Chapter 6 is a detailed guide to th e proper selection of equipm ent fo r vibra
tio n and shock m easurem ent and evaluation. A fte r a b rie f in tro d u ctio n in sec
tio n 6 .1 , sections 6 .2 and 6 .3 provide the necessary inform ation to a llo w the
optim um choice of accelerom eter and pream plifier, n o w w idely accepted as
being the best a ll-ro u n d vibration transducer, even w h e re param eters other
th a n acceleration are to be m easured. Sections 6 .4 , 6 .5 and 6.6 cover the
practical questions o f calibration, choice of force and impedance transducers,
and accelerom eter m ounting m e th o d , respectively.
Section 6.7 discusses the choice of portable battery-operated in stru m e n ts,
including vibration m eters, tu n a b le filte rs , graphic recorders, tape recorders,
transport shock or "b u m p " recorders as w ell as stroboscopes and w aveform
analyzers. The tape recorder w o u ld often be used fo r field recording of sig
nals w hich are to be analyzed in d e ta il on sophisticated m ains-operated equip
m ent as discussed in section 6 . 8 . The possibilities include frequency analysis
using either sw eeping or sequential filte r analyzers and digital re a l-tim e anal
yzers based on th e FFT (Fast F o u rie r Transform) or d ig ita l filte r p rin cip le s. Re
su lts can be w ritte n out g ra phically on an X-Y re co rd e r, stored d ig ita lly on a
dig ita l cassette recorder fo r later processing or processed on a large scale us
ing a desktop ca lcu la to r or com puter.
Chapter 7 gives specific in fo rm a tio n on how to o p tim ise the fre q u e n c y ana
lysis of vibration and shock sig n a ls, th is having a lready been show n to be the
m ost im portant analysis te ch n iq u e . Section 7.1 g ives an in tro d u ctio n to the
mode of operation of typical analyzer systems, both analogue and d ig ita l, and
to the choice of basic analysis param eters such as bandw idth and logarithm ic
vs. linear scales. Section 7.2 deals w ith the serial analysis of sta tio n a ry sig
nals, concentrating on w h a t is probably the most im p o rta n t rem aining applica
tio n area, viz., fie ld analysis using portable battery-operated e q u ipm e n t. Sec
tio n 7 . 3 , on the oth e r hand, discusses the use of real-tim e digital analyzers
fo r the more de tailed analysis of both stationary s ig n a ls and shocks and tra n
sients. Finally, section 7 .4 discusses the analysis o f non-stationary signals by
a m oving tim e -w in d o w approach, th is being useful fo r treating n o n -sta tio n a ri15

ties such as changing speed (e.g. ru n -u p s and ru n -d o w n s) and w h e re the sig

nal itself is made up of discrete im pulses, as in reciprocating m a chine vibra
tions.
Chapter 8 is a discussion of a rapidly grow ing area o f application o f the pre
viously discussed m easurem ent and analysis m ethods, viz., in m achine
h e a lth m onitoring. Here, the vib ra tio n signal is considered basically as a car
rier of inform ation as to the in te rn a l condition of an operating m a ch in e , but
th e w ay in w hich th e system is set up can be decisive in w h e th e r th e proce
dures yield results. This chapter concentrates on inform ation as to how to
avoid the pitfalls w h ic h have prevented some people from re a lisin g the full
potential of these procedures.
Chapter 9 covers a som ew hat related topic, in th a t it represents another
non-destructive evaluation te ch n iq u e , viz., A co u stic Emission. The basic d if
ference is that it usually provides inform ation on static stress conditions,
such as in pressure vessels, as opposed to the c o n d itio n of ru n n in g m achines
discussed in C hapter 8 . Because acoustic em ission is a relatively n e w topic,
fo r w h ich specialised equipm ent has been designed, the chapter is s e lf-co n
taine d, providing background in fo rm a tio n , details o f transducers and in s tru
m ents for signal co n d ition in g and evaluation, and fin a lly inform ation on areas
of application, in clu d in g typical exam ples.
Chapter 10 discussed the use o f electrodynam ic shakers for the active gen
eration of vibration and shock fo r a variety of purposes. Section 10.1 covers
vibra tio n generation both for e n v iro n m e n ta l te stin g and for d e te rm in a tio n of
the dynam ic p ro p e rtie s o f m a te ria ls a n d structures. A fte r a discussion of the
basic properties of exciters and th e ir controls, th e relative m e rits o f s in u
soidal vs random excitation are discussed. Finally, th e basic concepts of m e
ch a n ical im pedance a n d m o b ility m easurem ent are introduced and typ ica l sys
tem s fo r their m easurem ent are s h o w n . Section 1 0 .2 deals w ith shock te s t
ing both using electrodynam ic shakers and other m eans, and concludes w ith
a fu rth e r discussion of the Bum p R ecorder introduced in Chapter 6 .
Chapter 1 1 is e n title d "B a la n cin g of Rotating M a c h in e s " and serves as an
introduction to m ethods of reducing vibrations. The concepts of sta tic and dy
nam ic unbalance of rig id rotors are firs t introduced and the im portance of the
bearing supports b e in g '" h a rd " or " s o ft" made cle a r. A fte r a p resentation of
relevant standards fo r the degree of acceptable re sid u a l unbalance, it is dis
cussed how the balancing can be achieved, either m aking use of sp e cia lly de
signed universal b a la n c in g m achines w ith associated electronics, or even us
ing portable e q uipm e n t in s itu (Field Balancing). In th e latter case th e ca lcu la
tio n s involved can n o w be e ffic ie n tly performed by pre-program m ed pocket
calculators (at least fo r the rigid rotors so far assum ed). The ch a p te r ends
w ith a brief discussion of more d iffic u lt balancing tasks, viz., fine balancing,

16

balancing of fle xible rotors (ru n n in g above the c ritic a l speed) and m u ltip le span shafts, and cra n ksh a ft balancing fo r reciprocating m achines.
The fin a l chapter. Chapter 12, discusses the re m a in in g methods fo r redu
cing th e transm ission of vibration and shocks, in cases w h e re it is not possi
ble to elim in ate th e m at th e source, and covers is o la tio n , dynamic absorption,
and dam ping.
The basic prin ciple of vibration is o la tio n consists in selecting a suitable
spring m ounting fo r the e quipm ent so that the n a tu ra l frequency of the
spring-m ass system is appreciably less than the lo w e s t frequency to be iso
lated, assuring at th e same tim e th a t th e resonance w ill not be excited. W ith
regard to shock is o la tio n , also tre a te d in section 1 2 . 1 , th is is treated on the
basis of the shock response sp e ctru m and it is fo u n d th a t sim ilar co nditions
apply. However, in th is case the choice of proper d a m ping is more im p o rta n t,
as are the non -lin e a r properties of th e m ounts.
Section 12.2.1 discusses the a p p lication of d ynam ic absorbers w h ic h can
be used to detune a resonance w h e re there is one m a in excitation frequency.
In com bination w ith appropriate d a m p in g , a dynam ic absorber can also be de
signed to have a lim ite d response o ver a wide fre q u e n cy range (in clu d in g the
resonances) and s till attenuate at h ig h frequencies.
Section 1 2 .2 .2 discusses the a p plication of da m p in g treatm ents in cases
w h e re it is im possible to avoid e xcitin g resonances because of th e ir num ber
and close spacing. A guide is given as to the o p tim u m w a y to apply dam ping
m aterial so as to obtain the best re su lts from a g ive n am ount of tre a tm e n t,
and fin a lly there is a discussion of th e various m ethods available fo r d e te rm in
ing th e dam ping properties of m a te ria ls.

1 .1 . G EN ER A L R EFER EN C ES
Books:
BISHOP, R E D. and
JOHNSON, D.C.:

M echanics o f Vibration. Cam bridge U n iversity Press,

1979

CREMER, L. and
HECKL, M.:

K rperschall.
Springer V e rla g .
B e rlin /H e id e lb e rg
/N e w York 1 9 6 7 . Also E nglish version S tru ctu re Borne S ound, 1 973

Den HRTOG, J P :

M e ch a n ica l Vibrations. M c G ra w -H ill Book Company,

Inc. 1 9 5 6

17

HARRIS, C M. and
CREDE, C.E.:

Shock a n d Vibration Handbook.

Company, Inc. 1 976

JACOBSEN, L .S . and
AYRE, R.S.:

E ngineering Vibrations. M cG ra w -H ill Book Company,

Inc. 1 9 5 8

MORROW, C.T.:

Shock a n d Vibration E ngineering. Jo h n

Sons, Inc. 1 9 6 3

MORSE, P.M.:

Vibration a n d Sound.
Inc 1 9 4 8

SNOWDON, J.C.:

Vibration a n d Shock in D a m p e d M e c h a n ic a l Systems.

John W ile y and Sons, Inc. 1 9 6 8

TIMOSHENKO, S.:

Vibration Problem s in E ngineering. J o h n W ile y and

Son, 1 9 7 4

MEIROVITCH, L.:

Elem ents o f Vibration A n a lysis.

Company, Inc. 1 975

M c G ra w -H ill Book

W ile y and

M c G ra w -H ill Book Company,

M c G ra w -H ill

Book

Journals:
A cu stica

Hirzel V erlag, S tuttgart

A kusticheskH Z h u rn a t

Published by the Academ y o f Science of th e U.S.S.R.

Moscow. (Also translated and published by th e A m e ri
can In s titu te of Physics as : Soviet Physics, Acous
tics)

E xperim ental
M e chanics

Published by the Society o f Experim ental S tress A na

lysis, U .S .A .

J.A .S .A .

(Journal o f th e Acoustical Society of A m e rica ). Pu

blished by th e Am erican In stitu te of Physics, New
York

J o u rn a l o f S ound
a n d Vibration

Published by Academic Press, Inc. London

J o u rn a l o f the
A co u s tic a l Society o f
Japan

(Japanese) Published by th e Acoustical S ociety of J a

pan, U n ive rsity of Tokyo, Tokyo

18

K a m p f dem Lrm

Published by Deutschen A rb e its rin g f r Lrm bekm p

fung, E.V. Dsseldorf

Lrm bekm pfung

Verlag
f r
angewandte
Baden-Baden

S oun d and V ibration

Published m onthly by A co u stica l P ublications, Inc.,

Ohio, U .S .A .

The Shock and

V ibration B u lle tin

Published by The Shock and V ibration Inform ation

Center, Naval Research Laboratory, W a sh in g to n ,
DC.

The Shock and

V ibration Digest

Published by The Shock and V ibration Inform ation

Center, Naval Research Laboratory, W a sh in g to n ,
DC.

Noise Control
E ngineering

Published by Ray W. H errick Laboratories, Purdue

U niversity, W est Lafayette, IN. 4 7 9 0 7 , U .S .A .

W issenschaften

GmbH.

19

2.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION AND SHOCK

2 .1 . P E R IO D IC V IB R A T IO N
Periodic vibration may be looked upon as an o s c illa tin g motion o f a particle,
or body, about a reference po sitio n, the motion repeating itself exa ctly after
certain periods o f tim e . The s im p le s t form of pe rio d ic vibration is th e socalled harm onic m o tio n w hich w h e n plotted as a fu n c tio n of tim e , is repre
sented by a sinu so id a l curve, F ig .2 .1 . Here T is th e period of v ib ra tio n , i.e.
th e tim e elapsed betw een tw o successive, exactly equal conditions o f m otion.

The frequency of th e vibration is given by:

Turning to the m agnitude of th e vibration th is m ay be characterized by d if

fe re n t quantities, all of w hich have definite m athem atical re la tio n sh ip s to
each other as lo n g as harm onic m o tio n is considered.

20

If the vib ration has the fo rm of a pure tra n sla tio n a l o s c illa tio n along one
axis (x) only, the insta n ta n e o u s displacem ent of the particle (or body) from
the reference position can be m a th e m a tica lly described by m eans of the equa
tion:
x = Xpeak sin

[2n

= X peak sin (2 n ft) = Xpeak sin (cot)

(2.2)

w here
at = 2 n f = a ngular fre q u e n cy
Xpeak = M axim um d isp la ce m e n t from th e reference p o sitio n
t = tim e
As the velocity of a m oving p article (or body) is the tim e ra te of change of
the displacem ent, the m otion can also be described in term s o f ve lo city (v):
dx
l/ = =
dt

CD

Xpegk cos [cat) = Vpeak COS (cot) = 1/peak sin (cot + n /2 )

(2 .3 )

Finally, the acceleration (a) of the motion is the tim e rate o f change of the
velocity:
a =
_ = CO2 Xpeak s in (cot) A p eak s in (cot) = Apeak s in ( c o t + n)
dt
a t2

(2 .4 )
From the above equations it can be seen th a t the form and period of vib ra
tio n rem ain the same w h e th e r it is the displacem ent, the v e lo c ity or the accel
eration th a t is being studied. H ow ever, the ve lo city leads th e displacem ent by
a phase angle of 9 0 ( n / 2 ) and th e acceleration again leads th e velocity by a
phase angle of 9 0 ( n / 2 ) . A s characterizing values for th e m agnitude the
peak values have been used, i.e. Xpeak Vpeak and Apeak . The m agnitude de
scription in te rm s of peak v a lu e s is quite u se fu l as long as p u re harm onic v i
bration is considered because it applies d ire c tly in the equ a tio n s given above.
If, on the oth e r hand, m ore com plex v ib ra tio n s are being stu d ie d other de
scriptive q u a n titie s may be p re fe rre d . One o f th e reasons fo r th is is that the
peak value describes the v ib ra tio n in term s o f a quantity w h ic h depends only
upon an instantaneous v ib ra tio n m agnitude regardless o f th e tim e history
producing it.
A fu rth e r descriptive q u a n tity , w hich does take the tim e h is to ry into ac
count, is the average absolute va lu e , defined as (see also F ig .2 .2):

21

F ig.2 .2 . Example o f a h a rm o n ic vibration sig n a l w ith in d ic a tio n o f the peak,

th e RMS a n d th e average absolute value

Even tho ugh this q u a n tity takes into account the tim e h isto ry of the v ib ra
tion over one period [T) it has been found to be of lim ite d practical interest. A
much m ore useful d e scrip tive quantity w h ic h also takes th e tim e history in to
account, is the RMS (root m e a n square) va lu e (Fig.2.2):

X rm s = f / ~

I *x 2( t ) d t

(2 .5 )

The m ajor reason fo r th e im portance o f the R M S -value as a descriptive

qua ntity is its sim ple re la tio n s h ip to the p o w e r content o f th e vibrations.
For a p u re harm onic m o tio n the re la tio n sh ip between th e various values is:

X rm

~ 2 '\ / 2

veras e

^ y ~ 2 ^ P eak

A m ore general form of these relationships may be given by:

X RMS ~

Ff

X / \ verag e

Xpeak
'c

or

22

Y
a RMS

A A verage

Y
''P e a k

ARMS

(2 '6 >

The fa cto rs Ff and Fc are called "fo rm -fa c to r" and "c re s t-fa c to r", respec
tively, and give some in d ic a tio n of the w aveshape of the vib ra tio n s being s tu d
ied.
For pure harm onic m otion:

and

Fc = \ 2 = 1 .4 1 4 (= 3 dB)

M ost of the vibrations encountered in d a ily life are not pure harm onic m o
tions even though m any o f them may be characterized as periodic. A typical
non -harm onic periodic m o tio n is show n in F ig .2.3 (piston acceleration of a
com bustion engine). By dete rm in in g the Peak, Average A b so lu te and RM Svalue of th is vibration as w e ll as the fo rm -fa c to r and cre s t-fa c to r a lot of use
fu l in fo rm a tio n is obtained, and it can be c le a rly concluded th a t the m otion is
not harm onic. However, it w ill be pra ctica lly impossible, on th e basis of th is
in fo rm a tio n, to predict all th e various effects th a t the vib ra tio n m ight produce
in connected structural e lem ents. O ther m ethods of d e scrip tio n must th e re
fore be used.

F ig.2 .3 Example o f a n o n -h a rm o n ic p e rio d ic m otion (piston acceleration o f a

com bustion engine)
One of the most p o w e rfu l descriptive m ethods is the m ethod offrequency
analysis. This is based on a m athem atical theorem , firs t fo rm u la te d by FOU
RIER, w h ic h states th a t any periodic curve, no matter h o w com plex, may be
looked upon as a com bination of a num ber o f pure sinusoidal curves w ith h a r
m onically related frequencies.
f( t) = X 0 + X i sin (cut + $.,) + X 2 sin ( 2 cat + cp2)
+ X 3 sin (3 cot + cp3) + ... + X n sin (ncot + <pn)

(2 .7 )
23

F ig.2 .4 . Illu s tra tio n o f h o w th e w aveform s h o w n in Fig.2 .3 can be "broken

u p " in to a sum o f h a rm o n ica lly re la te d sinewaves
The nu m ber of term s re q u ire d may be in fin ite , but in th a t case as the n u m
ber of elem e nts in the series is increased it becomes an increasingly better
approxim ation to the o rig in a l curve. The v a rio u s elem ents c o n s titu te the vib ra
tion frequ ency spectrum . In Fig.2 .4 th e nonharm onic periodic m otion of
F ig.2 .3 is redra w n to g e th e r w ith the tw o m ost im portant h a rm o n ic curves re
presenting its frequency spectrum . A so m e w h a t more co n ve n ie n t method of
representing th is spectrum is show n in F ig .2 .5 b, w h ile F ig .2 .6 shows som e
fu rth e r exam ples of periodic tim e fu n c tio n s and their fre q u e n c y spectra. A
specific fe a tu re of periodic vibrations, w h ic h becomes cle a r by looking at
Fig.2 .5 and 2 .6 is th a t th e ir spectra consist of discrete lin e s w h e n presented

I
f, (= )
T,

a)

f 2 *= ; H
T2
b )

Frequency, f
271261

Fig. 2 .5 . Illu s tra tio n o f h o w th e signal, Fig. 2 .3 can be de scrib e d in term s o f a

frequency spectrum
a) D escription in th e tim e domain
b) D escription in th e frequency d o m a in
24

Fig. 2 .6 . Exam ples o f periodic s ig n a ls and th e ir fre q u e n c y spectra

a) D e scrip tio n s in the tim e dom ain
b) D e scrip tio n s in the fre q u e n cy domain
in th e so-called fre q u e n c y domain (F ig s.2 .5 b and 2 .6 b). This is in co n tra s t
to random vibrations w h ic h show c o n tin u o u s frequency spectra (section 2 . 2 ,
Fig.2 .1 2 ).
25

2 .2 . S T A T IO N A R Y R A N D O M V IB R A T IO N
Random vibra tio n s are m et rather fre q u e n tly in nature and m ay be charac
terized as vibratory processes in w hich the vib ra tin g particles undergo irregu
lar m otion cycles that never repeat them selves exactly, see F ig .2 .7 . To obtain
a com plete description of th e vibrations, an in fin ite ly long tim e record is thus
th e o re tica lly necessary. This is of course an im possible re q u ire m e n t, and f i
nite tim e records w ould have to be used in practice. Even so, if the tim e re
cord becomes too long it w ill also become a very inconvenient means of de
scription and other methods have therefore been devised and are com m only
used. These m ethods have th e ir origin in s ta tis tic a l m echanics and com m uni
cation th eory and involve concepts such as a m p litu d e p ro b a b ility d istributions
and p rob ability densities, and continuous v ib ra tio n frequency spectra in term s
of mean square spectral d e n s itie s *.

F ig .2. 7. E xam ple o f a random vibration signal

W ith o u t going into too m uch m athem atical d e ta il the m eaning of the above
concepts should be briefly review ed because o f th e ir im portance in relation to
practical vib ra tio n m easurem ents.
The concept of probability is of a m a th e m atica l origin and denotes the
chance of a particular event happening. If th e event in question is absolutely
certain to happen the p ro b a b ility of occurrence of the event is said to be 1 .
On the o ther hand, if the event in question is ce rta in not to happen the proba
b ility of occurrence is said to be 0. Thus p ro b a b ilitie s are, in th e sense used
here, positive real numbers betw een 1 and 0 .

M ean sq ua re sp ectra l density is a lso o fte n te rm e d " P o w e r Spectral D e n s ity " (P .S .D .) because
th e m ean sq ua re is a q u a n tity p ro p o rtio n a l to pow e r.

26

? A t n

= A t, + A t 2 + A t 3 + A t 4

271262

Fig. 2 .8 S ketch illu s tra tin g th e concepts o f p ro b a b ility and p ro b a b ility density
In the study of co n tin u o u s processes such as stationary* random vib ra
tions it is often convenient to use the concept of probability d e n sity instead of
probability. Physically the p ro b a b ility density can be defined as the probability
of finding instantaneous a m p litu d e values w ith in a certain a m p litu d e interval,
A x, divided by the size of th a t interval (thus: density), see F ig .2 . 8 . This
means th a t w h ile pro b a b ilitie s are d im e n sio n le ss q uantities th e probability
density is a q u a n tity having a certain d im e n sio n .
M a them atica lly fo rm u la te d th e probability d e n sity at some specified a m p li
tude level, x, is:
( 2 .8)

'O
Here p(x) designates the probability density w h ile P(x) is th e probability th a t
any instantaneous am p litu d e value exceeds th e level x and P(x + A x) is the
probability of occurrence of instantaneous a m p litu d e values exceeding the le
vel x+ A x. By plotting the value of p(x) for all values of x a p ro b a b ility density
curve is obtained w hich has th e feature th a t an integration of th e curve from
a value x) to a value x 2 im m ediately te lls th e probability of occurrence of in
stantaneous am plitude values w ith in the in te rv a l (x2 X j), independent of
the actual m agnitude of x ? and x2 The p re se n ta tio n of experim ental probabil
ity data in te rm s of p robability density curves bears some advantages because
it allow s fo r a direct com parison of data betw e e n experim ents (and between
experim enters) independent of the w id th of th e am plitude in te rv a l, A x, used in
the experim ent. Finally, th e o re tica l p ro b a b ility data are co m m o n ly presented
S ta tio n a ry ra nd o m v ib ra tio n s a re d e fin e d as ra nd o m v ib ra tio n s w hose s ta tis tic a l c h ara cteristics
do not ch a n g e w ith tim e .

27

in th e form of p ro b a b ility density curves and this m ethod of pre se n ta tio n

m u st the refore be considered the m ost generally acceptable one.
From the d efin ition of probability d e n sity it follow s th a t by integrating the
p ro b a b ility density curve over all possible am plitude values the m agnitude of
th e integral w ill be 1 (because the p ro b a b ility of fin d in g a certain a m p litu d e
value w ith in all possible am plitude values is 1). The p ra ctica l procedure in
volved in converting experim ental a n d /o r theoretical data in to probability d e n
sity data ensuring th a t th e area under the probability d e n sity curve is 1 , is
called norm alization. The most c o m m o n ly know n norm alized probability d e n
s ity curve, the norm al (G aussian) curve, is show n in F ig .2 .9 .
Even though probability density data are very useful sig n a l descriptions and
give excellent info rm a tio n on how , on th e average, the instantaneous a m p li
tudes in a vibratory signal are d istrib u te d , th e y give little or no in fo rm a tio n as
to th e tim e history or frequency c o n te n t of the process being studied. To try
and rem edy th is, and to obtain fu rth e r descriptive data, statistical p h ysicists
introduced a function called the a u to c o rre la tio n fu n ctio n ,
This fu n c tio n
describes (on the average) how a p a rtic u la r instantaneous am plitude value d e
pends upon previously occurring in sta n ta n e o u s am plitude values in th a t ip(r)
is defined as:
T
V '(t) =

Hm -1 \ 2' f ( t ) f ( t + z )d t
T-> co '

(2 .9 )

w h e re f(t) is the m agnitude of the v ib ra to ry process at an a rbitrary in s ta n t of

0.4

271263

F ig .2 .9 . The n o rm a lize d G aussian p ro b a b ility d e n s ity curve

28

tim e , t , and f ( t + t ) designates the m a g n itu d e of the sam e process observed

at a tim e , t , later, see F ig .2 .1 0 .

Amplitude
fit)
fit, +

t)

f( 'l>

tim e

t! + r

269034

F ig .2. 10. Basic concepts involved in d e riv in g the a u to co rre la tio n fu n c tio n
In th e case of an "d e a l stationary random process (w h ite noise) th e a u to
co rre la tio n function w o u ld consist o f an in fin ite ly n a rro w im p u lse -fu n ctio n
around zero ( t = 0), see F ig.2.11 a), as in such a process each instantaneous
am plitu de value should be com pletely independent of a ll other instantaneous
am plitu de values.
H ow ever, in practice th e a u to co rre la tio n functions associated w ith s ta tio n
ary random vibrations clu ste r around 7 = 0, but are never "in fin ite ly n a rro w "
im p u lse -fu n ctio n s, F ig .2 .1 1 b) and c). The reason fo r th is spreading o u t of
the curve around zero is that all p ra ctica l random processes are frequency li
m ited, and the n a rro w e r the fre q u e n cy lim its the m ore spread-out are the
corresponding autocorre la tio n fu n c tio n s (because the rate at w hich a signal
can change from its c u rre n t value is m uch more lim ited).
From the autoco rrela tio n function a n o th e r, very im p o rta n t function in p ra c
tice, can be deduced, w h ic h has a c e rta in resem blance to the Fourier fre
quency spectra described in section 2.1 for periodic v ib ra tio n s. This fu n c tio n
has been term ed th e m ean square s p e c tra l density fu n c tio n (power spectral
den sity functio n) and can be derived fro m the auto co rre la tio n fun ctio n as fo l
lows: A ssum ing th a t th e integral o f ifi(r) from oo to +oo is fin ite (see
F ig.2.1 1) one can w rite :
S (f) = |

y / ( r ) e - / 2nfx dz

(2 . 10)

w h e re f is frequency.
From th e theory of Fourier in te g ra ls it is fu rth e rm o re know n that ip (r) can
also be found from th e above integral by inversion:

( 2. 1

1)

29

Fig. 2 .1 1 . Exam ples o f au to co rre la tio n

a) A u to c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n
co n ta in in g frequencies from
b) A u to c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n
ra ndom process
c) A u to c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n
process

fu n ctio n s
fo r an id e a l stationary ra n d o m process
0 to (co n sta n t spectral density)
for a "p ra c tic a l" wide b a n d stationary
for a n a rro w band s ta tio n a ry random

The Fourier integral re la tio n s between iJj( t ) and S(f) are o fte n called the
W ie n e r-K h in ch in relations and play a very im p o rta n t role in th e theory of
random processes.
In physically realizable sta tio n a ry processes one operates w ith positive fre
quencies o n ly* and tp(r) = t//( r) w hereby the in te g ra l for iJj( t) becomes:

W {r) = 2 | ^ S ( / ) cos { 2 n f x ) d f

.0

or, if a fu n ctio n G (f) is defined so that

G ( f) = 2 S (f)

then

(/(r) =

fo r f> 0

G (f) cos (2 n fz ) d f

(2 .1 2 )

Note th a t fre q u e n c y can be in te rp re te d as rate o f ch a n g e o f phase, in w h ic h ca se th e concept of

positive and n e g a tive fre q u e n cie s is m e a n in g fu l. A 2 -s id e d fre q u e n c y d om ain is u sefu l a n a ly ti
c a lly because o f sy m m e try w ith th e tim e d om a in , b ut in p ra c tic a l m e a su re m e n ts it is most co m
mon to co m b in e p o sitive and n e g a tive fre q u e n cy c o n trib u tio n s to obtain a o n e -s id e d pow e r spec
tru m . For a m ore d e ta ile d d iscu ssio n see th e 6 & K book "F re q u e n c y A n a ly s is ".

30

To interpret th e fu n ctio n G(f) c o n sid e r the case w h e re r = 0:

T

y /(o ) = Hm | 2

+ o )d t =

T-+aoT

and

lim I 2 f 2( t ) d t

T )- 2

V '(o ) = | G ( f ) d f
'o
T

th u s

Hm ~ I 2T f 2(t) d t = I G ( f ) d f
r^ c c T J -L
Jo

(2 .1 3 )

Both of these integrals are m easures of the pow er involved in th e process,

one in term s of th e process tim e fu n c tio n , f(t), and th e other in te rm s o f a fre
quency fu n ctio n , G [f). Because o f th e squaring involved in the above tim e
fu n c tio n description, G(f) has been designated as th e mean square spectral
d e n sity fun ction (or power spectral de n sity function).
T rad itionally, pow er spectra have been m easured using analog frequency
analyzers w hose mode of operation m ay be understood as follows:
A n ideal analog frequency analyzer w ill allow o nly th a t part of th e signal to
be measured w h ic h has fre q u e n cy com ponents w ith in a n a rro w frequency
band, B, see F ig .2 .1 2 . A ssu m in g th a t no a tte n u a tio n or a m p lific a tio n of
these frequency com ponents takes place in the analyzer the signal w h ic h is
passed on to its indicating a rra n g e m e n t is:
T

|o G (f ) d f =

i',+ B

G ( 0 d f = lim -

/ f)
!
| \ fB ( t ) dt

Here fB (t) is th e above-m entioned part of the com plete signal, f(t), w hich
has frequency com ponents w ith in B. If now B is m ade so small th a t G (f) can
be considered constant w ith in th is frequency range then

\ ' +BG ( f ) d f = G ( f) B

th u s , in the lim itin g case w hen B 0, one obtains:

T

G ( f) =

Hm
B ^O

hm
2 f
oo D ' '-L

(t) d t

(2 .1 4 )

31

F ig .2 .1 2 . D e te rm in a tio n o f the m e a n square s p e c tra l density by m eans of

idea! filte rs
This equation fo rm s the basis of m ost analog e xp e rim e n ta l te ch n iq u e s used
in th e mean square spectral density analysis of ra n d o m signals, a lth o u g h the
a ctual bandw idth B used m ust of course be fin ite , in order th a t th e m eas
ure m e n t tim e T does not need to be in fin ite . The re s u lts (as a pow er spectral
density) w ill only be valid, how ever, if B is s u ffic ie n tly sm all that the above as
sum p tion is valid, i.e. th a t G(f) is approxim ately co n s ta n t w ith in B. This w ill
be th e case for p ra ctica l purposes if B is, say, less th a n 1 /3 of th e w id th of
any peaks in the spectrum being m easured.
A t one tim e, a d ig ita l alternative to analog a n a lysis was based on the a l
ready-m entioned W ie n e r-K h in c h in relationship. The autocorrelation fu n ctio n
w as firs t calculated d ig ita lly , and th is then Fourier tra n sfo rm e d by d ig ita l eval
uation of the Fourier integral. It is o n ly in the last fe w years, h o w e ver, that
d ig ita l alternatives to analog analyzers have been com petitive in th e sense
th a t they could be incorporated as hardw are in a portable standalone unit.
O ne of the m ajor fa c to rs here has been the increasing speed and m in ia tu riz a
tio n of digital com ponents in g eneral, resulting in co n tin u a lly reducing costs
fo r a given ca lcu la tio n . A nother m a jo r factor has been the developm ent of
th e so-called Fast Fourier T ransform (FFT) a lg o rith m w h ic h has ty p ic a lly a l
low ed savings of 100 :1 in digital evaluation of th e Fourier integral. This has
in fact meant th a t it is now quicker to calculate th e autocorrelation fu n ctio n
by inverse tra n sfo rm a tio n of the p o w e r spectrum , th e la tte r being obtained by
Fourier tra n sfo rm in g th e tim e signal.
32

The FFT procedure produces a co n s ta n t bandw idth spectrum , but fo r c o n

stant percentage b andw idth (w here th e filte r bandw idth is a constant p e rc e n
tage of its centre frequency) another d ig ita l analysis te ch n iq u e know n as re c
ursive digital filte rin g is found to be b e tte r. The choice of appropriate analysis
m ethod is discussed in Chapter 7.
B efore closing th e discussion on m ethods used to describe and analyze ra n
dom vibration phenom ena some im p o rta n t "p ra c tic a l' fa cts should be pointed
out:
R eturnin g to the equation (2.1 3)
T

it can be seen th a t th e expression on th e left hand side of this equation has a

close resem blance to the square o f th e expression previously used to define
th e RM S-value of a periodic vib ra tio n signal (Equation 2.5). This m eans th a t
the description o f a complex s ig n a l in term s o f its overall R M S -va lu e is
e q u a lly m e a n in g fu l w h e th e r the s ig n a l has a periodic o r a random character.
W he n it comes to spectral d e scrip tio n , however, a p e rio d ic sig n a l m ay w e ll
be described in te rm s of the R M S -va lu e s o f its va rio u s com ponents (its fre
quency spectrum ), w h ile random v ib ra tio n signals are best described in te rm s
of m ean square sp e ctra l density fu n c tio n s . This is due to the fact th a t random
signals produce co ntin u o u s fre q u e n cy spectra and th e RMS-value m easured
w ith in a certain frequency band w ill th erefore depend upon the w id th of the
band. The detailed m easurem ent e va lu atio n te ch n iq u e s w ill, in v ie w o f the
above, norm ally also d iffe r, a fact w h ic h is more specially discussed in C hap
te r 7 of th is book and in the B & K book "Frequency A n a ly s is ".

2 .3 . T R A N S IE N T P H E N O M E N A A N D SHOCKS
T ransient phenom ena and m echanical shocks are, like random v ib ra tio n s
encountered re latively often in d a ily life . They may o rig in a te from such w id e ly
d iffe re n t releases of energy as ro ugh handling of equipm ent, explosions and
supersonic m otion. However, com m on fo r this type of energy release is its
sh o rt duration and sudden occurrence.
A sim ple shock m ay be defined as a transm ission o f kinetic energy to a sys
tem w h ich takes place in a re la tive ly s h o rt tim e co m pared w ith the n a tu ra l p e
rio d o f o scillation o f the system , w h ile transient phenom ena (also te rm e d
com plex shocks) m ay last for se ve ra l periods o f vib ra tio n o f the system .

33

Shocks and tra n s ie n t vib ra tio n s may be described in term s of fo rce , acceler
atio n, velocity or displacem ent and for a co m p le te description it is necessary
to obtain an exact tim e history record of the q u a n tity in question.
In many cases th e ultim ate goal is not th e w a ve fo rm itself, but rather a
means to e stim a te the effect th a t the corresponding shock or tra n s ie n t vibra
tio n w ould have on a certain m echanical system . A more useful m ethod of de
scription m ig ht th e n again be fou n d in the fo rm of Fourier analysis. If the
tim e function fo r a shock is f(t) th e n its Fourier tra n s fo rm is given by:

F ( f) = I

f( t) e ~ '2n,td t

(2.15)

GO

The analogy betw e e n this expression and th e m ean square spectral density
fu n ctio n of s ta tio n a ry random vibrations (E quation (2.10)) is re a d ily seen.
There is, h ow ever, a very d is tin c t difference in th a t th e mean square spectral
density fu n ctio n fo r stationary random vib ra tio n s is the Fourier tra n sfo rm of
an already tim e-averaged, even fu n ctio n , th e a utocorrelation fu n c tio n , w ith
th e dim ensions o f am plitude squared. In the above Fourier in te g ra l fo r tra n
sient or shock fu n c tio n s the fu n c tio n f(t) its e lf m u st be tim e -lim ite d and has
th e dim ensions o f am plitude o n ly. Because it in general is not an even fu n c
tio n , its Fourier tra n sfo rm w ill be complex, but it is found that th e square of
th e am plitude o f th e Fourier tra n s fo rm at each fre q u e n cy gives a m easure of
th e energy d is trib u tio n of the tra n s ie n t.
It may be u sefu l to see h ow th is difference in dim ensions in flu e n ce s the
u n its in a p a rtic u la r case. A s s u m in g that sig na l am plitude is expressed in
volts (V), then th e a utocorrelation function fo r a stationary random signal
w o u ld have u n its o f volts squared (V2 ) or p o w e r. The Fourier tra n s fo rm of
th is has the u n its V 2 s, or V 2 / Hz, i.e. pow er per un it frequency or pow er
sp ectral density. A shock or tra n s ie n t fu n ctio n , how ever, has u n its of Volts
and its Fourier tra n sfo rm (am plitude) units of Volt-seconds (Vs). The am pli
tu d e squared th u s has units V 2 s 2 or V 2 s /H z , i.e . energy per u n it frequency
or energy sp e ctra l density. A tra n s ie n t of course has fin ite energy w h e n inte
grated over all tim e , w h ile a s ta tio n a ry random sig n a l w ould have in fin ite en
ergy, though fin ite pow er.
M ost analyzers assume a signal is continuous and give a result in term s of
pow er per analysis bandw idth. The conversion o f th is to the co rre ct units is
discussed in C hapter 7 and in m ore detail in th e B & K book "F re q u e n cy A na
ly s is ".
In Fig.2 .1 3 va rio u s shock tim e fu n ctio n s and th e am plitudes of th e ir Fou
rie r spectra are g ive n . It is seen fro m the figure th a t in general a shock pulse
contains energy spread over all frequencies from zero to in fin ity, and th a t the
spectra are co n tin u o u s w ith no discre te frequency com ponents.
34

F ig .2 .1 3 . Example o f shock tim e fu n c tio n s and th e ir Fourier tra n s fo rm s (am

plitude spectra)
a) A re cta n g u la r shock p u ls e
b) A fin a l peak saw tooth shock pulse
c) A h a lf-s in e shock p u lse

In th e expressions fo r F(f) given in th e figure all th e expressions w ith in the

parallel brackets approach unity as f goes to zero, so th a t at very lo w fre q u e n
cies th e m agnitude of the spectrum component is equal to the area (am pli
tu d e -tim e integral) of the shock p u ls e , irrespective o f the pulse shape. This
fu ndam enta l re la tio n sh ip is of considerable practical im portance, fo r example
in shock testing. It means that so long as the shock pulse is short com pared
w ith th e natural period of the m e ch a n ica l system on w h ic h its acts, th e sever
ity of the shock is determ ined by th e area of the shock pulse alone (see also
F ig .3 .1 3 b II).
35

In the case o f tra n sie n t phenom ena the s itu a tio n is som ew hat different.
Such phenom ena, in the sense used in th is book, may consist e ith e r of a
single period ''sh o c k -w a v e '', or o f an o scillating tra n sie n t. The F o u rie r spec
tru m fu nction of a typical o s c illa tin g transient is sh o w n in F ig .2 .1 4 and it is
seen that the m agnitude of th e spectrum co m p o n e n ts in th is special case
tends tow ards zero as the fre q u e n cy f goes to zero. Also, a m a xim u m m agni
tude of the sp e ctru m is reached around f0 w h ic h corresponds ro u g h ly to the
frequency of o scilla tio n of the tra n s ie n t. This m a xim u m is broader th e quicker
th e tran sient phenom enon ceases.

tion

If the tra n s ie n t" does not cease at all, i.e. w h e n the "tr a n s ie n t" is no
longer a tra n sie n t but a periodic phenom enon (in th is case a h a rm o n ic vibra
tio n), the freque ncy spectrum degenerates into a discrete spectral lin e (in fin
itely narrow m a xim u m at f0).

2 .4 . N O N -S T A T IO N A R Y R A N D O M V IB R A T IO N
T heoretically all kinds of random vibrations e n co u n te re d in practice are nonsta tion ary because th e ir statistical properties va ry w ith tim e. H ow ever, from
an engineering p o in t of view th is va ria tio n in s ta tis tic a l properties m ay be so
slo w , or of such a character, th a t m any of the phenom ena studied can be con
sidered stationary in a practical sense.
N on-stat/onary ra n d o m vibrations m ay therefore, in practice, be d e fin e d as
ran dom vibrations w hose s ta tis tic a l properties vary w ith time w ith in tim e in
tervals considered e sse n tia l fo r th e ir proper d e scrip tio n . To analyze and de
scribe such vib ra tio n data it is th u s necessary to ta ke th e ir variation in sta tisti
cal properties w ith tim e into a cco u n t. A typical exam ple of seriously non-sta36

tio n a ry random vib ra tio n s is the vib ra tio n s induced in space vehicles d u rin g
launch and re-entry.
To th eoretica lly analyze n o n -sta tio n a ry random v ib ra tio n s properly it is n e
cessary to introduce th e concept of ensem ble averaging. A n ensemble a ve r
age is an average taken over a large nu m b e r (an ensem ble) of repeated e x p e r
im ents, see Fig.2 .1 5 . A s can be seen fro m the fig u re an ensemble average
can be taken at any p a rtic u la r instant o f tim e t j , t2 , t3 e tc ., and when th e av
erage values are plotted against tim e a more or less com plete description of
the vib ration is obtained. There are, on th e other hand, several reasons w h y
th is m ethod of description is not very useful in practice. Firstly, it re q u ire s
th a t th e n on-statio na ry process can be repeated a ve ry large n u m b e r of
tim es. In the case of space vehicle la u n ch and re -e n try fo r instance th is is
not possible due to th e cost of such experim ents. S econdly, the a m o u n t of
data necessary for a th o ro u g h description is so large th a t th e ir proper m e a s
urem ent w ill pose serious problems.
It is therefore n o rm a lly necessary to seek other m ethods o f description, and
in general some sort o f tim e averaging is used. There are, how ever, ce rta in li
m ita tio n s imposed upon th is kind of tim e averaging in th a t the response and
averaging tim e of the m easurem ent e quipm ent em ployed should pre fe ra b ly

Fig.2 .1 5 . Illu s tra tio n o f an ensem ble o f random fu n ctio n s

37

be small relative to im portant tim e trends in th e n o n -sta tio n a ry data. This

again may lead to considerable statistical u n c e rta in tie s in the m easurem ents.
F ig .2 .1 6 illu s tra te s some basic and im p o rta n t types of n o n -sta tio n a ry ra n
dom vibrations.

Fig. 2 .1 6 . E xam ples o f some b asic types o f n o n sta tio n a ry ra n d o m vibrations

a) Tim e-varying m e a n value
b) Tim e-varying m e a n square value
c) Tim e-varying m e a n and mean sq u a re value

2 .5 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y

ANSI:

S2. 1 0 1971 A n a lysis and P re se n ta tio n o f Shock

a n d V ibration Data. A .S .A . 3 3 5 East 4 5 th St., New
York 1 0 0 1 7

BEN DAT, J.S .:

P rin cip le s and A p p lic a tio n s o f Random N oise Theory.

John W ile y and Sons, Inc. New York, 1 9 5 8

BENDAT, J.S . and

PIERSOL, A .G .:

Random Data, A n a ly s is and M e a s u re m e n t Proce

dures, J o h n W iley and S ons, Inc. N ew York, 1971

38

BLACKM AN, R.B. and

TUKEY, J.W .:

The M e a su re m e n t o f Power S pectra. Dover P ublica

tio n s , Inc. New York 1 9 5 8

CRANDALL, S.H. and

MARK, W .D .:

R andom V ibrations in M e c h a n ic a l Systems. A c a d

em ic Press, N ew York, 1 9 6 3

DIN:

DIN 1 3 1 1 . (February 1 9 70) S ch w in g u n g sle h re K in em atische B e g riffe . B e u th-V ertrieb GmbH, B e rlin .

IEEE:

S p e cia l Issue on the Fast F o u rie r Transform. IEEE

T rans. A udio & Electroacoustics V ol. A U -1 5 , J u n e
1967

KHARKEVICH, A .A .:

S pectra and A n a lysis. Fitzmatgiz, M oscow 1 9 5 7 (in

Russian). A lso available in English tra n sla tio n p u
blished by C onsultants Bureau, N ew York 1 9 6 0

MORROW , C.T.:

Shock and V ibration E ngineering. Jo h n W ile y and

S ons, Inc. N ew York 196 3

OPPENHEIM, A.V. and

SCHAFER, R.W.:

D ig ita l S ignal Processing. P rentice-H all, New Jersey,

1975

PIERSOL, A.G.:

S p e ctra l A n a lysis o f N on-S ta tio n a ry Spacecraft V ibra

tio n Data. N ASA C R -341, W a sh in g to n , D C. D ecem
ber 1 9 6 5

RICE, S.O.:

M a th e m a tic a l A n a ly s is o f R andom Noise. Bell S ys

tem Tech. J o u rn . 23 (1 9 4 4 ) and 2 4 (1 9 4 5 ). A lso
contained in N. W ax: "S elected Papers on Noise and
Stochastic P rocesses". Dover P ublications, Inc. N ew
York 1 9 5 4

RUZICKA, J.E.:

C haracteristics o f M e chanical V ibration and Shock.

Sound and V ib ra tio n . A pril 1 9 6 7

SHAR M AN, R.V.:

V ibrations and Waves. B u tte rw o rth , London 1 9 6 3

THRALL, G P. and
BENDAT, J.S.:

M e a n and M e a n Square M e a su re m e n ts o f N on-statio n a ry Random Processes. N ASA C R -226, W a s h in g

ton D C., M ay 1 9 6 5

39

3.

RESPONSE OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS TO

VIBRATIONS A ND SHOCKS

3 .1 . R E S P O N S E OF LIN EA R M E C H A N IC A L S Y S T E M S
TO V IB R A T IO N S . R E S O N A N C E
The m otion of a m echanical system subjected to external forces is com
m only term ed th e response o f th e system to th e pa rticu la r forces in question.
S im ila rly, th e external forces a cting upon th e system are te rm e d the exciting
forces, or sim p ly the e xcita tio n . These te rm s are general and have to be speci
fied closer w h e n the behaviour of a pa rticu la r system is being investigated.
To aid such specifications it is norm ally necessary to co n s tru c t a som ew hat
sim plified m echanical model and, on the basis of the m odel, to form ulate the
equations of m otion fo r the system . This m odel can then be used as a basis
fo r a fu rth e r analysis.

F ig .3 .1 . M odels o f a single degree-of-freedom system

a) S ystem in free vib ra tio n s
b) S ystem in forced vib ra tio n s

One of the sim plest m odels of a vibrating system is show n in Fig.3 .1 .a),
and consists of a mass, a sp rin g and a dam per. If the system behaves linearly
40

(and tim e -in va ria n t) th e equation of fre e m otion of th e m ass is (no e xternal
force applied):
(3 .1 )

This system is called a single degree-of-freedom system in that it co n sists

of one mass only, w h ic h moves along one axis only and its motion can th u s
be described by a sin g le second order d iffe re n tia l equation.
By applying an e xte rn a l force f[t) to th e system as indicated in F ig.3.1 b)
the equation of m otion becomes:
(3 .2 )
The solution of th is e q uation gives d ire c tly the d isplacem ent response, x(t),
of the mass, m, produced by the e x c ita tio n , f(t). O th e r response q u a n titie s
such as the velocity response or the a cceleration response can be fo u n d fro m
the w e ll know n re la tio n sh ip s between th e displacem ent, velocity and a c c e le r
ation (see also A ppendix B):

w he re v[t) = velocity and a(t) = acceleration of the mass, m , F ig.3.1 .b).

The force f{t), can have any dependency on tim e, and as long as the m o tio n
of the mass can be described by a lin e a r d ifferential equation of th e type
given above, it is, in p rin cip le , possible to obtain exact so lu tio ns for x(t), v (t)
and a{t). A very p o w e rfu l tool in o b ta in in g the required so lu tio ns is the s u p e r
p o sitio n principle, w h ic h is applicable to linear d iffe re n tia l equations. It states
th a t th e effect o f s im u lta n e o u s ly super-im posed actions is equal to th e su m
o f the effects o f each in d iv id u a l action.
U tilizatio n of this p rin c ip le can be m ade for instance by considering the
fu n ctio n f ( t ) as con sistin g of an in fin ite num ber of im p u lse s, each w ith an in
fin ite s im a l w idth, A t , and a height f( r ) and superim posing the responses p ro
duced by the action of each of these im p u lse s, see Fig.3 .2 .
M athem a tically th is application of th e superposition p rin cip le can be w r it
ten:

(3 .3 )

41

w here h(t r) is the response of the system (F ig .3.1), at th e tim e t to a unit

im pulse e xcita tio n acting at tim e t . A unit im p u lse excitation is characterized
by a force w h ic h is zero except at t = r w h e re it is in fin ite and encloses unit
area:
Hm I

6 {x )d x = 1

e>0 J - e

This is the exact response x ( t) to an e xcita tio n f(t). This superposition in te

gral is called a convolution. The function f is said to be convolved w ith h to
produce x. The operation is com m utative and by changing th e variable we
have the e q uivalen t form

* ( 0 = | f

h {T )f(t-T )d T

(3.4)

oo

w h e re

j = f - z

Note that in th is case the s o lu tio n is built up fro m a superposition of free vi

bratio n solutions.

A nother m ethod of u tilizin g th e superposition principle is to determ ine the

Fourier tra n sfo rm F(f) of f(t) and study the response of the system to each Fou
rie r com ponent separately. The impulse response function h (t r) defined
42

above, th e n tra n sfo rm s in to a complex frequency response function, H (f), and

x(t) is obtained in te rm s of its Fourier tra n s fo rm , X(f):

X (f) = (
x ( t ) e ~ /2nf'd t = I
e~l2 n ,td t\
f(r)h(t-r)dr
J - 00
00
* 00
= i"
-

dt f
00

h { t - T)e~J2nhf ( T ) d x

J GO

By settin g t t = f and expanding th e regions of in te g ra tio n rem em bering

th a t h { t t ) = 0 w h e n T > t , X(f) can be w ritte n :

X ( f ) = 1 d x T e - '2 n f i h (Z )e -< 2 n f'f ( T ) d Z

J - 00

J - 00

h(,)e~i2 n f i d I 00 f { i ) e ~ i 2l t,Td i

= I
J 00

J - 00

Thus:

X(f) = H(f)F(f)

(3 .5 )

The Fourier tra n sfo rm of the response is the product of the Fourier tra n s
form of th e excitation and the frequency response fu n c tio n .
Note th a t in th is case the so lu tio n is built up fro m a superposition of
steady state responses to simple h a rm o n ic excitations.
The com plex fre q u e n cy response fu n c tio n H(f) of th e system s h o w n in
Fig 3 1 is found sim ply by solving the equation of m o tio n for an a rb itra ry Fou
rie r com ponent, F0 e i2 n ,t:
m d2 l + c + k x = F0 e,2nft
d t2
dt

(3.6)

A t th is point the physical meaning o f th e complex fre q u e n cy response fu n c

tio n should be stated. A complex fre q u e n cy response function m eans a re
sponse w h ic h gives in fo rm a tio n on b o th the absolute value of the response
q u a n tity an d the phase lag between th e response a n d th e excitation. The g e n
eral so lu tio n to the above equation is:

X( f ) = H { f ) F 0 e '2n,t
Here

( ] = ---------
\fj

(3 .7 )
(3-8)

Q f0
43

f0

J -

2n

t/Z the resonant fre q u e n c y of the m echanical system and

Im

Q = ^ Vkm is a m easure of th e system 's dam ping. Q is norm ally c a lle d the qu
a lity factor of th e system and th e larger the va lu e of Q the s m a lle r is the
dam ping. For a com pletely undam ped system Q = co w hile fo r a critically
damped system Q = 1/ 2. A n approxim ate m easure of Q is o b ta in e d in prac
tice by m easuring the w id th of th e response cu rve , \H(f)\, at th e ha lf power
points, see F ig.3 .3 .

F ig.3 .3 . Exam ple o f a resonance curve w ith in d ica tio n o f th e h a lf pow er

p o in ts

[ | H ( f ) \ = V 1/ 2 \ H ( f 0) |2 = 0 ,7 0 7 \H ( fo)^\

The half pow er points are th e p o in ts on the cu rve where.

\ H { f )\2 = ! 2 \ H ( f 0) \ 2
If th is w id th is A f then

The frequency difference betw e e n the h a lf-p o w e r points is o fte n referred to

as the b a n d w id th of the system.

For Q -values larger th a n 5, the e rro r inherent in th e approxim ation is

sm aller th a n some 3% (actually, even w h e n Q is as lo w as 2 the error is of
the order of 10%), see also F ig.3.4. B ecause of its d ire c t relationship to the
dam ping, th e factor Q has become a ve ry im portant q u a n tity in the d e s c rip
tion of sin gle degree-of-freedom linear system s.

Fig. 3. 4. Examples o f com plex frequency response fu n c tio n s

a) M odulus (absolute value o f th e response)
b) Phase lag betw e e n response and excitation corresponding to a)
The phase lag betw e e n the response and the e xcita tio n is given by th e ex
pression:
<p = tan~

(3 .1 0 )

and th is fu nction is p lo tte d in Fig.3 .4 .b) fo r various values of Q.

A num ber of in te re s tin g facts can be seen from these curves.
F irs tly , in the case o f no damping (Q = a>) the response and the e xcita tio n
are in phase (<// = 0 ) b e lo w resonance, w h ile above resonance they are 1 8 0
out of phase. Because Q = o the change in phase takes place in the fo rm of a
d iscon tinuou s jum p.
Secondly, when Q = , i.e. d a m ping is introduced in the system , the
change in phase b e tw e e n response and excitation te n d s to take place g ra d u
ally, and the larger th e damping (the sm aller Q ) th e slow er is the phase
change w ith frequency around resonance.
45

Thirdly, independent of th e m agnitude of th e dam ping, th e phase lag be

tw een the response and th e excitation at resonance is 9 0 .
If the system being studied consists of several masses interconnected w ith
spring and dam per elem ents th e approxim ate m easure of Q stated above can
not be utilized unless th e coupling between th e d iffe re n t m asses is so small
th a t a u nid ire ctio n a l m otion o f one mass does not in flu e nce th e motion of
any of the others (or vice versa). In general, how ever, some coupling always
exists, even tho ugh it m ig h t under certain circum stances be neglected in prac
tice.
Systems in w h ic h a single mass moves in m ore than one d ire ctio n or sys
tem s w h ich consist of several, elastically interconnected m asses, are com
m only term ed m u lti-d e g re e -o f-fre e d o m system s. A linear m u lti-d e g re e -o f-fre e dorh system can be m a th e m a tica lly described by a set of coupled second-order linear d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s and w hen th e frequency response curve of
the system is plotted it w ill n o rm a lly show one resonance "p e a k " per degreeof-freedom . Thus a tw o degree-of-freedom system show s tw o resonance
peaks, a th re e degree-of-freedom system s h o w s three resonance peaks, etc.,
see Fig.3 .5 .

1X

Frequency

Fig. 3 .5 . Exam ple o f a m u lti degree-of-freedom system (three degrees-of-freedom) a n d its frequency response fu n c tio n

3 .2 . S O M E R E S P O N S E P R O PER TIES OF N O N -L IN E A R S Y S T E M S
In the previous section som e im portant response cha ra cte ristics of linear
system s have been discussed, in p a rticu la r th e ir so-called frequency
response fu n c tio n s . These fu n c tio n s can be derived m a th e m a tica lly from the
linea r d iffe re n tia l equation of m otion for the system . In the case of a single
degree of freedom system th is equation was given as
46

w h ere m, c and k w e re considered c o n sta n ts, independent of x and t. T h is re

qu irem ent is not alw ays fu lfille d in p ra ctice and the above equation m ay take
th e form :

(3 .1 1 )
w here
m

= mass of th e vibrating system

Hx

P ( ~ ) = velocity dependent "d a m p in g " term

dt
F{x)
f(t)

= displacem ent dependent " s tiffn e s s " term

= forcing fu n c tio n (see Fig.3.1 ).

Because this d iffe re n tia l equation is no longer lin e a r the p rin cip le o f su p e r
p o sitio n cannot be ap plied and th e derivations o u tlin e d in section 3.1 are
th ere fore no longer valid. In p rin c ip le each p a rtic u la r non-linear vib ra tio n
problem has to be solved on its o w n . However, ce rta in general properties
w h ic h are of considerable practical in te re st may be discussed w ith o u t actu
ally solving the equatio n .
Consider fo r instance the case w h e re only th e "S tiffn e s s -te rm is non
linear. The m otion of th e mass m is th e n governed by th e equation.
m ~ ^ + c ^ - + F{ x) = f { t )
dt2
dt

(3 .1 2 )

The term kx has been substituted by F(x) because th e stiffness k w h ic h was

constant in the linea r equation depends now upon th e vibration a m p litu d e x.
Several possible fo rm s of F(x) are sketched in F ig .3 . 6 . In Figs.3 . 6 .b, e and
f, the system is said to possess a s tiffe n in g or hardening spring, w h ile in
F ig.3 . 6 .c and d th e system is said to possess a so fte n in g spring.
If the system has no excitation f ( t ) and no dam ping term , the undam ped
free vibration is governed by the e q u a tio n .

(3 .1 3 )

47

F ig .3 .6 . Force vs displacem ent characteristics fo r som e sym m e trica l sp rin g a r

ran gem en ts:
a) L in e a r
b) L in e a r p lu s cubic (D u ffin g )
c) S in u s o id (pendulum )
d) P re te n sio n e d springs
e) Clearance
f) A sym p to tic elasticity
The free o scilla tio n is not sin u so id a l unless F(x) is linear. In the lin e a r case
th e period and th e shape of the o scillation are independent of the am plitude,
but in the n o n -lin e a r case both th e period and th e fo rm of the o scilla tio n vary
w ith the am plitude.
The am plitud e-p e rio d
(3.1 3), by w ritin g

th e n

relation

can be obtained

by integrating

Equation

v + F( x ) = 0
dx

and one can in te g ra te from the p o sition of peak a m p litu d e x = a w h e re v = 0

to th e general positio n x where
dx
dt
48

 +
^

F{x)dx = O
Ja

If one introduces the potential energy of the fo rce F(x)

U(x) =

then

dx
dt

F( ) d

(3 .1 4 )

= v = \/2[U{a) ~U(x)]

Because o f th e sym m etry th e period of o s c illa tio n

interval require d to move fro m x = 0 to x = a

is fo u r tim e s the tim e

i'd

t (a) = 4

(3 .1 5 )

Jo V 2 [ U ( a ) - U ( x ) ]

The re la tio n sh ip between am plitude and n a tu ra l frequencyi^, = 1 / t ) for the

six types of non -lin e a r springs from Fig.3 .6 are show n in F ig .3 .7 . Note th a t
the frequency of a stiffe n in g system increases w ith am plitude w h ile for a s o f
tening system it decreases.

Fig.3. 7. A m p litu d e versus n a tu ra l frequency fo r undam ped fre e vibrations o f

system s w ith the s p rin g ch aracteristics sh o w n in Fig. 3 .6
49

W h e n lig ht dam ping and periodic e x cita tio n are added to the system , the
steady-state response is generally p e rio d ic, w ith the sam e period as th e e x c i
ta tio n unless there is subharm onic resonance, as discussed later. The w ave
shape of th e response o scillation is in general diffe re n t fro m that of the e x c i
ta tio n and also d iffe re n t from the free vib ra tio n wave shapes. M oreover, the
response waveshape changes w ith the level of the e xcita tio n .
For fixed excitation am plitude and lig h t dam ping, th e response curves have
the fo rm s show n in F ig s.3 .8 and 3 .9 . They are like the corresponding curves
fo r lin e a r system s but th e "backbones of th e resonant peaks are the n o n -lin
ear fre e vibration a m p litu d e -fre q u e n cy re la tio n s shown in F ig .3.7.

A,

A i
1

11
L.

-------- - f

A
/v
//iVV
i

- f

Fig. 3 .8 . Typical resonance curves fo r various levels o f excitation for:

a) A h a rd e n in g spring type re so n a n t system
b) A lin e a r resonant system
c) A s o fte n in g spring type re so n a n t system

263382

Fig. 3 .9 . Theoretical fre q u e n cy response curve for a h a rd e n in g spring type re s

onan t system. The hatched areas indicate the re g io n o f in s ta b ility
50

W e can see in th e example s h o w n in Fig.3 .9 th a t there is a hyste re sis e f

fect on the steady-state response. The segm ent betw een points 2 and 3 is u n
stable. If the excita tio n fre q u e n cy is slow ly increased from zero, th e quasi
steady response am plitude fo llo w s the curve in F ig .3 .9 from 1 to 2 and
jum ps w ith an irre g u la r tra n s ie n t to point 4. N ow w h e n the e xcita tio n fre
quency is slo w ly decreased, th e re is a sudden ju m p in steady-state response
from 3 to 1. So in conclusion, th e location of th e peak response fo r a slow ly
sw eeping in put frequency is not th e same fo r an upw ard sweep as it is for a
dow nw ard sw eep.
The response curve in Fig.3 .9 has been fo r a fixed value of th e damping
param eter c and fo r fixed e xcita tio n am plitude. The effect of a decreasing
dam ping is to extend the re so n a n t peak fu rth e r up the free vib ra tio n back
bone w hile th e effe ct of in creasing the excitation am plitude is, as show n in
F ig.3 . 8 , to increase the response at all fre q u e n cie s in a n o n -lin e a r and nonun iform m anner The c a lcu la tio n s of response curves is not s im p le and e f
fo rts have been made to devise approxim ate m ethods. Actual curves obtained
from analog m odel studies are s h o w n in Fig.3.1 0 .

Fig. 3. 10. F requency response curves for a h a rd e n in g spring type resonant

system . The curves w e re m easured fo r various levels o f excitation
o f an analog m odel syste m
A property of no n-line a r system s is that th e y d is to rt the w ave-shape of the
response signal, i.e. even if th e force driving th e system is p u re ly sinusoidal
the wave shape o f the response w ill not be sin u so id a l (See A p pendix C). Nor
m ally the response w ave-shape w ill contain a num ber of fre q u e n cy compo
51

nents harm onically related to the fre q u e n cy of the d rivin g force. This can be
confirm ed m athe m a tica lly, for in sta n ce , by a pproxim ating the so lution to the
n o n -lin e a r d iffe re n tia l equation by m eans of a series expansion, and e xp e ri
m e n ta lly by analyzing th e response w ave shape by m eans of a fre q u e n cy a n
alyzer.
Under certain circum stances (very lo w dam ping) a very special phe n o
m enon occurs in n o n -lin e a r resonant systems of th e type described above.
This is the phenom enon of subharm onics. A su b h a rm on ic is a response v ib ra
tio n occurring at 1 / 2 , 1 /3 , 1 /4 , 1 / 5 etc. of th e frequency of th e d riving
force. A n intuitive explanation fo r th e occurrence o f subharm onics may be
given in th a t the d riv in g force supplies energy to one of the harm onics o f the
n o n -lin e a r system and w hen energy is supplied it w ill start to oscilla te . The
higher harm onic th e n pulls all the o th e r harm onics w ith it, as the sp e cifica lly
excited harm onic is an integral part o f th e w hole m otion.
W h ile the occurrence of subharm onics in practice is relatively rare, " o rd i
n a ry " harm onics (som etim es called superharm onics) are present to a greater
or lesser extent in all non-linear system s. Even if th e ir am plitude values are
ra th e r sm all they m ay play an im p o rta n t role w h e n th e vibration of com plex
(m ulti-degre e-of-fre e d o m ) m echanical system s is considered. A n exam ple
readily illustrates th is statem ent:
C onsider for in sta n ce the case w h e re a n o n -lin e a r spring e le m e n t in a
m u lti-d e g re e -o f-fre e d o m system produces a th ird ha rm o n ic of the order of
1%. If th e frequency o f th is h a rm onic by chance coincides w ith the resonant
freq uency of anoth e r resonance in th e system w h ic h happens to have a re
sonance a m plifica tio n factor Q = 1 0 0 th is specific resonance w ill respond
w ith th e same am p litu d e as the a ctu a lly excited fre q u e n cy even though its fre
quency did not exist in th e w ave-shape of the driving force!
A n o th e r im portant case*, that w ill not be explained in detail is w h e n the
n o n -lin e a rity is velocity-dependent o n ly, i.e. the e q u a tio n of m otion fo r the
system can be w ritte n :

(3 .1 6 )

A som ew hat d iffe re n t situ a tio n then exists.

In th is case also th e production o f harm onics varies w ith frequency and ex
cita tio n level, but th e resonant fre q u e n cy itself re m a in s practically co n sta n t.
*

52

The case of n o n -lin e a r m asses in re s o n a tin g system s has, to th e a u th o r's k n o w le d g e , not

seem ed to be of a ny g re a t in te re st in p ra ctice and is th e re fo re n o t tre a te d in th is text.

A special case occurs w h e n the dam ping is negative, in th a t in th is case the

system o scilla te s. Examples of systems w h e re these kinds of se lfsu sta in e d os
cillations m ay take place are the flu tte r of aeroplane w in g s, o scilla tio n s in
electrical tra n sm issio n lines due to th e a ction of th e w in d and som e cases of
Coulomb fric tio n , e.g. hysteresis w h irl in m achine rotors. One of th e most dis
astrous cases of damage caused by s e lf-su sta in e d oscillations is th e fa ilu re of
the Tacoma B ridge in 1 9 4 0 .

3 .3 .

R O T A T IO N A L A N D T O R S IO N A L V IB R A T IO N S

In the previous sections of th is C hapter th e vib ra tio n responses considered

have been o f th e so-called tra n s la tio n a l type i.e. the vibrating masses have
been o scilla tin g re ctilin e a rly along one (or more) axis only.
A nother type of m otion occurs w hen a body is forced to vib ra te around one
or more axes, such as is ofte n the case fo r instance in rotating m achinery or
un sym m e trically loaded m achine fo u n d a tio n s. The sim plest fo rm of rotational
vibrations m ay be that of torsional vib ra tio n s in a shaft, see F ig .3.1 1 a). A s
sum ing th a t th e inertia of th e shaft its e lf is n e g lig ib le compared w ith the in e r
tia of the m ass, m, and th a t the e lastic behaviour of the m ass can
be neg
lected in com parison w ith th e torsional e la s tic ity of the shaft, th e equation of
free rotation al motion fo r th e system can be w ritte n :

I ~
+ c ' ~ + l ' ,(P =
d t2
dt

(3.1 7)

Here I is th e mom ent of inertia of th e m ass around its ce n te r of rotation,

i.e. (around th e shaft), 0 is the angle of m o tio n , c ' is a dam ping constant and
k is the a n g u la r stiffness of the sh a ft, w h ic h depends upon th e m odulus of
elasticity in shear and on th e physical sh a ft co n fig u ra tio n .
It can be seen that the d iffe re n tia l e q uation governing th e a n g u la r motion
of the mass in Fig .3.1 1 .a) has a com pletely analogous form to th a t governing
rectiline ar m o tion and w h ic h was given in E quation (3.1). This m eans that ex
actly the sam e m athem atical tre a tm e n t as discussed in section 3.1 can be ap
plied to th e rotational vib ra tio n s of th e kind described above. The only d iffe r
ences are th a t the mass in section 3.1 m ust be substituted by th e mom ent of
inertia, and th e (rectilinear) displacem ent, x, by th e angle 0 . If external forces
are applied to the system th e ir effects on th e rotational m otion are measured
by the Torque, M , that th e y produce, F ig .3 .11 .b). The corresponding equation
of motion is:
+ c '^

+k' <p = M = F r

(3 .1 8 )

53

a)

b)
271313

Fig. 3. 1 7. Examples o f to rsio n a l vib ra tio n

a) Free vib ra tio n
b) Forced vib ra tio n
Thus, ro ta tio n a l m o tio n s are g o ve rn e d by torque equations, w h ile re c tili
near m o tions are g o v e rn e d by force equations.
A second example o f rotational m otion is, as m entioned above, th a t of an
un sym m etrically loaded foundation. This case is illu s tra te d in Fig.3.1 2, and
plays an im portant role in the vibration and shock iso la tio n of m achines and
equipm ent.

F ig.3 .1 2 . M odel o f a n u n sym m e trica lly loaded fo u n d a tio n , and the co rre
sponding e q u a tio n s o f m otion

54

3 .4 . R E S P O N S E OF M E C H A N IC A L S Y S T E M S TO S T A T IO N A R Y
R A N D O M V IB R A T IO N S
In section 3.1 it w as show n that th e response of any lin e a r system to a p re
scribed excitation can be determ ined fro m a know ledge o f the system 's im
pulse response fu n c tio n or its com plex frequency response function. If n ow
the e xcitation consists o f a Gaussian random process characterized by m eans
of its auto correlation fu n c tio n (or, w h a t m ay be more com m on in practice, by
m eans of its mean square spectral d e n s ity function) w h a t w ould the re la tio n
ship betw een the excita tio n and the response then be?
S ta rtin g w ith the a u to-correlation fu n c tio n re p resentation of the response
th is can be form ulated in term s of the syste m 's im pulse response fu n ctio n :

( ( t ) x ( t + r) = i

f ( t - Ti)h(T,)dT, (

J an

f ( t + t - r 2) h ( r 2) d r 2

J 00

f{t- t ,)f(t + T -

T2) h ( T i ) h ( T 2 ) d i d r 2

(The fo rm u la tio n of th e impulse response function is here slightly d iffe re n t

from th e one utilized previously. H ow ever, by studying F ig.3.2 and th e co n
nected m athem atics it is easily seen th a t the tw o fo rm u la tio n s are e q u iv a
lent). A s the au to -co rre la tio n function is by de fin ition (Eqn. 2.9):

Ij

x( t)x( t + t ) dt

'~2
Urn

f ( t - T i ) f ( t + r - r 2) h ( T : ) h ( r 2)dT

dt

rJ-i
th e n
Vx ( t ) =

y/f ( t + t , - T2) h ( r - l ) h ( T 2) d x : d r g

w h ic h can be seen by setting

(3 .1 9 )

f ( t + t - r 2) - f ( t - r, + t - t 2 + t ,)

w h e re r t 2 + t 1 represents tim e lag in the m u ltip lic a tio n process used to

obtain th e auto -co rre la tio n function fo r th e excitation.
The response m ean square spectral density fu n c tio n is found by ta k in g the
Fourier transform of <//x( r):
,-ao
Sx(f ) = I
i/,x (T )e -'2nfzdT
J nr

(3 .2 0 )

55

or wh at is the same:

and inserting th e form ula given above for i/j x( t ) in to this expression:

S x (f) = \ \ X h ( T , ) e > 2 x h ' d x A X h ^ e - i ^ d x ^ S , { f )

J -O C

as

Sf ( f ) =

J - oc

r
J -

thus:

m i x

T, -

T2 ) e i 2 K n T * x' - ^ d x

00

Sx (f) = H * (f ) H (f) Sf (f ) = | / y ( / ) | 2 ^ ( 0

(3 21)

w h e re H*(f ) is th e complex c o n ju ga te of H(f). This re su lt is one o f th e most im

portant ones in th e theory of random processes and states th a t th e response
m ean square sp e ctra l density o f a lin e a r system a t any fre q u e n cy is equal to
the excitation m e an square s p e c tra l density tim e s the squared m o d u lu s o f the
com plex frequ ency response fu n c tio n at th a t frequency. That a re la tio n sh ip of
th is kind w as to be expected is also in tu itiv e ly fe lt by considering the m ean
ing of the mean square spectral density fu n c tio n and the re la tio n s h ip found
in section 3.1 betw een the e x cita tio n and th e response in te rm s o f the com
plex frequency response fu n ctio n H(f).
The response mean square spectral density fu n c tio n may, fro m a measure
m ent point of vie w , be considered either as a frequency spectrum or as a sys
tem response fu n c tio n depending upon the problem at hand.
If the system being considered is non -lin e a r th e relationships stated above
do, of course, no longer hold as these re la tio n sh ip s were built on th e general
superposition p rincip le , w hich is o n ly valid fo r lin e a r systems w h o s e motion
is governed by lin e a r diffe re n tia l equations. The mean square spectral density
fu n c tio n fo r th e response is th e re fo re no lo n g er a unique fu n c tio n but
changes w ith excitation level. A ls o the p ro b a b ility density fu n c tio n fo r in sta n
taneous response am plitudes is no longer G aussian and in g e n e ra l a vast
am o unt of data is necessary to characterize th e response of such system s to
G aussian random excitations.
If the n o n -lin e a rity is situated in th e stiffness e le m e n t of the syste m consid
ered, it is possible in some im p o rta n t cases to fo rm u la te and solve exactly the
stochastic equ atio n s describing th e probability d ensity fu n ctio n s o f the re
sponse. In general, however, som e sort of lin e a riza tio n technique has to be
56

used in a th eoretical tre a tm e n t. A considerable am ount of th e o re tic a l and ex

perim ental w o rk has been laid dow n in th is area in the past decade or so and
interested readers are re fe rre d to the lite ra tu re listed at the end of th is ch a p
te r for fu rth e r studies.

3 .5 . S H O C K R ESPO N SE A N D SHO CK S PE C TR A
We have defined earlier a shock as a tra n sm issio n of k in e tic energy to a
system, the tra nsitio n ta kin g place in a re la tiv e ly short tim e compared w ith
th e natural period of o scilla tio n of the system . A rectangular shock pulse may
therefore co n stitu te one or tw o shocks depending upon th e na tu ra l period o f
oscillation o f the system in flu e nce d by it and the duration o f the pulse. This
is illustrated in Fig.3.13.1) and II), and it sh o u ld be noted th a t the m axim um
system response may in th e case of Fig.3.1 3.1) reach a va lu e w h ic h is tw ic e
the m agnitude of the shock pulse.

b)

___________________________________ 271275

Fig. 3. 13. Response o f a s in g le degree-of-freedom system to shock excitation

Spectral decom positions are the most w id e ly used procedure for the a n a ly
sis of shock data. The tw o most com m on form s of spectral decom position
used are th e Fourier sp e ctru m and the S hock spectrum.
The F o u rie r spectrum is sim ply the fo rw a rd Fourier tra n s fo rm of a tim e h is
tory. It can be calculated fo r either the excitation or th e response tim e h is
tory. W hen dealing w ith shock data, it is often d iffic u lt to m easure th e re
sponse of th e system u n der service c o n d itio n s and the a n a lysis is lim ite d to
that of th e excitation tim e history. G e n e ra lly one uses th e Fourier spectrum
of the shock input and th e frequency response function o f th e system s u b
jected to th e shock in o rd e r to get in fo rm a tio n about the system response. The
57

response being calculated in the fre q u e n cy dom ain, the inverse Fourier tra n s
fo rm a tio n operation produces the response tim e history o f th e system.
The second spectral decom position, w h ic h has proved to be of considerable
value w ith respect to th e com parison of shock m otions, to th e design of e q u ip
m ent to w ith s ta n d shocks, and to the fo rm u la tio n of laboratory tests as a
means to sim ulate e n viro n m e n ta l co n d itio n s , is the shock response s p e c
trum , or b rie fly the shock spectrum (Note: This is not to be confused w ith th e
Fourier spectrum of the fo rcin g shock p ulse!). The shock spectrum is obtained
by le ttin g the shock pulse in question be applied to a se rie s of linear, u n
damped single degree-of-freedom system s and plotting fo r exam ple the m a x i
m um response of the system as a fu n c tio n o f the system 's n a tu ra l frequency.
V ario us types of shock spectra are used depending upon th e intended a p p li
cation of the in fo rm a tio n obtained. These m ay be the in itia l shock spectrum
w h ic h is obtained from the m axim um response w h ile th e shock pulse is s till
acting, or the residual shock spectrum w h ic h is obtained fro m the m axim um
response a fter the pulse has occurred.
O ther d e fin itio n s may be the overall or m axim ax spectrum w hich is p lotted
on the basis of the m axim um response w ith o u t regard to tim e , and the o v e r
all negative m axim um shock spectrum w h ic h is obtained by considering th e
m axim um response of the single degree-of-freedom system in the negative d i
rection.
In practical m easurem ent systems the re q u ire m e n t of zero damping in th e
responding single degree-of-freedom system m ay be d iffic u lt to achieve, but a
selectable dam ping gives th e advantage th a t the effect o f th e shock on v a r
ious stru ctu re s can be judged sim ply by considering th e in flu e n ce of da m p
ing. H ow ever, fo r re la tive ly sm all am ounts o f damping th e shock spectra w ill
not be esse ntially d iffe re n t from the spectra obtained w ith no damping, since
the response for the firs t fe w cycles w ill be v irtu a lly id e n tic a l. The response
of an undam ped single degree-of-freedom system to a shock pulse can be c a l
culated re lative ly easily fo r sim ple shock w a ve form s, using fo r example La
place tra n sfo rm m ethods. F igs.3 .1 4 , 3 .1 5 and 3 .1 6 illu s tra te shock spectra
obtained fo r a rectangular, saw tooth and h a lfsin e shock pulse of duration T.
The m axim ax shock spectra are found s im p ly by taking th e hig h est of the tw o
spectrum values at any frequency.
Recently, th e shock spectrum concept has been extended to m ultiple d e
gree o f freedom system s, n o n -lin e a r system s etc. See the bibliography at th e
end of th e chapter.
It may be w o rth w h ile in connection w ith th e discussion o f shock spectra to

58

F ig.3 .1 4 . Shock spectra fo r a re cta n g u la r shock pulse

F ig.3 .1 5 . Shock spectra fo r a fin a l peak s a w to o th shock p u lse

point out an interestin g fact, nam ely th a t the F o urier spectrum of th e shock
pulse and the undamped residual shock spectrum are related by th e form ula:
S ( f ) = 2 nf \ F( f ) \

(3.22)

w he re S(f) designates the residual shock sp e ctru m and F(f) is th e Fourier

spectrum of the shock (see also A p p e n d ix D).
Selection betw een the Fourier and the shock spectral m ethods of spectral
decom position is based on the a p p lication of th e data. Fourier analysis is

Fig. 3. 7 6. Shock spectra fo r a h a lf sin e shock pulse

used to describe in p u t data, response data or, if th e both are m easured s im u l
taneously, it can be used to describe the frequency response fu n c tio n of the
system . Once tw o o f the three ite m s are know n th e th ird can be calculated.
T ypically, the in p u t tim e history and frequency response function are known
and the response tim e history is to be determ ined. On the other hand, the
p rim a ry application of shock spectral analysis is to predict peak response le
vels from inpu t m easurem ents, w ith o nly lim ited know ledge of the system re
sponse properties.

3 .6 . V IB R A T IO N S IN S TR U C T U R E S . M E C H A N IC A L W AVES
The m echanical system s considered in the preceding text have been of the
so-called idealized lum ped param eter type, i.e. masses have been assum ed to
be rigid bodies w h e re all points w ith in the body m ove in phase, and elastic
e le m ents have been assumed to have no mass. In practice all masses have a
ce rta in elasticity and all spring e le m e n ts have m asses. For instance a beam
or a plate is a c o n tin u o u s com bination of masses and springs.
A s the num ber of degrees-of-freedom of a m echanical system w a s defined
as the num ber of ela stic m ovem ents o f masses (resonances, see se ctio n 3 . 1 )
it fo llo w s that s tru ctu re s like beams and plates have an in fin ite n u m b e r o f de
grees-of-freedom . The in fin ite num ber o f "re s o n a n c e s " resulting from th e in fi
n ite num ber of degrees-of-freedom are in the case o f structures n o rm a lly
te rm e d "n a tu ra l m o d e s", or sim ply "m o d e s ".
W h ile in lumped param eter system s all points w ith in a mass are supposed
to move in phase, th is is no longer tru e for c o n tin u o u s structures. A sim ple
exam ple illu strates th is clearly: In F ig .3 .1 7 the v ib ra tio n of a beam clam ped
at one end and acted upon by an o scillating force in the other is show n.
W h e n the frequency o f th e o scillating force coincides w ith one of th e beam 's
60

Fig.3.1 7. Illu stra tio n o f th e response o f a be a m to an o s c illa tin g force the fr e

quency o f w h ic h coincides w ith one o f the be a m 's n a tu ra l vib ra tio n
m odes
modes, th e vibration patte rn of the beam fo rm s a "sta n d in g w a ve , as s h o w n
in the fig u re . It is readily seen th a t the p o in ts w ith in th e beam at the place
marked x, here move in opposite phase w ith respect to th e points at th e
place m arked x2 . One o f th e major d iffe re n ce s betw een th e motion o f a
lumped param eter system and a s tru c tu re is thus th a t in th e case of s tru c
tures each resonance is associated w ith a (continuous) m ode shape.
To describe for instance th e motion of th e beam in F ig .3 .1 7 it is th e re fo re
not enough to describe th e instantaneous vibration a m p litu d e , z, as a fu n c
tion of t (tim e) only. It m u st also be described as a fu n c tio n o f space c o -o rd i
nates, in th is case x, i.e. z = f(x; t).
In d e riving the d iffe re n tia l equation g o ve rn in g this m otion it is necessary to
apply pa rtia l d iffe rentia ls and the equation becomes a p a rtia l d iffe re n tia l e q u a
tion. S im ila rly the eq u a tio n of m otion fo r a plate, F ig .3 .1 8 , w ill be o f th e
type: z = f(x; y; t).
The exam ples show n in F ig .3 .1 7 and 3 .1 8 illustrate transverse vibrations.
Also com pressional and to rsio n a l v ib ra tio n s may be excited in s tru ctu re s,
(Fig.3.1 9) and a com bination of all three types of vib ra tio n s may take place.
The vib ra tio n s in stru c tu re s may th e re fo re be exceedingly com plex and exact
solutions to the d iffe re n tia l equations of m otion exist o n ly fo r a fe w types of
simple stru ctu re s and load co n fig u ra tio n s. Some typical mode shapes fo r
transverse vibrations of sim ple beams and plates are given in Figs.3 .2 0 and
3 .2 1 .

61

269019

Fig. 3 .1 8 . Shapes o f a fe w o f the no rm a l m o d e s o f vibration o f a circular p la te

d a m p e d at its edge. (A fter M orse)

. Beam

YA
/

'A

} < ---------Oscillating force, F(t)

a)
Beam
P

vr

"

\JT
b)

Oscillating (rotational) torque, M (t)

271280

Fig. 3 .1 9 . Illu stra tio n o f com pressional a n d to rsio n a l v ib ra tio n s o f a beam

a) C om pressional vibration
b) Torsional vib ra tio n

From th e th e o ry of bending of beams and N ew ton's second la w of m otion

the d iffe re n tia l equation gove rn in g the free transverse v ib ra tio n s of a beam
can be found.

g S ~

d t2

+~ ( E I
dx2 \

w here
p = M ass d e n sity of the beam m aterial
62

)=0

dx2J

( 3.23)

Beams o f u n ifo rm section and u n ifo rm ly distributed load

Natural frequencies
where

A . /E l
= ----- r

2-n VPSI

E = Y o u n g 's m odulus
I = Area m o m e n t o f inertia o f beam cross
section
I = Length o f beam
p = Mass d e n s ity o f beam material
S = Area o f cross-section
A = C o e ffic ie n t from table below

271281

Fig. 3 .2 0 . Examples o f boundary c o n d itio n s and m ode-shapes for various

single u n ifo rm beam c o n fig u ra tio n s
S = Cross-sectional area o f the beam
E = M odu lu s of elasticity (Young's M odulus)
I = M o m e n t of inertia o f the cross-section.
This is a fo u rth -o rd e r p a rtia l d iffe re n tia l equation th e so lu tio n of w h ic h d e
pends upon the boundary conditions, i.e . the way in w h ic h the beam is fa s
tened. F ig .3 .2 0 show s some examples o f boundary co n d ition s and c o rre
sponding mode shapes fo r the firs t fo u r n a tu ra l vibration modes.
The in fin ite num ber of degrees-of-freedom mentioned above m anifest th e m
selves by the fact th a t th e re is an in fin ite num ber of h ig h e r natural vib ra tio n
modes. In general, how e ver, only a fe w of the low er modes seem to be of
great practical interest.
In the case of free transverse vib ra tio n s of plates the equation of m otion is
again a fourth -o rder d iffe re n tia l equation, s till more com plicated to solve th a n
the one governing the vib ra tio n of beams:
63

 +2
+ + /2g (/~ l!l^ ff = o
3x 4
dx2 dy2
dyA
Eh2
d t2

(3 24)

w here h is th e thickness o f th e plate and v is Poisson's ra tio (about 0 ,3 fo r

most m etals.
Fig.3.1 8 illu stra te s the shapes of some o f th e firs t norm al modes of a c irc u
lar plate clam ped at its edges, w h ile exam ples of nodal lines of square plates
w ith various edge co nditions are shown in F ig .3 .2 1 . Note fro m Fig.3 .2 0 and
3.21 th a t the frequencies of the normal modes in stru ctu ra l m em bers are in
general not harm onically related.
There are, how ever, o th e r types of vib ra tio n s in s tru ctu re s w h ich are, at
least to a firs t approxim ation, harm onically related. These are com pressional
(longitudinal) vibrations, and in certain cases also torsional vibrations.
In setting up the equation of motion fo r com pressional vibrations in a
beam, F ig.3 .2 2 , it is noted th a t the result is a second o rder p a rtia l d iffe re n
tia l equation o f the type:

d x2
1st Mode

2nd M ode

(3 .2 5 )

E d t2
3rd Mode

4th Mode

6th Mode

ton/J D/pha4

Nodal lines

D/pha4

////////

///////,

////<

///////,

Nodal lines

V /////Z
j J D/pha4

Nodal lines
777777/

'777777/

- 27rfn
D = E h3/ 1 2 (1 - u 2 )

' 7777^7?

/
% > /////

p = Mass density a=Plate length

h = Plate thickness

271282

Fig. 3 .2 1 . Exam ples o f m o d a l lin e co n fig u ra tio n s fo r square p la te s under var

ious edge conditions. (A fte r D. Young)
64

Fig. 3 .2 2 . S ketch sho w in g th e derivation o f th e equation o f m o tio n for com p re ssio n a l (lo n g itu d in a l) vibrations in a beam
This equation has the same form as the so-called w ave -e q u a tio n w hich go v
erns various kinds of wave phenom ena in th e o re tica l physics. Compressional
vibrations are therefo re also often referred to as m e ch a n ica l waves w ith a
w ave velocity (v) of:

-V 2
T - TE- :

'

i f 1 Q'

13 261

The m ain reason fo r the in clu sio n of th is b rie f section on stru ctu ra l v ib ra
tions in the book has been to illustrate th a t the actual vib ra tio n s m easured
on a com plica ted co n stru ctio n may be w id e ly d iffe re n t fro m p o in t to p o in t
even i f the m easurin g p o in ts considered are situ a te d a re la tiv e ly short d is
tance apart from each other. Also, the d ire c tio n in space o f the vibrations
may vary and fo r thorough investigations it is therefore necessary to m easure
the vib rations both as a fu n c tio n of fre q u e n c y and as a fu n c tio n of space
coordinates at each m easuring point.

3 .7 . S H O C K A N D V IB R A T IO N A N A L Y S IS U S IN G FINITE
E LE M E N T T E C H N IQ U E S
A more com prehensive th e o re tica l tre a tm e n t of stru ctu ra l vibration is o u t
side the scope of th is book and can be fo u n d in many e xce lle n t textbooks on
the subject. W e w ill how ever discuss th e fin ite elem ent m ethod for shock
and vibration analysis w h ic h is becoming m ore and more used due to the ad
vancem ent in sophisticated digital com puters. Several fin ite element p ro
gram s are c u rre n tly available from various sources. W h ile w e have until n o w
only discussed th e exact so lu tio n of the d yn a m ic problem s, th e fin ite e lem ent
method is an approxim ate so lu tio n.

65

There are tw o fin ite e le m e n t techniques available: the m a trix displacem ent
o r s tiffn e ss m e th o d w h e re th e displacem ents are chosen as unknow ns, and
th e m a trix force or fle x ib ility m ethod w h e re forces are unknow ns. In both
cases, the continu u m is divided into a fin ite num ber of ele m e n ts connected
only at the node points. Each discrete e le m e n t is idealised. The d isp la ce
m ents of these points are assumed and th e complete s o lu tio n is obtained
com bining displacem ents so th a t it sa tis fie s force e q u ilib riu m and d isp la ce
m ent co m p a tib ility at th e jo in ts of th e e lem ents. The m a trix equations are
th e n solved n um e rica lly by a com puter. The m atrix displacem ent m ethod is
c u rre n tly the most popular and is the one w e w ill discuss in th is section.

S tatic analysis
The equation is of the fo rm ,
[F ] = [K ] [ U ]

(3 .2 7 )

[F] = vector of forces

[U] = vector of displacem ents
[/<] = stiffn e ss m atrix for th e entire s tru ctu re .
The m atrix [/<"] is ge n e ra lly singular because rigid body m otion is not p re
vented.
For one spring elem ent
Fy = k ( u y - u 2)
F2 = k ( u 2 - u ,)
~Fy~
f 2-

k -k ~
-k

~u:

k_ P 2-

w h e re F, are forces and i/; displacem ents

For tw o spring elem ents
F1 =

(Wi - u 2)

F 2 = *1 (u 2 ~ u ,) + k 2 ( u 2 - u 3)
= - /r, w, + (k , + k 2) u 2 - k 2u 3
F2

66

^2 ( U3 ~ u t )

uT
f

k,
=

-k ,

- /r,

/c-]

CO

O'

k2

- k2

k2

[,K ]

-*1

k.

k^

Thus

[K ] =

k2

- k2
k2

N>
Jr-

-k ,

[K ] =

k^

-k 2

* i.

k2

NJ

(2)

-k ;
=

N
J

(1 )
[K ]

1_______ 1

H ow ever, the stiffne ss m atrix can also be assembled fro m the stiffn e ss of
the individ ual elem ents

O'

k ^

k^^ k2

k2

kn

k?

The stiffn e ss m atrix can be obtained by assuming a u n it displacem ent in

one degree of freedom (keeping the o th e r displacem ent zero) and fin d in g the
force required to cause a u n it displacem ent.

D ynam ic Analysis
The dynam ic equation of motion can be w ritte n in m a trix form as,

[M ] [X ] + [C ] [ * ] + [K ] [X ] = [ F ( t ) l

(3 .2 8 )

w here
[M ] = mass m atrix
[C] = dam ping matrix
[K\ = stiffn e ss m atrix
[ f ( 0 ] = external force vector
W e see th a t tw o ad dition a l term s, the m ass and the dam p in g , are needed.
The mass m atrix can be found in d iffe re n t ways

67

 The lu m p e d m ass approach: th e mass of an uniform bar can for instance

be lum ped at tw o nodes and th e mass m atrix becomes

m/ 2

m
. 0

m /2 .

or at three nodes

m /3

m l3

m/3__

_0

This gives a diagonal m a trix w h ic h is p a rtic u la rly suitable fo r com puter ca l

culations. H ow ever, th is approach is not accurate and the s tru c tu re has to be
divided into a large num ber o f elem ents to give reasonable re su lts.
The co n siste n t mass approach: the mass m a trix is derived using the same
displacem ent fu n ctio n as th e stiffn e ss. The m a trix here is non-diagonal and
is a better representation of th e actual mass d istrib u tio n .
In these tw o firs t approaches th e mass is independent of th e frequency.
The d is trib u te d mass approach: this uses exact m athem atical expressions
for mass d istrib u tio n and yields better results but mass and s tiffn e s s m atrices
are fu n ctio n s of frequency and th e method is th erefore g e n e ra lly too expen
sive in com puter tim e.
The fin ite e le m e n t method w ith damping is com plex and such assum ptions
as p ro p o rtio n a l dam ping have to be made to include the c o n trib u tio n due to
the dam ping. This assum ption is generally not realistic except in lightly
damped stru ctu re s. W hen dam ping is p re d o m in a n t, the exact m odal co n trib u
tion of dam ping is im portant and experim ental modal analysis m ay be useful.
W hen the m a trix equations o f m otion are w ritte n the co m p u te r w ill solve
them using standard methods.
The dynam ical problem can be solved using fo u r diferent te chniques:

68

norm al modes method

frequency response method
direct in teg ra tio n for tra n s ie n t response
statistical tech n iq u e for response to random vib ra tio n .

D etails about these d iffe re n t m ethods and th e ir advantages can be fo u n d in

the references given at the end of th e chapter.
To represent com plex stru ctu re s by using fin ite e le m e n ts one m u st have
various shapes of ele m e n ts available. Below are listed som e of the m ost co m
m only available elem e n ts in the com puter programs:

th e beam elem ent

shear panel (quadrilateral elem ent)
plane stress and stra in elem ent (tria n g u la r or q u a d rila te ra l shape)
bending plate e le m e n t (tria n g u la r or quadrilateral shape)
shell and ring elem ent
solid elem ent (tetrahedron, wedge or hexahedron elem ents).

The fin ite elem ent m ethod is in constant e vo lu tion and new er and better
elem ents are c o n tin u a lly being developed. Its im p o rta n t place is due both to
its ease of application and its u n ive rsa lity in solving both stru ctu ra l and nonstru ctu ra l problem s such as heat tra n s fe r, flu id flo w etc.

3 .8 . S TA T IS T IC A L E N E R G Y A N A L Y S IS
It is possible at relatively high frequencies to get reasonably accurate
predictions of the m ean response by averaging over space as w ell as over fre
quency bands w h ic h include m any modes, instead o f considering each p a rti
cu la r mode at one tim e . This m ethod, known as s ta tis tic a l energy analysis
(SEA), is explained in more detail by Lyon in the reference given at th e end
of th e chapter. It circu m ve n ts problem s like boundary conditions (w h ic h are
not know n anyway) and exact shape of the individual elem ents. It is based on
the average over th e stru ctu ra l area, a panel, for exam ple, and the average
over a frequency band, such as 1 / 3 octave. It assum es a know ledge of the
modal density n(f) i.e. the num ber of modes per u n it frequency, defined as

( 0 = ^

(3 .2 9 )

w h e re A/V is the num ber of modes w ith in the fre q u e n cy band A f.

W hen the num ber of modes is h ig h , it is easier to predict a response aver
aged over space th a n individual values but it is th e n d iffic u lt to predict th e v i
bration at a given po in t. The m ethod assumes the o rth o g o n a lity of th e norm al
modes and that th e dam ping of the norm al modes is very low. It sh o u ld be
m entioned that th e use of sta tistica l energy analysis fo r vibration prediction
requires considerable experience and that the procedure is very se n sitive to
viola tion of the basic assum ptions.
69

3 .9 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y
BENDAT, J.S . and
PiERSOL, A .G .:

M e a s u re m e n t and A n a ly s is o f Random Data. John

W ile y and Sons, Inc. N ew York 1 971

BOURGINE, A.:

Sur une A pproche S ta tis tiq u e de la D yn a m iq u e Vibratoire des S tructures. O ffice National d 'E tudes et de
Recherches Aerospatiales 1 9 7 3

BROCH, J.T.:

S elected R eprints from Technical R eview Non Lin

ear system s and random vib ra tio n 1 9 7 2

CRANDALL, S .H . and
M ARK W .D.:

Random Vibrations in M e c h a n ic a l S ystem s.

emic Press. New York 1 9 6 3

Acad

CRANDALL, S .H . et al. R andom Vibrations / a n d II. The M .I.T. Press and

John W ile y and Sons, Inc. 1 9 5 8 and 1 9 6 3
Den HRTOG, J.P .:

M e c h a n ic a l Vibrations. M cG ra w -H ill Book Company,

Inc. 1961

K AR M AN , T. and
BIOT, M .A.:

M a th e m a tic a l M ethods in Engineering. M cG ra w -H ill

Book C om pany, Inc. 1 9 4 0

KELLY, R.D. and

RICHMAN G.:

P rinciples a n d Techniques o f Shock D ata A nalysis.

The Shock and V ibration Inform ation C enter. United
States D epartm ent of D efense 1 969

KITTELSEN.K.E.:

M e a su re m e n t and D e scrip tio n

Kjr. Tech. Rev. N o.3-1 9 6 6

LYON, R.H.:

S ta tis tic a l Energy A n a ly s is o f D ynam ical Systems,

Theory a n d A pplications. M IT Press, C am bridge MA,
1975

MINORSKY, N.:

In tro d u c tio n to N o n -L in e a r
Bros., A n n A rb o r, M ich. 1 9 4 7

MORROW , C.T.:

The Shock Spectrum as a Criterion o f S e ve rity o f

Shock Im pulses. J A S A . V o l.29, N o.5, M a y 1 9 5 7

MORROW , C.T.:

Shock a n d Vibration E ngineering. John W ile y and

Sons, Inc. 1 9 6 3

MORSE, P.M.:

V ibration a n d Sound.
Inc. 1 9 4 8

70

o f Shock.

M echanics.

Bruel &

Edwards

M c G ra w -H ill Book Company,

PILKEY, W . and
PILKEY, B.:

Shock a n d Vibration C om puter Program R eview s and

S um m aries. The Shock and V ibration Inform ation
Center. U nited States D epartm ent of D efense. 1 975

ROBSON, J.D .:

A n In tro d u c tio n to R andom Vibration, E dinburgh U ni

versity, Press 1 9 6 3

SALTER, J.P.:

Steady S ta te Vibration,
England 1 9 6 9

SESHADRI, T.V.:

Shock a n d Vibration A n a ly s is using F in ite Elem ent

Techniques. The Shock and V ibration D igest. July
1975

SESHADRI, T V.:

Shock a n d Vibration A n a ly s is using F in ite Elem ent

Technique. Journal of Sound and V ib ra tio n . Dec.
1978

SMITH, P.W. J r., and

LYON, R.H.:

S ound a n d S tru c tu ra l V ibration. National T echnical In

fo rm a tio n Service. U.S. Departm ent o f Commerce
1 96 5

THOMSON, W .T. and

BARTON, M .V.:

The Response o f M e c h a n ic a l Systems to R andom Ex

citation. J . Appl. Mech. V o l.2 4 , p .2 4 8 2 5 1 , 1957

VIGNESS, I.:

E le m e n ta ry C onsiderations o f Shock Spectra. Shock,

V ib ra tio n and Associated E nvironm ents, B u lle tin 34,
1 9 6 5 , Part 3

YOUNG, D.:

V ibration o f R ectangular Plates by th e R itz Method.

J. A ppl. M echanics. Vol. 1 7, p .4 4 8 1 9 5 0

ZIENKIEWICZ, U.C.:

The F in ite Elem ent M e th o d in E n g in e e rin g Sciences.

M c G ra w -H ill 1971

Kenneth M ason

Book Co.,

71

4.

EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS A N D SHOCK ON

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

4 .1 . D A M A G IN G EFFECTS OF V IB R A T IO N S . M E C H A N IC A L FA TIG U E
Even though m echanical failure due to m aterial fa tig u e is by far th e most
com m only know n d e te rio ratin g e ffe ct o f vibrations, a vibrating m echanical
co n stru ctio n may fa il in practice fo r o th e r reasons as w e ll. Failure may, fo r in
stance, be caused by th e occurrence o f one, or a fe w , excessive vib ra tio n am
plitudes (brittle m a te ria ls, c o n ta c t-fa ilu re s in relays and sw itches, co llisio n s
betw een tw o vib ra tin g system s etc.), or by the fa c t th a t a certain vib ra tio n
am p litu d e value is exceeded for too g re a t a time.

Fig. 4. 7. Possible m odes o f failure u n d e r pra ctica lly experienced random e x c i

tation
a) N orm al fa tig u e , where fa ilu re occurs a fte r a tim e w hich is
dependent on the total n u m b e r o f cycles a n d th e ir peak v a l
ues
b) F ailure occurs i f a(t) is g re a te r than a0 fo r a certain to ta l
tim e
c) Failure occurs when a (t) firs t exceeds the le v e l a(t) = a0

72

However, th e im portance o f mechanical fa tig u in g effects has initiated a c o n

siderable a m o u n t of research and testing around the w o rld . It has therefore
been deem ed appropriate to include a section here w h ich deals w ith th is p a r
ticu la r topic.
The fa tig u e phenom enon is today deemed to originate fro m local yield in
the m aterial or, in other w o rd s , from a s lid in g o f atom ic layers. This sliding is
caused by a com bination of so-called "d is lo c a tio n s " (irre g u la ritie s in the cry s
ta llin e s tru c tu re of the m a te ria l) and local stress concentrations. It is now as
sumed th a t each slip, no m a tte r how sm a ll, is connected w ith a small d e te rio
ration of th e m aterial, independent of th e dire ctio n of th e s lip . The dete rio ra
tion stops only when the s lip stops. Some d e fin ite proof fo r th is hypothesis
has, to th e a u th o rs know ledge, not been established as ye t. It gives h o w
ever, a logical and reasonable explanation fo r the fo rm a tio n of the m icro s
copic "s lip band s" w hich are th e firs t visible signs of m aterial fatigue.
W hen slip bands have been form ed th e y are, under co n tin u o u s vibration
loading, observed to progress and form m in u te cracks w h ic h eventually jo in
together and produce m ajor cracks. As soon as a crack has reached a certain
size it w ill propagate th ro u g h the m aterial according to a m athem atical la w of
the form:

w here

x = crack length
N = n u m b e r of stress reversals
c, m, n = co n sta n ts dependent upon the m aterial properties
(a reasonable assum ption seems in m a n y cases to be
m = 2 , n - 1)
er = relative strain

Finally th e crack w ill becom e so large th a t th e stress in th e rem aining m a te

rial becomes too great, w h e re b y the crack propagation becom es unstable,
and fa tig u e fa ilu re occurs.
Even th o u g h it is possible to describe a ce rta in part of th e fa tig u in g process
by means of a relatively s im p le m athem atical expression (see form ula above)
both the fo rm a tio n of "s lip bands" and th e fin a l crack in s ta b ility stages are of
a highly statistical nature. Taken as a w h o le , therefore, fa tig u e failures m u s t
be regarded as sta tistica l phenom ena.
The sta tistica l nature o f th e phenom enon m anifests its e lf as a considerable
spread in th e results of fa tig u e experim ents. As an exam ple of the re su lt of
such experim ents Fig.4 .2 show s a histogram made fro m investigations on

73

Log N
271315

Fig. 4 .2 . Typical histogram obtained fro m fa tig u e e xperim ents (after B loom er
a n d Roy lance)

the fa tig u e life of notched a lu m in iu m specim ens. The re s u lts show n w ere ob
tained from tests at a s in g le vibration stress level.
By m aking sim ila r tests at a num ber of vib ra tio n stress levels, a curve, co m
m only term ed the S-N cu rve (W hler-K urve) can be obta in e d , w hich show s
the re la tio n sh ip betw een th e average n u m b e r o f stress re ve rsa ls to fa ilu re
a n d the vibration stress level.
The actual S -N curve fo r a m aterial does not only depend upon the v ib ra
tio n a l effects, but is also affected by fa cto rs such as te m p e ra tu re , atm o s
pheric cond itions (corrosion effects), p re -tre a tm e n t of th e m aterial, etc.
Fig.4 .3 illu stra te s a set o f S -N curves va lid fo r 4 3 4 0 steel under norm al a t
m ospheric conditions. The curves show n are based on p u re harm onic v ib ra
tion loading only. In practice, how ever, a m echanical part, or m aterial, is very
rarely, if ever, subjected to pure harm onic vibrations of c o n sta n t m axim um
am plitude during its com plete " life " .
In order to take varying am plitudes in to account in th e o re tic a l estim ations
of th e average fatigue life , a " ru le " of lin e a r accum ulation of damage has
been suggested (Palmgren, M inor):

N u m ber o f cycles to fa ilu re , m illions

271316

F ig.4 .3 . F atigue strength curves for n o tch e d 4 3 4 0 steel (fro m M etals H a n d

book)
Here n, is th e actual n u m b e r of stress reversals at a vib ra tio n stress level
w h ich requires a total n u m b e r of stress reversals, N,, to fa ilu re . Failure
should th u s occur w hen D = 1. By using th e above expression, and a m athe
m atical approxim ation to th e S -N curve of th e form
NSb = a

(4.3)

it is som etim es possible to establish a closed m athem atical form ula for D.
Two co nditions w hich have to be fu lfille d w h e n use is to be m ade of the fo r
m ulae fo r D and the S -N curve are, how ever, th a t each stre ss reversal has
an approxim ately sinusoidal w ave-shape and th a t the mean stress is zero.
These co n d ition s are fu lfille d , fo r instance, by th e vibrational stresses o ccu r
ring in a lin e a r single degree-of-freedom system excited by random vib ra
tions, see F ig.4 .4 .
F urtherm ore, in such system s the sta tistica l d istrib u tio n of m axim um v ib ra
tion am plitudes (peaks) can be m athem atically described by m eans of the socalled R a yleig h -d istrib u tio n , F ig.4.5:
X 2

p ( x ) d x = ^ e 2 2 dx
o 2-

( 4 .4 )

w here p(x)dx is the p ro b a b ility of occurrence of peaks w ith in the in fin ite ly
75

Fig. 4 .4 . Illu stra tio n o f th e s tre ss-ve rsu s-tim e trace p ro d u c e d in a sin g le degree-of-freedom system excited b y random vib ra tio n s

Fig. 4 .5 . Typical peak p ro b a b ility density curve for n a rro w b a n d random vib ra
tio n s (Rayleigh d istrib u tio n )

sm all am plitu de " w in d o w " dx (Figs.4 .4 and 4.5). As th e total num ber of
peaks occurring w ith in dx is n(x) = f0 . T . p(x)dx, and th e p a rtia l fatigue dam
age caused by these stress reversals aro u n d the vibration level x is
D x = n ^ l = fo . T P W d x
N (x )
0
N (x )

the accum ulated damage over all vib ra tio n peak levels d u rin g the period of
tim e , T, is:

76

x . n { x ) __
N (x )

|' p ( x ) d x
0 Jo

N (x )

U tilizing now th e m athem atical approxim ation to th e S -N curve as w e ll as

the expression fo r th e Rayleigh d is trib u tio n of stress reversals given above,
the tota l tim e to fa ilu re (0 = 1 ) can be estim ated by s o lvin g the integral in the
fo rm u la fo r D :
T = --------------- a

,------(4.5)

f0 ( V 2 o) b r ( i + |)

w h e re F is the g a m m a -fu n ctio n tabu la te d in most re fe re n ce books on m a th e

m atical functions.
In th e case of com m on e n gineering m aterials, b takes values b e tw een 3
and 8 (Steel, b = 3 ,5 ; Tinbronze (Cu, Sn, Pb), b = 7 ,5 ).
The form ula for T in th e above equation has been derived on the basis of
n a rro w band random s tre s s /tim e h isto rie s of the typ e show n in F ig.4 .4 and
constant am plitude generated S-N curves. The same fo rm u la has also been ap
plied to wideband random signals such as shown in F ig .4 . 6 , using an "a v e r
age fre q u e n cy" determ ined from co u n tin g zero cro ssin g s. Recent w o rk , h o w
ever, has show n these techniques to be anti-conservative compared w ith ac
tual random fatigue data. This ten d e n cy increases w ith increasing ba n d w id th
leading to sig n ifica n t overestim ation of the fa tig u e life w hen d ealing w ith
w ide band random data. New pre d ictio n techniques em ploying random vib ra
tio n generated S-N curves and advanced peak c o u n tin g methods, w h ic h only

F ig .4 .6 . Typical stress-ve rsu s-tim e trace at a " c ritic a l p o in t" on a com plicated
stru ctu re
77

take the sig n ific a n t peaks in to consideration, agree more closely w ith prac
tic e . U nfo rtunate ly, much of th is is proprietary in fo rm a tio n and n o t generally
available in th e open lite ra tu re at th e tim e of w ritin g .

4 .1 .1 . Effect o f mean stress

In practice, fa tig u e problem s are not usually associated w ith o n ly a single
stress varying around a mean va lu e of zero. The stress w h ic h causes a fa i
lure is usually composed of at least tw o m ajor com ponents; a m ean stress,
w ith a varying stress superim posed upon it. A diagram m atic stress-tim e
curve for th is type of loading in clu d in g a sin u so id a lly varying and a mean
stress is show n in Fig.4 .7 w ith th e im portant param eters labelled. The S-N in
fo rm a tio n can be expressed in a num ber of d iffe re n t ways using va rio u s com
binations of these param eters. S-N curves m ay be plotted fo r a range of
stress ratios, R, the ratio of th e m inim um stress (S min) to th e m axim um
stress (Smax ), as in Fig.4 . 8 , producing a fa m ily o f curves from w h ic h the fa
tig u e life can be found for a com bination of m ean and s in u s o id a lly varying
stresses over a w id e range of ra tio s. The value R = 1,0 represents the case
o f a cycle w ith a zero mean, th e co n d ition of Fig.4 .3 .

Fig. 4. 7. S tre ss com posed o f bo th steady a n d varying com ponents

Several other m ethods of p re se n tin g this data are com m only used, one of
w h ic h is shown in Fig.4 .9 . In th is case the num ber of cycles to fa ilu re is plot
ted as a re lationsh ip between th e varying stress Sv , and the mean stre ss S m
For the case of a random signal varying about a m ean stress, th e problems
associated w ith th e random ness o f th e signal and those associated w ith the
steady stress can be considered to be independent o f each other. A tw o part
procedure is th e re fo re norm ally employed; one part dealing w ith th e random
ness of the flu c tu a tio n , and one dealing w ith the e ffe ct of the steady com po
n e n t. Firstly, the random ly flu c tu a tin g com ponent is reduced to an equivalent
78

C ycle s, N

800791

Fig. 4 .8 . Typical S N curves fo r various stress ra tio s fo r unno tch e d specimens

(A STM)
sinusoidal stress giving the sam e fatigue life, as described in som e detail at
th e beginning of th e chapter. Secondly, the com bined stresses are th e n evalu
ated together using curves of th e types shown in F ig s.4 8 and 4 .9 , to give an
estim ate of the life tim e . A lso in th is case, m ore re liable results can be ob
tained using S-N data generated using random e x c ita tio n .
In the practical case of a real s tru ctu re , the a ctu a l mode of fa ilu re and tim e
to fa ilu re are dom inated by the local physical fe a tu re s of the s tru c tu re as w ell
as the external factors such as corrosion, te m p e ra tu re , p re -tre a tm e n t, etc.
m entioned previously. The fa ilu re of a structure is th e re fc, 3 d om inated by the
w eakest links in th e fa ilu re ch a in and much e ffo rt is required to id e n tify and
elim in ate the m . Fatigue cracks m ay begin from stre ss con ce n tra tio n s at sharp
corners, surface irre g u la ritie s or damage, or w e ld s . Large w e lded structures
in a corrosive e n viro n m e n t under the action of c o n tin u o u s random excitation
are p a rticu larly susceptible to fa ilu re s em anating from d is c o n tin u itie s in
w elds. Ships, offshore stru c tu re s , turbine casings, and pressure vessels
in chem ical process plants are typ ica l examples.

4 .1 .2 . Acoustic Fatigue
A rather d iffe re n t type of fa tig u e fa ilu re has becom e of p a rticu la r interest in

(Sv), tons in
Amplitude
Fluctuating

M ean stress (Sm ), tons in - 2

F iq .4 .9 . Typical v a ria b le /m e a n
(A STM)
80

stre ss

curves

fo r

unno tch e d

800790

specim ens

recent years; th e fa ilu re of s tru c tu re s excited by direct a coustic radiation

rather than by stru ctu re -b o rn e vib ra tio n . The problem has been m ost acute
in aerospace stru ctu re s w h e re acoustic loading is caused both by d ire ct radia
tio n from the pow er plant, and by the generation of intense a co u stic d istu r
bances in the boundary layer d u rin g high speed flig h t. For m any a irc ra ft and
rocket com ponents, the acoustic fa tig u e re quirem ents, and not th e static
strength requirem ents, d e te rm in e th e design of th e structure.
Je t exhaust noise is h ig h ly d ire ctio n a l, having a m axim um in te n sity at
angles of betw een 3 0 and 4 5 from the je t exhaust axis. Som e parts of the
a ir fram e inevitably fall on th is lin e of m axim um radiation. A p a rt fro m the u n
derstandable case of engine exhaust and nacelle com ponents, tra ilin g edge
w in g panels and rear fuselage panels are often seriously affected. A s the to
tal acoustic pow er radiated by a je t exhaust is proportional to th e eighth
pow er of the je t efflux velocity (between the cube and the fifth p o w e r of the
je t e fflu x ve locity for rockets), and the square o f the je t d iam eter, th e m agni
tude of the acoustic fatigue problem on high pow ered lig h tw e ig h t structures
can be readily appreciated.
The incident acoustic w ave generates various modes of v ib ra tio n in the
s tru ctu re , causing the stress concentrations w h ic h lead to e ve n tu a l failure.
In a structural panel, the resonances are usu a lly very lightly dam ped and the
response to the excitation very peaky in nature. (See Fig.4.1 0). The mode of
fa ilu re is th e re fo re very dependent upon the details of both th e excitation
spectrum and th e stru c tu re 's response to it. S u ffic ie n t in fo rm a tio n can n o r
m ally only be gathered from extensive tests in a special cham ber. The sound
source m ust be capable of producing noise at very high levels, in excess of
1 5 0 dB, usually by means o f an exponential h o rn . Signal g e n e ra tio n , m easur
ing, and analysis in stru m e n ta tio n is, how ever, s im ila r to th a t described else
w h e re in th is volum e.

Fig. 4 .1 0 . Response o f a p a n e l to acoustic excitation (a fte r Yeh)

Further im portant areas w here acoustic fatigue is a problem are a ir-m o vin g
equipm ent, pow er s ta tio n generating equipm ent, and nu cle ar power plant.
The problem of random load fa tig u e has been stu d ie d quite extensively
over the past 1 5 to 2 0 years, and interested readers are referred to th e se
lected bibliography cited at the end of th e Chapter, in pa rticu la r to th e Brel
& Kj r Technical R eview s No. 1 1 9 6 8 and No.4 1 9 6 8 (included in "S e
lected R eprints").

4 .2 . D A M A G IN G EFFECTS OF S H O C K A N D T R A N S IE N T S
A s discussed e a rlie r in sections 2 .3 and 3 .5 , a shock is characterised by a
sudden, not alw ays expected, occurrence, and a s h o rt d uration in re la tio n to
th e natural frequency of th e system on w hich the shock is acting. A tra n
sien t, however, may last fo r a tim e w h ic h corresponds to several cycles at
th e natural frequency o f th e system. W hatever p a ram eter is used to describe
the rapid transfer of energy w hich c o n stitu te s a shock i.e. force, acceleration,
velocity, or displacem ent, it is alw ays necessary to o b ta in a tim e h is to ry of
th e shock in the u n its chosen. This in fo rm a tio n is re q u ire d , not as a re s u lt in
itself, but as a m eans of estim ating th e effect that th e shock has on a p a rtic u
lar system . The e n g in e e r is more inte re ste d in the response of his system to
th e application of a shock, e.g. from rough handling, explosions, im pact, c o lli
sion, etc. than he is in th e shock its e lf. The length, rise tim e, and specific
shape of the shock p ulse, all have an influence on th e ultim a te response of
th e stru ctu re in q u e stio n . It is for th is reason that th e concept of the shock re
sponse spectrum has been w idely used to compare shock m otions, to fo rm u
late laboratory tests, and to design eq u ipm e n t to w ith s ta n d shock inputs. The
m otion of the system on w h ich the shock acts is dependent upon th e fre
quency of both the shock excitation and th e natural fre q u e n c y of the system .
M echanical shocks are of particular im portance in th e design and operation
of m achinery and s tru c tu re s , because instantaneous in p u t levels are fre
q u e n tly an order of m agnitude greater than steady sta te levels. Shock and
tra n s ie n t analysis are n o rm a lly concerned w ith the design of the system to
survive the e n viro n m e n t, or w ith the atte n u a tio n of th e in p u t to the system
by means of packaging or isolators to
reduce the dam aging effect of the
shock input. Damage caused by shock
loading w ill u su a lly fall into fa ilu re
categories b) and c) in F ig .4 .1 . Category b) may be considered a form
of " fa
tig u e " fa ilu re for w h ic h o n ly shocks are counted and fo r w h ic h the life can be
defined sim ply as the nu m b e r of shocks to failure. C ategory c) im plies in sta n t
catastrophic fa ilu re as soon as a 0 is exceeded, i.e. the design shock occurs.
Depending on the a p p lica tio n , tw o d iffe re n t m eanings can be attached to the
w o rd survival:

82

1.

th e system exhibits no perm anent damage after a shock or a know n or ex

pected num ber of shocks, or

2.

th e system su ffe rs no dete rio ratio n of perform ance eith e r during or after
th e shock or series of shocks.

P erm anent damage need not necessarily take place fo r a m echanical or

stru ctu ra l system to fa il a shock te st, so a simple te st to destruction may not
alw ays be su fficie n t to ensure s u rv iv a b ility . In ad d ition , th e characteristics of
th e shock e nviro nm en t m ust be kn o w n w ith reasonable accuracy in o rder to
ensure th a t e nviron m e n ta l tests are va lid . For th is reason, measured tim e h is
to rie s are often used as laboratory te s t excitations in order to reproduce as
closely as possible th e actual co nditions experienced in use.
M ethods of isolation and control are discussed in m ore detail in Chapter 1 2.

4 .3 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A PH Y
ASTM

STP 3 3 8 1 9 6 3

BLOOMER, N T. and
ROYLANCE, T.F.:

A Large S cale Fatigue Test o f A lu m in iu m Specim ens.

The A e ro n a u tica l Q uarterly, V ol. XVI, Nov. 1 9 6 5

BROCH, J.T.:

Selected R eprints from Technical Review: N o n -L in e a r

Systems a n d Random V ibration. B & K P ublication,
June 1 9 7 5

FORSYTH, P.J.E.:

The P hysical Basis o f M e ta l Fatigue.

S o n ,L o n d o n 1 9 6 9

HARRIS, C .M ., and
CREDE, C.E. (eds.):

Shock a n d V ibration Handbook. M cG ra w -H ill

Company, Inc. New York, 2nd Ed. 1 9 7 6

KACENA, W .J., and

JONES, P.J.:

Fatigue P rediction o f S tru ctu re s subjected to Random

Vibration. Shock and V ib ra tio n B ulletin, N o.4 6 , Part
3, 8 /1 9 7 6 , pp. 8 7 -9 6

KELLY, R.D., and

RICHMAN, G :

Principles a n d Techniques o f Shock Data A n a lysis.

Published by th e Shock and V ibration In fo rm a tio n
Center, U.S. D epartm ent of Defence, 1 9 6 9

LITTLE, R.E. and

JEBE, E.H.:

S ta tistica l D esign o f Fatigue Experiments.

Science P ublishers, London 1 9 7 5

Blackie and

Book

A pplied

83

M ADAYAG, A .E . Ed.:

M e ta l Fatigue: Theory a n d Design. J o h n W ile y and

Sons 1 9 6 9

McLEAN D.:

M e c h a n ic a l Properties o f M etals. J o h n
Sons, 1 9 6 2

MINER, M .A .:

C u m u la tive Damage in
M ech. V ol. 1 2 1 9 4 5

NATO AGARD:

P roceedings o f a S ym posium on R andom Load Fa

tigue 1 9 7 2

NATO AGARD:

Proceedings o f a S ym posium on A co u stic Fatigue

1973

PALMGREN, A.:

'Die Lebensdauer
1 9 2 4 , 3 3 9 41

ROLFE, S.T., and

BARSOM, J .M .:

Fracture a n d Fatigue C o n tro l in S tru ctu re s. PrenticeHall 1 9 7 7

SANDOR, B l.:

F und a m e n ta ls o f Cyclic S tress and S train. University

of W isco n sin Press 1 9 7 2

TRAPP, W .J., and

FORNEY, D .M . J n r. E

von

Fatigue.

W iley and

J o u rn a l

K ugellagern',

VDI

of Appl.

V o l. 68 ,

Proceedings o f the 2 nd In te rn a tio n a l Conference

'o f A c o u s tic a l Fatigue in Aerospace S tru ctu re s. Day
ton O h io , A p ril 2 9 th M ay 1 st 1 9 6 4 . Syracuse U n i
versity Press

WEIBULL, W.:

Fatigue Testing and A n a ly s is o f Results. AGARD-Publication by Pergamon Press. Oxford London

New Y ork Paris 1 961

YEH, L.:

S tru c tu re Life Prediction u sin g Broad B a n d A coustic

Fatigue Theory. Proceedings o f the Noise, Shock and
V ib ra tio n Conference at M onash U n ive rsity, M e l
bourne,
A u stra lia ,
M ay
2 2 25,
1974
Pages
113 129

Journal:

The Shock and V ibration B ulletin,

search Laboratory, W a sh in g to n DC

84

The

Naval Re

5.

EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS AND SHOCK ON MAN

5 .1 . W H O L E -B O D Y V IB R A T IO N
The h u m a n body is both physically and biologically a "s y s te m " of an e x
trem e ly com plex nature. W hen looked upon as a m echanical system it c o n
tains a num ber of lin e a r as w ell as n o n -lin e a r "e le m e n ts ", and the m e ch a n i
cal properties are quite d iffe re n t from person to person.
B iologically the situ a tio n is by no m eans sim pler, e specially when psycho
logical e ffects are included. In considering the response o f man to v ib ra tio n s
and shocks it is necessary, however, to take into a cco u n t both m echanical
and psychological effects.
Because experim ents w ith human b eings are d iffic u lt, tim e -co n su m in g and
in extrem e cases une sth e tica l, much o f th e knowledge gained to date has
been ob tained from experim ents on a n im a ls. It is, of course, not always po ssi
ble to " s c a le " results obtained from a n im a l experim ents to reactions expected
from m an, but nevertheless such e xp e rim e n ts often re s u lt in valuable in fo r
m ation.
As th e purpose of th is Chapter is m ore to review some o f th e present k n o w
ledge th a n to discuss p a rticu la r e xp e rim e n ts in detail, th e follow ing pages
contain a brief description of some m a jo r facts w hich are no w known about
m an's response to vib ra tio n s and shocks.
C onsidering firs t the hum an body as a m echanical "s y s te m " it may, at lo w
frequ encies and low vib ra tio n levels, be roughly approxim ated by a lin e a r
lum ped param eter system of the type s h o w n in Fig.5 .1 . O ne of the m ost im
portant "p a rts " of th is system w ith respect to vibration and shock effect seem s
to be th e part marked "thorax-abdom en system . This is due to a d is tin c t re
sonance effect occurring in the 3 6 Hz range as indicated on Figs.5 .2 and
5.3 and w h ic h makes e ffic ie n t vibration isolation of a s ittin g or standing p e r
son very d iffic u lt. A fu rth e r resonance e ffe c t is found in th e 2 0 to 3 0 Hz re
gion and is caused by th e head-neck-shoulder system. F ig .5 .3 .

85

on a vertica lly vib ra tin g platform . (A fte r Coerman et a I.)

A lso in the region 6 0 to 9 0 Hz disturbances are felt w h ic h suggest eyeball

resonances, and a resonance effect in the lo w e r jaw -skull system has been
foun d betw een 1 0 0 and 2 0 0 Hz.
Above 1 0 0 Hz, simple lum ped param eter m odels like that s h o w n in Fig.5.1
are not very useful. It is th e n necessary to apply continuous s tru c tu ra l analy
sis m ethods w h ic h become ve ry complex. By such methods, how ever, it has
been show n th a t for the sku ll its e lf the fu n d a m e n ta l mode of vib ra tio n seems
to be in the region of 3 0 0 4 0 0 Hz w ith resonances fo r higher modes
around 6 0 0 to 9 0 0 Hz A t s till higher fre q u e n cie s use m ust be made of w a
ve theory both in the fo rm of shear w aves and of com pressional waves
(sound waves).
86

10

20

30

40

Frequency, H z
271285

Fig. 5 .2 . T ransm issibility o f vertical v ib ra tio n from table to various parts o f the
body o f a sta n d in g hum an s u b je c t as a fu n c tio n o f frequency. (A fte r
D ieckm ann; data for tra n s m is s io n to belt, a fte r Ftadke)

From a shock and vib ra tio n point o f v ie w the low fre q u e n cy range m ay be
considered most im p o rta n t. Some ve ry interesting m easurem ents have here
been made by von Bekesy and concern th e attenuation o f vibration along the
hum an body. In F ig .5 .4 the re su lts obtained at 5 0 Hz are reproduced and
show th a t the a ttenu a tio n from fo o t to head is of th e order of 30 dB. S im i
larly, th e attenuation fro m hand to head is roughly 4 0 dB.
A p a rt from the m echanical responses mentioned above, both physiological
and psychological effects are observed. A lth o u g h these e ffe cts are ra th e r c o m
plex and d ifficu lt to measure, it seem s th a t physiological results obtained
fro m anim al experim ents also apply to m an to a ce rta in extent. These e xp e ri
m ents have been m ostly concerned w ith changes in food assim ilation, m u s c u
lar a ctivity, reproductive activity etc. as w e ll as actual in te rn a l injury.
Psychological effects such as p e rce p tio n , discom fort, and pain, have re
cently been studied in some detail. M o s t of the studies have been carried out
on ve hicle drivers and aircraft p ilo ts , w hose ability to perform com plex tasks
under adverse environm ental c o n d itio n s , including vib ra tio n , is p a rtic u la rly
87

Frequency Hz

270159

Fig. 5 .3 . T ransm issibility o f v e rtic a l vibration fro m table to va rio u s parts o f a

seated hu m a n su b je ct as a fu n ctio n o f frequency. (A fte r D ieckm ann)
im portant. The data available is therefore m a in ly fo r sitting or standing sub
jects. The recent ISO 263 1 1 9 7 8 brings th is data c o n ve n ie n tly together
as a set of vibratio n criteria curves for vertical and lateral v ib ra tio n over the
frequency range 1 to 8 0 Hz. These are show n in Figs.5.5 (ve rtica l) and 5 .6
(lateral), and apply to vib ra tio n tra n sm itte d to th e torso of a sta n d in g or sitting
person in the axis system indicated.
V ibration at frequencies b e lo w 1 Hz occurs in m any form s o f tra n sp o rt and
produces effects, e.g. K inetosis (m otion sickness), w h ich are co m p le te ly d iffe r
ent in character from those produced at h ig h e r frequencies. These effects
cannot be sim ply related to th e th re e param eters of the exciting m o tio n , in te n
sity, duration, and frequency, as has been possible in the range fro m 1 Hz to
8 0 Hz. In ad dition, human re a ctio n to vibration below 1 Hz is e xtre m e ly vari
able and seems to depend on a large num ber of external factors w h ic h have
nothing to do w ith the m otion, e.g. age, sex, v is io n , activity, odours. Despite
th is varia b ility and the lim ite d a m o u n t of data available, an a tte m p t has been
made to fo rm u la te ten ta tive standards fo r th e frequency range from 1 Hz
dow n to 0,1 Hz in an addendum to the p re vio u sly mentioned Standard for
w h ole-body vib ra tio n i.e. ISO 2 6 3 1 . R ecom m endations are made o n ly for lin
ear m otion in the vertical p lane, the acceleration tim e re la tio n s h ip fo llo w
ing a "co n sta n t e n e rg y " law , i.e. a c c n 2 x tim e = constant. It sh o u ld be noted
th a t th is is th e case for n e ith e r w hole-body vib ra tio n (ISO 2 6 3 1 ) nor hand88

Fig. 5 .4 . A tte n u a tio n o f vibration a t 5 0 Hz along h u m a n body. The a tte n u a tio n

is expressed in decibels b e lo w values at th e po in t o f e xcita tio n . For
excitation o f (A) hand, a n d (B) p la tfo rm on w h ic h subject stands. (A f
ter von Bekesy)

arm vibration (D raft ISO 5 3 4 9 ), w h ic h fo llo w a n o n -lin e a r a cce le ra tio n -tim e

relationship.
Above 8 0 Hz, th e sensations and effects are very dependent upon local con
d itio n s at the point of application, e.g. the actual dire ctio n , position and area
over w h ich the vibratio n is tra n s m itte d , and upon th e damping at th is point,
e.g. due to clo th in g or footw ear. These external fa c to rs heavily in flu e n c e the
response of the skin and s u p e rficia l tissue c h ie fly affected by frequencies
above 8 0 Hz. It is th u s generally not possible at p re se n t to state va lid criteria
outside the stated range, 1 Hz to 8 0 Hz.
The vibration levels indicated by th e curves in F ig s .5.5 and 5 .6 are given
in term s of R M S acceleration levels w hich p ro d u ce equal fatigue-decreased
proficiency. Exceeding the exposure specified by th e curves w ill, in m ost s itu
ations cause noticeable fatigue and decreased jo b proficiency in m ost tasks.
The degree of task interference depends on the su b je ct and the co m p le xity of
89

m /s 2

Fig. 5 .5 . Vertical vib ra tio n exposure crite ria curves d e fin in g equal fa tig u e -d e
creased p ro fic ie n c y boundaries

th e task but the curves indicate th e general range fo r onset of such in te rfe r
ence and the tim e dependency observed.
A n upper b o u n d to exposure considered
w e ll as perform ance) is taken to be tw ic e as
decreased p ro ficie n cy boundary s h o w n in
fo rt bo undary" is assum ed to be a b o u t one
levels.

acceptable (hazard to h e a lth as

h igh as (6 dB above) th e "fa tig u e Fig.5 .5 w h ile the "re d u c e d com
th ird o f (1 0 d B below) th e stated

These criteria are presented as recom m ended g u id elin e s or tre n d curves

ra th e r than firm boundaries classifying q u antitative biological or psychological
lim its . They are in te n d e d only for s itu a tio n s involving healthy, norm al people
considered fit fo r no rm a l living ro u tin e s and the stress of an average w orking
day.
There are, as yet, no firm criteria fo r purely a n g u la r vibration e q u iva le n t to
those fo r purely tra n s la tio n a l vib ra tio n as described above. In practice, angu90

m/s 2

0,5

0,8

1,25

2,0

3,15

5,0

8,0

12,5

20

31,5

50

80
790538

Fig. 5 .6 . Lateral vibration exposure crite ria curves d e fin in g equal fa tig u e -d e c
reased p ro ficie n c y boundaries
lar m otion (i.e. in ya w , roll and pitch) whose ce n tre s of rotation lie at a dis
tance from the poin t of application to the body, can be adequately a pproxi
m ated by purely tra n sla to ry m otion. However, th e re is much c u rre n t w ork
aim ed at the eventual d efinition of crite ria curves s im ila r to those of F ig s.5.5
and 5 .6 fo r tra n sla to ry vibration.
Finally, F ig.5 .7 indicates the to le ra n ce of hum an subjects to s in g le shock
acceleration pulses of the type produced in the flo o r near drop forges or s im i
lar equipm ent (results from a single study).

5 .2 . H A N D -A R M V IB R A T IO N
H and-arm vib ra tio n is the second large problem area where tra n sm issio n
into the hum an body is concerned. It is, h o w e ver, rather d iffe re n t from
w ho le-body vibration in the type o f problem s to w h ic h it gives rise. W hereas
vib ra tio n tra n sm itte d into the sta n d in g or seated body norm ally gives rise to
problem s of a general nature e.g. m otion sickness, discom fort, reduced-w ork91

Maximum peak-to-peak
displacement of pulse, cm

Duration o f pulse rise time t, sec.

271289

Fig. 5 .7 . Tolerance o f hum an s u b je cts in the sta n d in g or supine p o s itio n to re

p e titive v e rtica l im pact p u ls e s re p resentative o f im pacts fro m pile
drivers, heavy tools, h eavy tra ffic, etc. S u b je ctive reaction is p lo tte d
as a fu n c tio n o f the m a x im u m displacem ent o f the in itia l p u ls e and
its rise tim e. The nu m b e rs indicate the fo llo w in g re a ctio n s fo r the
areas b etw e e n the lines: / a, th re sh o ld o f pe rce p tio n : / b, fo r easy p e r
ception; / c, o f strong p e rce p tio n , annoying; II a. very u n pleasant, p o t
e n tia l danger fo r long exposures; II b, e xtre m e ly unpleasant, d e fin
ite ly dangerous. The decay process o f th e im pact pulses w a s fou n d
to be o f little p ra c tic a l sig n ifica n ce . (A fte r Fie h e r and M e is te r)

92

ing efficie ncy, etc, v ib ra tio n applied to th e hand-arm m ay, in addition, p ro

duce actual physical dam age locally if th e level and exposure tim es are s u ffic
ie ntly high.
V ib ra tio n levels encountered in many co m m o n ly used p o w e r tools are s u f
fic ie n tly high to cause dam age w hen operated for d u ra tio n s common in in d u s
try. Typical of these pow er tools are ch ip p in g ha m m e rs, power g rin d e rs,
ham m er drills, and chain saw s, found in w idespread use in the m ining, c o n
stru ctio n , m a n ufacturin g and forestry in d u s trie s . V ib ra tio n may be tra n s m it
ted in to the body from a vib ra tin g tool or hand-held w o rkp ie ce via one or both
arm s sim ultaneo usly, causing, at low er levels, d isco m fo rt and reduced w o rk
ing efficiency. A t higher levels and longer exposure p eriods, diseases a ffe c t
ing th e blood vessels, jo in ts and circu la tio n occur. Severe exposure leads to a
progressive circu la tio n disorder in the p a rt of the body su ffe rin g the h ig h est
level of vibration, usually th e fingers or h a n d w here h a n d -h e ld tools are con-

0, 050
0,040

0,030

0,020

0,015

>
>
0,010

0,008

0,006
0,005

0,004

0,003

F ig.5 .8 . Exposure guidelines fo r vib ra tio n tra n s m itte d to the h a n d

93

cerned. This is variously k n o w n as "dead h a n d ", vib ra tio n -in d u ce d w h ite

fin g e r, or Raynaud's disease. In extreme cases th is leads to p e rm anent d a m
age or gangrene. These diseases and th e ir causes are c u rre n tly being e x te n
sively investigated both by m edical and eng ine e rin g researchers.
A very recent ISO draft p u b lica tio n (5 3 4 9 ) attem pts to gather c u rre n t k n o w
ledge into a convenient fo rm and to enable conclusions to be draw n about
the damage risk of practically measured vib ra tio n exposures. The suggested
guideline levels are show n in F ig .5 .8 and cover the fre q u e n cy range fro m
8 Hz to 1 kHz. A lthough exposure curves fo r both third octave and octave
bands are presented, third octaves are recom m ended as these are likely to be
more strin g e n t than octaves w h e n applied to th e discrete fre q u e n c y spectra
often encountered in rotating hand-held tools. In te rm itte n t use is covered by
a series of curves w hich a llo w greater levels of vibration fo r s h o rte r exposure
tim es, via a non -lin e a r re la tio n s h ip w hich dem ands increasingly shorter expo
sure tim es at the highest levels, in a m a n n e r sim ila r to th a t fo r the w h o le body vibration curves. Compare F ig s.5.5 and 5 .8 .
M ost of th e data used to derive the curves w e re from pure sin e or n a rro w
band inve stigation s and they are th erefore m a in ly applicable to th a t type of e x
citatio n. H ow ever, they may be p rovisionally applied to repeated shock and
othe r types of markedly n o n -sin u so id a l e x c ita tio n , in w hich case a m easure
of the crest fa cto r should be d eterm ined.

5 .3 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A PH Y
AGATE, J.N . and
DRUETT, H .A.:

A S tu d y o f Portable V ib ra tin g Tools in R e la tio n to the

C lin ic a l E ffects w h ic h th e y Produce. B rit. J . Industr.
M ed., 1 9 4 7 , 4, 141 1 63

AXELSSON, SVEN A K E .A nalysis o f V ibrations in Power Saws. Studia Forestalia Suecica. N r.5 9 1 9 6 8
ALLEN, G.R.:

Proposed L im its fo r Exposure to W hole-B ody Vertical

V ibration 0,1 to 1,0 Hz, AGARD CP 1 4 5 , 1 975

COERMANN, R. et al

The P assive D ynam ic M e ch a n ica l P ro p e rtie s o f the

H um an Thorax A bdom en System a n d o f the
Whole B ody System. Aerospace M ed. V o l.31, p.
443, 1 9 6 0

COERMANN, R.:

E in w irk u n g s to f rm ig e r B eschleunigungen a u f den

M enschen. V D I-B erichte Nr. 135, 1 9 6 9

94

DIECKMANN, D.:

E in flu vertikaler m echanischen S ch w in g u n g e n a u f

den M ensch. A rb e itsp h ysio l. Vol. 16, S. 5 1 9 , 1 957

DUPUIS, H.,
HARTUNG, E. and
HAM MER, W .:

B iom echanisches V erhalten, M u ske lre a ktio n und su b

je k tiv e W ahrnehm ung b e i S chw ingungserregung der
oberen E xtrem itten zw isch e n 8 u n d 8 0 Hz. Archives
of occupational and e nvironm ental h e a lth 37, 9 -3 4
(1 9 7 6 )

GO LDM AN, D.E. and

VON GIERKE, H.E.:

The E ffe c t o f Shock a n d Vibration on M a n . N o.60

3, L ecture and R eview Series. Naval M edical Rese
arch In stitu te , B ethesda, M aryland, U .S .A . 1 9 6 0

HARRIS, C M . and
CREDE, C.E. (Eds.):

S hock and V ibration Handbook, M c G ra w -H ill Book

C om pany, Inc. N ew Y ork 2nd Ed. 1 9 7 6

O 'HANLON, F.J. and

McCAULEY, M.E.:

M o tio n Sickness Incidence as a F u n c tio n o f the F re

q u e n cy and A c c e le ra tio n o f V ertical S in u so id a l M o
tion. Aerospace M e d icin e A pril 1 9 7 4

I S O. 2 6 3 1 -1 9 7 8 :

G uide fo r the e va lu atio n o f hum an exposure to w holeb ody vibration

I S O. D raft Addendum E va lu a tio n o f Exposure to W hole-Body, z-axis, V e rti

ca l V ibration in the fre q u e n cy range 0 ,1 to 1,0 Hz
to I S O .-2 6 3 1 :
I.S .O ./D IS 5 3 4 9 :

P rin cip le s for the m e a surem ent and th e evaluation o f

h u m a n exposure to vib ra tio n tra n s m itte d to the hand

M IW A, T.:

E v a lu a tio n M ethods fo r Vibration E ffe ct (Part 7 9).

Ind. Health (Japan) 1 9 6 7 1 9 6 9

RATHBONE, T.C.:

V ib ra tio n Tolerance. Pow er Plant Engineering 43, p.

721 7 2 4 , 1 9 3 9

REASON, J.T. and

BRAND, J .J .:

M o tio n Sickness. A cadem ic Press, London 1976

REIHER, H. und
MEISTER, F.J.:

D ie E m p fin d lich ke it des M enchen gegen Ste. For

schung auf dem G ebiete des Ingenieurw esens. Vol.
3, S. 1 77, 193 2

REYNOLDS, D.D. and

SOEDEL, W .:

A n a ly tic a l V ibration A nalysis o f N on -Iso la te d Chain

S aw s. J.S .V. V o l.4 4 , N o .4, 1 9 7 6 pp 51 3 523

95

REYNOLDS, D.D. et al .H a n d -A rm V ib ra tio n Parts I, H a n d III. J.S .V. V ol. 5 1 ,

No. 2, 1 9 7 7 , pp 2 3 7 282
TAYLOR, W . (Ed.):

The Vibration Syndrom e. Proceedings of a

ence on the M e d ica l Engineering and Legal
o f Hand-Arm V ib ra tio n , at the U niversity of
fro m 12 to 14 J u ly , 19 7 2 . B .A .S . special
No. 2, published by Academ ic Press, 1 9 7 4

TELFORD, E D.,
McCANN, M B. and
MacCORM ACK, D.H.:

"D e a d h a n d " in U sers o f V ibrating Tools. The Lancet

Sept. 22, 1 9 4 5 . 1 :3 5 9

TEMPEST, W . (Ed.):

In fra s o u n d and L o w Frequency V ibration. A cadem ic

Press, London 1 9 7 6

VDI 2 0 5 6 :

B e u rte ilun g sm a st b e f r m echanische S c h w in

g u n g e n von M a sch in e n . Oktober 1 9 6 4 , B euth-V ertrie b , Berlin

VDI 2 0 5 7 :

B e u rte ilu n g der E in w irk u n g m e ch a n isch e r S c h w in

g u n g e n a u f den M enschen. O ktober 1 9 6 3 , B e u th V e rtrie b , Berlin

W IKSTR M , B.O. and

ISAKSSON, A.:

U ndersknings rap p o rt, 1978: 2 8 . A rbetarskyddsstyre lsen, Fack, S tockholm , Sweden

C o n fe r
A spects
D undee
volum e

SHOENBERGER, R.W.: S u b je ctive R esponse to very Low -F requency V ib ra

tio n , A viation Space and E nvironm ental M edicine
V ol. 4 6 , No. 6 , J u n e 1 9 7 5

96

6.

VIBRATION

MEASURING INSTRUMENTATION
AND TECHNIQUES

6 .1 . G E N E R A L M E A S U R E M E N T C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
As indicated p reviously in this book th e re are three q u a n titie s w h ic h are of
in te re st in vibration stu d ie s, the vib ra to ry displacem ent, velocity and a cce le ra
tion (peak or RMS values). These th re e quantities are related sim ply, as de
scribed in Chapter 2. If the phase re la tio n sh ip s b e tw e e n the three p a ra m e
ters are neglected as is always the case w hen making tim e-average m e a su re
m ents, then the ve lo city at a given fre q u e n cy can be obtained by d ivid in g the
acceleration by a fa cto r proportional to th e frequency, and the d isplacem ent
can be obtained by divid in g the a cceleration level by a factor p roportional to
the frequency squared. This operation is perform ed in electronic m easuring
in stru m e n ts by an inte g ra tio n process. The re la tio n s h ip between th e three
param eters as a fu n c tio n of fre q u e n cy is shown in F ig .6.1. Note th a t the
axes are logarithm ic.

Fig. 6. 7. The in te g ra tio n and double in te g ra tio n o f a cceleration to o b ta in veloc

ity and displacem ent respectively
97

The firs t vib ra tio n pickups producing an e le c tric a l output w e re rather bulky
velocity sensitive devices. D u rin g th e last fe w ye a rs there has been a marked
move tow ards th e use of a cceleration sensitive transducers, c a lle d acceler
om eters Reasons for this tra n s fe r of preference are that accelerom eters are
generally m uch sm aller ph ysica lly than ve lo city pick-ups and th a t their fre
quency and d yna m ic ranges are s ig n ifica n tly w id e r, even after in te g ra tio n to
velocity. A w id e r dynam ic and frequency range is a prime re q u ire m e n t of the
modern vibration pickup, p a rtic u la rly to cater fo r th e growing in te re s t in high
frequency vib ra tio n as a ca rrie r o f inform ation on th e running c o n d itio n of m a
chinery and th e corresponding w id e range of vib ra tio n levels to be detected.
A n additional fa cto r w hich u n d e rlin e s the b e n e fits of accelerom eters is the
fact that an acceleration signal can be easily and validly in tegrated e lectroni
cally to obtain velocity and displacem ent w h e re a s electronic d iffe re n tia tio n
used w ith velocity and d isplacem ent transducers is a more co m p le x and dubi
ous affair
In theory it is irrelevant w h ic h o f the three param eters, acce le ra tio n , veloc
ity or displacem ent are chosen to measure v ib ra tio n . If one p lo tte d a n a rro w
band frequency analysis of a vib ra tio n signal in te rm s of the th re e parame
ters, they w o u ld all show the sam e frequency com ponents but w o u ld have d if
fe re n t average slopes as seen in F ig.6.1. It can be seen th a t displacem ent
m easurem ents give low fre q u e n cy com ponents m ost w eight and conversely
acceleration m easurem ents w e ig h t the high frequency com ponents. This
leads to a practical consideration th a t can in flu e n c e the choice o f param eter.
It is advantageous to select th e param eter w h ic h gives the fla tte s t frequency
spectrum in order to best u tilis e th e dynamic range of the m e a su rin g in stru
m entation.
The nature o f mechanical system s is such th a t appreciable displacem ents
o nly occur at lo w frequencies, th e re fo re d isplacem ent m easurem ents are of li
m ited value in th e general study o f m echanical vib ra tio n s. D isplacem ent is o f
ten used as an ind ica tor of u nbalance in rotating m achine parts because rela
tive ly large displacem ents u s u a lly occur at th e shaft rotation frequency,
w h ic h is the frequ e n cy of prim ary interest fo r ba la ncin g purposes.
RMS velocity m easurem ents are w id e ly used fo r vibration 's e v e rity meas
urem ents. This is due to the fa ct th a t vibratory v e lo c ity is simply re la te d to vib
ratory energy and is therefore a m easure of th e destructive e ffe c t of vibra
tio n . A given velocity level also signifies c o n sta n t stress for geom etrically
s im ila r co nstru ction s vibrating in th e same mode.
Because acceleration m easurem ents are w e ig h te d towards h igh frequency
vibration com ponents, th is p a ram eter is preferred w h e re the fre q u e n c y range
of interest covers high frequencies.

98

V ib ra tio n pickups of sm all size and w e ig h t are desirable because the pickup
should load the s tru ctu ra l member on w h ic h it is m ounted as little as p o ssi
ble and because it is often required to m easure vibration at a point on a s tru c
ture rathe r than over an area.
The frequency range of interest in vib ra tio n m easurem ents has been in c re a
sing steadily over the past tw o or th re e decades. Today m any vibration m e a s
urem ents are carried o u t up to 10 kHz, and often higher. The increased in te r
est in higher frequencies has been prom pted by the developm ent of h ig h
speed m achinery and th e recognition th a t high fre q u e n cy vibrations ca rry va
luable inform a tion about the condition of ro llin g e le m e n t (ball, roller, needle)
bearings, gear teeth, turb o m a ch in e ry blading etc.
The vibration associated w ith flu id flo w , je t noise, ca vita tio n etc. is e sse n
tia lly random in nature and must often be measured e ith e r alone or to g e th e r
w ith periodic vibration com ponents. This again calls fo r more com plicated
m easurem ent te chn iqu e s than was com m on in earlier days.
To be able to predict the effects of vib ra tio n on m echanical structures and
m an, it is not norm a lly su fficie n t to m easure the overall vibration level over
the freq uency range of interest. Frequency analysis is necessary to reveal th e
ind ividua l frequency com ponents m aking up the w id e band signal. For th is
purpose a filte r is contained in or attached to the vib ra tio n m easuring in s tru
m ent, th u s making a frequency analyzer. The filte r a llo w s only frequency c o m
ponents to be m easured w hich are contained in a sp e cific frequency band.
The pass band of the filte r is moved sequentially over th e w hole fre q u e n cy
range of interest so th a t a separate vib ra tio n level reading can be obtained at
each frequency.
The filte r section can consist of a nu m b e r of individual contiguous fixed fr e
quency filte rs w h ich are scanned se q u e n tia lly or a tu n a b le filte r w hich can be
tuned contin uou sly over the frequency range. A th ird a lte rn a tive , w hich is b e
com ing rapidly w idespread due to advances in digital sig n a l handling te c h n o l
ogy, is the use of re a l-tim e analyzers w h ic h present a continuously updated
com plete frequency spectrum on a display screen. A n o th e r fundam ental d if
fere nce betw een th e various filte r and analyzer types is in the filte r b a n d
w id th , n arro w or w ide and w h e th e r it is a fixed percentage of the tun e d fr e
quency or is a co nsta n t number of Hz absolute b a n d w id th independent of
tu n e d frequency.
It is very often necessary in practical vibration w o rk to use analyzers w ith
an exceedingly n a rro w bandw idth in order to separate closely spaced s in u
soidal com ponents or because the s tru c tu re s excited by vibration often c o n
tain m echanical resonances w ith large Q -values (lig htly dam ped resonances).
W h ic h type of in stru m e n ta tio n should be used in a p a rticu la r m easurem ent
99

situation m ust be decided upon by the u ltim a te use of the data obtained and
the m easuring equipm ent a vailable. This and th e follow ing chapters w ill dem
onstrate the fa c ilitie s provided by a w ide ra nge of in stru m e n ts and discuss
th e ir application to practical problem s.

6 .2 . S ELE C TIO N OF A C C ELE R O M E TER

A n accelerom eter is an e lectrom echanical tra n sd u ce r w hich produces at its
output te rm in a ls, a voltage or charge that is proportional to th e acceleration
to w hich it is subjected. P iezoelectric accelerom eters exhibit b e tte r a ll-round
ch aracteristics th a n any o th e r type of vib ra tio n transducer and are m ore-orless u n iversa lly preferred fo r m easurem ents covering a w id e frequency
range.
The heart o f th e accelerom eter is its piezoelectric elem ents w h ic h are u su
ally made from an a rtific ia lly polarized fe rro e le c tric ceramic. These piezoelec
tric elem ents have the property o f producing an electrical charge w h ic h is d i
rectly proportional to strain and th u s the applied force w hen loaded e ith e r in
tension , com pression or shear! In practical accelerom eter designs the piezoe
lectric elem ents are arranged so that they are loaded by a m ass or masses
and a preloading spring or rin g . W hen subjected to vibration th e masses ex
ert a varying force on the piezoelectric ele m e n ts w h ich is d ire c tly proportional
to the vibratory acceleration. For frequencies lying w ell under th e resonant
frequency of th e assembly, th e acceleration o f th e masses w ill be the same
as the acceleration of the base, and the o u tp u t signal level w ill be propor
tional to the acceleration to w h ic h the accelerom eter is subjected.
Two accelerom eter c o n fig u ra tio n s are in com m on use, th e com pression
and the shear types w hich are show n in the schem atic d ra w in g s in F ig. 6 .2.

Fig. 6 .2 . The tw o accelerom eter co n fig u ra tio n s in com m on use

100

A ccelero m eter
Type

Weight
(gram)

Charge
Mounted
S e n sitivity Resonance
(pC/m s- 2 )* Frequency
(kHz)
~ 4,5

4367

J |

13

~ 2

32

4368

||J

30

~ 4,5

27

4369

14

~ 2

32

11

1 2%

35

54

10 2%

18

4371

. 1

4370

D elta Shear
C o n stru c tio n having
g ood all-round
characteristics and
p a rtic u la rly low
se n sitiv ity to
tem perature
tran sients and
base strains

Delta Shear types

as above. A lso have
U ni-G a in sensitivity
fo r sim ple system
c a lib ra tio n and
Interchangeability

4375

2
excl.
cable

~ 0,3

60

M in ia tu re size, low
w eigh t D elta Shear type.
High resonance frequency

4374

0,7
excl.
cable

-0 ,1

75

Su bm ia tu re size, low
w e igh t shear type. V e ry
high resonant frequency

8309

3
excl.
cable

~ 0,0 0 4

180

4321

A,

55

1 2%

40

8305

~ 0,12

High level and high freq.

vibr. measurements. Ideal
fo r delicate structures,
panels etc. and in
con fine d spaces

40

Three Delta Shear UniGain accelerometers

co m b in e d in one unit

V ib ra tio n measurements
in three m utually
perpendicular directio n s

30

Q u a rtz element for

high sta b ility. Laser
calib ra te d to 0,5%
accu racy

Reference standard
fo r com parison c alib
ratio n of accelerometers

V e ry High Uni-Gain
se n sitiv ity . B uilt-in
Pream p and L P filter.
Requires 2 8 V 2 m A DC
p o w e r supply

U ltra low-level (down to

0 ,0 0 0 002 g) and lo w freq.
v ib ra tio n measurements
on large structures

500

1000

8308

100

1 2%

30

R obust-con stru ction.

Balanced Uni-Gain
o u tp u t. M ax. Temp.
40 0 C

8310

100
excl.
cable

1 20%

30

A s T y p e 8308 but w ith

integral high temp (800C)
cable

Multiply by 9.81 for sensitivity in pC/g

G eneral vibration
measurements. High
sensitivity fo r low-level
measurements

S h o c k measurements up
to 1 m illio n ms- 2 High
frequency vibr.m easurem ents

1 kH z
LP filte r
b uilt in

G eneral shock and

v ib ra tio n measurements.
V ib ra tio n testing
and control.

M in ia tu re size. Integral
fix in g stud.Integral
cable.

8306

A p p licatio n
Areas

27

28

4366

Im portant
Characteristics

A Shear Types

Perm anent vibration

m onitoring. High tem p,
vib r. measurements.
A e ro n au tica l, industrical
and nuclear use.
Used w ith preamp.
T y p e 2634
Compression Types

791117

Fig. 6 .3 . M a in ch aracte ristics and a p p lica tio n areas fo r B & K accelerom eters
in general, it can be said th a t the shear co n figuration gives the best a ll-ro u n d
results fo r general purpose accelerom eters and the com pression design is
used fo r accelerom eters w h ich are aim ed at particular applications.
101

The table in F ig. 6 .3 in d ica tes the a p p lica tio n and main characteristics of
the B & K accelerom eter range. A t firs t glance there may seem to be a c o n fu
singly large range of accelerom eters available. But it w ill be seen, a fte r
closer inspection, that th e y can be divided in to tw o main groups. A group of
general purpose types, w ith various s e n sitiv itie s and a choice of top or side
connectors, w h ic h w ill s a tis fy most needs, and a range of accelerom eters
w h ic h have th e ir cha ra cte ristics slanted to w a rd s a particular application.
W hen selecting an accelerom eter for a p a rtic u la r application the acceler
om eter's param eters and th e enviro n m e n ta l conditions it is to be used under
need to be considered as fo llo w s :
Frequency Range: The fre q u e n c y response o f an accelerom eter has a charac
te ristic shape as shown in F ig . 6 .4. M ea su re m e n ts are n o rm a lly confined to
using the lin e a r portion of th e response cu rve w hich at th e high frequency
end is lim ite d by the acce le ro m e te r's n a tu ra l resonance. A s a rule of th u m b
the upper freque ncy lim it fo r m easurem ents can be set to o n e -th ird of the ac
celerom eter's resonance fre q u e n cy so th a t vib ra tio n com ponents measured at
th is lim it w ill be in error by no more than + 1 2% (~ 1 dB). S m a ll, lo w mass ac
celerom eters can have a re so n a n t frequency as high as 1 8 0 kHz but for the
m ore sensitive general purpose accelerom eters resonant frequencies of
3 0 kHz (giving an upper fre q u e n c y lim it of 1 0 kHz) are typical.
It should be noted how ever th a t an accelerom eter's useful frequency range

102

is sig n ifica n tly higher, i.e. to 1 / 2 or 2 / 3 of its resonant fre q u e n cy, w here for
exam ple 3 dB line arity is acceptable. This m ay be the case w h e re vibration
m easurem ents are being used to m onitor th e in te rn a l condition o f machines
because repeatability is there m ore im portant th a n linearity.
In practice th e low er m ea su rin g frequency lim it is determ ined by tw o fac
tors. The firs t is the lo w -fre q u e n cy c u t-o ff of th e associated p re a m p lifie r, but
th is is not n orm ally a problem as th e lim it is u s u a lly w ell below 1 Hz. The sec
ond is the e ffe ct of am bient te m p e ra tu re flu c tu a tio n s (tem perature transients)
to w h ich the accelerom eter is sensitive. W ith m odern shear typ e accelerom e
ters this e ffe ct is typically 2 0 dB low er than fo r corresponding compression
types w hich th u s allow s m e asurem ent dow n to w e ll below 1 Hz fo r normal
environm ents.
Sensitivity, Mass and D ynam ic Range: Ideally, the higher th e transducer
sensitivity th e better, but a com prom ise has to be made because high se n sitiv
ity norm ally e ntails a large piezoelectric assem bly and co n se q u e n tly a rela
tive ly large, heavy unit w ith lo w resonant frequency. In no rm a l c ircu m
stances the sensitivity is not too critical a fa c to r as modern p re a m p lifie rs are
designed to accept these lo w -le v e l signals.
A ccelerom eter mass becom es im portant w h e n m easuring on lig h t test ob
jects. The accelerom eter sh o u ld load the s tru c tu ra l member as little as possi
ble: additional mass can s ig n ific a n tly change th e vibration levels and fre q u e n
cies present at the m easuring point and in va lid a te the m easured results. A n
approxim ate indication of th e change in s tru c tu ra l response due to loading
can be foun d using the fo llo w in g equations:

(6 .

1)

w here:
am = acceleration m easured w ith accelerom eter mounted
as = acceleration w ith o u t accelerom eter
fm = resonance frequency m easured w ith accelerom eter m ounted
fs = resonance frequency w ith o u t accelerom eter
ma = accelerom eter mass
ms = effective mass of th a t " p a rt of the s tru c tu re to w h ic h th e ac
celerom eter is mounted.

As a general rule, the accelerom eter m ass should be no g re a te r than onete n th of th e effective (dynam ic) mass of th e part of the s tru c tu re to w hich th e
accelerom eter is m ounted.

103

W h e n it is w ish e d to measure a b n o rm a lly low or h igh acceleration levels,

the dynam ic range o f th e accelerom eter should be considered. T h e o re tica lly
the o u tp u t of a piezoelectric accelerom eter is linear d o w n to zero acceleration
but in practice the lo w e r dynamic lim it is determ ined by electrical noise fro m

Fig. 6 .5 . M e a su rin g range nom ogram fo r B & K accelerom eters under the s p e
c ific conditions sta te d
104

connecting cables and a m p lifie r circu itry. This lim it is n o rm a lly below
0,01 m s 2 w ith general purpose in stru m e n ts m easuring over a w ide band.
S ig n ifica n tly lo w e r levels may be measured w h e n using a filte r fo r frequency
analysis.
The upper dynam ic lim it is determ ined by th e accelerom eter's structural
strength. G eneral purpose accelerom eters are lin e a r up to 5 0 to 1 0 0 kms - 2
(5 0 0 0 to 1 0 0 0 0 # ) w hich is w e ll into the range of m echanical shocks. For
very high shock m easurem ents th e shock accelerom eter (Type 8 3 0 9 ) shown
in F ig . 6 .3 can be used up to 1 0 6 m s - 2 (1 0 0 0 0 0 # ) .
A typical exam ple of how th e various factors lim it the o p erating range of
B & K accelerom eter types under specific co n d ition s is show n in the nom o
gram , Fig. 6 .5.
Transverse Response: The tra n sve rse se n s itiv ity of an accelerom eter is its
sensitivity to accelerations in a plane perpendicular to the m ain accelerom e
te r axis as show n in Fig. 6 . 6 . It is norm ally expressed in percent of the main
axis sensitivity and should be as low as possible. The transverse se nsitivity
varies according to w hich d ire ctio n is considered, the dire ctio n of m inim um
sensitivity is marked on m ost B & K accelerom eter types w ith a red paint
spot. M easurem ent of the m axim um transverse se n sitivity is part of the indiA x is o f
m axim um
sensitivity

A x is o f m ax im u m
Transverse
sensitivity

A x is of m in im u m
Transverse se n sitivity
(ideally zero
sensitivity at the
calibration frequency)

780732

Fig. 6 .6 . Vectorial re p re se nta tio n o f transverse s e n s itiv ity

105

Fig. 6. 7. The relative response o f an accelerom eter to m a in axis and tra n s

verse axis vibration
vidual calibration procedure fo r m any accelerom eter types and is a lw ays less
th a n 3 to 4% according to type. It sh o u ld be noted th a t th e transverse s e n s i
tiv ity is typically less th a n 1 % of th e m a in axis se n sitivity.
P iezoelectric accelerom eters also e x h ib it transverse resonance as indicated
in F ig . 6 .7. W here high levels of high frequency transverse vibration are pres
ent at th e m easuring position th is m ay re su lt in e rroneous results and in th is
case m easurem ents should be made to establish the level and frequency co n
te n t o f transverse vib ra tio n s.
Transient Response: Shocks are sudden releases of e n e rg y often c h a ra c te r
ised by having a high level, short d u ra tio n and a very w id e frequency co n
te n t.
The overall lin e a rity of the m easuring system can be lim ite d at lo w and
high frequencies by phenom ena kn o w n as Zero S h ift and Ringing respec
tive ly. These effects are show n g ra p h ica lly in Fig. 6 . 8 .
' Zero S h ift" is caused both by phase n o n -lin e a ritie s in th e p re a m p lifie r and
by th e piezoelectric e le m e n t of the accelerom eter re ta in in g charge after being
subjected to very high level shocks.
"R in g in g " occurs w h e n the accelerom eter resonance frequency is excited
by high frequency com ponents.

1 06

Fig. 6 .8 . V ibration m easu re m e n t system response to h a lf sine wave p u ls e o f

le n g th T.
a) "Zero S h ift" lim its the lo w -fre q u e n c y response o f the system.
b) " R ing in g" lim its the high fre q u e n c y response o f the system

Fig. 6 .9 . Vibration syste m 3 d B lo w e r and upper lim itin g frequencies vs

pulse d u ra tio n T for a cceleration m easurem ents on tra n sie n t v ib ra
tions keeping am plitude e rro rs less than 5 a n d 10% respectively
107

To avoid sig n ific a n t m easuring errors due to these effects, th e frequency re

sponse of th e measuring system should be lim ite d as show n in F ig . 6 .9 w h ich
is based on m easuring errors o f less than 5% or 1 0%.

6 .2 .1 . Environm ental Conditions

Tem perature: Typical general purpose accelerom eters can to le ra te tem pera
tures up to 2 5 0 C . A t h ig h e r tem peratures th e piezoelectric ceram ic w ill be
gin to depolarise causing a perm anent loss in sensitivity. Up to tem perature
excesses of 5 0 C above th e specified lim it th e loss is gradual so th a t after re
calibration th e accelerom eter is still usable. A t even higher tem peratures the
Curie point is reached w h ic h results in com plete destruction of th e piezoelec
tric elem ent. Special high te m p e ra tu re accelerom eters can be used in tem per
atures up to 4 0 0 C .
A ll piezoelectric m aterials are tem perature dependent so th a t changes in
the am bient tem perature re s u lt in changes in sensitivity. For th is reason
B & K accelerom eters are de live re d w ith a s e n s itiv ity versus te m p e ra tu re c a li
bration curve so th a t co rre ctio n s can be made w h e n working in tem peratures
sig n ifica n tly hig h e r or lo w e r th a n the ca lib ra tio n tem perature of approxi
m ately 20 C . A curve p lo ttin g th e variation in se n sitivity w ith tem perature is
show n in F ig . 6 .1 0.

Fig. 6 .1 0 . Typical charge s e n s itiv ity versus te m p e ra tu re ch a ra cte ristic tor p ie

zoelectric accelerom eters
W hen accelerom eters are to be attached to surfaces at a h ig h e r tem pera
tu re than th e ir design m axim um a heat sink and mica w asher can be inserted
betw een the base and the su rfa c e to reduce heat transm ission as show n in
F ig . 6 .11.
10 8

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________750890/3

Fig. 6.1 1. The use o f a m ica washer and h e a t sink w ill e nable accelerom eter
to be used on su rfa ce s at te m p e ra tu re s ra th e r h ig h e r than the a c
celerom eter's d e sig n m axim um
Tem perature Transients: Piezoelectric accelerom eters also exhibit a v a ry
ing output w he n subjected to small te m p e ra tu re flu c tu a tio n s called te m p e ra
ture tra n sie n ts in the m easuring e n viro n m e n t. This is n o rm a lly only a p ro b
lem w here very low level or low fre q u e n cy vibrations are being m easured.
M odern shear type accelerom eters have a very low s e n s itiv ity to tem perature
transients.
Cable Noise: Since piezoelectric accelerom eters have a high output im p e d
ance problem s can som e tim e s arise w ith noise signals induced into the c o n
necting cable to the p re a m p lifie r. These spurious sig n a ls can result fro m
ground loops, trib o e le ctric noise, or e le ctrom agnetic noise.
G round loop currents can flo w in th e shield of accelerom eter cables be
cause of slig h t differe n ce s in the e le ctrica l potential of grounding p o in ts
w h e n the accelerom eter and the m easuring equipm ent are grounded se p a r
ately. The loop is broken by electrically is o la tin g the accelerom eter base fro m
the m ounting surface by means of an isolating stud (m ax. te m perature
2 5 0C ) and mica w asher.
T riboelectric noise can be generated by th e accelerom eter cable due to lo
cal capacity and charge changes betw een the conductor and shield as th e
cable vibrates. This problem is avoided by using a proper in te rn a lly graphited
accelerom eter cable and fix in g it to avoid cable m ovem ents as m uch as p ossi
ble.
Electrom agnetic noise can be a problem w hen the accelerom eter cable lies
in the vic in ity of runn in g electrical m achinery. Double shielded cable helps to
reduce th is problem but in severe cases a balanced accelerom eter and d iffe r

109

ential prea m plifie r should be used. The la tte r is standard practice w ith p e rm a
nent vibration m onitoring e quipm ent on in d u s tria l m achinery.
Base Strains: W hen an accelerom eter is m ounted on a surface w hich is u n
dergoing dynam ic d e fo rm a tio n s a spurious o u tp u t w ill be generated as a re
sult of strain being tra n s m itte d to the sensing elem ent. A ccelerom eters have
thick s tiff bases to m in im ise th is effect. N ote th a t Delta S h e a r ty p e s have a
p a rticu la rly lo w se n sitivity to base strains because the piezoelectric elem ent
is m ounted on a centre post rather than d ire c tly to the accelerom eter base,
and this does not so d ire c tly re su lt in shear deform ation of th e elem ents.
Nuclear Radiation: M o st general purpose accelerom eter types may be
used under gamma ra d ia tio n rates of 10 k R a d /h up to an accum ulated dose
of 2 M Rad w ith o u t s ig n ific a n t changes in characteristics. Types intended fo r
perm anent insta lla tio n on m achines and equipm ent may also be used in
heavy neutron radiation at rates of 1 M R a d /h up to accu m u la te d doses of
1 0 0 M Rad. Special m in e ra l insulated " h a rd lin e ' cables are necessary in th is
case.
M agnetic Fields: The m a g n e tic sen sitivity o f piezoelectric accelerom eters is
very low , norm ally less th a n 1 0 ms ~ 2 / T w ith a 50 Hz a lte rn a tin g field and
least favourable orie n ta tio n of th e accelerom eter.
Hum idity: M ost accelerom eters are sealed, either by epoxy bonding or
w elding and are therefore im pervious to m o isture . However, cable connectors
only o ffe r superficial p ro te ctio n . For sh o rt term exposure th e transducer
socket and cable plug can be dipped in s ilic o n e grease before the connector
is assem bled. For exposure to high h u m id ity or direct im m e rsio n the w hole
assembled connector should be encapsulated in an acid-free RTV silicone ru b
ber com pound. In w et e n viro n m e n ts standard Teflon insulated accelerom eter
cables should always be used.
Corrosive Substances: M o s t accelerom eters are encased in stainless steel,
tita n iu m or beryllium and th e re fo re have a h ig h resistance to m ost of the c o r
rosive substances encountered.
Acoustic Noise: The noise levels present in m achinery are not norm ally
su fficie n t to cause any s ig n ific a n t error in vib ra tio n m easurem ents. It may be
expected th a t the a coustically induced vib ra tio n in the s tru c tu re on w hich the
accelerom eter is m ounted w ill be far g reater than the a irb o rn e excitation of
the accelerom eter.
This concludes the list o f enviro n m e n ta l fa cto rs w hich need to be consid
ered w hen selecting and using piezoelectric accelerom eters. To illu stra te the
sort of fig u re s to be expected, th e fu ll sp e cifica tion s of a typ ica l general p u r
pose accelerom eter, B & K Type 4 3 7 0 , are ta b u la te d in F ig.6.1 2.
11 0

M axim um Positive o r Negative Shock:

(along main axis)
50 k m s " 2 (5 000 g)

Weight:*
54 grams

C o nfig ura tion :

D elta Shear

Charge Se nsitivity:*
10 pC/m s- 2 2%
(~ 100 pC/g)

T y p ic a l Base Strain Sen sitivity:** **

(in base plane at 250 n strain)
0,0 0 3 ms- 2 / n strain
(0,0 00 3 g//i strain)

T y p ical Voltage S e n sitivity :*

8,5 m V/m s 2
(~ 85 mV/g)
M ounted Resonant Freq uency:*
18 kH z
Frequency Range:*
5% 0,2+ to 3 5 0 0 Hz
10% 0,2+ to 6 0 0 0 Hz
Capacitance Including Cable:**
1200 pF

T y p ic a l Tem perature Transient

S en sitivity :* * * *
(3 H z L L F )
0,08 ms- 2 /C (0,008 g/C)
T y p ic a l M agnetic Sensitivity:
(50 Hz - 0,03 T)
1,2 ms_ 2 /T (0,012 g/k Gauss)

M axim um C o n tin u o u s Sinusoidal

A cceleration:
20 kms- 2 peak (2 000 g)
M axim um A c ce le ra tio n with
M ounting Magnet:
500 ms~2 (50 g)
Base & Housing M aterial:
Stainless Steel A IS I 316

T y p ic a l A c o u stic Sensitivity:
(E q uiv. A c c'n . at 154 dB S P L ,
2 - 100 Hz)
0,001 ms~2 (0,0001 g)

M ax Transverse S e n sitivity :* * *

<4%
Piezoelectric M aterial:
PZ 23
T y p ic a l Tem perature Response

M in im u m Leakage Resistance:
(at 20C)

20 Gn

M ax im u m A m b ie n t Tem perature:
25 0 C (500 F)

F re q ue ncy Response Curve

a O b je c t:______________

B r e l Si K j r

The low frequency cut-off is

determined by the preamplifier
and environmental conditions
Individual values given on the
calibration chart

With cable supplied as standard

accessory

***

Axis of minimum transverse

sensitivity indicated by red
dot on the accelerometer

****

Re. ANSI S2. 11-1969

(American National Standard)

r Urn. F r e q ______ Hz

W riting Spaed:

m m /sec.

Paper Spaed:

m m /w c 740761/1

791132

Fig. 6. 12. S pe cifica tio n s o f B & K a cce le ro m e te r Type 4 3 7 0

111

6 .3 . SELECTION OF A C C E L E R O M E T E R P R E A M P LIFIE R S
D irect loading of a piezoelectric accelerom eter's o u tp u t, even by re la tive ly
high impedance loads can greatly re d u ce the accelerom eter's s e n s itiv ity as
w e ll as lim iting its fre q u e n cy response. To elim inate th is effect th e a cce le r
om ete r output signal is fed through a pream plifier w h ic h has a very h ig h in
put im pedance and a lo w output im pedance, suitable fo r connection to th e re l
ative ly lo w input im pedance of m e a su rin g and analyzing in s tru m e n ta tio n . In
add ition to the fu n c tio n of im pedance conversion m ost pream plifiers include
va riable a m plification and many o th e r fa cilitie s for c o n d ition in g th e signal.
P ream plifiers are p o w ered either d ire c tly from AC m a in s or from b u ilt-in bat
te rie s or external DC supplies. A s u m m a ry of p re a m p lifie r types is s h o w n in
F ig .6.1 5. The type of p re a m p lifie r used depends on w h e th e r the a cce le ro m e
te r is considered as a voltage or charge source. Both voltage and charge sen
s itiv itie s of the accelerom eter are stated in the specifications.
The difference can be understood by considering th e equivalent c irc u it d ia
gram o f an accelerom eter in Fig.6 .1 3 . W ith in the fre q u e n c y range in qu e s
tio n , th e accelerom eter can be considered as a g enerator w hich is p a ra lle l coupled w ith an in te rn a l capacitance C. A s the charge on the capacitor is de
fin e d as
q = e . C
w here:
q = th e electrical charge
e = th e voltage across th e capacitor
C = th e internal capacitance
it fo llo w s that an a cceleration w h ic h produces a certain voltage, e, also p ro
duces a charge q on th e capacitor C.
V o ltag e pream plifiers, w hich w o rk on th e varying o u tp u t voltage fro m the
accelerom eter, have been w idely used, but have fa lle n fro m favour in recent
years since charge p re a m p lifie rs, w h ic h see the accelerom eter as a charge
source, have become available. The m a in reason for th is is that w ith voltage

791121

Fig.6 .1 3 . E quivalent c irc u it fo r an accelerom eter

112

Fig. 6 .1 4 . E quivalent diagram fo r an a cce le ro m e te r plu s cable p lu s charge a m

p lifie r
p ream plifiers th e se nsitivity calibration of th e m easuring system is dependent
on the capacitance of the connecting cable. Increasing th e connecting cable
length results in increased signal a tte n u a tio n and w h e n eve r the cable length
is changed the m easuring system se n sitivity is changed.
Charge a m plifiers are n o w used very w id e ly , prim arily because of th e ir s im
p licity of use. The influ e nce of shunt capacitances in th e accelerom eter c ir
cuit is e lim ina ted and it is not necessary to take note of th e length of c o n
nected cables. A ll one needs to know fo r p ro p e r calibration is the charge s e n
s itivity of th e accelerom eter.
A n equivalent diagram of a charge a m p lifie r w ith cable and accelerom eter
is show n in F ig . 6 .1 4
A charge a m p lifie r consists basically of an operational a m p lifie r w ith high
am p lifica tio n , back-coupled across a co n d e n se r Cf. It can be shown th a t th e
output voltage from the a m p lifie r can be expressed as:

u
w here:

e0
qa
A
e
Ca
Cc
Cj
Sq
a

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
-

Q a'A
= e, A
Ca + Cc + Cj - C f (A - 1)

prea m p lifie r output voltage

generated charge
a m plifica tio n
pream p lifie r input voltage
accelerom eter capacitance
connecting cable capacitance
pream p lifie r input capacitance.
accelerom eter charge s e n s itiv ity
acceleration
113

From this is obtained

e, =

Sg a_________
Ca + Cc + C, - Cf (A - 1)

___________Cg
Ca + Cc + C, - Cf (A - 1 )

Since in th is equation A is very large, th e expression can be reduced to

C, A

Cf A

( 6 . 2)

w hich is independent of th e cable capacitance Cc.

As m entioned in the in troduction to th is section, m odern accelerom eter
p ream plifiers are available w h ic h include m any useful fa c ilitie s for c o n d itio n
ing the signal in addition to th e basic re q u ire m e n t of im pedance conversion.
A calibrated variable gain fa cility is o fte n provided to a m p lify the lo w -le ve l
accelerom eter signal to a level suitable fo r in p u t to tape recorders, co m p re s
sor a m p lifie rs etc. This fa c ility is often com bined w ith a secondary gain a d ju s t
ment to norm alise "a w k w a rd transducer se n sitivitie s so th a t th e output s e n
sitivity is a convenient " ro u n d " figure. For exam ple an accelerom eter s e n s itiv
ity of 1 ,7 p C /m s 2 can be norm alised to an output se n s itiv ity of either 1,
10, 1 0 0 or 1 0 0 0 m V /m s _ 2 . This greatly sim plifies the se ttin g up, c a lib ra
tion and reading of a m easuring system.
Some accelerom eter p ream plifiers include integrators to convert the a c ce l
eration proportional output fro m the accelerom eter to e ith e r velocity or d is
placem ent proportional signals. This is co n ve n ie n t when th e signal is to be
fed to a m easuring a m p lifie r or analyzer, w h ic h are not n o rm a lly equipped
w ith integrators.
To atte n u a te noise and vibration signals w h ic h lie outside the frequency
range of in te re s t most pream plifiers are equipped w ith a range of high-pass
and low -pass filte rs . This avoids interference from electrical noise or signals
outside the lin e a r portion of th e accelerom eter frequency range. Other fa c ili
ties often provided are an overload indicator, reference o scilla to r and battery
condition in d ica to r w here applicable.
By setting th e upper and lo w e r frequency lim its of the p re a m p lifie r to 1 d e
cade of fre q u e n cy above and below respectively the actual range of interest,
m easuring errors resulting fro m phase d is to rtio n can be avoided. Phase d is to r
tion does not effect RMS m easurem ents on continuous signals but can p re
vent the accurate m easurem ent of peak levels and affect th e usefulness o f
w aveform m easurem ents. For integration of shocks and tra n sie n ts, refer to
Appendix E.
114

2635

*

Pream plifier
Type

3 digi
con d i
noise
am pli

sen sitivity
ion ng, low
char ge
ier

Measurement
Modes

A cceleration
V e lo c ity
Displacem ent

Acceleration
S e n sitivity

0,1 m V to
10 V /p C
( - 2 0 to
+ 80 dB)

Frequency
Range

2626

2651

2634

2650

t e i
3 d igi sen sitivity
c o n d il ion ng, low
noise char ge
a m p li ier.

A cce lera tion

1
Ud
3-Uni-C a n sensitiv ity s(tt ings.
Charge a r np lifier.
V e ry lo w frequency mea su rement
capabil tv
A c ce le ra tio n
V e lo c ity

0,1 m V to 1 V /pC 0 , 1 - 1 - 1 0 m V /p C
( - 2 0 to + 60 dB) ( - 2 0 to + 2 0 dB)

0,1 Hz to 200 k H z 0 ,3 H z to 100 kH z

0,00 3 H z to
2 00 k H z

A cceleration

Low

0,2; 1; 2; 10 Hz

0,3; 3; 10; 30 Hz

L im its

High

0,1; 1; 3; 10; 30;

> 100 kHz

1; 3; 10; 30;
> 100 k H z

2 00 k H z

Power Su pply

Internal batteries
o r Ext. DC

A C M ains

E x t. D C

Other
Features

Overload in d i
cator. Test
oscillator.
Battery con
d itio n indicator.

Input signal
ground flo ating
or grounded

V-o ?O .o4 diejit sensit

conc itioning
noisi charge
VOltc ge ampl

vity
Lo w
and
fier

A cceleration

0,1 m V /p C to 100
0,9 to 10 m V /p C
m V /p C . 100 m V /V
internally a d ju st
to 100 V / V
able (0 to 2 0 dB) ( - 2 0 to + 40 dB)
1 Hz to 2 00 k H z

0,3 Hz to 200 k H z
0,3 & 3 Hz
and 2 kH z

0,003; 0,03 ; 0,3;

1 Hz

Selectable

O verload in d i
cato r. D irect and
tra n sform e r cou
p led outputs.

Sm all, robust,
adjustable gain,
charge am p lifie r.
Excellent e le c
trom agnetic
radiation im
munity

1; 3; 10; 30;
> 2 0 0 kH z
Ext. D C

Normal o r d if
ferential inp u t.
Can be fix e d to
machine frames.

A C Mains
O verload indicator.
Test oscillator.
P articularly used
fo r com parison
c alibration of
accelerometers
791118

Fig. 6. 15. M a in ch a ra cte ristics o f B & K accelerom eter p re a m p lifie rs

The table in Fig .6 1 5 has been prepared to dem onstrate th e various fa c ili
ties available on p rea m p lifie rs and assist in th e ir selection.

6 .4 . C A L IB R A T IO N A N D S Y S T E M P E R F O R M A N C E C H E C K S
Each in s tru m e n t produced by Bruel & K j r has been in d iv id u a lly checked
fo r agreem ent w ith published specifications before leaving th e factory. In th e
case of accelerom eters th e q u a lity control procedure includes a detailed c a li
bration of th e sensitivity and response of each individual accelerom eter. A ty
pical ca libration chart is s h o w n in Fig.6.1 6 .
The tw o le ft-h a n d colum ns give individually measured values fo r ch a ra cte ris
tics such as sensitivity, capacitance, tra n sve rse sensitivity etc. together w ith
a tem perature response cu rve and specified representative values for the ac
celerom eter's sensitivity to various e n viro n m e n ta l effects. The frequency re
sponse curve on the rig h t is individually plotted for each accelerom eter.
W here accelerom eters are stored and operated w ith in th e ir e nvironm ental
lim its, i.e. not subjected to excessive shocks, tem peratures, radiation doses
115

Fig. 6 .1 6 . A ty p ic a l accelerom eter ca libration c h a rt

etc., there w ill be a m in im a l change in characteristics over a long tim e pe
riod; tests have show n th a t characteristics typically change less than 2%,
even over periods of several years.
In vie w of this, "c a lib ra te d readings are obtained fro m a measuring s y s
tem m erely by noting th e transducer s e n s itiv ity as recorded on its ca lib ra tio n
chart, and th e gain of th e m easuring in s tru m e n t.
H ow ever, in norm al use, accelerom eters are often subjected to quite v io
lent tre a tm e n t w hich may re su lt in a s ig n ific a n t change in characteristics and
som etim es in perm anent damage.
W hen dropped onto a concrete floor fro m hand h e ig h t an accelerom eter
can be subjected to a shock of many th o u sa n d s of g. It is n o rm a lly w ise th e re -

F ig .6 .1 7 A ccelerom eter C a lib ra to r Type 4 2 9 1

116

Acceleration
ms- 2

V e lo city
mm s~1

Displacement
Idm

Peak

10

20

40

Peak-toPeak

20

40

80

RMS

7,07

14,1

28,3
800127

Fig. 6 .1 8 . Table-vibration o f A cce le ro m e te r C alibrator Type 4 2 9 1 in term s o f

Peak and RMS acceleration, velocity and displacem ent
fore to make a periodic check of the se n s itiv ity ca lib ra tio n , th is being n o r
m ally s u ffic ie n t to confirm th a t the accelerom eter is not dam aged.
The m ost convenient m eans of perform ing a periodic ca lib ra tio n check is by
using a calibrated vibration source as s h o w n in Fig.6 .1 7 . This has a sm all
b u ilt-in shaker table and ge n e ra to r w h ich can be adjusted to vibrate at p re
cisely 10 m / s 2 (1 , 0 2 g) peak. As the signal is a w e ll defined 7 9 ,6 Hz s in u
soid it can also be used fo r checking out system s m easuring velocity and d is
placem ent, RMS or Peak. The table in Fig 6.1 8 shows the values obtained in
these term s.
The se n sitivity calibration of an accelerom eter is checked by fastening it to
the shaker table and noting its output w h e n vibrated at 10 m s- 2 . Calibration
accuracy is w ith in 2% w h e n used ca re fu lly. A lte rn a tive ly an accelerom eter
can be reserved for use as a reference. This is m ounted on th e shaker table
w ith the accelerom eter to be calibrated. The ratio of th e ir respective outputs
w hen vibrated w ill be pro p o rtion a l to th e ir se n sitivitie s, and as th e se n sitivity
of the reference accelerom eter is know n, th e unknow n acce le ro m e te r's se n si
tiv ity can be accurately dete rm in ed .
An equally im portant a p p lication for the portable ca lib ra to r is the checking
of a com plete measuring or analyzing se t-u p before the m easurem ents are
made. The m easuring accelerom eter is sim p ly transferred fro m the m easur
ing object to the ca lib ra to r and vibrated at a level of 10 m s 2 . The m eter
readout can be checked and if a level or tape recorder is being used, the c a li
bration level can be recorded fo r fu tu re reference.
In order to check the fre q u e n cy response of an accelerom eter or m easuring
system th e sm all calib ra tio n exciter show n in F ig.6 .1 9 can be used. W ith the
in stru m e n ta tio n set-up s h o w n in F ig.6 .2 0 frequency responses may be p lo t
ted from about 2 0 0 Hz up to 35 kHz. The calibrator has a b u ilt-in control a c
celerom eter w h ich a llo w s th e vibration level at the exciter ta b le to be held
constant over a frequency range w h ic h covers the re sonant frequency of
1 17

Fig. 6. 19. C alibration E xcite r Type 4 2 9 0

Electrical or M echanical
Frequency Sweep C o n tro l

U nknow n Signal

" i

M easuring A m p lifie r
2610

Level Recorder
2309 o r 2307
Unknow n
Accelerom eter

Charge
A m p lifie r
2634

l_ .

Sine Random Generator

1027
Drive

:
331? *

===
ODD<
)

M easuring A m p lifie r
2610

Calibration E x c ite r
4290
Compressor

Fig. 6 .2 0 . In stru m e n ta tio n se t-u p for p lo ttin g the frequency response o f a ccel
erom eters
many accelerom eters. C a libration levels are rather low , th a t is, in the order
of 1 ms 2 .
Some vibration testing specifications dem and that tra n sd u ce rs used on v a lu
able test specim ens are calibrated at a level equal to or h ig h e r than the test
level. Since the levels th e se transducers w ill experience are often unknow n,
a
high
a rb itra ry c o n firm a tio n
level
is selected,
com m only
100#
(~ 1 0 0 0 m s ~ 2 ). V ib ra tio n exciters capable of exciting an accelerom eter up to
this level are far m ore p o w e rfu l than th e tw o "h a n d y " e xciters previously
show n. The 3 8 0 / 4 4 0 N (8 5 /1 0 0 Ibf) force B & K exciter system includes an
118

Fig. 6.21 .(a) A transducer c a lib ra tio n exciter capable o l e x c itin g accelerom e
te rs a t 1 00 0 m / s 2 (B & K Type 4 8 0 1 T + 4 8 1 5 )
(b) Close-up view o f the Exciter H e a d Type 4 8 1 5 s h o w in g an accel
e ro m e te r to be c a lib ra te d m o u n te d on the Reference Standard A c
ce le ro m e ter Type 8 3 0 5

Compression

Sensitivity
Com parator
2970

D ifference or Unknow n Signal fo r

Frequency response plotting
U nkn ow n Signal

C ontrol &
Balance

"U n k n o w n " A ccelero

meter to be calibrated

1047 E xciter C o n tro l

Standard------ *
Accelerom eter Signal
Control Signal

Conditioned
Standard Signal

2626

-Unknown
Accelerom eter
Signal

Reference Standard
A ccelerom eter 8305
(B u ilt in to 4815)

-C o n d itio n e d
Unknow n Signal
Ca lib ratio n
Head 4815
2926

2707 Power A m p lifie r !

C o nd itio nin g
A m p lifie r
D rive Signal

C onditioning
A m p lifier

V ib ra tio n
E x c ite r B o dy 4805

23 07 Level Recorder
740313

F ig .6 .2 2 . A n in s tru m e n ta tio n arrangem ent fo r the rapid and accurate back-toback (com parison) calibration o f accelerom eters
exciter head w h ic h is specially optimized to fu lfil the dem anding re q u ire
ments of tra n sd u ce r ca lib ra tio n up to th e se high levels. This is shown in
119

F ig .6.21 (a) m ounted on the system e xcite r body. A reference standard a c c e l

e rom eter is b u ilt into th e exciter head fo r back-to-back calibration purposes
as sh ow n in F ig .6.21 .(b).
A n in stru m e n ta tio n arrangem ent e m p lo yin g the ca lib ra tio n head m ounted
on a perm anent m agnet exciter body is show n in F ig .6 .2 2 . The s e n s itiv ity
com parator used in th is arrangem ent is p a rticularly valuable w here m any
tra nsducers are to be calibrated to a h ig h degree of accuracy (better th a n
0,5 % can be achieved).

6 .5 . FORCE A N D IM P E D A N C E T R A N S D U C E R S
The forces producing and resulting fro m mechanical v ib ra tio n s are of g re a t
in te re st in m echanical dynam ics. The fo rce acting on a m echanical s tru c tu re
divided by th e vib ra tio n velocity it produces defines th e m echanical im p e d
ance of the structu re .
Like the accelerom eter, the force tra n s d u c e r also uses a piezoelectric e le
m e nt w h ic h , w hen com pressed, produces an electrical o u tp u t proportional to
th e force transm itte d th ro u g h it. For d yn a m ic force s ig n a ls the same sig n a l
co n d ition in g and m easuring in s tru m e n ta tio n as for piezoelectric a ccelerom e
te rs can be used. For lo w frequency and sem i-static forces, p re a m p lifie rs
w ith very long tim e constants are necessary.
The force transducer is m ounted in th e force tra n sm issio n path so th a t it is
subjected to th e forces to be m easured. It can measure both tensile and com -

F ig .6 .2 3 . C onstruction a n d typical fre q u e n c y response o f Force Transducer

Type 8 2 0 0
120

pressive forces as its piezoelectric elem ent is preloaded. A h ig h overall s tiff

ness ensures th a t it has a h ig h resonant fre q u e n cy and th a t w h e n introduced
into a m echanical system it has m inim al d istu rb in g effect due to deform ation.
A typical co nstruction and fre q u e n c y response are shown in F ig .6 .2 3 .
An impedance head co n ta in s tw o transducers, a force tra n sd u ce r w hich
measures the force applied to a structure under investigation and an acceler
om eter w h ic h measures th e re sulting m otion at the point of a pplication. Nor
m ally the o u tp u t of the accelerom eter is integrated to obtain a signal propor
tional to velocity so th a t th e m echanical im pedance Z = can be found.

Mass
Piezoelectric
Element
Acceleration
Output

Force Output

Piezoelectric
Element

Fig. 6 .2 4 . C o n stru ctio n o f Im pedance Head Type 8 0 0 1

Co nd itio n in g
A m p lifie r
2626
Force C ontrol

Accelerometer
Force Transducer
8200

4370

Signal

Power A m p lifie r
2712

V ib ra tio n E x c ite r
4808
nN

Response Signal

3~!(S) Measuring A m p lifie r

2610

A cc'n .,V e l. or Disp

Co nd itio n in g
A m p lifie r
2635
780269/1

Fig. 6 .2 5 . In stru m e n ta tio n a rra n g em e n t fo r m easuring the im pedance o f an

asp halt com posite b a r sample as a fu n c tio n o f fre q u e n cy
121

The construction of a typ ica l im pedance head is s h o w n schem atically in

F ig .6 .2 4 An im portant fe a tu re of the co n stru ctio n is th a t th e force tra n s d u
cer elem e nt is located ve ry close to th e driving point to obtain a s tiff, lo w
mass coupling to the te s t point. It should be noted th a t th e impedance head
is dim ensioned for re la tiv e ly light loading and is th e re fo re suitable fo r in
vestigating a w ide range o f light stru c tu re s , machine e le m e n ts and m aterial
sam ples. In the medical fie ld the im pedance head can be used for m easure
m ents on soft samples and th e human body.
Im pedance m easurem ents on heavier, s tiff constructions are perform ed u s
ing a force transducer and a separate accelerom eter as sh o w n in Fig.6 .2 5 .
For point impedance m easurem ents the tw o transducers are m ounted on op
posite sides of a plate o r adjacent to each oth e r w h ile th e tra n s fe r impedance
of th e s tryctu re w ill be obtained w h e n th e tw o tra n s d u c e rs are positioned
rem ote from each other.

6 .6 . P R A C TIC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S IN M O U N T IN G A C C E L E R O M E T E R S
H aving selected an accelerom eter, bearing in m ind th e param eters d is
cussed in section 6 .2 , a su itable m o u n tin g position m u st be chosen. The a c
celerom eter is m ounted w ith its main s e n s itiv ity axis a lig n e d w ith the desired
m easuring direction. A s previously m en tio n e d the accelerom eter w ill respond
to vib ra tio n in directions o th e r than its m a in axis. S e n s itiv ity decreases as th e
angle betw een the m ain axis and the d ire c tio n of vib ra tio n increases u n til at
a plane norm al to the m a in axis the transverse se n sitivity is a m inim um o f up
to 3 to 4% of the main axis sensitivity. The direction of m in im u m transverse
s e n sitivity is indicated by a red spot painted on many accelerom eters; in th is
directio n the transverse s e n s itiv ity is v irtu a lly zero.
The reason for m easuring vibration w ill norm ally d icta te th e accelerom eter
m o unting position. It sh o u ld be chosen so as to obtain a s h o rt rigid m e ch a n i
cal path from the vib ra tio n source avoiding gaskets etc., fo r example w ith ro
tating m achinery, bearing housings are ideal. Valuable in fo rm a tio n can be ob
tained fro m m easurem ents both in the axial direction and e ith e r the h o rizo n
tal or vertical radial d ire c tio n , w hichever is expected to have the lowest s tiff
ness.
The response
phenom enon, so
sure sig n ific a n tly
jacent m easuring

of m e chanical objects to forced v ib ra tio n s is a com plex

that one can expect, especially at high frequencies, to m ea
d iffe re n t vibration levels and frequency spectra, even at a d
points on th e same m a chine elem ent.

The m ethod of attaching th e accelerom eter to the m e a su rin g point is one of

the m ost critical factors in obtaining accurate results fro m practical vib ra tio n
m easurem ents. Sloppy m o u n tin g results in a reduction in th e m ounted reso
122

nant fre quen cy, w hich can severely lim it th e useful fre q u e n cy range of th e a c
celerom eter. The ideal m o u n tin g is by a th re a d e d stud o n to a fla t, smooth s u r
face as show n in Fig.6 .2 6 (a). A th in la ye r of grease a pplied to the m o u n tin g
surface before tighte nin g dow n the accelerom eter w ill usu a lly improve th e
m ounting stiffness. The tapped hole in th e machine p a rt should be s u ffic
iently deep so that the s tu d is not forced in to the base of th e accelerom eter.
The d ra w in g shows a typ ica l response c u rv e of a general purpose accelerom e
ter m ounted w ith a fixed stud on a fla t surface. The re so n a n t frequency a t
tained is alm ost as high as the 32 kHz m ounted resonant frequency a tta in e d
under ca lib ra tio n w here th e mounting s u rfa c e is dead fla t and smooth.
A com m only used a lte rn a tive m ounting m ethod is the use of a thin layer of
bees-w ax fo r sticking th e accelerom eter in to place. As can be seen from the
response curve. Fig.6 .2 6 (b) the resonant frequency is o n ly slightly reduced.
Because bees-w ax becom es soft at h ig h e r tem peratures, th e method is re s
tricted to about 40C . W ith clean surfaces, bees-wax fix in g is usable up to ac
celeration levels of about 1 0 0 m /s 2
A mica w ashe r and isolated stud are used as show n in F ig .6 .2 6 (c) w h e re
the body of the accelerom eter should be ele ctrica lly isolated from the m e a s u r
ing object. This is n o rm a lly to prevent g ro u n d loops as discussed e lse w h e re .
A th in slice should be peeled from the th ic k mica w asher supplied. This fix in g
m ethod also gives good re su lts, the resonance frequency of the test a c c e le r
om eter only being reduced slightly.
W here perm anent m easuring points are to be established on a m a ch in e
and it is not w ished to d rill and tap fix in g holes, cem enting studs can be used
as sh ow n in Fig.6 .2 6 (d). They are a tta ch e d to the m ea su rin g point by m eans
of a hard glue; epoxy and cyanoacrylate types are recom m ended as so ft
glues can considerably reduce the usable frequency range of the a ccelerom e
ter. Epoxy w ill be the longest lasting w h ile cyanoacrylate is quickest and e a s i
est to apply.
D ouble sided adhesive tape is a quick and easy m edium fo r m ounting a c c e l
erom eters. Thin tape used on flat, sm o o th surfaces gives fa irly good re su lts
but it can be seen fro m th e response c u rv e in Fig.6 .2 6 (e) that a s ig n ific a n t
reduction in frequency range can be expected, especially w ith thick tape.
A p erm an ent m agnet, as shown in F ig .6 .2 6 (f), is a simple a tta c h m e n t
m ethod w h e re the m easuring point is a fla t fe rro -m a g n etic surface. It also
e le ctrica lly isolates the accelerom eter. T h is method reduced the resonant fr e
quency of the test accelerom eter to a b o u t 7 kHz and consequently ca n n o t be
used fo r m easurem ents m uch above 2 kHz. The holding force of the m a g n e t
is s u ffic ie n t fo r vibratio n levels up to 1 0 0 0 to 2 0 0 0 m / s 2 depending on th e

123

124

Double sided
Adhesive Disc

Max. Temp. 95C (200F)

100

200

500

1k

2k

5k

10 k 20 k 50 k 100 k
Frequency Hz________

M agnet

Max. Temp.
150C(300F)
10k 20 k
Frequency Hz

100

50 k 100k

Hand Held Probe .

with YP 0080
Pointed Tip A /
100

200

500

1k

2k

5k

10 k 20 k
50 k 100 k
Frequency Hz_____ 791120

Fig. 6 .2 6 . M ethods o f m o u n tin g B & K pie zo ele ctric accelerom eters and e xa m
ples o f typical fre q u e n cy responses obtained

size of th e accelerom eter. Note th a t the use of the m agnet does not ensure
absolute repeatability of positio nin g .
A hand-held probe as show n in F ig .6 .2 6 (g) w ith th e accelerom eter
m ounted on top is very convenient fo r q u ick-lo o k survey w o rk , but can give
125

Fig. 6 .2 7 . M e ch a n ica l F ilte r UA 0 5 5 9

_ 4 Q Transverse axis response

o f accelerom eter m ounted
- 5 0 on M echanical Filter
50 H z 100 200 500 1 k H z 2
Fre q ue ncy

10

20

50

770805

Fig. 6 .2 8 . Typical m a in axis a n d transverse axis frequency response o f A c c e l

erom eter Type 4 3 7 0 , d e m o n stra tin g the e ffe c t o f the M e ch a n ica l
F ilte r UA 0 5 5 9
gross m easuring errors because of the lo w overall stiffn e s s . Repeatable re
sults cannot be expected. A n electrical or m echanical low -pass filte r should
be used to lim it the m easuring range at about 1 0 0 0 Hz.
A very useful m o u n tin g accessory is th e M echanical Filter, w hich is
m ounted between the accelerom eter and th e point of m easurem ent in o rder
to prevent the accelerom eter from detecting high fre q u e n cy vibration. The f i l
ter, sho w n in F ig.6 .2 7 is u seful w here th e measuring in stru m e n ta tio n is not
equipped w ith a choice of low -pass filte rs to prevent the e rroneous m easure
m ent of high frequency vib ra tio n com ponents w hich can be am plified by th e
accelerom eter's resonance. Even w hen using electronic integrators or lo w
pass filte rs the m echanical filte r w ill p re ve n t overloading th e input stage o f
the p ream plifier. It protects accelerom eters and a m p lifie rs against high level,
high frequency shock tra n s ie n ts in both th e accelerom eter m ain and tra n s
verse axis directions. Curves dem onstrating th e effect o f th e filte r are show n
in F ig .6 .2 8 . It can be seen th a t the tra n sve rse and m ain axis resonances,
w h ich are typically 3 0 dB in am plitude, are substituted by a h ig h ly damped re
sonance response of only 3 to 4 d B am plitude.

126

F ig .6 .2 9 . Typical frequency response o f various B & K g e n e ra l purpose a cce l

erom eters w he n m o u n te d on the m e chanical filte r
The filte r is in effect a butyl-rubber b u ffe r between the accelerom eter and
the vib ra tin g surface. Its c u t-o ff frequency depends upon th e mass of the ac
celerom eter mounted on it as can be seen fro m the fre q u e n cy response plots
in Fig.6 .2 9 . The upper c u t-o ff frequency o f any accelerom eter can be fu rth e r
reduced by adding addition a l mass in accordance w ith F ig .6 .3 0 .

Fig. 6 .3 0 . Typical c u t-o ff fre q u e n cy ( 3 dB) p lo tte d as a fu n c tio n o f load m ass

on the M e c h a n ic a l Filter

A m echanical filte r sh o u ld always be used w hen sound level m eters or

m easuring am plifiers (w ith o u t external filte rs or integrators) are used to m ea
sure w ide -ba nd vibration as they w ould otherw ise in clude the accelerom e
ter's resonance frequency.
A fter m ounting the accelerom eter and connecting the cable, steps should
be taken to avoid problem s w ith trib o e le c tric noise induced into the cable as
m entioned in section 6 .2 . The cable sh o u ld be fixed to p re ve n t relative m ove
ment as show n in F ig.6 .3 1 .
127

The cable sho uld leave the specimen at the po int of lowest v ib ra tio n
____________________ __________________ _____________________ ___________________________ 800458

Fig 6.31. Accelerometer cables should be fastened down to avoid cable whip
and thus, interference from triboelectric noise
Measuring A m p lifie r
or Frequency A n a ly z e r
A cce lero m e te r
Pre a m p lifier

Accelerom eter

v r/z h /// /Tg

Mains
=3? Ground
a) Incorrect grounding w ith con v e n tio n a l charge or voltage p ream p lifier having non-isolated input.
Measuring A m p lifie r
or Frequency A n a ly z e r
T
A ccelero m eter
Pre a m p lifier

Accelerom eter

Isolation

V7777mn
/T7v7777/

"7

Mains
Ground

b) C orrect grounding of con ve ntio na l charge or voltage p re a m p lifie r having non-isolated input.

Measuring A m p lifie r
or Frequency A n a ly z e r

Accelerom eter

77777.;77777

A cce lero m e te r
Floating
p reampMfier
" I s o la tio n 'L ____

2634
Mains
Ground

c) Co rrect grounding of charge p re a m p lifie rs having flo a tin g in p u t isolated from ground.

Fig. 6 .3 2 . The g ro u n d loop a n d its e lim in a tio n

A n o th e r possible in te rfe re n ce effect is h um picked up fro m th e mains s u p

ply by ground loops as p re vio u sly m entioned in section 6 .2 . F ig .6 .3 2 (a) illu s
trates how a ground loop is form ed. The voltage drop A V adds directly to the
possibly w eak signal fro m th e accelerom eter and can pose serious problem s
especially w ith large vib ra tio n m easurem ent systems.
One w a y of elim in a tin g ground loop hum is to ensure th a t th e entire m eas
urem ent system is grounded at one point o n ly as indicated in F ig .6 .3 2 (b). For
this purpose it is necessary to isolate th e accelerom eter fro m the vibration
test specim en using the isolated stud and w asher, m echanical filte r or the
perm anent magnet m o u n tin g discussed in section 6 .6 . G rounding should
then be carried out by c o n n e ctin g the earth of the m ains su p p ly to the m ains
input socket ground pin o f one of the m easuring or analyzing instrum ents in
the system . Correct gro u n d in g of the accelerom eter and of th e other in s tru
ments in th e system w ill be effected th ro u g h the screens of the coaxial
cables used to intercon n e ct th e input and ou tp u t sockets o f the equipm ent
concerned.
In industrial environm ents it is recom m ended that a Balanced A ccelerom e
te r be used w ith a p re a m p lifie r having a d ifferential in p u t as show n in
F ig.6 .3 2 (c). These have both poles of th e ir piezoelectric e lem ent isolated
from th e ir housing so th a t noise comm on to both poles of th e accelerom eter
output and pream plifier in p u t cancels, th u s greatly reducing the influence of
electrom agnetic radiation pick-up on m easurem ents, and also breaking th e
ground loop.

6 .7 . PORTABLE BATTERY O PERA TED IN S T R U M E N T S

6 .7 .1 . The General Purpose Vibration M e te r
A system for m easuring shock and vib ra tio n consists b a sica lly of tw o parts.
(1) A transducer w hich is m ounted on th e point of m e asurem ent to convert
the m echanical vibrations in to an electrical signal, and (2), a measuring and
indicating device
The m easuring and in d ic a tin g device, a vib ra tio n m eter, consists of one or
more in stru m e n ts w h ic h a m p lifie s and co n d ition s the s ig n a l. Facilities p ro
vided should include s w itc h a b le filte rs to lim it the frequency range at the u p
per and lo w e r ends, so as to avoid the m easurem ent o f un w a nte d signals,
noise etc., an integrator to enable acceleration, velocity and displacem ent p a r
am eters to be measured, and a signal detector and in d ica tin g m eter to in d i
cate the RMS or peak va lu e of the signal. Facilities should also be provided
fo r connecting a sw itch a b le or tunable filte r to enable fre q u e n cy analysis to
be perform ed and this w ill in tu rn require th a t a graphical recorder can be
connected to plot a pe rm a n en t record of vibration spectra. F ig .6 .3 3 show s
129

Fig. 6 .3 3 . G e n e ra l Purpose V ibration M e te r Type 2 5 1 1

Fig. 6 .3 4 . Block d ia g ra m o f the G enera! Purpose V ib ra tio n M eter

such an in stru m e n t w h ic h has the a dditional feature th a t it is powered fro m
b u ilt-in rechargeable b atteries. The block diagram in F ig.6 .3 4 shows how th e
fa c ilitie s m entioned are incorporated in to the vibration m eter show n in
F ig.6 .3 3 .
As can be seen from F ig .6 35 the fre q u e n cy response of th e General P u r
pose V ib ratio n M eter depends on w h e th e r acceleration (no integration), veloc
ity (one stage of in te g ra tio n ) or displacem ent (double in te g ra tio n ) is chosen.
The various high and lo w -p a ss filte rs lim it th e frequency range of the in s tru
m ent to the range of in te re s t and reduce th e possibility o f interference from
unw a nted low and high fre q u e n cy signals, noise etc.
By adding a tunable filte r th e General Purpose V ibration M e te r is converted
into a frequency analyzer. This com bination is available in a convenient ca rry
ing case com plete w ith b u ilt-in battery chargers and is an ideal set fo r m a
chine condition m o n ito rin g and the general study of m echanical vibration,
both in the field and in th e laboratory. W ith the fu rth e r a d d ition of a portable

130

A c ce le ra tio n

d B/O ctave

1 kH z
Frequency

Frequency

Displacement

- g
ro r*
O <u

Frequency
273046

Fig. 6 .3 5 . Frequency response o f th e G eneral Purpose V ibration M e te r Type

2 5 1 1 w hen s w itc h e d to m easure acceleration, ve lo city and dis
p la ce m e n t respectively
level recorder, "on the sp o t" hard-copy frequency analyses may be obtained
sem i-au tom a tically. This co m p le te ly self contained system is s h o w n in use in
F ig .6 .3 6 .
The Portable V ibration A n a lyze r's ve rsa tility can be fu rth e r increased by ad
ding a photo-electric pickup and Trigger Unit / Phase M eter, w h ic h can also
131

Fig. 6 .3 6 . The P ortable Vibration A n a ly z e r together w ith a Portable L e ve l Re

corder Type 2 3 0 6 produces "o n the s p o t" h a rd copy fre q u e n cy ana
lysis p lo ts
be contained in th e same carrying case. The set can then be used fo r static
and dynam ic balancing of m achine rotors in-situ. This application is described
fu lly in Chapter 1 1.
A battery-operated vibration m eter dedicated to th e m easurem ent o f vib ra
to ry motion w ith respect to its a b ility to cause d isco m fo rt or damage to th e h u
m an body is show n in Fig.6 .3 7 . It is equipped w ith w e ig h tin g filte rs fo r the
m easurem ent of th re e categories o f "h u m a n vib ra tio n ; "W h o le Body",
"H a rd -A rm ", and "M o tio n S ickness". The in s tru m e n t measures according to
standards w h ich d e fin e the m easuring criteria and recom m end discom fort
and danger lim its. These are discussed in detail in C hapter 5. Several acceler
o m e te r types may be used w ith th e m eter. Of p a rtic u la r interest is th e Seat
A ccelerom eter, also show n in F ig .6 .3 7 , w hich is placed under the buttocks
o f a seated person and detects vib ra tio n in three m u tu a lly perpendicular d ire c
tio n s .
M oving back n o w to the tunable filte r w hich gives th e vibration m eter its
freq uency analysis capability, the in s tru m e n t contains a single bandpass filte r
w h ic h may be s w itc h e d to either 3% or 23% (~ 1 / 3 octave) b a ndw idth and
w h ic h may be tun e d over the frequency range 0 ,2 Hz to 2 0 kHz in fiv e sub
ranges. Tuning is e ith e r m anually co n tro lle d by m eans of the knob on the
fro n t panel or sw ept autom atically th ro u g h each fre q u e n cy sub-range w hen
used in co n junctio n w ith the Portable Graphic Level Recorder s h o w n in
1 32

, QO

F ig.6 .3 7 . H um an Vibration M e te r Type 2 5 1 2 and Triaxial Seat A cce le ro m e te r

Type 4 3 2 2
F ig.6 .3 6 . A typical 3% b a n d w id th analysis of gearbox vib ra tio n made using
the vib ra tio n analyzer set and level recorder is shown in F ig .6 .3 8 . Selection
of m easurem ent param eters and sweep speeds is discussed in Chapter 7.
A no ther battery operated filte r w hich m atches the general purpose v ib ra
tion m eter is the tracking filte r shown in F ig .6 .3 9 . In addition to being m a n u
ally tunable the filte r can be tuned by v irtu a lly any periodic signal from for e x
ample a tachom eter probe on a rotating m a ch in e . This tu n in g fa c ility enables
vibration signals to be analysed during m a ch in e run-up or on variable speed
m achinery. The filte r may be sw itched to e ith e r 6%, 12% or 23% bandw idth
and be tu n e d continuously over the fre q u e n cy range 2 Hz to 2 0 kHz via the ta
chom eter in p u t. W hen tu n e d m anually th is range is covered w ith tw o s u b
ranges. A typical analysis arrangem ent using the tracking filte r is show n in
F ig.6 .4 0 .
M easuring Object:

V e lo city
Small gearbox/m otor
3% B/W_____________

0 mm/s

20-1

mm/s

o _ 0 ,1 m m /s t i t
2

Hi

10

Q P Q 1 4 3 Pot Ranga:_

50
Ractifiar.: R M S

100

200

Low ar Lim. Frag :

50 0
j

lOOO
Hi

20 0 0

W ritin g Spaad:

50 00

10000

m m /w c

20000
Papar Spaad:

50 00 0

100000

0.1 m m /M C .

78 0 236

Fig. 6 .3 8 . Typical frequency analysis m a d e using battery operated p o rta b le

in strum e nts
1 33

F ig .6 .3 9 . Tracking F ilte r Type 1 6 2 3 co m b in e s w ith

2 5 1 1 to form a versatile tra ckin g analyzer

V ibration M eter Type

lysis
An addition al feature of th is filte r is th a t it can be tuned to any ratio co m b i
nation of the tu nin g (tachom eter) signal fre q u e n cy betw een 1 / 9 9 and 9 9 / 1 .
This enables order analysis to be perform ed, th a t is, the vib ra tio n level a ttri
butable to th e various harm onics and su b -h a rm o n ics of a m achine's fu n d a
m ental ro ta tio n frequency are measured as a fu n c tio n of ro ta tio n speed.
The tracking filte r also provides syn ch ro n isa tio n signals fo r the portable le134

F ig.6 .4 1 . A n order analysis p lo tte d on the X -Y Recorder Type 2 3 0 8 using the

in stru m e n ts s h o w n in Fig. 6 .4 0

F ig .6 .4 2 . Frequency sp e ctru m p lo tte d on the Portable L e v e l Recorder Type

2 3 0 6 using the in stru m e n ts s h o w n in Fig. 6 .4 0 .
vel recorder or X-Y recorder (m ains operated) enabling vib ra tio n level versus
m achine speed plots to be made a utom atically. Typical recordings are show n
in Figs.6.41 and 6 .4 2 .

6 .7 .2 . The Sound Level M e te r (SLM) as a Vibration M eter

W h ile considering portable vibration m eters it should be mentioned th a t
some sound level m eters can also be used fo r vibration m easurem ents. A ty p i
cal exam ple is shown in F ig .6 .4 3 . W h ile th e SLM is not by any means an
ideal general purpose v ib ra tio n meter it m ay be econom ically attractive to th e
user w h o needs a precision sound level m eter and has th e occasional need to
measure vib ration.

135

Precision S o u n d L e ve l M e te r Type
2 2 0 9 fitte d w ith in te g ra to r adaptor
ZR 0 0 2 0 , 1 /3 O ctave F ilte r Set
Type 161 6 a n d an accelerom eter

Fig. 6 .4 4 . Integrato r Type ZR 0 0 2 0 co m p le te w ith a M e c h a n ic a l F ilte r UA

0 5 5 9 and slide ru le for co n ve rtin g dB scale re adings to vibration
units. Note th a t S L M Type 2 2 0 9 has interchangeable m eter scales
a llo w in g direct re a d in g in m e c h a n ic a l vibration u n its
Several B & K sound level meters, as s h o w n in the table in F ig.6 .4 5 , may
be used for acceleration m easurem ents by merely adding an accelerom eter
pickup. W ith the fu rth e r a d dition of the In te g ra to r ZR 0 0 2 0 , (F ig .6 .4 4 ) w h ich
136

Sound
Level
Meter
Type

Frequency
Acc.
Range
w ith Integrator V e l.
Z R 0020
Disp.
( 0,5 dB)

w o

ea

s
T

;
ft

2209
3 Hz to 30 kH z

31,5 Hz to 12,5 k H z

25 Hz to 5 k H z

25 H z to 5 kH z

31,5 Hz to 2 k H z

50 Hz to 2 k H z

50 Hz to 2 kH z

2210

''F a s t''
"S lo w "

2218

50 Hz to 2 k H z
RM S
Impulse
Peak
A ll w ith o r w ith
o u t m ax. Hold

R M S,
Impulse
Peak H old
Impulse H old

RMS
Im pulse
Peak Hold

"F a s t", " S lo w " , "Im pulse"

Provision fo r
Connecting
External
Filters

V ib ra tio n
Meter
Scales

fSW-. *

2203

Detector
Modes

O utputs

A
fe w

10 Hz to 2 0 k H z

RMS

Averaging
Tim es

Yes

A C Lin

A C Lin
D C Lin

Conversion
from d B
Necessary

Yes

A C Lin, DC Log
Conversion fro m d B
Necessary
791115

Fig. 6 .4 5 . S o u n d Level M e te rs w h ich m ay be use d fo r vibration m e asurem ent

a n d analysis
fits on the m eter in place of the m icrophone, ve lo c ity and d isplacem ent meas
urem ents can be made.
The main lim ita tio n s associated w ith using S L M 's for vib ra tio n m easure
m ent are in freque ncy range, and in dynam ic range w hen using th e integra
tor for velocity and displacem ent m easurem ents. S LM 's also have a voltage
p ream plifier in p u t w hich means th a t the m easuring sensitivity is dependent
on the length of cable betw een pickup and m e te r. W hen using S LM 's for
w ide band vibration m easurem ents it is im p o rta n t to lim it the h igh frequency
response of th e in stru m e n t to th e linear p o rtio n of the accelerom eter re
sponse curve. This is m ost sim ply achieved by using the p re vio u sly-m e n
tioned m echanical filte r UA 0 5 5 9 to g e th e r w ith th e accelerom eter.
Fitting a band-pass filte r to the sound level m e te r facilitates fre q u e n c y ana
lysis. Octave and third-octave filte r sets are available w hich fa ste n directly to
the body of th e SLM 's as show n in F ig .6 .4 3 . N arrow -band and tra c k in g analy
sis can also be perform ed w ith S L M 's using th e filte rs previously mentioned
in connection w ith the G eneral Purpose V ib ra tio n M eter. These system s can
all be synchronised w ith the Portable Level Recorder so that h a rd copy fre
quency analysis plots of sound and vibration can be made

137

For convenience in fie ld use the S L M 's are a va ila b le in carrying cases con
ta in in g the accessories necessary fo r sound and v ib ra tio n m easurem ents.

6 .7 .3 . The Tape Recorder in Vibration Work

It may often be m ore convenient to record v ib ra tio n signals on m agnetic
tape fo r later analysis in the laboratory rather th a n making o n -th e -sp o t fre
quency analyses in th e field. This is especially the case when it is w is h e d to
analyse tran sie nt vib ra tio n , shocks and continuous signals on sophisticated
m ains-operated laboratory-type in s tru m e n ta tio n . In large m achine condition
m o n ito rin g program m es it is often m ost rational to go from m achine to ma
chine w ith a battery-operated tape recorder, taking a short sample fro m the
m any measuring p o in ts involved, th e n making the a n a lysis back in th e labora
tory.
By replaying a tape at higher speed, very lo w fre q u e n cy signals can be
broug ht into the fre q u e n cy range of ordinary fre q u e n c y analyzers and analy
sis tim e can also be reduced.
Two recording p rin cip le s are in com m on use, d ire c t recording (DR) and fre
quency m odulation (FM). Their relative m erits are s h o w n in Fig.6 .4 6 .
FM recording te ch n iq u e s are n o rm a lly employed in order to obtain th e lin e
a rity and low fre q u e n cy response necessary for m any vibration m easurem ent
purposes.
A Tape Recorder of in s tru m e n ta tio n quality, w h ic h is designed w ith both
fie ld and laboratory use in m ind, is s h o w n in Fig.6 .4 7 . It has four FM record
ing channels as standard but one or m ore channels m ay be converted to d i
rect recording by exchanging certain p lu g -in circ u it cards (full DR sp e cifica
tio n s o n ly obtainable in a 2 channel version w ith special heads). For v e rs a til
ity, the b u ilt-in rechargeable battery cassette may be exchanged fo r a pow er

DR

FM

Dynam ic Range (n a rro w band - typ ica l)

Lower Frequency L im it
Upper Frequency L im it (typical)
A m p litu d e S ta b ility
Phase Linearity

70 dB

60 dB

2,5 H z*
50 kH z
acceptable
poor

DC
10 kH z

Preservation o f Recorded In fo rm a tio n

acceptable

'P la y b a c k

speed 1 0 x

excellent
good
good

record in g speed

Fig. 6 .4 6 . C om parison o f DR a n d FM re co rd in g techniques

138

F ig .6 .4 7 . P ortable FM Tape Recorder Type 7 0 0 3

supply adaptor enabling operation d ire c tly from the AC mains, or a lte rn a
tively, th e pow er supply may be connected by cable fo r sim ultaneous c h a rg
ing and operation.
Since the tape recorder is likely to be th e most lim itin g factor in d e te rm in
ing th e dynam ic range of the system, it is w ise to choose the param eter fo r
recording (acceleration or velocity) w h ic h has the fla tte s t spectrum , re g a rd
less of w h ic h is to be used for final e va lu a tio n . Conversion between th e p a r
am eters is of course s tra ig h t forw ard once a narrow band spectral analysis
has been carried out.
It is necessary and convenient to precede each input ch annel of the tape re
corder w ith a signal a m p lifica tio n and co n d ition in g device. If one of the sound
level m eters previously show n to be su ita b le for vib ra tio n m easurem ents is
available, th is may be used to feed one o f th e four recorder channels.
An ideal input p re a m p lifie r for the level recorder is th e battery operated in
stru m e n t show n in F ig .6 .5 0 . This is a general purpose accelerom eter p re a m
p lifie r w h ic h includes com prehensive sig n a l co n d ition in g facilities. A c c e le r
om eter sensitivity is d ia lle d into the th re e digit se n sitivity adjustm ent n e tw o rk
so th a t a rounded calibrated output, adjustable in 1 0 d B steps, can be o b
tained. This feature gre a tly sim plifies th e calibration o f the tape recorder or
m e a su rin g /a n a lyzin g in stru m e n ts fo llo w in g it. A m p lific a tio n is adjustable up
to 8 0 dB, w hich enables the 1 V fu ll scale level fo r th e tape recorder to
be achieved, even w ith sm all signals. Integrators are in clu d e d so that a c c e le r
ation, velocity and displacem ent m easurem ents can be performed. A w id e
139

Fig. 6 .4 8 . The Portable tape recorder being u s e d to sim u lta n e o u sly record v i
b ra tio n in the v e rtic a l and tw o h o riz o n ta l planes on the p illa r o f a
ra ilw a y bridge fo r subsequent a n a lysis in the laboratory. The separ
ate carrying case (KA 2 0 0 0 ) co n ta in s three P re a m p lifie rs Type
2 6 3 5 and a Portable C alibrator Type 4 2 9 1 . a ll o f w h ic h are battery
operated

Fig. 6 .4 9 . Back in the lab o ra to ry taped sig n a ls are examined, h e re using the
N a rro w Band A n a lyze r Type 2 0 3 1 a n d X -Y Recorder Type 2 3 0 8
140

choice of high and low-pass filte rs can be selected so th a t unw anted signals,
noise, etc. can be prevented from in flu e ncin g the m easurem ents.
For the application show n in F ig .6 .4 8 three p re a m p lifie rs w e re used to
feed three channels of the recorder, the fourth ch a n n e l was used fo r verbal
com m ents via th e m icrophone / loudspeaker inclu d e d w ith the recorder. The
portable ca lib rator also show n in Fig 6 .4 8 provides a reference vibration
source for checking out the w h o le m easuring c h a in and allows a 1 0 m s- 2
(~1 g) reference vibratio n level to be recorded on th e tape. The p re a m p lifie rs
and calibrator are m ounted in a co nvenient carrying case.

F ig .6 .5 0 . B attery operated Charge A m p li

fie r Type 2 6 3 5

6 .7 ,4 . Stroboscopic M otion Analysis

The ability to visu a lly freeze or slo w -d o w n ro ta tin g and reciprocating m a
chine parts is h ig h ly desirable in m echanical developm ent and tro u b le -s h o o t
ing w ork This is possible using th e stroboscopic m o tio n analyzers sh o w n in
F ig .6 51 and 6 .5 2 . Illum inated by a high in te n sity lam p flashing in s y n c h ro n i
sation w ith rotary or vibratory m echanical m otion, stru ctu ra l supports, cle a r
ance betw een m oving parts, e cce n tricity of ro ta tio n and the engagem ent of
m eshing gear teeth can be observed in detail The flash frequency m ay be
controlled from a b u ilt-in generator or a lte rn a tive ly fro m an external trigger
source such as a vibration exciter co n tro lle r, m agnetic pickup or p hotoelectric
tachom eter probe. The m ains operated in stru m e n t show n in F ig.6 .5 1 has a
frequency offset fa c ility w h ich a llo w s the test object to be examined in appar
ent slow m otion (0 ,3 Hz to 5 ,7 Hz) and also phase control a llo w in g an object
to be examined in any part of its cycle. In addition to th e basic stroboscope fa
c ility, the sm all battery operated u n it show n in F ig .6 .5 2 has a ta ch o m e te r dis
play indicating th e trig g e r or flash frequency.

141

F ig .6 .5 1 . Stroboscopic M o tio n A n a lyze r Type 491 1

Fig. 6 .5 2 Portable Stroboscope Type 4 9 1 2

142

6 .7.5. Waveform Studies

W ith o u t dispute, the frequency a n a lysis of vibration signals is the s in g u
larly m ost useful tool fo r revealing th e background to m echanical vib ra tio n
problem s. However th e usefulness of w aveform analysis, that is the p lo ttin g
of signal am plitude ve rsu s tim e, should not be forgotten.
An oscilloscope is g e n e ra lly the s im p le s t method of displaying a vib ra tio n
w aveform but in the tra c e fundam ental frequency com ponents are ofte n b u
ried in noise and the m ethod is th e re fo re of lim ited p ra ctica l use.
W ith the help of a w a ve fo rm re trie v e r it is possible to plot out the a m p li
tude of vibration sig na ls as a fu n ctio n o f tim e, w ith all n o n -h a rm o n ica lly re
lated com ponents and noise filtered o u t, but w ith a selected num ber of h a r
m onic com ponents re ta in e d . This fa c ilita te s the e xa m in a tio n of the d ynam ic
behaviour of m achine p a rts through each phase of th e ir cycle and the id e n tifi
cation of irregularities caused by, fo r exam ple, fa u lty gear teeth and a e ro d y
nam ic anom alies.
The w aveform re trie v e r show n in F ig .6 .5 3 requires a periodic reference s ig
nal to trigge r the sa m p lin g circu itry w h ic h looks at th e signal w aveform at a
progressively later p o in t in each cycle, i.e. like the stroboscope in "s lo w m o
tio n " mode. W ith m echanical systems th e tim e reference can be c o n ve n ie n tly
provided by P hoto-electric Tachom eter Probe w hich g ives a trigger pulse fo r
each revolution of a s h a ft, for exam ple. The w aveform is fed out at a m uch
low er frequency to a level recorder o r X-Y recorder. Low pass filte rs rem ove
non-synchronous v a ria tio n s over a selectable effective n u m b e r of cycles.
As th e w aveform re trie v e r is b a tte ry operated and com pletely portable, a
battery operated level recorder w ill n o rm a lly be the m ost convenient p lo ttin g
device and allow w a ve fo rm plots to be made on -th e -sp o t, out in the fie ld . A
typical battery operated system is s h o w n in Fig.6 .5 4 . N ote that the w a ve fo rm
retrieve r is a tw o ch a n n e l device so th a t differences in vibration phase and
am plitu de between tw o d iffe re n t lo ca tio ns may be exam ined.

IB R H H IIH IW

, 9

ts t

-jjj

Fig. 6 .5 3 . W aveform R etriever Type 6 3 0 2

143

Fig. 6 .5 4 . B a tte ry operated in s tru m e n ta tio n s e t-u p for recording the tim e h is
to ry o f periodic w aveform s
Averaged orb it plots can be d ra w n by feeding th e outputs from X and Y axis
transducers via the w aveform re trie ve r to an X-Y recorder.
6 .7 .6 . M onitoring for M echanical Bumps and Shocks
M echanical shock is a severe e nvironm ental hazard during th e transporta
tion of m any item s of m achinery, equipm ent and more or less fragile pro
ducts. A specially designed in s tru m e n t for c o n tin u o u sly m o n ito rin g and re
cording the level of excessive shocks is sh o w n in Fig.6 .5 5 . It is a self-con
tained, fu lly electronic apparatus th a t m easures th e maximum ve lo c ity and ac
celeration to g e th e r w ith the tim e of occurrence of shocks w h ic h exceed a
preset th re sh o ld level and records them on a reel of paper tape.
Shocks are picked up by a piezoelectric accelerom eter w h ic h can be
m ounted inside the sturdy recorder case or re m o te ly on a c ritic a l part of the
transported item . It m onitors sim u lta n e o u sly in three m u tu a lly perpendicular
directions so th a t shocks o ccu rrin g in any random direction are resolved into
three vectors. These are com bined in the in s tru m e n t to represent the m agni
tude of the applied shock.
B u ilt-in rechargeable batteries power the in s tru m e n t for approxim ately 18
days, for longer journeys an e xternal battery pack can be connected. By con
necting a very high se n sitivity accelerom eter to the recorder its sensitivity
can be increased by a factor of 1,000 making it suitable for re cording ground
trem ors and building shocks due to, for exam ple, rock blasting or heavy tra f
fic. The photograph in Fig.6 .5 6 show s the bum p recorder in use.
144

Fig. 6 .5 5 . B um p Recorder Type 2 5 0 3 to g e th e r w ith a ty p ic a l bu m p readout

p rin te d on a 6 m m wide paper strip

F ig .6 .5 6 . B um p Recorder Type 2 5 0 3 packed in its reusable p rotective co n

tainer, m o u n te d on a m a chine tool. The tria x ia l accelerom eter
pickup is m o u n te d on the headstock o f the m achine
145

6 .7 .7 . Portable Level Recorders

W here m ore than a fe w vibration m easurem ents are made, or frequency
and w aveform analysis are perform ed, it is a severe d ra w b a ck to have to m a n
ually plot results on a record sheet. A level recorder fa c ilita te s the autom atic
recording of tim e and fre q u e n cy spectra on a precalibrated paper ch a rt, of
w h ic h there are nu m e ro us examples s h o w n in th is book.
Battery operated level recorders are available in both s in g le and tw o c h a n
nel versions as show n in F ig .6 .5 7 . They are equipped w ith an RMS re c tifie r
and can record AC sig n a ls in the fre q u e n cy range 1 ,6 Hz to 2 0 kHz n o rm a lly
on a lo garithm ic fre q u e n cy scale or lin e a r tim e axis. DC signals may be re
corded on both lin e a r and logarithm ic a m p litu d e scales.

Fig. 6 .5 7 . Portable b a tte ry operated Level Recorders Types 2 3 0 6 (single c h a n

nel) a n d 2 3 0 9 (tw o channel)

Recording chart paper is stored on a ro ll in the recorder and is fed out at be

tw e e n 0,01 and 3 0 m m /s according to w h ic h of the e ig h t paper speed s e t
tin g s are chosen. For fre q u e n cy analysis w ork the paper feed is sem i- or
fu lly au tom a tically synchronised w ith the sw eep of the filte rs previously m e n
tioned.
The tw o -ch a n n e l recorder is p a rticu la rly convenient w h e re it is required to
plot tw o varying param eters w ith respect to a com m on param eter, for exam
ple, tim e , frequency or rpm . Typical exam ples that can be m entioned are the
plo ttin g of excitation force and response vibration as a fu n c tio n of frequency
146

or the vibration level at tw o d iffe re n t locations on a m a ch in e as a fu n c tio n of

rotation speed.

6 .8 .

LA B O R A TO R Y
T IO N

O R IE N T E D

M A IN S -O P E R A T E D

IN S T R U M E N T A

The instru m e nts described in the previous section are powered fro m in te r
nal batteries and can th e re fo re be ru n independently o f AC m ains pow er.
M ost of them can, how e ver, be run fro m the mains in laboratory s itu a tio n s
via one of the battery chargers or pow er supplies available fo r th is purpose.
A lth o u g h battery-pow ered in s tru m e n ts are already sh o w in g a high degree
of sophistication w e s till m ust look to m ains powered in stru m e n ta tio n fo r the
most po w erfu l m easuring and analyzing systems. R esearch and developm ent
w ork in the laboratory and the analysis of tape recorded data is s till th e do
m ain of m ains operated in stru m e n ta tio n .
The firs t stages of th e vibration m easuring c h a in , th e transducer and
prea m p lifie r discussed in 6.1 and 6 .2 apply to both b a tte ry and m ains-operated m easuring and analyzing in stru m e n ta tio n . From th e re on there is a w ide
choice of m ains-operated filte rin g , detection and re co rd in g in stru m e n ta tio n
available.
The m easuring a m p lifie r is a central in stru m e n t he re , it is used alone as a
precision signal detector and level in d ica tor and to g e th e r w ith a filte r se t, to
perform frequency analysis. A m easuring am plifier and filte r-s e t are often
com bined into a signal in s tru m e n t called a frequency analyzer or sp e ctro m e
ter.

6 .8 .1 . Measuring A m plifiers
The choice of m easuring a m p lifie r w ill m ainly depend on w h e th e r it should
be able to be additiona lly operated fro m a DC supply, w h e th e r peak in d ica tio n

Fig. 6 .5 8 . A typ ic a l m e a su rin g am plifier, B & K Type 2 6 1 0

147

Fig. 6 .5 9 . M a in data fo r m e a s u rin g am plifiers su ita b le for vib ra tio n m easure

m ent
in addition to RMS is required and w hether long tim e constants are required,
as is often the case w hen a n a lyzin g w ith n a rro w -b a n d filte rs . A typical mea
su rin g am p lifier suitable fo r vib ra tio n m easurem ent is show n in Fig.6 .5 8 .
The main data of th is and s im ila r instrum ents is s h o w n in F ig.6 .5 9 .

6 .8 .2 . Separate Filters
Add-on filte rs fo r m easuring am plifiers fa c ilita te frequency analysis; both
constant ba ndw idth and co n s ta n t percentage ba n d w id th types are available
as show n in Fig 6 .6 0 .
The Heterodyne Slave Filter Type 2 0 2 0 is tu n e d in the fre q u e n c y range
1 0 Hz to 20 kHz to the d iffe re n c e frequency of tw o high fre q u e n c y signals.
Tuning signals are obtained fro m one of the B & K Generators Types 1 023
148

B B
* |

mm

#
m...

- :-j ^

Fig. 6 .6 0 . H eterodyne Slave F ilte r Type 2 0 2 0 (constant b a n d w id th ) and ThirdOctave Bandpass F ilte r Type 1 6 1 8 (constant percentage bandw idth)
and 1 0 2 7 , th e Heterodyne A nalyzer Type 2 0 1 0 or the Tracking Frequency
M u ltip lie r Type 1 9 0 1 . The filte r is w id e ly used fo r analysis on a linear fre
quency scale w h ic h is best su ite d to constant b a ndw idth filte rs , and is p a rtic u
larly valuable fo r analyzing dynam ic system response in co n d itio n s of high
noise and d isto rtio n and fo r tracking analysis w h e n tuned fro m the tracking
frequency m u ltip lie r.
For analysis in standard octave and th ird -o c ta v e co ntiguous bands, filte r
sets such as th a t shown in F ig .6 .6 0 are used. Third-octave and octave band
w idth analysis is of lim ited value in the general study of m echanical vibration
w here n a rro w e r bandw idth resolution is n o rm a lly required. T hird-octave a n a
lysis can be of value h o w e ver w here it is required to co rre la te vibration
spectra w ith noise spectra and also w h e re sim ple spectrum com parison is
needed fo r m achine health m onitoring and q u a lity control purposes.
M ain data fo r add-on filte rs is shown to g e th e r w ith the data fo r dedicated
analyzers in F ig .6 .6 2 .

6 .8 .3 . Frequency Analyzers
Most convenie nt for p e rfo rm in g frequency analysis of vib ra tio n signals in
the laboratory are the range of analyzers sh o w n in Fig.6 .6 1 . T w o types of a n
alyzers are represented, serial analyzers and re al-tim e analyzers. The serial
analyzers m ay be synchronised w ith , and read out to, level or X-Y recorders.
R eal-tim e frequency analyzers provide analysis in all fre q u e n cy bands s im u l
taneously giving a v irtu a lly instantaneous graphical display of frequency
spectra on a large b u ilt-in screen. These spectra can, of course, also be read
out to a graphic recorder.
Looking at the analyzers in tu rn , the firs t analyzer show n in F ig.6.61 a l
lows a co n tin u o u s analysis to be made by sw eeping th ro u g h th e desired fre
quency range. A constant percentage filte r bandw idth as n a rro w as 1% al149

Frequency Analyzer Type 21 2 0

H eterodyne Analyzer
Type 2 0 1 0
N arrow Band
S pectrum A nalyzer
Type 2031

High Resolution Signal A nalyzer

Type 2 0 3 3

Digital Frequency Analyzer

Type 2 1 3 1

Fig. 6 .6 1 . M ains-o p e ra te d frequency analyzers used fo r th e analysis o f m e

ch a n ical vibration

low s very fin e resolution analyses to be made fa c ilita tin g th e detailed e x a m i

nation of vibration phenom ena.

150

A n arrow constant b a n d w id th analysis m ay often be re q u ire d in develop

m ent, diagnostic and e xp e rim e n ta l w o rk. T h is is especially th e case w ith v i
bration problem s associated w ith ro ta tin g machines such as gearboxes
w h e re a fin e constant b a n d w id th is needed to identify m u ltip le harm onics
and sidebands due to m o d u la tio n w h ic h occur at co n sta n t frequency in te r
vals.
The Heterodyne A nalyzer show n in F ig .6 .6 1 facilitates c o n sta n t b andw idth
analysis w ith bandw idths betw een 3,1 6 Hz and 1 0 0 0 Hz and has a fre q u e n cy
range from 2 Hz to 2 0 0 kHz. Both lin e a r and logarithm ic frequency sw eeps
may be selected.

Filters for use w ith

measuring a m p lifie rs
2020

1617

Frequency A nalyzers
1618

2120

2010
Continuous
sweep.
Constant
bandwidth

Classi
fication

C o n tin u o u s
sweep.
Constant
b andw idth

Stepped o cta v e and

third-octave.
Constant percentage
bandw idth.

C o n tin u o u s
sweep.
Constant
percentage
b a nd w id th

Bandw idth

3,1 6 Hz
10 Hz
31 ,6 Hz
100 Hz

1/1 O cta ve
1/3 O cta ve

1%
3%
10%
1/3 O c t.
(-23% )

3,16 Hz
10 Hz
31,6 Hz
100 Hz
316 Hz
1000 Hz

0,25% o f
selected
freq. range
ie. from
0,025 Hz
to 50 H z

Centre
Frequency
Range

10 H z to
2 0 kH z

2 Hz
to 20 k H z

2 Hz to
200 kH z

0 - 1 0 Hz
to
0 -2 0 kH z
in 11 ranges

Power
S u pp ly

2 Hz to
160 k H z

A C M ains

2 H z to
2 0 kH z

A C M a in s
and
Ext. D C

2033

2031

Constant- bandwidth
Real tim e

2131
O ctave and
third-octave
Real-tim e

A s 2031
plus x 10
1/1 O ctave
zoom
(0,025% BW) 1/3 O ctave
(ie. 0,0025
H z to 5 Hz)
A s 2031
plus x1 0
zoom

1,6 H z to
20 k H z

A C M ains
791116

Fig. 6 .6 2 . M a in data fo r m a in s-o p e ra te d filte rs and fre q u e n cy analyzers

In ad dition to its analyzer function th is in stru m e n t is equipped w ith a sig n a l

generator w h ich can be tu n e d over th e same frequency range as the a n a l
yzer. The ou tput level of th e generator can be controlled a utom atically via its
b u ilt-in com pressor a m p lifie r so as to a llo w the excitation level of, for e x a m
ple, vibration test objects to be kept c o n s ta n t during a fre q u e n cy sweep. The
analyzer side of the in s tru m e n t can be used at the sam e tim e to filte r and
m easure dynam ic response signals. A ty p ic a l application exam ple is s h o w n in
F ig .6 6 3 .
The A na lysis B andw idth (B ) and a ve ra g in g tim e (TA ) of th e in stru m e n t m ay
be m an ually selected or autom atically changed during a frequency sw eep in
accordance w ith four preprogram m ed sequences b u ilt-in . The significance of
selecting optim um va lu e s of B and Ta to obtain a s h o rt analysis tim e and a
given accuracy is dealt w ith in detail in th e fo llo w in g chapter. The fo u r pro151

F ig .6 .6 3 . A rra n g e m e n t fo r m e a su rin g the m e ch a n ica l im pedance o f a s tru c

tu re
gram m es available are as fo llo w s . (1 )7 ^ c o n sta n t, B variable; suitable for log
frequency sw eep to give approxim ately co n s ta n t percentage bandw idth. In
con junction w ith a b u ilt-in b andw idth com pensation ne tw o rk, pow er spectral
density and energy spectral d ensity m easurem ents can be m ade. (2) B co n
stant, Ta variable; approxim ates optim um co n d ition s for co n s ta n t bandwidth
analysis on a logarithm ic fre q u e n cy scale. (3) and (4) Two program m es giving
an approxim ately constant (selectable) BTA product b u t using different
change-over frequencies. These program m es give approxim ately constant statistical confidence over the e n tire frequency range.
6 .8 .4 . R eal-Tim e Analyzers
The o u tstanding advantage o f real-tim e fre q u e n cy analyzers is that they
provide analysis in all fre q u e n cy bands over th e ir entire analysis range s im u l
taneously. Furtherm ore, th e y give a v irtu a lly instantaneous graphical display
of analyzed spectra on a large b u ilt-in screen w h ic h is c o n tin u o u s ly updated.
Typical exam ples are show n in F ig .6 .6 4 . D ynam ic and spectral changes such
as occur w h e n increasing vib ra tio n test level or machine speed can thus be
seen as they actually happen, w h ic h is of p a rtic u la r benefit in vibration test
and prototype developm ent w o rk . Also, the tim e saved in not having to w a it
fo r a level or X-Y recorder readout is considerable, making re a l-tim e analyz
ers an absolute m ust for qu ick look in ve stig ative w ork such as called for in
production lin e testing and fa u lt fin d in g w ith products.

15 2

M F

=1

F ig .6 .6 4 . Typical re a l-tim e analyzer displays, (a) a 1 / 3 Octave s p e c tru m a lte r

n a tin g w ith a reference spectrum h e ld in th e 2 1 3 1 's m e m o ry, (b) a
n a rro w -b a n d spectrum displayed on th e 2 0 3 1 's screen, (c) a time
fu n c tio n on the 2 0 3 1 s screen
Real-tim e analyzers are also p a rtic u la rly w e ll s u ite d fo r analysis o f short du
ration signals, such as tra n s ie n t vibration and shock. Readout and display of
analyzed tra n s ie n t and shock spectra takes place practically at th e very in
stant of capture, w h ic h w ith se ria l frequency analyzing in s tru m e n ta tio n is
ust not possible, as these sig n a ls m ust firs t be recorded for re p e titiv e play
back as a pseudo-periodic signal before analysis m ay be attem pted. In addi
tio n , real-tim e analyzers can sto re analyzed spectra, or spectra e n te re d d igi
ta lly fo r alternate display w ith la te r incom ing data. This facilitates quick, easy
com parison of spectra as is necessary in m achine condition m o n ito rin g pro
gram s as discussed in Chapter 8.
Three re a l-tim e analyzers are show n in F ig.6 .6 1 . Type 2131 is fu n d a m e n
ta lly diffe rent fro m the other tw o analyzers in th a t it generates a co n s ta n t per
centage, 1 /3 or 1 /1 octave ba n d w id th spectrum and is based on recursive
digital filte rin g w h ile the o ther types based on th e FFT procedure, produce
constant b a n d w id th spectra on a lin e a r frequency scale.
153

Because the analyzer using d ig ita l filte rs is b a sica lly designed as a 1 /3

octave (~23%) analyzer its main ap p lica tio n s for v ib ra tio n m easurem ents are
fo r production te stin g and quality c o n tro l w ork as w e ll as efficie n t perm anent
m o n ito rin g of m a ch in e condition. It should be noted however, th a t w ith the
add itional use of an external c o n tro lle r it is possible to generate 1 / 1 2 octave
b a n d w id th (~6%) fre q u e n cy spectra by making fo u r passes and ch a n g in g the
d igital filte r coe ffic ie n ts each tim e . A complete 1 / 1 2 octave analysis cannot
be made in real tim e but the m ethod is still fast in com parison w ith stepped
or sw eeping filte r a nalysis. The m e th o d can be used on n o n -sta tio n a ry (e.g.
tra n sie n t) signals provided that th e y can be repeated exactly four tim e s .
The FFT analyzers (Types 2031 and 2 0 3 3 ) p e rfo rm narrow band analysis
and are therefore p a rtic u la rly s u ita b le fo r vibration w o rk . They are also able
to display the tim e fu n c tio n of th e sig n a l being analysed w hich is a p a rtic u
larly valuable fa c ility in the analysis o f transient sig n a ls. One can th u s be
sure of analysing v a lid data. The fa c t that the FFT analyzers are equipped
w ith tw o m em ories enables tw o spectra to be com pared w ith th e d iffe re n ce
displayed. For exam ple, in the e va lu a tio n of vib ra tio n isolators, th e e xcita tio n
spectrum can be com pared w ith th e response sp e ctru m and the tra n s m is s ib ility of th e isolators displayed.
The High R esolution Signal A nalyzer Type 2 0 3 3 is an expanded version of
Type 20 3 1 featuring an extended (x 10) transient recorder size, a lin e a r am
plitu d e display in a d d itio n to the log display, and probably most s ig n ific a n tly ,
a zoom fa cility. The zoom fa cility a llo w s exam ination o f a spectrum in greater
detail by expanding p a rt of the fre q u e n c y scale by a factor of 10. M u ltip le
zooms can be made on the same d a ta , effectively a llo w in g a 4 0 0 0 lin e spec
tru m to be built up fro m ten co n tig u o u s sets of 4 0 0 channels, the m axim um
w h ic h can be displayed on the screen at any one tim e . The extra sam ple s to r
age capacity of the Type 2 0 3 3 a llo w s it to record m u ch longer tim e signals
so th a t longer events, fo r example one or more co m p le te cycles of an engine,
may be examined in d e ta il, even in h ig h frequency ranges, w here th e norm al
record length w ould be shorter than th e cycle tim e.
T ogether w ith a tra c k in g frequency m u ltip lie r, th e h ig h resolution FFT a n a l
yzer is valuable fo r studying m a ch in e vibration u n d e r variable speed co n d i
tio n s. The tracking fre q u e n cy m u ltip lie r m onitors th e m achine speed via a s u i
table pick-up such as the m agnetic transducer M M 0 0 0 2 as s h o w n in
F ig .6 .6 5 and controls th e external sa m p lin g source fo r the analyzer. In n o r
mal analysis, if the speed of the m a c h in e varies, th e position of speed related
com ponents of the sig n a l under a n a ly s is w ill change on the display screen.
H ow ever w hen using th e tracking m u ltip lie r, m a chine speed changes result
in a proportional ch a n g e in the analyzer sam pling fre q u e n c y so th a t speed re
lated com ponents sta y in the same ch a n n e ls on th e screen. This a llo w s the
re la tio n sh ip betw een th e am plitudes o f th e various s h a ft speed related com po
nents or "o rd e rs " to be studied.
154

Accelerom eter
4368

Narrow Band S p e ctru m Analyzer

20 33

Magnetic

9
/Tj H

i!

^
M achine

Charge
A m p lifier 2 6 3 5

T ra ck in g Frequency
M u ltip lie r 1901

F ig .6 .6 5 . Use o f the N a rro w Band A n a ly z e r 2 0 3 1 for o rd e r analysis

Desktop
programmable
Calculator
or
Com puter

>

A ccelerom eter

g 5 j *

Digital Cassette Recorder
7400

h1

*
-

. .M
lies
-v
.* aoBsIBB*

D igital
Frequency
An a ly ze r
2031
2033
2131

X - Y Recorder
23 08

Level R e co rd e r
2307

F ig .6 .6 6 . S pectra analyzed by a re a l-tim e frequency analyzer may be re

corded or pro ce sse d fu rth e r by a ca lcu la tor or com puter
Using an external sa m p lin g frequency m eans th a t th e re is a danger of e n
countering aliasing of h ig h frequency co m p o n e n ts if these lie above ha lf the
155

s a m p lin g fre q u e n c y .lt is at all tim es possible, however, to select an o p tim a l

in te rn a l low-pass filte r, based on the c u rre n t m achine speed, so that at least
60% of the total spectrum (i.e. 2 4 0 lines) w ould a lw a ys be valid. U sing
"z o o m " and concentrating on the firs t 10% of the baseband spectrum it is
even possible to obtain 4 0 0 -lin e order analyses w ith o u t th e influence of a lia
sing over a very w ide speed range, but th e spectrum update tim e is th e n a
m in im u m of 1 s, and th e procedure can o n ly be used for s lo w ly changing s ig
nals.
Data analyzed by the th re e real-tim e analyzers can be tra n sfe rre d to X-Y or
level recorders, or via th e b u ilt-in IEC in te rfa ce to d ig ita l data peripherals
such as tape recorder, tape punch, p rin te r or desk-top c a lcu la tor. The in te rfa c
ing of a real-tim e analyzer to a su ita b ly program m ed c a lcu la to r or com puter
th u s fa cilita te s the rapid a utom atic processing of analysed data. Some o u tp u t
options are show n in F ig .6 .6 6 .

6 .8 .5 . D igital Data Recording

W h ere it is required to store data in d ig ita l form , a cassette tape recorder
such as th a t show n in F ig .6 .6 7 may be em ployed. The recorder show n is a
tw o -tra ck device used fo r th e storage and reconstruction w h e n desired, of d ig
ital data o rigina ting from in stru m e n ts having IEC/IEEE or B & K low -pow er in
terface. For vibration w o rk its use w ill p rim a rily be directed to the recording
of spectra from the re a l-tim e analyzers p reviously show n. A b o u t 1 0 0 n a rro w
band spectra or several hundred 1 /3 octave spectra can be contained on
each data cassette. S tored data can be ra p id ly recalled fro m the cassette fo r
display on the analyzer screen and com pared w ith n ew spectra. N ew and
standard data may be displayed "s im u lta n e o u s ly " on th e analyzer display
screen using the "a lte rn a te " fu n ctio n . The recorder can be rem otely c o n
tro lle d from a desk-top c a lcu la to r or co m p u te r via the IEC interface for use in
auto m a tic m onitoring and analysis system s.

Fig. 6 .6 7 . Two-track D ig ita l Cassette Tape Recorder Type 7 4 0 0

156

In connection w ith the High R esolution Signal A n a lyze r it is possible to

tra n s fe r tim e records consisting of 1 0 K samples (or 1 K) to and fro m th e re
corder. From one such record it is possible to ge n e ra te a large n u m b e r of
zoomed and non-zoom ed spectra, including an average spectrum over the
w h o le record.
6 .8 .6 . Graphical Recorders (M ains Operated)
The battery operated single and tw o channel level recorders discussed in
section 6 .6 are indeed w idely used fo r plotting spectra from m ains-operated
in stru m e n ta tio n H ow ever, w here a m ains supply is available tw o o th e r a lt
e rn atives may be chosen as show n in F ig .6 68.

F ig .6 .6 8 . X-Y Recorder Type 2 3 0 8 and Level R ecorder Type 2 3 0 7

The Level Recorder shown in F ig .6 .6 8 is a com prehensive in s tru m e n t w ith
a w ide range of useful fa cilitie s. It is equipped w ith rectifiers w h ic h fa c ilita te
th e recording of th e RMS, peak and average values of AC signals fro m 2 Hz
to 2 0 0 kHz In the DC mode s ig n a ls from 0 to 6 ,4 Hz can be p lo tte d . Six
rang e-pote ntio m ete rs, tw o linear and fo u r lo g a rith m ic, a llo w the recorder reso
lu tio n to be changed as desired. A ll B & K filte r sets and analyzers, including
th e real-tim e in stru m e n ts, can be synchronised w ith th e recorder c h a rt m ove
m ent so that spectra can be plotted a utom atically on pre-printed calibrated
paper suitable for im m ediate docu m e n ta tio n . N um erous examples are show n
th ro u g h o u t this book.
The X-Y recorder is designed fo r the linear DC recording of s lo w and rap
idly changing voltages, signal fre q u e n cy analyses, w aveform s or any g ra p h i
cal plot requiring tw o fu lly co n tro lla b le axes. The s e n s itiv ity of each in p u t can
be adjusted con tin u o u sly and independently so th a t the plot size can be a r
ranged to com pletely fill the 1 8 5 * 2 7 0 mm w ritin g area. A sweep generator
is b u ilt in, w h ic h can control th e X or Y sweep of th e carriage and som e fre
quency generators and analyzers. A u to m a tic fre q u e n cy analysis and response

157

plots may be m ade on frequency graduated recording paper in con ju nctio n

w ith these in stru m e n ts .

6 .9 . A S U M M A R Y
A careful study o f the preceding sections of th is chapter should enable the
vibration engineer to select and u tiliz e the m easuring equipm ent necessary to
perform thoroug h and m eaningful vibration m easurem ents in m ost o f th e s itu
ations occurring in practice. F u rth e r details of th e frequency a n a lysis of con
tin u o u s and tra n s ie n t signals are given in the next chapter (C hapter 7). A fu r
th e r study of th a t chapter may th u s be required before m easurem ents are
made. On th e o th e r hand, w h e th e r the v ib ra tio n s consist of steady (sta tio n
ary) vibrations o r shocks it may be useful at th is stage to o u tlin e a sum m ary
procedure. This su m m a ry is m eant as an aid in rem em bering the m ost im p o rt
a n t factors in th e setting up and use of a v ib ra tio n m easurem ent system,
rath er than as a detailed "tu rn in g -o f-th e -k n o b s type of procedure.

1 . D eterm ine c a re fu lly where to p la ce the vib ra tio n transducer, a n d its po ssi
ble m ass-loa d in g effects (Section 6.2).
2. Estim ate w h a t types and levels o f vibrations th a t are likely to be present
at the tra n sd u c e r m o u n tin g p o in t (periodic vib ra tio n s , random vibrations,
shocks).
3. Select the m o s t suitable vib ra tio n transducer (accelerom eter) co n sidering
item s 1 a n d 2 above as w e ll as e n v iro n m e n ta l factors (te m p e ra tu re , h u
m idity etc.). See section 6 .2 .
4 D eterm ine w h a t type o f m e a su re m e n t w o u ld be m ost appropriate fo r the
problem a t hand. (Overall m e asurem ent of acceleration, ve lo c ity or dis
placem ent, w a ve fo rm recording, m agnetic tape recording, fre q u e n c y ana
lysis).
5. Select the m o st suitable e le c tro n ic equipm ent, considering fre q u e n c y and
phase ch a ra cte ristics, dynam ic range, and convenience of o p e ra tio n . See
sections 6 .1 , 6 .7 and 6.8.
6. Check a nd ca lib ra te the o v e ra ll system in c lu d in g accelerom eter a n d con
n e ctin g cables, see section 6 .4 .
7. M ake a sketch o f the in s tru m e n ta tio n system w ith all type n u m b e rs and
serial num bers included.
8. S elect the appropriate accelerom eter m o u n tin g m ethod, considering vibra158

tion levels, frequency range, electrical in s u la tio n problems and ground

loops. See section 6.6.
9. M o u n t the accelerom eter o nto the structure, c a rry out the m easurem ents
and record th e result.
1 0. Note dow n th e s e ttin g o f the various in s tru m e n t c o n tro l knobs.
It is good policy alw ays to check the "back g ro u n d n o is e " le ve l o f a vibra
tio n m easurem ent system . This can be done by m o u n tin g the accelerom eters
on a non -vibrating object and m ea su rin g the "a p p a re n t vibration level of this
arrangem ent.
To obtain reasonably good accuracy in the a c tu a l vibration m easurem ents
the " apparent" vibra tio n s sh o u ld be less than one th ird of the m easured vibra
tio n s. Or said in o th e r words: The noise "flo o r" o f th e in sta lla tio n should be
at least 1 0 dB b e lo w the vibration levels to be m easured.

6 .1 0 . B IB LIO G R A P H Y
B & K PUBLICATIONS:
(M iscellaneous)

A cce le ro m e te r C alibration fo r accurate

M easurem ents. P ublication BR 0 1 7 3

V ibration

Piezoelectric A ccelerom eters and V ibration P ream plifi

ers T h e o ry and A p p lic a tio n Handbook. Publication
0 3 3 -0 2 0 5
OLESEN, H.P.:

M e a su re m e n t of the D yn a m ic Properties o f M aterials

and S tru c tu re s . B & K A p p lic a tio n Note 1 7 1 8 0

159

7.

FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF VIBRATION

A N D SHOCK

7 .1 . IN T R O D U C T IO N
The traditional w a y of perform ing a frequency a n a ly s is is to pass th e signal
th ro u g h a system co n sistin g of filte r, detector and recorder (or display) as il
lu stra te d in Fig.7 .1 . The tim e taken to obtain a re s u lt for each fre q u e n cy
(bandw idth) w ill be de te rm in ed by th e delays involved in each of the th re e ele
m e nts, and these w ill th u s be discussed in the fo llo w in g . The d iscussion ap
plies to both analogue filte rs, and also to the m o re recent d ig ita l filte rs,
w h ic h behave in a ve ry sim ila r m a n n e r to their analogue counterparts.

Fig. 7. 7. Block diagram o f basic analyzer system

The other digital fre q u e n cy analysis technique in com m on use, viz. FFT ana
lysis, involves a qu ite d iffe re n t approach, a direct n u m e ric a l evaluation o f e sti
m ates of the Fourier T ra n sfo rm , and th is w ill thus be discussed separately.

7 .1 .1 . Response Properties of Filters, Detectors and Recorders

The response tim e TR of a filte r o f bandw idth B is o f th e order of 1/ B as il
lu stra te d in Fig.7 .2 , and thus the delay introduced by th e filte r is also o f this
order. This relationship can be expressed in the form

w h ic h is most applicable to constant ba n d w id th filte rs ,

160

or

bnR ^ 1

(7.2)

w h ere b is the relative b andw idth (= B/10 ), nR is th e num ber of periods of fre
quency f0 in tim e TR (= fQ Tr ) and f0 is the centre frequency of th e filte r. This
form is more applicable to constant percentage b a n d w id th filte rs.
Thus the response tim e of a 10 Hz b andw idth filte r is approx. 1 0 0 ms
w h ile the response tim e of a 1% b a ndw idth filte r is approx. 100 periods.
F ig.7.2 also illu stra te s th a t th e "e ffe c tiv e le n g th of the im p u lse (TE ) is
also approxim ately 1/ B , w h ile to integrate all of th e energy c o n ta in e d in the
filte r im pulse response it is necessary to integrate o ver at least 3 Tp .
The detector is used to m easure the mean p o w e r in the filte r o u tp u t, and
consists of a squaring section to obtain the in sta n ta n e o u s pow er, fo llo w e d by
an averaging section to sm ooth out flu c tu a tio n s and fin d the m ean square
value over a specified averaging tim e TA .
There is no e ffe ctive delay in th e squaring s e ctio n , but errors can occur if a
tru e squaring is not achieved. In some in s tru m e n ts th e parabola correspond
ing to squaring is approxim ated by piecewise lin e a r sections, and th e result
w ill only be valid fo r crest fa cto rs up to a specified value, e.g. 5. So-called
LMS (log mean square) detectors achieve true sq u a rin g by lo g a rith m ic conver-

161

sion follow ed by a m p lific a tio n by a fa c to r of 2, and are not likely to have crest
fa cto r lim itations w ith in th e ir d yn a m ic range. In b oth digital filte r and FFT in
stru m e n ts, squaring is perform ed n um erically and is thus v irtu a lly perfect
w ith in the dynam ic range lim ita tio n s .
S ince there is a continuous o u tp u t from the filte r, the ideal averaging
w o u ld be a running lin e a r average over the previous TA seconds. T h is is very
d iffic u lt to achieve, how ever, and recourse is n o rm a lly made to 2 a lte rn a
tives.
(a)

Linear averaging w ith u n ifo rm w eighting over given tim e periods of

length TA , w h e re the result is o n ly available at th e end of each period,
and is usually held until so m e th in g is done w ith th e result. T h is means
th a t a result is not available at all tim es, and th a t new data m ay be lost
w h ile a result is being held.

(b)

Running exponential averaging, w here a re s u lt is available at all tim es

and represents approxim ately th e previous TA seconds, but w h e re the
m axim um w e ig h tin g is on th e m ost recent in p u t and there is an exponen
tia lly decaying w e ig h tin g backw ards in time.

17 13 4 0 /1

Fig. 7.3. W eighting curves fo r e q u iv a le n t linear a n d e xponential ave ra g in g

162

F ig .7 .3 illu stra te s the tw o w e ig h tin g fu n c tio n s (effectively the averager im

pulse response functions reversed in tim e) scaled so as to give e q u ivale n t av
eraging on sta tion ary signals. This is fo u n d to be the case w h e n TA = 2RC
(w here RC is th e tim e constant of the exponential decay) and w h e re the peak
o u tp u t of the exponential c irc u it is tw ice th a t of th e lin e a r circu it (i.e. + 3 dB).
The delay introduced by th e detector is of the o rd e r of the averaging tim e,
but w ith exponential averaging the m ost severe lim ita tio n is th a t th e m axi
m um rate of fa ll is 8 ,7 dB per averaging tim e and th is must be set in relation
to the steepness of filte r ch a ra cte ristic w h ic h m ay have to be recorded in a
sw ept frequency analysis.
The in flue nce of a graphic recorder depends on w h e th e r AC or DC record
ing is used. For DC recording (of the DC ou tp u t fro m an analogue detector) a
s u ffic ie n tly high w ritin g speed can a lw ays be chosen so that th e lim itation
com es from the detector and not the recorder. For AC recording, however,
w h e re the AC signal d irectly fro m the filte r is squared and averaged in the re
corder, the w ritin g speed m ay be the lim itin g fa c to r. The w ritin g speed 1/1/ is
firs t chosen so as to give th e required averaging tim e (see la te r, F ig.7.10)
and then th e analysis speed may be chosen so as not to lim it th e a b ility of
th e pen to fo llo w the m axim um slope of a filte r ch a ra cte ristic.

7 .1 .2 . Digital Filters
A (recursive) digital filte r is a calcu la tio n device w h ic h receives a sequence
of digital values at its in p u t, operates on each sam ple in a d e fin e d manner,
and outputs a sample for each input. The d ig ita l operations ca rrie d out, viz.
addition, m u ltip lica tio n and delays, mean th a t th e relationship betw een in
put and o u tp u t samples can be described by a d iffe re n c e equation, w hose pro
perties can be made very s im ila r to a d iffe re n tia l equation w h ic h m ight de
scribe an analogue filte r. F ig .7 .4 show s a typ ica l 2-pole section used in a
1 /3 -o c ta v e digital filte r analyzer (3 of these are cascaded to give 6 -p o le filtra
tion).
There are tw o ways of changing the pro p e rties of a given d ig ita l filte r c ir
cu it such as th a t shown in F ig .7.4:
(a)

For given coefficients (e.g. H0 . B 1 , B2 in F ig .7 .4 ) the filte r characteristic

is only defined w ith respect to the sam pling frequency. Thus, halving the
sam pling frequency w ill halve any c u t-o ff freq u e n cie s, centre frequencies
and bandw idths, and th u s m aintain c o n sta n t percentage characteristics
one octave low er in frequency. This is one reason w hy d ig ita l filte rs are
so w e ll adapted to c o n sta n t percentage b a n d w id th analysis on a lo g a rith
mic (i.e. octave-based) frequency scale.

163

(b)

For a given sam pling frequency th e ch a ra cte ristics can be changed by

changing the co e fficie n ts used in th e calculations.

Thus, the three 1/3 -o c ta v e ch a ra cte ristics w ith in each octave are generatted by changing co e fficie n ts, w h ile th e various octaves are covered by re p e tit
ively halving the sam pling frequency. Every tim e th e sam pling fre q u e n c y is
halved, it means th a t only half the num ber of sam ples m ust be processed in
a given tim e, and it w ill be seen th a t th e total nu m b e r of samples fo r all oc
taves low er than th e highest is ( 1 / 2 + 1 / 4 + 1 / 8 + ....) w hich in th e lim it
is the same as th e num ber in the h ig h est octave. T h is means th a t by being
able to calculate tw ic e as fast as is necessary for th e upper octave a lo n e , it is
possible to cover any num ber of lo w e r octaves in re a l-tim e , and th is is the
o th e r reason w h y d ig ita l filte rs are so w e ll adapted to real-tim e c o n sta n t per
centage bandw idth analysis over a w id e frequency range.

7 .1 .3 . FFT Analysis
The FFT algorithm is an extrem ely e ffic ie n t way of calculating the so-called
D iscrete Fourier T ransform (DFT) w h ic h is a discrete, fin ite approxim ation to
th e Fourier T ransform given in C hapter 2. The a ctu a l equation fo r th e fo r
w a rd transform is:
N_j
G (k ) = - L 2 g (n ) e
N n=0

164

2nkn
"

(7 .3 )

and for t he inverse t r ansf or m is

g (n ) =

2 G (k)e
k=0

(7 .4 )

w he re G(/r) represents th e spectrum values at the N discrete frequencies

k A f, and#(/?) represents samples of th e tim e function at th e N discrete tim e
points n A t.
W hereas the Fourier tra n sfo rm e q u a tio n s are in fin ite integrals of c o n tin u
ous fu n c tio n s , the above equations are fin ite sums, b u t o th e rw ise th e y w ill
be seen to have s im ila r properties. The fu n ctio n being transform ed is m u lti
plied by a rotating u n it vector
w h ic h rotates (in discrete ju m p s fo r
each increm ent of th e tim e param eter n) at a speed proportional to th e fr e
quency param eter k.
There are three " p itfa lls " introduced by the fin ite , discrete nature of the
DFT.
(a) A lia s in g caused by sam pling of th e tim e signal, and m eaning th a t high
frequencies after sam pling can appear as lower ones (as w ith a stro b o
scope). This is e lim in a te d by low pass filte rin g the signal before sam pling
to ensure that it co n ta in s no fre q u e n cie s above h a lf the sam pling fr e
quency. (This is also necessary w ith digital filte rin g ).
(b) T im e w indow e ffe c t, resulting fro m the fin ite length of the record. Be
cause the resulting spectrum is ca lculated at discre te frequencies se p a r
ated by 7 /7 , w h e re T is the record length, the tim e record is treated im
p lic itly by the analyzer as one period of a periodic signal of period T. The
tim e record can be considered to be firs t m u ltip lie d by a "tim e w in d o w
fu n c tio n " of length T and the re s u ltin g segment th e n joined into a loop. If
th e tim e w in d o w is rectangular (or "fla t" ) and th e original signal w as
longer than T, an unknow n d is c o n tin u ity can arise at the loop ju n c tio n ,
w h ic h gives rise to spurious com ponents not present in the o rig in a l s ig
nal. A ctually, the m u ltip lica tio n in tim e corresponds to a co n vo lutio n in
frequency w ith th e Fourier tra n s fo rm of the tim e w in d o w , w hich th u s ac
qu ire s the role o f a filte r ch a ra cte ristic. The s o lu tio n is to use o th e r
sm ooth w in d o w fu n c tio n s having zero value and slope at the ends of the
record in order to e lim in a te the d is c o n tin u ity . One com m on choice is the
so-called H a n ning w in d o w (one period of a cosine squared fu n c tio n )
w hose filte r cha ra cte ristic is com pared w ith a fla t w e ig h tin g in F ig .7 .5 . It
is seen that the sidelobes of th e H anning ch a ra cte ristic fall o ff m uch
m ore rapidly, and th u s the overall characteristic is better, even th o u g h
th e bandw idth is increased by 50% .

165

Fig. 7.5. Comparison o f F lat and H a n n in g w in d o w fu n c tio n s

Flat w e ig h tin g is used in th e case of a tra n s ie n t fu n ctio n w h ic h fits into
the record length T. The va lu e at each end w ill then in any case be zero,
and no d is c o n tin u ity w ill arise from jo in in g th e segm ent in to a loop. It
w ould in fa ct be d e trim e n ta l to use a sm o o th ly shaped w in d o w function
to analyze a short tra n s ie n t, because it w o u ld give a d iffe re n t w eighting
to d iffe re n t sections and th u s m odify th e re su lt. This is not a problem
w ith sta tio n a ry signals w h o se properties do not vary along th e record.
(c)

166

Picket fence effect, re s u ltin g from the discre te sam pling of th e spectrum
in the frequ ency dom ain. It is as though th e spectrum is vie w e d through
the slits in a picket fence, and thus for exam ple peak values are not ne
cessarily seen. The possible erro r resulting fro m th is depends on the over
lapping of adjacent filte r characteristics as s h o w n in F ig.7 .6 , and is not a
unique fe a tu re of FFT analysis. It occurs w henever discrete filte rs are
used such as in typical 1/3 -o c ta v e analysis. It is eased by having a grea
ter overlap of adjacent filte rs , and w ith H a n n in g w e ig h tin g fo r example, it
is a m axim um of 1,4 dB (com pared w ith 3 ,9 dB for fla t w e ig h tin g ). The e r
ror can be com pensated fo r w h e re it is k n o w n that there is only one fre
quency com ponent w h ic h fa lls between tw o spectral lines (e.g. w ith a cal
ibration signal). One special case of the picket fence e ffect is w here the
spectrum sam ples fall at th e zeros betw een th e sidelobes m entioned in
(b), and th e tim e w in d o w e ffe ct becomes invisible (Fig.7.7). This corre
sponds w ith an exact in te g e r num ber of periods in the record length T,
but seldom occurs in practice because th e frequencies in question must

a)

Flat

w in d o w :

i k A m p litu d e

Power

mm. fWVW\
0

b)

H an n in g

0 dB to
- 3 , 9 dB

rT

w in do w :

k Pow er

^ A m p litu d e

0 dB to
- 1 , 4 dB

n
800065

Fig. 7.6. Illu s tra tio n o f P icke t Fence E ffect

Fig. 7. 7. E ffe ct o f spectrum sa m p lin g on sidelobe effect

167

be accurate to 1 in 1 0 6 or so. W ith an integer num ber o f periods in the

record length, of course, a periodic re p e titio n does not give any d isco n ti
nuity, and th is is an o th e r explanation of th e lack of sidelobes.
A t th is stage it can be seen th a t the FFT process gives very d iffe re n t results
to digital filte rin g . The u n ifo rm spacing (A f or 1/ T ) of th e spectral lines
means th a t th e frequency scale is in trin s ic a lly linear. A lso, th e filte r charac
te ristic is th e same for all lin e s and is th u s con sta n t b a n d w id th . A nother m a
jor differe nce is that a com plete tim e record (of N samples) m u st firs t be c o l
lected before it can be tra n sfo rm e d , w h e re a s w ith digital filte rin g each sam
ple is processed fu lly before th e next one arrives, and the tim e signal does
not need to be stored.

7 .1 .4 . C hoice of Bandwidth, Frequency S cale and A m plitude Scale

In general it is found th a t analysis tim e is governed by expressions of the
type BT > K, a constant, (see fo r example th e section on filte r response tim e)
w here T is th e tim e required fo r each m e asurem ent w ith b a n d w id th B. Thus,
it is im perative to choose th e m axim um b a n d w id th w hich is consistent w ith
obtaining an adequate re s o lu tio n , because not only is the analysis tim e per
bandw idth proportional to 1/ B but so is th e num ber of b a n d w id th s required
to cover a given frequency range, altogether a squared effect.
It is not possible to give ge n e ra lly valid ru le s fo r selection o f bandw idth, but
the fo llo w in g discussion gives some guidelines:
For s ta tio n a ry d e te rm in istic and in p a rtic u la r periodic sig n a ls containing
equally spaced discrete fre q u e n cy com ponents, the aim is to separate adja
cent com ponents, and th is can best be done using a constant bandw idth on a
linear fre q u e n cy scale. The bandw idth sh o u ld fo r example be chosen as 1 / 3
of the m in im u m expected spacing (e.g. th e lo w e s t shaft speed, or its h a lf-o r
der if th is is to be expected) (F ig .7 .8 .a). This assum es a fa irly good filte r c h a r
acteristic (e.g. Shape Factor* 5) and the b a n d w id th should be sm a lle r if the
shape fa cto r is poorer, or if separation is re q u ire d over more th a n 5 0 dB.
For s ta tio n a ry random or tra n s ie n t signals, th e shape of th e spectrum w ill
most likely be determ ined by resonances in th e transm ission path between
the source and the pickup, and th e b a ndw idth should be chosen as, say, 1 /3
of the w id th o f the na rro w e st peak (Fig.7 .8 .b). For constant dam ping these
w ill tend to have a "co n s ta n t Q " or co n sta n t percentage ba n d w id th charac
ter, and th u s constant percentage b a n d w id th on a lo g a rith m ic frequency

168

T h e S h a p e F a c t o r o f a f ilt e r is t h e r a t io o f t h e w id t h o f t h e c h a r a c t e r is t ic a t 6 0 d B to t h a t a t
3 d B ( its 3 d B b a n d w id th ).

scale w ould often be most appropriate. S om etim es it is necessary fo r p ra cti

cal reasons to choose c o n sta n t bandw idth in order to achieve a su ffic ie n tly
sm all percentage bandw idth in part of th e spectrum , since 1% is about the
m in im u m co nstant percentage bandw idth a va ila b le in practice and 6% ( 1 /1 2 octave) the usual m inim um fo r digital filte rs .
As already m entioned, a lin e a r frequency scale is norm ally used together
w ith constant bandw idth, and logarithm ic fre q u e n cy scale to g e th e r w ith con
stant percentage bandw idth, as each co m b in a tio n gives u n ifo rm resolution
along the scale. A lo ga rith m ic scale may be chosen in order to cover a w ide
frequency range, and then con sta n t percentage bandwidth is v irtu a lly obliga169

Bruel & Kjaer

Time Function Stert:
Full Scele Level _____________ 1?0.dfi
F.S. F rtq u m y 1
Average Mode:

Lin .

No. of Spectre: 16

>. of Spectre: _ 2 _

F re q ue ncy (Hz)

Fig. 7.9. Influence of linear and logarithmic amplitude scales

170

tory. A logarithm ic fre q u e n c y scale m ay, however, o cca sio na lly be chosen in
co n ju nctio n w ith c o n s ta n t bandwidth (though over a lim ite d frequency range)
in order to dem onstrate a relationship w h ic h is linear on log-log scales (e.g.
conversions between acceleration, v e lo c ity and d isplacem ent, see F ig.6 .1 ).
The am plitude scale o f a frequency analysis should a lm o s t always be lo g a r
ith m ic fo r a num ber o f reasons. In fa c t it is only w h e n th e param eter being
m easured is directly o f in te re st (e.g. s tra in ) that there is any point in having a
linear scale. N orm ally, th e vibrations m easured are an in d ire ct expression of
in te rn a l forces, and th e n the lo g a rith m ic scaling makes th e results less s e n s i
tive to th e influence o f th e more or less random tra n s m is s io n path by w h ic h
the signal has reached the m easurem ent point. F ig .7 .9 illustrates th is for
tw o m easurem ent p o in ts on the same gearbox (both be in g equally re p re se nta
tive of the internal condition). The lo g a rith m ic rep re se nta tio n s of th e tw o
spectra are quite s im ila r, w h ile the lin e a r representations are not only d iffe r
ent, but hide a num ber o f com ponents w h ic h could be im p o rta n t.

7 .2 . S ER IA L A N A L Y S IS OF S T A T IO N A R Y SIG NALS
A lth o u g h serial analyzers have been superseded by re a l-tim e analyzers for
problem s requiring a de tailed analysis, it is still the m o st common te ch n iq u e
used in portable b a tte ry operated e q u ip m e n t (see S e ctio n 6.7) and th is sec
tion w ill thus concentra te on that a p p lica tio n . The g raph of Fig.7 . 10 can be
used m ore generally, how ever, and fo r m ore detail re fe re n ce can be m ade to
the B & K book, "F re q u e n cy A n a ly s is " fo r the selection of analysis p a ra m e
ters.
The norm al procedure to be fo llo w e d is to choose a su ita b le averaging tim e
based on the signal type and analysis bandwidth. From th is an e q u ivale n t
w ritin g speed may be chosen, and fin a lly a paper speed based on th e b a n d
w id th or w ritin g speed. F ig .7 .1 0 c o n ta in s the required in fo rm a tio n.

7 .2 .1 . Choice of A veraging Time

For analysis of s ta tio n a ry d e te rm in is tic signals, w h e re the filte r b a n d w id th
is.su ch th a t only one discrete fre q u e n cy component is in the filte r at a tim e ,
the o n ly requirem ent o f the averaging is that it reduces th e ripple of th e de
tector o utput to an acceptable level. T h is w ill be th e case if the averaging
tim e contains at least 3 periods of th e lowest fre q u e n cy to be analyzed (see
line fo r f TA = 3 in F ig .7 . 10). At h ig h e r frequencies w h e re the (constant p e r
centage bandwidth) filte r w ill most lik e ly contain several frequency co m p o
nents at once it is best to then treat th e signal as random .
For stationary ra n d o m signals the averaging tim e should be chosen so as

S W EEP S P E E D F O R SW EPT F R E Q U E N C Y A N A L Y S I S

Frequency f (Hz)
272X4

n ba n d w id th and freq uen cy range, d e te rm in e F ilt e r Dw ell Tim e, Averaging T im e an d Sweep Speed as fo llo w s :

1.

R andom Signal:

D w ell tim e T D is alw ays d e te rm in e d by averaging tim e T A .

F rom the graph read o f f T A

fro m the a p p ro p ria te lin e fo r B T A = 10 (h o rizo n ta l lin e s fo r constant ban dw idth, s lo p in g lines fo r

constant p ro p o rtio n a l ba n dw idth).

T h is value w ill co rresp o n d to i

1 y d B R M S e rro r .

F o r a higher B T A p ro d u c t a n d consequent re

duced error, increase the valu e o f T A p ro p o rtio n a lly . C a lc u la te T D = 2 T A .

F o r D C recording ca lc u la te sweep speed S =

d.

F o r A C recording, T A is determ ined b y recorder w ritin g speed W and this can be read d ire c t ly fro m the right-hand scale. S w eep speed can
then be calcu lated fro m S =

2.

(applicable to 5 0 d B p o te n tio m eter and 100 m m paper).

D eterm inistic S ign a l (p e rio d ic o r quasi-periodic): R ea d T 0 based on filte r response tim e fro m appropriate lin e fo r B T D = 4 (or 2 where
bandwidth < 1%).

Read also m in im um averagin g tim e T A based on 1/4 d B r ip p le fr o m lin e f T A = 3 (in depen den t o f bandw idth).

F o r D C recording ca lc u la te sweep speed based on filt e r response as S =

D
F o r A C recording read o ff w ritin g speed W c o rre s p o n d in g to T A and calcu late

sw eep speed based on recorder respon se as S =

BW

The

governing sweep speed is the lesser o f this and th e va lu e as c a lcu la ted fo r D C recording.
In all cases w h ere sweep speed is governed b y filt e r response tim e, increase T A t o th e highest value w h ich does n o t a ffe c t sweep speed,
(i.e. T q /4 fo r D C recording)

Note (1) Averaging tim e s w ill n o rm a lly be con sta n t ov er a t least a h alf decade, whereas filt e r response tim es change a u to m a t ic a lly w ith frequency.
N o te (2) S w ill be in H z /s fo r B in Hz, but w ill be d ire c t ly in m m /s fo r B expressed as e q u iv a le n t recorder paper length in m m .
(3) A b o ve ap p lies t o 100 m m paper w id th . F o r 5 0 m m paper substitute 2W fo r W.

Fig. 7. 70. Sweep speed for sw ept fre q u e n cy analysis

172

2722t

to achieve an acceptable accuracy of th e result. The re la tiv e standard d e v ia

tion of th e error (in RMS values) is given by the form ula.

(7 .5 )
Table 7.1 gives values of e (in dB) fo r various values o f th e product BTA

bta

10

20

30

40

50

80

1 20

e (dB)

1,5

1 ,0

0 ,8

0 ,7

0 ,6

0 ,5

0 ,4

Table 7.1.

Standard e rro r e vs BTA p ro d u c t

F ig.7.1 0 can be used to select values o f TA for various bandw idths and c e n
tre frequencies for a BTA product of 1 0 . This value of TA can then be m o d i
fied p roportionally fo r o th e r BTA products.
W here AC recording is used, as w ill norm ally be th e case w ith a portable
analysis set because th e dynam ic range of the m eter DC output is u su a lly
< 50 dB, the averaging tim e is selected in d ire ctly by s e le ctio n of the pen w r it
ing speed. This equivalence is indicated in Fig.7 .1 0 w h e re the values for
50 mm paper w idth can be applied to th e battery operated portable Level Re
corders Types 2 3 0 6 and 2 3 0 9 .

7 .2 .2 . Choice of Analysis Speed

The speed at w hich th e filte r can be s w e p t through th e analysis range is li
m ited by one of the 3 factors:
(a)

Filter Response T im e This w ill o n ly be the lim ita tio n for d e te rm in is tic
signals w here a sm a ll averaging tim e is required and w h e re the recorder
w ritin g speed does not dom inate. The tim e taken to sweep one b a n d
w id th (Td ) is m ade greater than 4 filte r response tim e s (i.e. BTD S* 4 ) in
order that the fre q u e n c y error (delay) of the recorded spectrum w ill be
less than on e-q uarte r bandw idth.

(b)

Averaging Time This w ill only be th e lim ita tio n fo r DC recording and
is th u s not norm a lly th e lim itin g fa c to r w ith portable analyzers.

(c)

Recorder W riting Speed This w ill always be th e lim ita tio n for AC re
cording of analyses of random s ig n a ls , and may a lso dom inate over filte r
response tim e for d e te rm in istic (discrete frequency) signals.

173

For analysis w ith a typical portable set having bandw idths 3% and 23%, a
logarithm ic frequ e n cy axis w ith 5 0 mm per decade, and 5 0 m m paper w id th
representing 5 0 dB, the options are m uch m ore lim ited. A ssu m in g , as fo r
m ost m achine vibration sig n a ls, that the lo w e s t frequency com ponents (e.g.
from shaft ro tatio n ) are stable and d e te rm in is tic . Table 7 .2 has been drawn
up to a llow th e selection of both pen w ritin g speed and recorder paper speed
as a fun ction of th e low est fre q u e n cy to be analyzed.

Lowest Frequency (Hz)

2 -5

5 -1 5

1 5 -5 0

5 0 -1 5 0

> 150

23%
B andw idth

\A/(mm/s)

16

16

40

100

100

P (m m /s)

0,3

10

10

3%
Bandw idth

W (m m /s)

16

16

40

100

100

P (m m /s)

0,03

0,1

0,3

3
800716

Table 7.2.

W ritin g Speed (W ) a n d Paper S peed (PJ vs. m in im u m valid fre

q uency fo r discrete frequency s ig n a ls using P o rta b le Analyzer
Type 3 5 1 3 and L e v e l Recorder Type 2 3 0 6 (AC R ecording)

A t the changeover fre q u e n cie s 2 0 Hz, 2 0 0 Hz and 2 kHz it w o u ld be possi

ble to adjust th e param eters to achieve h ig h e r sweep speeds if th is is in d i
cated in the ta b le . However, because at h ig h e r frequencies th e re is a chance
th a t several harm onics w ill be included in th e bandw idth (from the 5th h a r
m onic w ith 23% b andw idth, and 3 4 th ha rm o n ic w ith 3% b a n d w id th ) it is rec
omm ended th a t the increase in paper speed be no more than one step (factor
3) w ith 23% ban d w id th and 2 steps (factor 10) w ith 3% b a n d w id th . (The total
analysis tim e is in any case dom inated by th e lo w e r frequencies.) The w ritin g
speed appropriate to the n e w paper speed can be seen from th e table. If the
signal contains random com ponents (e.g. fro m turbulence, c a vita tio n ) then it
should be checked in Table 7 .3 w h e th e r any speedup is possible.

Lowest Frequency (Hz)

23%
B andwidth
3%
Bandwidth
Table 7.3.

174

5 0 -1 5 0

1 5 0 - 500

H /(m m /s |

16

40

100

100

P (m m /s )

10

10

W /(mm/s)

16

40

100

P (m m /s )

0,3

500 - 1,5 k

> 1,5 k

W ritin g Speed (W) a n d Paper S p eed (P) vs. m in im u m valid fre

que ncy fo r random signals u sin g Portable A n a lyze r Type 3 5 1 3
a n d Le ve l Recorder Type 2 3 0 6 (AC Recording)

It w ill be seen th a t w ith the AC recording assumed, th e m inim um valid fre

quencies fo r random com ponents are re la tive ly high. In order to make valid
analyses at low er frequ e n cie s it w ould be necessary to use the 1 s or 10 s av
eraging tim e of the V ib ra tio n M eter Type 2511 and DC recording. Note th a t
in th is case the dynam ic range is lim ite d to 4 0 dB. S w eep speeds can be d e
te rm in e d using the general procedure o f F ig .7 .1 0 , w ith th e m odification th a t
d w ell tim e T0 can be made equal to TA (instead of 2TA ) taking into account
the filte r characteristic o f the portable equipm ent.

7 .3 .

R E A L-TIM E A N A L Y S IS
NALS

OF S T A T IO N A R Y A N D T R A N S IE N T S IG

A t one tim e it w as com m on for even detailed laboratory analysis to be c a r

ried o u t by serial analysis techniques as described in S e ctio n 7.2. The rapidly
decreasing cost of d ig ita l circuitry, h o w e ver, has m eant th a t digitally based
Real-Tim e Analyzers (RTA's) are now no m ore expensive th a n an advanced se
rial analysis system , and produce re su lts in a very m u ch shorter tim e (often
in re a l-tim e * as the nam e implies). The re a l-tim e fe a tu re is also used to ad
vantage for tro u b le -sho o tin g applications in the fie ld , because of th e very
rapid response to ch ang in g conditions, and th is has opened up a num ber of
a pplications w h ich w e re previously not possible or e xtre m e ly d ifficu lt.
As regards the analysis of tra n sie n ts, th e re a l-tim e analyzer approach is
even m ore advantageous. Impulse analysis by serial analysis techniques is
possible (and described in detail in th e B & K book "F re q u e n cy A n a lysis ) but
requires th e use of an additional recorder (digital or tape recorder) fro m
w h ic h the tra n sie n t can be repeatedly played back, and th is makes th e sys
tem even more costly, w h ile (in p a rtic u la r w ith a tape recorder) still re q u irin g
a considerably longer analysis tim e th a n th e real-tim e approach.
Of th e tw o re al-tim e techniques discussed in Section 7 .1 , by far th e m ost
im p o rta n t fo r vibration analysis is the FFT method, and th e re fo re this section
concentrates m ainly on th is type of analyzer. The p rim a ry advantage of FFT
analysis lies in its co n sta n t b a n d w id th , linear fre q u e n c y scale nature, as
m any diagnostic problem s rely on being able to id e n tify fam ilies of e q ually
spaced com ponents such as h arm onics, sidebands and inter-harm onics.
F ig.7.1 1 is a typical exam ple illu s tra tin g th e latter case.
The d igital filte r analyzer finds its m a in application in th e analysis of rapidly
changing in trin sica lly broad-band signals, p rim a rily in th e field of acoustics. It

In f r e q u e n c y a n a ly s is , r e a l- t im e o p e ra tio n m e a n s t h a t th e e n t ir e in p u t s ig n a l is a n a ly z e d , in a ll
fr e q u e n c y b a n d s (of in t e r e s t ) a ll of th e tim e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e m a y b e a t im e d e la y b e t w e e n in
p u t a n d o u tp u t.

175

Fig. 7. 11. In te r-h a rm o n ic com ponents re s u ltin g fro m in s u ffic ie n tly tig h t a s
sem bly o f jo u rn a l b e a rin g com ponents
does have th e advantage of co vering a w id e fre q u e n cy range w ith a relatively
sm all num ber of filte rs , and is th u s often th e m ost efficient and economical
tech niq ue to use in m achine m onitoring and quality control applications.
O ther applications include th e analysis of shocks and tra n s ie n ts , and w here
th e vibration m easurem ents are to be com pared w ith sound spectra, typically
presented in 1/3 -o c ta v e s .

7 .3 .1 . FFT Analysis of S tation ary Signals

A typical FFT analyzer has a tra n sfo rm size (N in Eqn. (7.3)) o f 1 0 2 4 data
sam ples, and in theory gives 1 0 2 4 fre q u e n cy values. H ow ever, since the
data values are real, the second h a lf of th e calculated spectrum (representing
th e negative frequencies less th a n the N yquist frequency* because of the im
p licit p e riodicity of the sp e ctru m ) is d eterm ined by the firs t h a lf (the corre
sponding positive frequencies). For th is reason, only the 5 1 2 positive fre

176

H a lf t h e s a m p lin g fr e q u e n c y .

quency values are ca lcula ted , a lthough because each fre q u e n c y com ponent is
com plex, th is represents the same a m o u n t of data (and occupies th e same
m em ory space) as th e o rig in a l 1 0 2 4 real-valued tim e sam ples. Not all o f the
5 1 2 values can be used; to e lim in a te th e problem of a lia s in g (Section 7 .1 .3 )
a low -pass filte r is applied w ith a c u t-o ff frequency less th a n the N yquist fre
quency to a llo w for its fin ite slope. For the B & K analyzers it is ty p ic a l to
place th e filte r c u t-o ff so th a t the firs t 4 0 0 lines are v a lid , and are displayed,
w h ile th e last 11 2 lin e s are affected by th e filte r and are not operated on fu r
th e r (w hen the com plex spectrum is converted to a p o w e r spectrum etc.).
Thus, the frequency resolution ( Af ) is always 1 / 4 0 0 o f the selected fu llscale frequency ( f ,s ), and the autom atically-selected sam pling fre q u e n cy is
2 ,5 6 tim es the fu ll-sca le frequency ff s . W hen using fla t w e ig h tin g , th e filte r
characteristic is a s in x /x function w ith bandwidth equal to the re so lu tio n A f.
As m entioned in S ection 7 .1 .3 , the spectrum obtained is that of a p e rio d ic
signal of period T (= N A t ) and the lin e spacing A f is th u s 1 / T .

B = Af

Thus,

(7 .6 )

From Eqn. (7.6) it can be seen th a t each spectrum ca lcu la ted by an FFT a n a l
yzer has a BT product of 1. Even w h e re for example H a n n in g w e ig h tin g is
used, and the ba ndw idth is increased by 50%

i.e.

15

(7 .7 )

1,5 A f = - y

the effective record leng th TE is reduced correspondingly (by removal o f in fo r

m ation tow ards the ends of the record) so that the BTe product is s till u n ity
(i.e. fo r statistical purposes the e ffe ctive length is 2 T / 3 ) .
The above re latio nsh ip s mean th a t th e re is a sim ple inverse re la tio n sh ip be
tw ee n frequency range and record le n g th ,
T = _ L

Af

(7 .8 )

4 0 0

f,f.S.

Table 7 .4 indicates th e record le n g th s vs. frequency ra nge for a 4 0 0 -lin e a n

alyzer.

ffs
(Hz)
T

20 k

10k

5k

2k

1k

500

2 0 ms 4 0 ms 8 0 ms 20 0 ms 4 0 0 ms 8 0 0 ms

200

100

50

2s

4 s

8s

20

10

20 s 40 s

Table 7.4. R ecord le n g th vs. F re q u e n cy Range fo r 4 0 0 -lin e A n a lyze r

177

Station ary D e te rm in istic Signal

a )"In s ta n ta n e o u s " Spectrum (B T = 1

300
Frequency (Hz)

500
800076

b ) Lin. A verag e o f 8 Spectra (B T = 8)

300
Frequency (Hz)
800077

Fig. 7.1 2. E ffe ct o f a ve raging w ith a s ta tio n a ry d e te rm in istic sig n a l

In the analysis of stationary d e te rm in istic s ig n a ls it is th e o re tic a lly not ne
cessary to em ploy spectrum averaging, as each "in s ta n ta n e o u s " spectrum
178

(w ith BT product = 1) should fu lly describe all stable, discrete fre q u e n cy co m

ponents. In practice, an average over, say, 8 spectra w o u ld norm ally be used
to average out m in o r flu ctu a tio n s. F ig .7 .1 2 illu s tra te s a typical case, w h e re
the "in sta n ta n e o u s spectrum gives v irtu a lly the sam e result as an average
over 8 spectra for th e discrete h a rm o n ic com ponents, b u t the averaged spec
tru m has smoothed o u t the low level noise (presum ably coming from tape re
cording) at around 6 0 dB.
In th e analysis of sta tio n a ry ra n d o m signals, it is necessary to average
over a num ber of spectra to reduce th e standard e rro r e to an acceptable le
vel. S ince each in d ivid u a l spectrum ca rrie s a BT p ro d u ct of 1 (w h e th e r or not
H anning w eigh ting is used), the n u m b e r of independent spectra averaged
gives directly the to ta l BTA product to be inserted in Equation (7.5). T here is
one sm all point to be noted here. W h e n Hanning w e ig h tin g is used, th e e ffe c
tive record length is reduced to a little over o ne-half th e actual, and in some
analyzers use is m ade of th is to s h o rte n the overall averaging tim e (in p a rtic u
lar at lo w frequencies) by a 50% overlapping of consecutive tim e records. Be
cause of the small redundancy w h ic h s till occurs, th e e ffective num ber o f in
dependent records is in th a t case 9 5 % of the a c tu a l, but because o f the
square root in Eqn. (7 .5 ) th is w ill be seen to be a v e ry m in o r effect. In p rac
tice, in any case, it is not always necessary to decide in advance h o w m uch
averaging is to be done, as a linear average over a la rg e num ber (e.g. 2 0 4 8 )
can be started and th e n stopped m anually w h e n th e flu c tu a tio n s have
reached an acceptable level.
F ig .7 .1 3 illustra tes the effect of averaging on a ty p ic a l stationary random
signal, w ith averages over 1, 8 and 1 2 8 spectra. T his practical exam ple helps
in in terpreting the m eaning of the standard error e given in Eqn.(7.5). S ta tis ti
cally, the re is a 68% probability th a t the flu c tu a tio n s w ill be w ith in e ,
9 5 ,5 % probability th a t they w ill be w ith in 2 e and 9 9 ,7 % p robability th a t
they w ill be w ith in 3 e . Thus, as illu s tra te d in Fig.7.1 3, the peak e xcursions
alm ost always lie betw e e n 2e and 3 e .
For stationary random signals, it m ay be desired to express the re s u lts as a
Power Spectral D e nsity (PSD). Because of the co n s ta n t bandw idth, th is in
volves only a m odifica tio n by a sca lin g factor w h ich is uniform for th e w h o le
spectrum . First, th e scale m ust be converted from dB into the e q u ivale n t
pow er spectrum (am plitu d e squared) u n its. The norm al in te rn a l scaling o f the
analyzer is in dB re 1 /vV so th a t 1 2 0 d B represents 1 V 2 , but conversions
can be made to oth e r u n its (e.g. g 2 , (m s- 2 )2 , (ms1 ) 2 ) making use o f the
conversion factor fro m engineering u n its to volts. It should be kept in m ind
th a t fo r these "p o w e r u nits, each decade corresponds to 1 0 d B . F in a lly, the
pow er units are to be divided by th e bandwidth to convert them to pow er
spectral density. The bandw idth can be obtained e ith e r fro m Equation (7 .6 ) or
(7.7 ) fo r fla t or H anning w e ig h tin g respectively. E quation (7.8) or Table 7 .4

179

S ta tio n a ry Random Signal

Fig. 7. 7 3. E ffect o f ave ra g in g w ith a s ta tio n a ry random s ig n a l

can be used fo r both. Since th e scaling of B & K 's analyzers is adjusted to

give the same (peak) level fo r discrete frequency com ponents, th e spectrum
level of broadband com ponents w ill be 1 ,7 6 d B h ig h e r w hen H a n n in g w e ig h t
ing is used and th is is cancelled out when d ivid in g by the 50% g re a te r band
w id th (10 log-! o (1 ,5 ) = 1 ,7 6 d B ). It should be noted that conversion to PSD
is only valid w h e re the spectrum peaks are broader than the analyzer band
w id th , and th u s any peaks as n a rro w as the filte r characteristic (bandwidth
1 ,5 lines) should be suspected as invalid.
One more p o in t to be taken in to account is th e question of s ta tio n a rity . The
vibration signals from high-speed machines w ill n o rm ally be sta tio n a ry , even
over tim e periods com parable w ith the analyzer record length, provided the

180

m achine speed and load re m a in constant. T he same applies to stationary ra n

dom signals such as arise fro m flu id flo w (tu rb u le nce , c a vita tio n ) provided the
physical co n d ition s rem ain constant. The v ib ra tio n signals fro m slow-speed ro
tating and reciprocating m achines have a n o th e r character, however. Even
though th e y may be considered stationary over tim e periods including several
m achine cycles, the signal w ith in each cycle may be quite non-stationary, o f
ten consisting of a series o f d iffe re n t im p u lsive events.
W here th e analyzer is o p erating w ith in its re al-tim e fre q u e n c y range, there
is no problem , as the e n tire incoming sig n a l is analyzed. Above the highest
real-tim e frequency, ho w e ver, some of th e incom ing signal is lost, and if the
record leng th T (Table 7 .4 ) is shorter than th e machine cycle tim e , then th e
sections analyzed w ill not necessarily be representative. For example, a m a
chine w ith a basic speed o f 6 0 0 c .p .m . (i.e. 1 2 0 0 r.p.m . fo r a 4-stroke e n
gine) has a basic cycle tim e of 100 ms, and th is is to be com pared w ith th e
10 ms e ffe ctive length of record (for H an n in g w eighting) w h e n the signal is
analyzed in th e 20 kHz range. If the analyzer has a 1 0 K memory length
(2 0 0 ms in 2 0 kHz range) th e best way to solve the problem is to record the
fu ll 10 K and perform a " s c a n " analysis to o b ta in the averaged 4 0 0 -lin e spec
trum over th is record le n g th , this being e q u ivale n t to a re a l-tim e analysis.
This can be repeated as m a n y times as d e sire d to obtain an average over a
suitable num b e r of cycles. Even though data is lost in b e tw e e n the succes
sive recordings, th is does n o t matter because each recording includes several
m achine cycles. If the a n a lyzer only has a 1 K mem ory size, it is still possible
to do so m ething sim ilar if use is made of a tachom eter sig n a l (once per cycle)
as external trigger, and variable "R e co rd s-A fte r-T rig g e r" settings to move
the section o f cycle analyzed throughout th e e n tire cycle (F ig .7 .1 4 ). W ith th is
setup it is also possible to obtain a separate analysis fo r each part of the c y
cle, ra ther th a n averaging th e m all to g e th e r, and this is discussed fu rth e r in
section 7 .4 , in the discussion on n o n -sta tio n a ry signals.
Finally, it is w o rth w h ile discussing th e use of fre q u e n cy "zo o m ", w h ic h
gives th e possibility of o b ta in in g a finer re s o lu tio n than th a t given by the 4 0 0 line baseband spectrum . It may be best to illu s tra te the use o f "zoom " by ta k
ing a typical example w h e re it is often re q u ire d in practice, viz. the analysis
of gearbox vibrations. These are characterized by the presence of sidebands,
spaced aroun d the to o th m e sh in g fre q u e n cy and its h a rm o n ics and due to
m odulation by low er freq u e n cie s, typ ica lly th e shaft ro ta tio n a l speeds. The
sideband spacing is equal to the m odulating frequency, w h e th e r it is a q u e s
tion of a m p litude m o d u la tio n , frequency m odulation, or a com bination of
both. It is often desired to measure th e se sideband spacings so as to trace
the source of m odulation in a gearbox, sin ce th is often in d ica tes faults. To ob
tain an idea of the required resolution, take th e case of a 5 0 -to o th gearw heel
m odulated at its own ro ta tin g speed. A baseband spectrum covering 8 0 h a r
m onics o f the rotational speed w ould th u s include th e toothm eshing fre -

181

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- ---------------------------------------- 800068

Fig. 7. 14. A n a ly s is o f a re c ip ro c a tin g m achine cycle

quency (5 0 th harm onic) w e ll w ith in its range. The sideband spacing w ould be
equal to the shaft speed, and th u s h a rm o n ics 4 9 and 51 w o u ld represent
m odulation by th is frequency, 4 8 and 5 2 m odulation by th e 2nd harm onic
and so on. In a 4 0 0 -lin e spectrum , the sidebands w ould be separated by 5
lines and th is should be adequate to id e n tify them . If it w e re desired to in
clude h igh er harm onics of th e to o th m e sh in g frequency, h ow ever, or gears
w ith larger num bers of te e th , it can be seen that the 4 0 0 -lin e resolution
w o u ld not be adequate. A zoom factor o f 1 0 on the o th e r hand, gives th e
e q uivalent resolution of a 4 0 0 0 line sp e ctru m , and w ould th u s cover the vast
m a jo rity of practical cases. There is a lim it in the other d ire c tio n as to h o w
m uch zoom is practicable, since for a 4 0 0 0 -lin e spectrum to be useful the fr e
quencies involved m ust be stable to 1 in 4 0 0 0 .
Fig. 7.1 5 illustra te s these points. In F ig .7 .1 5 a) is show n a baseband spec
tru m w ith fu ll-sca le frequency 2 kHz. The toothm eshing fre q u e n c y is 3 3 3 Hz
and th e firs t fo u r harm onics of th is can be seen, although in m any cases a d ja
cent sidebands are higher. The dom inant sideband spacing is 2 5 Hz (the 3rd
harm onic of the input pinion speed) and w a s due to a slig h t "tria n g u la rity o f
th is gear. F ig .7 .1 5 .b ) show s a zoomed spectrum centred aro u n d the th ird
too thm e shing harm onic. The greatly increased resolution m eans that in a d d i
tion to th e 2 5 Hz sideband spacing, an 8 ,3 Hz spacing (corresponding to th e

182

Range of zoomed
spectrum (b)
Gearbox
Before Repair

a)

Baseband Spectrum

Frequency (Hz)

800074

(9 0 0 -1 1 1 00 Hz

b) Zoom ed

Spectrum

Gearbox
Before Repai

900

9 2 0 ....... 94 0

960

980

1000

1020

10 40

1060

1080

1100

Frequency (Hz)
Manuring Objct:-------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------- '800073

Fig. 7. 15. Com parison o f baseband a n d zoomed spectra fo r a gearbox v ib ra

tion signal

183

pinion speed) is also now apparent. On the o th e r hand, because o f speed flu c
tuations, the m a jo r peaks have spread over a num ber of lin e s , and thus a
higher zoom fa c to r w ould not give any benefit.

7 .3 .2 . Digital Filter Analysis o f Stationary Signals

As m entioned previously, th is type of analysis is more applicable to acous
tics than vib ra tio n studies, and therefore th e discussion w ill be kept fa irly
brief.
For 1/3 -o c ta v e analysis, it is really only necessary to choose between ex
ponential and lin e a r averaging and to decide on a suitable averaging tim e.
The 1 /3 -o c ta v e d ig ita l filte r analyzer Type 2 1 3 1 is real-tim e o ve r its fu ll fre
quency range up to 2 0 kHz, and th u s gives c o rre c t results even w h e n the sig
nal is im pulsive and n o n -sta tio n a ry in the s h o rt-te rm .
Exponential averaging w o u ld tend to be used o n ly in setting up a m easure
m ent, as its p rim a ry application is to n o n -sta tio n a ry signals. N orm ally, a lin
ear average over a certain averaging tim e TA w o u ld derive th e m axim um in
fo rm a tio n from a certain length o f signal (e.g. a tape recording) and is th e re
fore the best to use. The analyzer Type 2 1 3 1 does have a "c o n s ta n t co n fi
dence mode, w h e re there is u n ifo rm BTA p ro d u c t across th e w h o le spec
tru m , and for w h ic h exponential averaging is necessary. The o n ly advantage,
how ever, is th e u n ifo rm ity of accuracy of the re s u lt; it is in any case neces
sary to w a it about tw ice the averaging tim e, TA , fo r the lowest fre q u e n cy con
sidered, before a valid result can be obtained, w h e re a s a lin e a r average over
Ta w ould have th e same accuracy at the lo w e s t frequency, and increasingly
better accuracy at higher frequencies.
In order to choose a suitable averaging tim e , use can be m ade o f Fig.7 .1 6 ,
w h ic h indicates th e values of BTA product corresponding to v a rio u s centre fre
quencies and averaging tim es. For discrete fre q u e n c y com ponents the BTA
product m ust be at least 1, and fo r random s ig n a ls the suggested m inim um
value is 10. T hus, w ith the sh o rte s t available averaging tim e (31 ms) the lo w
est valid frequ ency band for a d e te rm in istic co m p o n e n t is 1 6 0 Hz, and for ra n
dom com ponents is 1 6 0 0 Hz.
It is also possible to make 1 / 1 2-octave (6% bandwidth) analyses using
e ith e r a desktop calculator or special co n tro lle r to control the analyzer. This
makes it possible to select o th e r filte r co e fficie n ts th a n those used fo r 1/3 - o c
tave analysis, but as only 3 filte rs per octave can be calculated in one pass, it
is necessary to make 4 passes, each tim e c a lc u la tin g a d iffe re n t set of three
1 /1 2-octaves in each octave. The controller fin a lly arranges th e interm ediate
re su lts in the corre ct order, and can transfer (overlapping) sets o f 4 2 conti184

Fig. 7. 16 BTa prod uct vs. ave ra g in g tim e fo r the D ig ita l F ilte r A n a ly z e r Type
2131
guous spectrum values into th e analyzer fo r display on the screen. F ig.7 .1 7
com pares a 1 /1 2-octave sp e ctru m obtained in th is way w ith th e equivalent
1/3 -o c ta v e spectrum . Note th a t even though th e method is not "re a l-tim e '',
because not all th e spectrum is calculated at one tim e , the e n tire tim e signal
is processed fo r each pass, and th erefore any s h o rt-te rm n o n -s ta tio n a rity w ill
not have any adverse effect on th e results.
The appropriate scale of F ig .7 .1 6 can also be used in th is case fo r selec
tio n of a suitable averaging tim e .

7 .3 .3 . Impulse Analysis by FFT and Digital Filter Techniques

W hen it com es to the analysis of shocks and tra n sie n ts (single impulses) it
is no longer so clear w h e th e r constant b a n d w id th (FFT) or co n s ta n t percen
tage bandw idth (digital filte rs) is preferable. It depends partly on th e propert
ies of the signal itself, and p a rtly on the application to w h ich th e results w ill
be applied. Table 7 5 com pares th e main fe a tu re s of the tw o approaches.

1 85

Bruel & Kjasr

FFT

D ig ital Filter

C onstant bandw idth

S ignal processed blockw ise
Length lim ited by record length
Lin ear frequency scale
R estricted frequency range
Table 7.5.

Constant percentage bandw idth

(Constant Q)
S ignal processed sam ple-for-sam ple
Length lim ite d by averaging tim e
Logarithm ic fre q u e n c y scale
W ide frequency range

Choice o f m e th o d fo r im pulse a n a lysis

Taking firs t the case of FFT analysis, there is no problem provided th e e n

tire tra n s ie n t fits in to th e transform size T w ith o u t losing any high frequency
com ponents. Fig.7 .1 8 show s a typical tra n s ie n t and its frequency spectrum
up to 2 0 kHz. There is evidently no appreciable energy above 2 0 kHz, and the
tra n s ie n t is shorter th a n the 20 ms record length in th is range. "F la t w e ig h t
ing m ust be used in th is case.
The o nly question is th a t of scaling th e results. T his is best done in te rm s
of "E nergy Spectral D e n s ity (ESD) since th is w ill be th e same v irtu a lly inde186

pendent of the analysis param eters (for example ch a n g in g to frequency range

10 kHz w ould give th e same results fo r the frequencies up to 10 kHz). Since
as m entioned previously, the FFT c a lc u la tio n assumes th e signal to be a p e ri
odic repetition of the m em ory c o n te n ts, th e resulting p o w e r spectrum values
(obtained as described in Section 7 .3 .1 fo r sta tio n a ry random signals) m ust
be m u ltip lie d by the record length T (Table 7.4) to co n ve rt them to energy
(contained in one record length). F in a lly, th e values o f energy (per b a n d w id th )
m ust be divided by th e bandw idth (Eqn. (7.6)) to co n ve rt them to energy spec
tra l density. In th is case the conversion w ould a lw ays be valid; provided the
tra n s ie n t fits into record length T, its o w n in trin sic b a n d w id th must a lw a y s be
> //r.
Problem s arise w h e n th e tra n sie n t is longer than th e 1 K record le n g th T. a l
th oug h there are tw o w ays in w h ic h the analysis can s till be made w ith an
analyzer w ith 1 0 K m em ory length, provided the tra n s ie n t can be c o n ta in e d in
th is 1 0 tim es longer mem ory:
(1) Zoom FFT. Using zoom (and fla t w e ig h tin g ) it is possible to o b ta in the
com plete 4 0 0 0 -lin e spectrum o f th e 1 0 K tra n s ie n t in 10 passes, each
tim e calculating 4 0 0 lines (F ig .7 .1 9 a). The 10 tim e s sm aller b a n d w id th

187

(for the sam e fu ll-sca le fre q u e n cy) must be ta ke n into account w h e n con
verting to ESD, and in c id e n ta lly results in a 1 0 dB loss of d yn a m ic range.
(2)

188

Moving w in do w s. It is a lso possible to o b ta in the averaged 4 0 0 -lin e

spectrum over the entire record, by p e rfo rm in g a "s c a n " analysis, i.e.
moving a H anning w in d o w in overlapping steps along th e record
(F ig .7 .1 9 b ). Note that th e e q u ivale n t record length (for conversion from
power to energy) is 9 ,2 5 K because of the e ffe c ts of the H a n n in g w e ig h t
ing at each end (even th o u g h there can be a uniform w e ig h tin g along
most of th e record) (Fig.7 .2 0 ). The tra n s ie n t should ideally be placed in
the centre 8 ,5 K of the record to avoid end e ffe cts. There is no advantage
in overlapping more than 7 5 % (step length 0 ,2 5 K) and in fa c t th is w ould
reduce th e le n g th of the u n ifo rm ly w eighted portion.

800071

Fig. 7.20. O ve ra ll w e ig h tin g in a "S c a n " analysis fo r d iffe re n t overlaps

Note also th a t th e bandw idth is determ ined by th e Hanning w e ig h tin g
and is thus given by Eqn. (7 .7 ). In this case it is not certain th a t th e con
version to ESD is valid, and th u s any peaks h a vin g the appearance of the
filte r ch a ra cte ristic (a b a n d w id th of 1,5 lines) should be suspect. The
method does, how ever, have th e advantage of n o t losing dyn a m ic range
as w ith the zoom method.
Considering n o w im pulse analysis by digital filte r techniques, th e approach
is quite d iffe re n t. It is known th a t th e output of a filte r contains th a t part of
th e energy applied to the input w h ic h fa lls w ith in th e filte r passband, but it is
necessary to sum over the e n tire filte r output. A s m entioned in connection
w ith Fig.7 .2 th is should be at least 3 tim es the filte r impulse response tim e
(i.e. 3TR ) plus th e length of the o rig in a l impulse (7)). F ig .7.21 traces th e path
of a typical im p u lsive signal (an N -wave) through th e complete a n a lysis sys
tem of filte r, squ a re r and averager fo r both a n a rro w -b a n d filte r (i.e. lo w fre
quency, for co n sta n t percentage bandw idth) and a broad-band filte r (high fre
quency).
For the na rro w -b a n d filte r, TR 7, and the filte r o u tp u t resem bles its im
pulse response. For th e broad-band filte r, TR T, and the filte r o u tp u t con
sists of tw o s h o rt bursts of le n g th ~ TR and separated by T T hus, the
averaging tim e m u st everyw here be given by
Ta > 7; + 3Tr

(7.9)

and w ill thus be determ ined by th e lowest fre q u e n c y to be analyzed. The

ideal solution w o u ld be running lin e a r integration (w ith TA chosen fro m Eqn.
(7.9)) follow ed by a "Max. H old c irc u it. The o u tp u t of such a ru n n in g linear
averager is sho w n in Fig.7 .2 1 , and it is seen th a t d u rin g the tim e th e entire
filte r output is con tain ed in the averaging tim e TA , th e averager o u tp u t gives
th e correct re su lt, and th is w ould be held by the "M a x . H old" c irc u it. A s men189

Fig. 7.21. Passage o f a tra n s ie n t through filte r, squarer and a ve ra g e r

tio n e d in Section 7 . 1 . 1 , how ever, th is is not possible, and it is necessary to
choose between fixe d linear averaging and ru n n in g exponential averaging.
The problem w ith fixed linear averaging is th a t it m ust be sta rte d ju s t be
fore th e arrival of th e im pulse and th u s cannot be trig g e re d from th e signal it
se lf (unless use is made of a d e la y -lin e before th e analyzer). It is, how ever,
possible to record th e signal firs t and then insert a trig g e r signal (fo r example
on another channel o f a tape recorder).
It may be foun d necessary to m ake the total a n a lysis in tw o passes, in o r
der to extract all in fo rm a tio n fro m a given signal. F ig .7 .2 2 shows fo r example
th e analysis of a 2 2 0 ms N -wave (Sonic Boom) w ith averaging tim e T/\ =
0 ,5 s. This is only valid down to 5 0 Hz (T/ + 3TR = 0 ,4 8 s) but on th e other
hand includes fre q u e n cie s up to 5 kHz. Fig.7 .2 3 (a) show s an a n a lysis of the
sam e signal w ith TA = 8 s so as to include all fre q u e n cie s down to 1 ,6 Hz (7}
+ 3Tr = 8,3 s). Because of the 1 2 dB loss of d yn a m ic range w ith th is longer
averaging tim e, all th e frequency com ponents above 5 0 0 Hz have been lost.
This result (w ith scaling adjusted by 12 dB) is given as a dotted line in
F ig .7 .2 2 and show s th a t the tw o re su lts are id e n tical over the m u tu a lly valid
range. Fig.7 .2 3 (c) show s a 1 /1 2-octave analysis obtained by 4 passes of
th e same signal, w ith TA = 8 s. T h is gives a 6 d B loss of dynam ic range and
is only valid dow n to 6 ,3 Hz [T/ + 3TR = 8 ,5 s) b u t in the fre q u e n cie s from
6 ,3 2 5 0 Hz it gives more detail o f th e spectrum th a n the 1/3 -o c ta v e analy
sis.
190

W here 1/3 -o c ta v e analysis is to be carried o u t in real-tim e on random ly oc

curring im pulses it is possible to use e xp o n e n tia l averaging fo llo w e d by
"M a x. H old", b u t there is no w the added co m p lica tio n th a t th e averager
"le a k s " energy at a (max.) rate of 8 ,7 dB per averaging tim e, and th u s the to
tal im pulse leng th m ust be s h o rt w ith respect to TA . If the ratio TA /T E > 10
w he re TE is th e effective total length of the filte r ou tp u t signal, th e detector
output resem bles its im pulse response and th e error w ill be < 0 ,5 d B
(e in Fig.7.21 ). For th is purpose, TE can be o b tained from
Te = T , + Tr

(7.10)

191

T his means that even w h e re TR T t , TA m ust alw ays be such th a t TA > 1 0 T r

or in oth e r w ords BTA > 1 0 . The fre q u e n cie s for w h ic h th is applies can be ob
ta in e d from Fig.7.1 6 as fo r stationary random signals.
Note th a t as illu s tra te d in Figs.7 .3 and 7.21 the peak ou tp u t of an e xp o n e n
tia l averager is 3 dB h ig h e r than from th e equivalent lin e a r averager and th u s
th e equivalent averaging tim e to be used in converting from power to energy
is TA / 2 .
F ig .7 .2 3 (b) show s an analysis m ade w ith TA = 8 s, exponential averaging,
and "M a x . H old", and th is co n firm s th a t the re su lt is approx. 3 dB h ig h er
th a n fo r linear averaging over m ost of its range, but th e difference reduces
dow n to 2,5 dB at 8 Hz, the lowest va lid frequency (7/ + Tr = 0 ,7 6 s).

7 .4 . A N A L Y S IS OF N O N -S T A T IO N A R Y S IG N A LS
The type of analysis considered in th is section is th e use of a m oving tim e
w in d o w to see h o w the s h o rt-te rm frequency spectrum varies w ith tim e
(F ig .7 .2 4 ). It is assum ed that the w in d o w length can be chosen so th a t th e in
divid ual w indow ed sections are q u a si-sta tio n a ry, w ith o u t being so s h o rt that
th e attainable re so lu tio n is too coarse.
T w o main application areas are envisaged:

192

(a)

A nalysis along a single record, such as a m a ch in e run-up or ru n -d o w n .

(b)

Cyclic signals, such as obtained from low -speed reciprocating machines,

w h ere th e signal w ith in each cycle co n sists of a series o f impulsive
events, but w h e re the results fo r each w in d o w position can be averaged
over a nu m ber of sim ila r cycles. (Fig.7.1 4).

M any considera tion s are com m on to both cases, since case (a) can be con
sidered a special case of (b) w ith an average over one cycle o n ly. Conse
quently, it is p rim a rily case (b) w h ic h w ill be discussed in d e ta il, though any
special considerations applicable to case (a) w ill be discussed w h e re appropri-

7 .4 .1 . Choice of Analysis Parameters

In order to m in im ise the am ount of data to be handled, th e tim e w in d o w
should be chosen as long as possible, th o u g h not so long th a t th e signal
changes appreciably w ith in the w in d o w length. In case (b) above th e w in d o w
length should be chosen so as to separate the individual im pulses, but ideally
should be appreciably longer than the individual events so th a t th e w eighting
fu n ctio n does not d isto rt th e ir spectrum w h e n th e y are located in the centre
of the w in d o w . This choice also optim ises the frequency range and resolution
of the results, because the bandw idth is approxim ately the reciprocal of the
effective w in d o w length (Eqns. (7 .6 ), (7.7)). The bandw idth also sets the m in i
m um frequency fo r w h ich m eaningful results can be obtained. W ith an FFT
analyzer the w in d o w length is determ ined by th e Full-scale F requency (Table
7 .4) and in som e cases the la tte r w ill have to be chosen higher th a n neces
sary in order to obtain a s u ffic ie n tly short w in d o w , but in th a t s itu a tio n the
upper freq uen cie s outside the desired range can sim ply be discarded. In rare
cases, it may be necessary to accept a lo w e r fu ll-s c a le fre q u e n cy than de
sired in order to obtain a s u ffic ie n tly long w in d o w .
The type of w in d o w fu n ctio n is not very c ritic a l; fo r an FFT analyzer, the
natural choice w o u ld be the in te rn a l H anning w in d o w , w h ile fo r a digital f il
te r analyzer a pre m u ltip lica tio n of the signal by a gaussian-shaped w in d o w is
suggested (F ig.7 .2 5 ).
The step length w ith w h ich the w in d o w is displaced should be chosen as a
suitable p ro portion of the w in d o w length w ith regard to the fo llo w in g factors:
(1) Choosing th e "h a lf am plitude le n g th " (F ig .7 .2 4 ) of the w in d o w (= half
the total length for a H anning fu n ctio n ) w o u ld give v irtu a lly uncorrelated
results and reduce the am ount of data 'to a m in im u m , but could give an
error of up to 6 dB for extrem ely localised tra n sie n ts betw een tw o w in

193

Gauss Impulse
M u ltip lie r
5623

Digital Frequency
A n a lyze r
2131

Level Recorder
2307

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 790429

Fig. 7 .2 5 . A n a lysis se t-u p w ith d ig ita l filte r analyzer

dow positions (c.f. th e "picket fe n ce e ffe c t" in th e frequency dom ain).
This choice w o u ld often be made fo r condition m o n ito rin g ap p lica tio n s
w h e re the aim is to detect changes w ith tim e and w h e re the a m o u n t of
data to be com pared is to be m in im ise d .
(2) A reduction of th e steps means th a t successive spectra are corre la te d,
but th is helps in visualising the spectrum changes, fo r example in 3 -d im ensional landscape representations (e.g. F ig.7 .2 6 ). Steps of betw een
20% and 50% of th e "h a lf-a m p litu d e le n g th " have been found s u ita b le.
The num ber of spectra to be averaged in each w in d o w position sh o u ld be
chosen so as to obtain stable repeatable results, and depends greatly on the
v a ria b ility of the signal from one cycle to another. It can best be found by tria l
and error, by storing one result and com paring w ith o th e rs, obtained w ith the
sam e param eters.

7 .4 .2 . E xam ple
In order to illu stra te th e general procedure, the exam ple w ill be taken of v i
bration signals (velocity) measured on th e cylinder head of a 4 -c y lin d e r, 4stroke diesel engine ru n n in g at 1 5 0 0 r.p .m . (7 5 0 cpm or 8 0 ms cycle tim e).
The m easurem ent and recording system w e re linear up to 10 kHz, but th e s ig
nals contained in fo rm a tio n up to 2 0 kHz. The s ig n a ls w ere recorded at
1 5 i.p.s. on an FM recorder, in p a rallel w ith a once-per-cycle tacho signal ob
tained w ith a p h o to -e le ctric pickup fro m the ca m sh a ft. The analyses w e re
made w ith the FFT analyzer Type 2 0 3 1 .
V ie w in g the tim e signal on the screen of the analyzer it could be d e te r
m ined th a t individual im pulses had a length of 2 m s, and for th is reason it
w as desirable to have a w in d o w le n g th as short as 8 ms (i.e. h a lf-a m p litu d e
194

length 4 ms w ith H anning w eighting). T his could not be achieved d ire c tly , as
the shorte st w in d o w length available (in 2 0 kHz range) is 2 0 ms (Table 7 .4 ),
but by slow ing dow n th e tape recorder 10:1 on playback it was possible to
achieve the desired param eters in th e 5 kHz range ( T = 8 0 ms). This m eant
th a t th e effective fu ll-s c a le frequency w a s now 5 0 kHz, but only the firs t 1 6 0
lines ( < 2 0 kHz) w ere u tilise d in d isp la yin g the results. The total cycle tim e of
8 0 m s could be covered by varying the "R e co rd s-A fte r-T rig g e r" s e ttin g
(Fig.7 .1 4 ) between 0 ,0 and 9,8 m em ory lengths w ith increm ents of 0 ,2 (i.e.
e ffe ctive ly 1,6 ms steps or 40% of th e h a lf-a m p litu d e length). An average
over 6 4 cycles w as fo u n d to be necessary, partly because of a slight " jit t e r "
of th e tacho pulses w h ic h could have been e lim in a te d by a more elaborate
set-up.
F ig .7 26 shows a 3-dim ensional representation of the results as a fre q u ency-tim e landscape. The m easurem ents were p erform ed autom atically us
ing a desktop ca lcu la tor to control th e analyzer, store th e results, and later

195

plot them on a digital plotter. The results as p lotted have a lin e a r frequency
scale, but th e calculator could be used to c o n ve rt them to c o n sta n t percen
tage ba ndw idth on a logarithm ic frequency scale.

7 .5 . B IB LIO G R A P H Y
BENDAT, J.S . and
PIERSOL, A .G .:

R andom Data: A n a ly s is
dures. W ile y, N.Y., 1971

RANDALL, R.B :

Frequency Analysis. B & K Publication. S ept. 197 7

RANDALL, R.B. and

THRANE, N.:

Im pulse A n a lysis u s in g a R eal-tim e D ig ita l F ilte r A n a l

yzer. B & K Technical R eview No.4, 1 9 7 9

RANDALL, R.B. and

UPTON, R :

D ig ita l F ilte rs and FFT Technique in R eal-T im e A n a ly

sis. B & K Technical R eview No. 1, 1 9 7 8

ROTH, O :

D ig ita l F ilte rs in A c o u s tic Analysis S ystem s. B & K

Technical Review No 1, 1 9 7 7

THRANE, N.:

A n a lysis o f Im pulsive S ig n a ls by use o f D ig ita l Tech

niques. SEECO 79, Soc. Env. Eng., England

THRANE, N.:

The D iscrete Fourier Transform and FFT Analysers.

B & K Technical Review No. 1, 1 979

THRANE, N.:

Zoom-FFT. B & K T echnical Review N o.2, 1 9 8 0

UPTON, R.:

A n O bjective C om parison o f A nalog a n d D ig ita l M e th

ods o f Real-Tim e F requency Analysis. B & K Techni
cal R eview , N o .1 , 1 9 7 7

and M e a su re m e n t Proce

W A H R M A N N , C.G. and On the A veraging Time o f RMS M easurem ents.

B R O C H ,J T
B & K T echnical Review, N o s.2 & 3, 1 9 7 5
WELCH, P.D..

The Use o f Fast F o u rie r Transform fo r th e E stim ation

o f P o w e r Spectra: A M e th o d Based on Time A verag
ing O ver S hort, M o d ifie d Periodograms. IEEE Trans.
A udio Electroacoust. V ol. A U -1 5 , p p .7 0 -7 3 June
1967

ZAVERI, K :

A veraging Time o f L e ve l Recorder Type 2 3 0 6 and

"F a s t" a n d " S lo w " Response o f L e ve l Recorders
2 3 0 5 / 0 6 / 0 7 . B & K T echnical Review N o .2, 1 975

196

8.

VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS FOR M ACHINE

HEALTH MONITORING

8 .1 . BASIC C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
A ll m achines vibrate. In the process of ch a n n e llin g energy in to th e job to
be perform ed forces are generated w hich w ill excite the in dividual parts of
th e m achine d ire ctly or via the stru ctu re . Some of the parts in th e trans
m ission path are accessible from th e outside so th a t w e can e asily measure
the vibration re su ltin g from the excitation forces.
As long as th e process is co n sta n t or only varying w ith in certain lim its the
vibration m easured w ill be p ra ctica lly constant. Furtherm ore, it is fo u n d for
m ost m achines th a t the vib ra tio n frequency sp e ctru m has a ch a ra cte ristic
shape w hen th e m achine is in good condition. W h e n faults begin to develop
in the m achine some of the d ynam ic processes in th e machine are changed
and some of th e forces acting on parts - or the m echanical pro p e rties of the
parts them selves - are changed, thereby in flu e n c in g the vibration spectrum .
This is the basis for using vib ra tio n m easurem ents and analysis in machine
health m on itoring.
U nfo rtunate ly it is possible w ith a fe w w ro n g choices of param eters and
procedures to end up w ith system s unable to give reliable results. It is hoped
the fo llo w in g com m ents w ill clear up these m atters.

8 .2 . THE R E L A T IO N S H IP FORCE - V IB R A T IO N
As already m entioned, m achine vibration is u s u a lly measured at p oints ac
cessible on th e outside of the m achine. How does th is relate to w h a t is going
on inside?
In Fig.8.1 a rotor is exerting a varying force on th e bearings of a m achine.
As rotor forces are m ostly tra n s m itte d through bearings, th is is a p re fe rre d lo
cation for m easurem ents. These forces result in both a relative vib ra tio n of
the rotor to th e bearing housing and an absolute vibration of the w h o le bear-

197

Force
Level
^ V ib ./ F o rc e

Ay^ v/

k V ib. Level

A A

Frequency

Force

F re q ue ncy

M o b ility

Freq uency

Vibration

7 9 10 2 7

F ig .8 .2 . The re la tio n s h ip F orce-V ibration

ing housing. In both cases the v ib ra tio n is the p ro d u ct of force x m o b ility (=
th e w illin g n e ss to be set in m otion), see Fig.8 .2 . It can be seen th a t to get a
stable vibration reading, the force spectrum and th e associated m o b ility m ust
be stable, and lu ckily th is is the case w ith most m achines. W hen th e force
doubles the vibration measured doubles.
For the relative m o tio n of the ro to r journal in its bearing, the m o b ility is
dom inated by the oil film properties, w hereas for th e absolute bearing hous
ing vibration the m o b ility is made up of com ponents from both oil film and
bearing support m o b ilitie s . The m o b ility can change considerably fro m m a
chin e to machine so it is often recom m ended that one measures it in o rder to
co rrelate the actual vib ra tio n level w ith th e internal forces.
In a journal bearing the forces are tra n sm itte d through an oil wedge
pum ped in by the h igh relative speed of the jo u rn a l to the bearing sh e ll. As
th e m ob ility of the oil film is n o rm a lly rather high, it is possible to get a good
198

m easurem ent of the re la tiv e vibration b e tw e e n journal and bearing: the socalled S haft V ibration. Due to the lim ita tio n s in dynam ic range of relative d is
placem ent transducers (ty p ic a lly 100:1) o n e seldom o b ta in s m uch in fo rm a
tion above 3 x the run nin g speed, but fo r phenom ena m a n ife s tin g them selves
w ith in th a t range relative displacem ent m easurem ents are fin d in g a w id e
spread use (see B ibliography VDI 2 0 5 9 , API 6 7 0 ). See F ig.8 .3 .
The absolute vibration as measured on th e bearing ho u sing is often 2 -4
tim es sm aller due to the lo w e r m obility o f th e bearing h o u sin g , but because
of the m uch larger dyn a m ic range of th e accelerom eters ty p ic a lly used here
(1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 :1 ) and th e p ossibility of s e le ctin g any of th e param eters: abso
lute acceleration, velocity, o r displacem ent, one is able to fo llo w the vibration
spectrum and any changes in it up to very h igh frequencies.
It is som etim es argued th a t because o f in sta b ility, com pliance and re so n
ances in oil film s it is im possible to use bearing vibration m easurem ents on
m any jo u rn a l bearings. If th e se problems w e re im portant th e oil film m o b ility
as seen by th e journal w o u ld not be sta b le and the relative m easurem ents
w ould s u ffe r even m ore, but in fact experience shows th a t both types of
m easurem ent can be m ade w ith good re p e a ta b ility.
Note th a t any vibratory fo rce s not a c tu a lly being absorbed in exciting the ro
to r m ust be transm itted to th e bearing h o u sin g . Should bearing loading be in
creased, th e oil film gets th in n e r (and s tiffe r) so that the re la tive vibration dec
reases. The decreased ro to r motion m e a n s th a t more fo rce is tra n sm itte d to
the bearing housing, w h o s e vibration th u s increases (as o ve ra ll m obility, d o m
inated by bearing supp o rts, remains p ra c tic a lly constant). A s higher loading
199

____ ________________________ _____________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________________________7 9 1 0 2 9

F g. 8 .4 . R olling e le m e n t bearing
w o uld te n d to accelerate bearing fa ilu re , th e bearing h o using vibration h ere
gives th e rig h t tendency.
In a ro llin g elem ent bearing the oil film is extrem ely th in as there is no re la
tive ve locity between th e surfaces at th e points of contact. The rolling e le
m ents are s tiff so the in n e r m obility and o u te r m obility are v irtu a lly the sam e.
Relative vibration betw een shaft and h o u sing is usually negligible even fo r
large vib ra tio n forces, so here the bearing housing vib ra tio n is quite d o m i
nant. A ccelerom eters w ill clearly give th e largest dyn a m ic range and fr e
quency range (Fig.8.3):

8 .3 . F R E Q U E N C Y R A N G E - D Y N A M IC R A N G E - P A R A M E T E R S
One of th e most im p o rta n t requirem ents of vibration in stru m e n ta tio n fo r
m aintenance is that it is able to register th e e n tire vibration spectrum in a s u f
ficie n tly w id e frequency range that all im p o rta n t com ponents are included.
This includes frequencies associated w ith unbalance, m isa lig n m e n t, ball-passing, gear-m eshing , blade-passing, blade resonances, bearing elem ent radial
resonances; often a fre q u e n cy range re q u ire m e n t of 1 0 - 1 0 ,0 0 0 Hz or m ore.
It is often fo und th a t th e h ig h er fre q u e n cie s contain in fo rm a tio n on fa u lts
developing w e ll before th e y influence the a ctual a bility o f th e machine to do
its job, w he re as the lo w e r frequencies s h o w the fa u lts w h e n they have o c
curred. To be able to predict breakdown, th e higher fre q u e n cie s therefore be
come very im portant.
The vib ra tio n level of m ost machines u su a lly varies w ith frequency. The
range in w h ic h the in stru m e n ta tio n m ust be able to present th e values w ith
an acceptable accuracy (the dynam ic range) m ust include all values w ith in
the freque ncy range (Fig.8 .5 ).

200

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 791030

Fig. 8 .5 . Frequency a n d dynamic range requirem ents

It is not enough th a t only the h ighest peaks are measured, fo r som e of the
im portant indicators may have a lo w level. For exam ple, the force signal from
th e blade-passing frequency in a tu rb in e has to be transm itted th ro u g h the
heavy rotor, th ro u g h the bearing and bearing housing to the accelerom eter
and in this tra n sm issio n the signal is attenuated by a large factor. However,
should the forces acting in th is area double, the a ttenuation re m a in s largely
th e same and th e measured v ib ra tio n doubles. T h is change by a given factor
represents a change by a corresponding num ber o f decibels (e.g. a doubling
w o u ld give 6d B ) and this is one o f the reasons w h y a logarithm ic am plitude
(or decibel) axis should always be used when representing vibration levels for
m achine m o n ito rin g . This is also reflected in th e fa c t that all com m on vibra
tio n criteria are expressed on lo g a rith m ic am plitude axes, meaning th a t equal
changes in vib ra tio n severity represent changes by a certain num ber o f dB.
In Fig.8.6 a vib ra tio n spectrum is shown using tw o diffe re n t param eters
ou t of the three usually used to describe vib ra tio n : D isplacem ent, Velocity
and Acceleration. They describe th e same m achine condition, so if a line is

791031

Fig. 8 .6 . A vibration spectrum described w ith 2 different param eters

201

d raw n through the bottom of each spectrum it can be seen that th e relative
h eights of the peaks are the sam e. If th e vibration fo rce at any fre q u e n c y dou
bles th e n the m agnitude of the v ib ra tio n component doubles, in both param e
te rs, so both are useable for m a intenance purposes. However, P aram eter I
happens to give a ho rizo n ta lly a ligned spectrum w h e re b y the dyn a m ic range
requirem ents become th e sm allest. T his is therefore called the "B e s t Param e
te r " fo r such m easurem ents.
It can be fu rth e r noted that no sin g le com ponent in the spectrum o f Par
am eter I needs to increase by m ore than Range I to give a m easurable
change in the overall vibration level. For Parameter II the change o f some
com ponents must be equal to th e m uch larger Range II. Therefore if one a t
tem pts to use overall vibration levels for indication of m achine co n d ition ,
rath er than frequency analysis, it is imperative th a t one uses th e B est Par
am eter for such m easurem ents.
For m any m achines th e Best P aram eter is velocity and this is one reason
w h y m any standards (e.g. VDI 2 0 5 6 ) specify th is param eter. S tandards such
as VDI 2 0 5 9 relying on relative d isplacem ent m e asurem ent put m ain em p h a
sis on unbalance and m isa lig n m e n t and are forced to disregard large parts of
th e spectrum .
In F ig.8 .7 are sh o w n results fro m a machine w ith a fa u lt developing in one
com ponent. F ollow ing th e m achine w ith 5 periodic m easurem ents it can be
seen th a t the overall level m easured suddenly ju m p s up at the last m e a su re
m ent. Does this indicate th a t the m a ch in e is in the m iddle of a b reakdow n or
can it be operated fo r a nother period before the vib ra tio n level reaches th e li
mit? This cannot be determ ined fro m the overall levels. If we instead fo llo w
th e developm ent of th e affected frequency com ponent over the 5 periodic
m easurem ents w e can extrapolate w ith reasonable accuracy and fin d out
w h e n the vibration level w ill reach th e lim it, thereby predicting th e tim e be-

F ig .8 .7 . Developm ent o f a m achine fa u lt as seen b y overall m easurem ents

and by analysis
202

fore m aintenance is necessary. W ith o u t th is periodic spectrum analysis the

prediction capability is se rio u sly impaired.
The presentation of the data in a m easuring system g re a tly affects its
usefulness and the fo llo w in g is a fu rth e r explanation of w h y lo g a rith m ic am
plitude axes are preferable to lin e a r (see also A ppendix F).

a)

Lin.

b)

Log.
10 0

a
10x

11
10
10x

}'
10x

;
10x
' i

10x

30

it

10
1

10x

io x ! f |
1 A ll lower values
T

.n n m
791033

Fig. 8 .8 . P resentation range o f an in s tru m e n t in lin e a r and lo g a rith m ic mode

F ig.8 .8 illu stra te s an in s tru m e n t having a scale w ith an accuracy and reso
lutio n of 1% of Full Scale, so th a t there are 1 0 0 know n d iffe re n t values possi
ble. Fig.8 .8 .(a) gives a lin e a r presentation 0 - 100% of Full S cale. Accepting
a m axim um error in the re s u lts of 10% of the reading, the scale can be used
dow n to 10% of fu ll scale as 1 step in 10 gives 10% accuracy. This means
th a t a dynam ic range of 10:1 (2 0 dB) is covered on th is scale. V ery often th is
is not enough to cover the vib ra tio n spectrum of a m achine even if the Best
Parameter is used. A no th e r po in t is that con sta n t factor changes give d iffe r
ent deflection in different pa rts of the scale. A fa cto r 10 is 9 0 steps in the up
per end and less than 1 step in the low er end.
A ssum ing th e same in s tru m e n t but letting each of the 1 0 0 steps represent
an 11 % (1 dB) change from th e previous step (Fig .8 .8 (b)), th e n 2 0 steps dow n
gives a fa cto r 10, 20 more an o th e r factor 10, and so on. The 1 0 0 steps w ill
in this w ay cover a range of 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 :1 (1 0 0 d B ) w ith the desired accuracy.
This dynam ic range ensures th a t all parts of th e spectrum are w ith in range,
and it can be seen that c o n sta n t factors represent a constant nu m b e r of steps
203

on th e scale. This g re a tly eases the w o rk of the m ain te n a n ce engineer as he

can q uickly locate th e com ponents w ith th e highest changes in force levels
even if th e m obility involved is very sm all.

8 .4 .

USE OF V IB R A T IO N M E A S U R E M E N T S FOR M A IN T E N A N C E

V ibratio n m easurem ents should only be used w h e re th e y w ill give a d e fi

nite advantage or cost saving so the m aintenance e n g in e e r should base the
decision on th e ir use on a careful evaluation:
1.

Does it suit the m aintenance system and m achines in use?

2.

Can the m easurem ents be perform ed w ith personnel already available?

3.

H ow fe w in stru m e n ts are needed to give the most econom ical system?

4.

Can th e use of v ib ra tio n m easurem ents reduce o p e ra tio n costs or m a in te

nance costs to give a d efinite im provem ent in pla n t economy?

8 .4 .1 . M aintenance System s
A. R un-to-B reak M a in te n a n c e
In in dustries ru n n in g m any inexpensive machines and having all im p o rta n t
processes duplicated, m achines are u s u a lly run u n til th e y break dow n. Loss
of production is in s ig n ific a n t and the spare m achines can take over in th e usuallly b rie f repair period. There is little advantage in k n o w in g when m achines
w ill break dow n, so vib ra tio n m easurem ents are ju s t used to check th e q u a l
ity of the repair.
In some industries (e.g. chemical plants) the product o fte n has such a high
value th a t there is a tendency to som etim es let even large unduplicated m a
chines run to break. In th is case it is valuable to k n o w w h a t is going w ro n g
and w h e n the fin a l breakdow n can be expected. This in fo rm a tio n can be ob
tained by analyzing spectrum trends fro m regular m easurem ents. H ow ever,
the consequential dam age resulting fro m such breakdow ns often greatly in
creases both the cost of repair and th e production loss du rin g the extended
sh u t-d o w n period. U sing th e condition m onitoring te ch n iq u e s described in
Section 8.4 .1 .C these extra costs can be considerably reduced, w h ile the p e ri
ods betw een shutd o w n s can still be kept to the m axim um .
B. Time B ased P reventive M aintenance
W here im portant m achines are not fu lly duplicated, or w h e re safety of p e r
sonnel is involved, m aintenance w ork is often perform ed at fixed tim e in te r
vals such as every 3 0 0 0 operating hours. The intervals are often determ ined
204

statistically as the period in w h ic h no more th a n 2% of the m achines w ill fa il

from being in new or fu lly serviced condition. By having 98% of th e m achines
statistically surviving the m aintenance periods, the m achines are believed to
have been "p re ven ted fro m fa ilu re .
However, it has been fo u n d fo r m any m achines (See R eference, Kent &
Cross) th a t if they are ru n fo r another in te rva l of the sam e length w ith o u t
any m aintenance betw een th e intervals the num ber of m a ch in e s fa ilin g in
the second interval w ill be less, or no higher, th a n in the firs t and less than if
m aintenance had been p e rfo rm e d betw een th e intervals. There is therefore a
marked tendency to replace th e fixed interval servicing or re n o va tio n of m a
chines w ith fixed interval m easurem ents of each individual m a ch in e 's condi
tio n and only when the m easurem ents in dicate that the p a rtic u la r m achine
needs it, w ill service be p e rfo rm e d before breakdow n.
C. O n-C ondition M a intenance
W hen vibration m easurem ents and analysis are perform ed system atically
and in te llig e n tly (termed c o n d itio n m onitoring) th e y w ill not o n ly a llo w deter
m ination of present m achine condition but also perm it (by fo llo w in g trends
fo r individual components in th e spectrum ) prediction of w h e n such compo
nents most like ly w ill have reached unacceptable levels. This is called Predic
tive M aintenance and allo w s a long term p la n n in g of w ork to be done. For ex
ample it p e rm its the e ng ineer to purchase th e necessary spare parts ahead of
tim e and the re b y avoid a p e rm a n en t large spare part stock. F urtherm ore, the
m aintenance personnel can be a ctually tra in e d fo r the type o f re pair coming
up so th a t th e y can effect it in a m inim um of tim e w ith a m a xim u m of re lia b il
ity. Used to g e th e r, C ondition M o n ito rin g plus Predictive M a in te n a n ce perm its
e fficient O n-C ondition M a in te n a n ce w ith a m in im u m of m a in te n a n ce cost
and a m inim um of unscheduled production stops.

8 .4 .2 . M aintenance S taff
W hen vib ra tio n m easurem ents are introduced into a m aintenance system it
is most com m on to use personnel already in th e system. This is possible be
cause the skills required are easily learned and developed fro m experience,
and good in stru ctio n m aterial is available.
Two types of personnel are usually em ployed. One is the ope ra to r w h o w ill
perform th e actual m easurem ents fo llo w in g a fixed m easurem ent procedure.
In a fu lly developed scheme he has only to record the vibration signals w ith
preset in stru m e n ts and tu rn over the data in th e form of taped signals or
graphs of spectra to the m ain te n a n ce engineer at the end of th e day for later
analysis or evaluation. The m aintenance e n g ine e r is responsible fo r preparing

205

the m easurem ent procedure and often p e rfo rm s analysis and evaluation h im
self, p a rticu la rly during th e developm ent period.
The m easurem ent procedure should in clu d e w hich p o in ts on the m achines
should be measured in w h a t sequence, th e m anner in w h ic h the in stru m e n ts
should be used and th e desired ru n n in g conditions of th e machines. The
points on th e m achines should be prepared for easy a tta c h m e n t of the v ib ra
tion tra nsd ucer and m arked w ith a re fe re n ce number. The engineer should in
stru ct th e operator in th e purpose and th e execution of th e programme. It is
advisable to gain experience by m easuring many tim es on a small num ber of
m achines. This w ill also reveal the re p e a ta b ility of the procedure.
The engineer should also gather te c h n ic a l details to help him later d ia g
nose any fa u lts detected. These are d e ta ils such as ro ta tio n a l speeds, bearing
geom etry, num bers of ro llin g elem ents, g ear teeth, tu rb in e blades etc. This in
fo rm a tio n can be set up in a diagnostic reference sheet fo r each m achine. He
w ill also com pile available inform ation on acceptable v ib ra tio n lim its (relative
or absolute) from m a n u fa ctu re rs and o th e r organisations.

8 .4 .3 . Instrum ents fo r On-Condition M aintenance

Looking over the in s tru m e n t systems in use today w e fin d that they can be
grouped in 3 classes:
Class 3: is a vibration m eter making a sim ple overall vibration reading in a
single frequency band (F ig .8.9). M ost o f th e standardized vibration m e a su re
m ents fa ll into th is category. The re adings may a llo w detection of m ajor
fa u lts th a t have already developed but w ill not a llo w diagnosis (w hat w e n t
w rong) or reliable tre n d prediction.

G e n e ra l Purpose
V ib ra tio n Meter
2511
A cce lero m e te r

F r l?
..

' *

8 0 0 434

Fig. 8 .9 . Typical in stru m e n t fo r sim ple o ve ra ll m easurem ents

Class 2: uses tw o levels of in stru m e n ta tio n . First, th e Class 3 in stru m e n ts
are used un til they in d ica te that levels have exceeded th e standardized m a x i
m um levels or have changed drastically. Then an analyzer is brought in to ac
tion to analyze the c u rre n t spectrum w h ic h is then com pared w ith a re fe r
ence spectrum taken at th e same p o in t w h e n the m a ch in e was know n to be
206

General Purpose
V ib ra tio n Meter
2511
Accelerom eter

h r
j_

p ..

N arrow Band Spectrum

A n a ly ze r 2031

Accelerom eter

Charge A m p lifie r
2635
Accelerom eter

Tape Recorders
7003

EsE t
u >Ov W

P ortable V ib ra tio n A n a lyze r

3513

Level Recorder
23 06

Fig. 8 .1 0 . In stru m e n ts fo r sim ple o ve ra ll m easurem ents fo llo w e d by analysis

w hen changes have been in d ica ted
in good condition (Fig.8 .1 0 ). This procedure w ill reveal w h a t changes have
taken place but the analyzer is only brought into play, eith e r d ire c tly or via a
tape recorder, w hen the sim ple w id e band m easurem ents s h o w a change,
and as w e have previously seen th is may be very late - or too late in some
cases.
Regarding trends, it is seen th a t th is procedure gives only 2 p oints on the
trend curves, w h ich is too little to give the shape. Predictive capability has
been lost by a too sparing use of th e analyzer.
Class I: means fu ll analysis and com parison w ith reference spectra each
tim e . This gives fu ll in fo rm a tio n on th e condition of a m achine to g e th e r w ith
the best predictive capability. The cost per m easurem ent need not be higher
than for the other classes thanks to the new e ffic ie n t in stru m e n ta tio n avail
able today. N arrow band analyzers able to provide a hard copy of measured
spectra are found in tw o versions. One is a portable battery operated serial
analyzer w ith all fa cilitie s, w h ic h plots out a vibration spectrum in any par
am eter (acceleration, velocity, displacem ent) on the spot fo r each measuring
point (Fig 8.1 1). Com parisons may be done vis u a lly using a tra n sp a re n t re fe r
ence spectrum .
W hen large num bers of m achines are to be m onitored the operator uses a
tape recorder to record a sh o rt sam ple of the vib ra tio n signal at each m easur
ing point. Typically, 4 sam ples can be recorded in less than a m in u te . The
207

Accelerom eter
a ..

>

l<H f 'NI

P ortable V ib ra tio n A n a ly z e r
3513

%
Level Recorder
2306

Fig. 8 .1 1 . In s tru m e n ts fo r analysis in th e fie ld

taped signal is later played into a re a l-tim e analyzer and compared a u to m a ti
cally (e.g. using a desktop calculator) o r m anually w ith th e previously esta
b lished reference values (Fig.8.1 2).

A ccelerom eters
4369

Tape Recorder
70 03

Charge A m p lifie rs
26 35

C alculator

N arrow Band Spectrum

A nalyzer 2031

X - Y Recorder
23 08

Fig 8 .1 2 . In stru m e n ts fo r rapid analysis o f signals fro m a large n u m b e r o f m a

chines
This approach b e n e fits from the speed and s o p h isticatio n of laboratory type
in s tru m e n ts, gives im proved detection and diagnosis, and reduces th e cost
per m easurem ent.
T he m easurem ents described u n til n o w have all been periodic. The usual
m ean operating tim e betw een fa ilu re s dictates the m easurem ent intervals. A t
least 6 m easurem ents should be planned fo r th is period to give reasonable
prediction capabilities.

8 .4 .4 . Permanent M onitoring
P erm anent m o n ito rin g is a system w h e re b y a set of in s tru m e n ts is c o n tin u
o u sly checking m achine condition at a lim ite d num ber of m easuring points.
208

In the basic system , a single vibration m o n ito r co n tin u o u s ly measures th e

best param eter in a sin g le frequency range or a parallel set of 3 frequency
bands. If lim its are exceeded alarm relays can activate sh u td o w n , or give a
w a rn in g indication (Figs.8.1 3 and 8 .14).
The continuo us m e asurem ent w ill u s u a lly begin to s h o w high levels hours

Fig. 8 .1 3 . M u lti-p u rp o s e M o n ito r Type 2 5 0 5 and M u ltip le x e r Type 5 8 3 3

M o n ito r
D ata Cable
Q
5674

*
Ju n ctio n B ox

rH

----

Recorder O utp uts

2505
791037

Fig. 8 .1 4 . Basic m o n ito r system

Fig. 8. 15. M u lti-c h a n n e l basic m onitor system

209

J u n c tio n Box
A ccelerom eter

i t~ i
~

Accelerom eter
5674

M o n ito r + 3 M ultip le xe rs

J u n c tio n Box
Accelerom eter
Narrow Band Spectrum
A n a ly z e r 2031

X Y Recorder
2308

Accelerom eter
5674

Ju n c tio n Box

C a lc u la to r

D isc M em ory

791039

Fig. 8. 7 6. M u lti-c h a n n e l ba sic m o n ito r syste m w ith fu lly a u to m a tic spectrum

m o n ito rin g added
before actual fa ilu re , and m ost m achines ca n n o t be stopped im m ediately any
w ay, so it is often possible to let a single m o n ito r scan over m any channels
via a m u ltip le xe r (Fig.8 .1 5 ). W hen all the m easurem ent c h a n n e ls come from
one m achine group, only one shutdow n re la y is required. T h is greatly re
duces cost but the system is q u ite flexible as individual s h u td o w n levels can
be set fo r each channel. But th e lim ita tio n of one or a fe w frequency bands
rem ains.
For fu ll spectrum m o n ito rin g a spectrum analyzer plus a ca lc u la to r is added
to the o u tp u t of the m o n ito r (F ig .8.1 6). In such a system in d ivid u a l lim its can
be set fo r each m easuring p o in t, and if th e analyzer is to be used for other
purposes, th e m onitor s till p rotects the m achines in the m e a n tim e using the
sim ple pass-band m easurem ent.
M onitors including m u ltip le xe rs w ith p re a m p lifie rs are in general no more
expensive th a n the equivalent num ber of pre a m p lifie rs.

8 .4 .5 . C ost Effectiveness
Equipm ent for vibration m easurem ent sh o u ld only be bought if it can be ex-

210

pected to yield a clear p ro fit, so th e question o fte n arises as to h o w th e econ

om ic gain can be assessed.
In a report made in 1 9 7 5 fo r th e B ritish D epartm ent of Industry (see Bibl.),
later revised w ith 1 9 7 8 values, M .J . Neale & A ssociates evaluated th e
ben
efits from intro ducing O n-C o n d itio n M on ito rin g into British in d u s try . They
fo u n d th a t if ju s t 2 0 0 0 fa cto rie s em ployed these techniques instead o f w hat
th e y w ere doing in 1 9 7 5 a m in im u m annual saving o f 1 8 0 m illio n could be
expected w ith operating plus in ve stm e n t costs of 3 0 m illion - e n s u rin g a net
p ro fit of 1 5 0 m illio n or 5 0 0 % re tu rn . This saving corresponds to ro u g h ly 3%
of th e total annual investm ent in B rita in fo r m achines and equ ipm e n t.
The savings arise m ainly fro m th e higher a v a ila b ility fa cto r o f the ma
chines, giving fe w e r production losses.

8 .5 . B IB LIO G R A PH Y
API 670:

"N o n -c o n ta c tin g V ibration a n d A x ia l P o sitio n M o n ito r

in g S y s te m ". June 1 9 7 6 . A m erican P etroleum Insti
tu te , W a sh in g to n

D O W NHAM , E. &
W OO DS, R.:

"The R a tio n ale o f M o n ito rin g V ibration on Rotating

M a c h in e ry in C ontinuously Operating Process P lant".
ASM E Paper No. 7 1 -V ib r.-9 6 Journal o f Engineering
fo r In d u stry (B & K R eprint No. 1 9 0 2 3 )

I.S .V .R .:

"W o rksh o p in O n-C ondition M a in te n a n c e ",

th a m p to n U niversity, 5 - 6 January, 1 9 7 2

Sou

KENT, L.D. &

CROSS, E.J.:

"The P h ilo so p h y o f M a in te n a n c e ", 1 8 .IA T A PPC-Sub

C om m ittee m eeting, C openhagen Oct. 1 9 , 1 9 7 3

NEALE, M .J. &

W OODLY, B.J.:

"C o n d itio n M o n ito rin g M ethods a n d E conom ics",

S ym posium organised by Society of Environm ental
E ngineers, Im perial C ollege, London, September
1 9 7 5 . B & K reprint no. 1 6 0 5 4

NEALE, M .J. &

Associates:

"A G uide to the C ondition M o n ito rin g o f M a ch in e ry".

H M SO , London, 1 9 7 9

VDI 2 0 5 6 :

"B e urte ilu n g sm a st b e f r m echanische S ch w in

g u n g e n von M a s c h in e n ", October 1 9 6 4 . Beuth-Vertrie b , B erlin

VDI 2 0 5 9 :

"W e lle n sch w in g u n g sm e ssu n g e n zur berw achung

von T u rb o m a sch in e n ", November 1 9 7 2 . B euth-Vertrie b , B erlin

211

9.

ACOUSTIC EMISSION

9 .1 . IN T R O D U C T IO N
M in u te im perfections in loaded s tru c tu re s and m a te ria ls , w hich co u ld lead
to u ltim a te fa ilure , can be revealed by several n o n -d e stru ctive te stin g (NDT)
m ethods in com m on use. Typical exam ples are m icroscopic and X -ra y inspec
tio n , strain m easurem ents and fla w detection by dye penetrants, eddy cu r
rents and ultrasonic transm ission or re fle ctio n .
These methods are common in one respect; th e y reveal im perfections
w ith o u t d iffe re n tia tio n between irre le v a n t "passive irre g u la ritie s w h ic h have
no influence on the a b ility of the s tru c tu re to perform its intended ta sk, and
" a c tiv e " developing fa u lts w h ich , if le ft, could se rio u sly threaten the in te g rity
of th e structure. R esults obtained fro m these tests re q u ire a high level of
judg em en t in d e te rm in in g th e ir s ig n ifica n ce . F urth e rm o re , for critic a l s tru c
tu re s, tests have to be made re g u la rly and extensively to ensure th a t new
fa u lts , fo r example caused by co rro sio n , overloading and w ear, have not oc
curred.
A coustic Emission (AE) is a re la tiv e ly new NDT tech n iq u e w h ic h differs
from th e above-m entioned techniques in th a t it is able to detect w hen a fla w
or a crack occurs and w here it occurs i.e. it detects " a c tiv e flaw s. Once the
existence of a fla w has been established by AE its n a tu re can be investigated
by the other methods. For critical s tru ctu re s, AE m e a su rin g in stru m e n ta tio n
can listen continuo u sly to w arn of fa u lts im m ediately th e y occur.

9 .2 . D E F IN IT IO N
AE (som etim es called Stress W ave E m ission SWE) can be defined as:
The elastic w ave generated by th e release of e n e rg y in te rn a lly stored in a
structure.
A lth o u g h this d e fin itio n includes m any kinds of w aves, (e.g. earthquakes and

21 2

m icroseism ic phenomena) A E-system s are designed to handle only a sm all

part of the fu ll spectrum . M echanical shocks and clicks are not included, a l
though A E -system s are used in some cases to detect loose parts in m icroelec
tronic devices.

9 .3 . AE S O U R C E S
AE "S o u rc e s " w hich can be described as processes e m ittin g elastic waves,
can be basically classified in 4 different groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.

D islocation movem ents

Phase transform atio n s
Friction m echanism s
Crack fo rm a tio n and extension.

The signals em itted m ay be broadly divided into tw o types i) continuous

em ission (resem bling w h ite noise) and ii) burst-type e m issio n , mostly de
tected as single decaying sinusoids due to resonances in th e structure and
the transdu ce r. The tw o types of signals are show n in F ig.9.1 . A clear d is tin c
tion betw een the tw o types cannot be made however, as th e re is no logical
tra n sitio n point.

Fig. 9 .1 . C ontinuous a n d B u rs t Type signals

For com parison purposes the relative am plitudes of th e em itted signals
from the d iffe re n t m echanism s are show n below:
D islocation m ovem ents
Phase tra n sfo rm a tio n s
Crack fo rm a tio n

1-10
5 - 1000
20 - 1 0 0 0

The energy released by a single dislo ca tio n m ovem ent (displacem ent of a
particula r type of line im perfection th ro u g h the crystal lattice) is norm ally too
sm all to be detected by AE equipm ent. H ow ever, many d islocations often co m
bine to fo rm an avalanche of m ovem ents giving rise to a co n tin u o u s A E-signal w h ic h can be detected. A typical phase tra n sfo rm a tio n source is m arten-

213

site fo rm a tio n in carbon steel; a single b u rs t signal can be detected for every
grain transform ed.
Crack fo rm ation occurs at surface notches or at p o in ts inside a m aterial
w h e re local stresses exceed the fra c tu re stress. Crack fo rm a tio n results in
the creation of new su rfa ce s, strain energy is released and th is is partly tra n s
form ed into AE signals. The AE signals generated by crack form ation are of
the burst type and are o fte n em itted at a ve ry high rate.
Friction also occurs in cracks, and th e sudden sliding m echanism releases
burst type signals. Crack form ation and fric tio n burst sig n a ls are very useful
fo r detecting and localizing cracks.

9 .4 . P R O P A G A T IO N
A E-sources behave in a m anner s im ila r to a radio a ntenna w ith a specific
radiation pattern for th e d iffe re n t wave types (shear-w aves and com pressionwaves); how ever the p o sition and properties of AE sources are only know n in
special rare cases.
If the source em its a spherical wave packet, it w ill o n ly be propagated as
such in an in fin ite iso tro p ic, hom ogeneous, ideally e lastic m edium . In real
s tru ctu re s th e propagation w ill be affected by surfaces w h ic h create re fle c
tions and form ation of surface waves (Rayleigh or Lamb). Inhom ogeneities
(e.g. w elds) may also create reflections and d isto rt w avefronts.
A n im p o rta n t example is waves propagating in a plate, especially on large
stru ctu re s like pressure vessels w here source location te ch n iq u e s are used.
These w aves are subject to dispersion as sh o w n in F ig.9 .2 . an and sn denote
the an tisym m e tric and s ym m e tric waves o f th e n th order.
It can be seen that the dispersion re la tio n sh ip s are com plicated, making it
d iffic u lt to predict the exact group velocity involved. F u rth e rm o re , dispersion
changes the w aveform w h ic h introduces am b ig u itie s w h e n tim e differences
have to be m easured fo r localization.
The above m entioned fa c to rs make it extre m e ly d iffic u lt to study the source
m echanism s except under conditions especially designed fo r the purpose.
H owever, research is s till being carried o u t in th is field, and th is w ill fu rth e r
enhance th e usefulness of th e AE technique.
It sh o u ld be noted, th a t in m ost o f the p re s e n t applications it is not neces
sary to have a detailed kn o w le d g e o f the source m echanism s a n d the propaga
tion. These applications in clu d e , for exam ple, the d e te rm in atio n of the typical

214

770 555

Fig. 9 .2 . Surface w ave modes in a s te e l plate

AE pattern from a specim en prior to fra ctu re so th a t fu tu re activity on sim ila r
objects can be evaluated, and fa u lt localization on large steel stru ctu re s
w h e re a certain am o unt of a m b ig u ity can be tolerated.

9 .5 . AE T R A N S D U C E R P R IN C IP L E S A N D C A L IB R A T IO N
W hen the em itted stress waves reach the tra n sd u ce r position via a propaga
tio n path as show n in Fig.9.3 (a to e) the s tre ss-stra in condition is converted
in to an electrical signal w hich can be treated by e le c tro n ic means.
Piezoelectric (PZ) transducers are by far the m o st w idely used. They are
m ostly undam ped, having very hig h se nsitivities at resonance. A sim p le pie
zoelectric disc w ith electrodes m o u n te d on its faces, perpendicular to th e pola
rization direction is often used fo r AE and ultrasonic transducers. For a plane
in fin ite disc adjo ining a stru ctu re and coupling (dam ping) m a te ria l, th e re
sponse to an incom ing plane w a ve w ith normal incidence can be calculated.
It m ust be stressed th a t this is a typ ica l situation fo r ultrasonic applications,
but n o t for AE signals w hich are in most cases m a in ly surface w a ve s, (Ray
leigh or Lamb).
U ltrasonic transducer calibration m ethods are th e re fo re not su ita b le fo r AE
purposes. This is illustrated in F ig .9 .4 . A PZ-disc, 1 ,9 mm thick and 9 mm in
diam ete r is m ounted directly on a steel structure. The thickness m ode can be
calculated to be 1 MHz, but a s u rfa ce wave of 1 MHz (A = 3 m m ) w ill not

215

Fig. 9 .3 . Propagation o f a stress wave in a specimen

Fig. 9.4. C ou p lin g o f surface w aves to tw o d iffe re n t transducers

216

give any o u tp u t as seen fro m the sym m etric deform ation s h o w n in the fig u re ,
w hereas a w ave corresponding to h / 2 = 9 m m , (f = 1 6 7 kHz) w ill couple
strongly.
To overcom e this problem th e disc can be made small; h o w e ver the capacit
ance of th e disc is then reduced considerably resulting in a m uch lower s e n s i
tiv ity w h e n loaded w ith e xte rn a l capacitances from cable etc. If a large w e a r
plate is used fo r coupling to the structure, it is d iffic u lt to e n su re coupling at
the point opposite the piezoelectric disc. If a sm all plate is used tiltin g may be
come a problem .

Fig. 9 .5 . (a) C o nstruction a l details of B ro a d b a n d AE Transducer Type 8 3 1 2

(b) B road-band Transducer Type 8 3 1 2 tog e th e r w ith Resonance
Transducers Types 8 3 1 3 and 8 3 14
The tra nsd uce r co n stru ctio n shown in F ig .9 .5 (a) overcom es these p ro b
lems and therefore can be used over a broad range of frequencies. The in te
gral p re a m p lifie r ensures a small ca p a citive loading, th e mem brane suspen
sion gives an appropriate coupling force and the slig h tly spherical w ear plate
ensures adequate co u p lin g regardless o f tiltin g . This transducer, to g e th e r
w ith tw o others, w hich are of the sim ple resonance type and intended to de217

teet AE over a narrow fre q u e n cy band aro u n d th e ir resonance, are show n in

the photograph in Fig.9 .5 (b).
Some precautions sh o u ld be taken in th e m ounting o f transducers to e n
sure good results. The su rfa ce on w h ic h th e transducer has to be m ounted
m ust be fla t and clean to p e rm it effective coupling. Scale and rust m ust be
removed e.g. by grinding. Even though th e surface may be fla t and clean o n ly
a fe w points w ill be in in tim a te contact w ith th e w earplate.
By using a drop of o il, grease or h ig h ly viscous "g o o p " (e.g. Dow C h e m i
cals 2 7 6 -V 9 ), the voids are fille d out e n a b lin g the stress w aves to be tra n s
m itted to the transducer. If a perm anent in sta lla tio n is d esired, various a d h e
sives may be used. T ransducers coupled w ith flu id s m ust be kept in place by
elastic bands, adhesive tap e , springs or fix tu re s as may be practical. The
transm ission of plane w aves through th e cou p lin g layer can be calculated in
th e same m anner as th e frequency response. In general, it is desirable to
make the coupling layer as th in as possible to get m axim um se n sitivity.
Several m ethods have been proposed fo r ca libration. M a n y o f these are in
spired by th e AE phenom enon itself and use transient pulses generated by
breaking pencil leads, glass capillaries or by spark impact. O th e rs use c o n tin u
ous sources like gas je ts (broad band random signal) or tra n sd u ce rs used as
tra n sm itte rs.
If these "s o u rc e s " have a su ffic ie n tly broad frequency sp e ctru m and if th e
tra n s m ittin g structure p e rm its tra n sm issio n o f the w hole spectrum w ith o u t
d isto rtio n , th e y may be used fo r se n sitivity com parison and re la tive frequency
response determ in atio n of AE transducers. If an absolute ca lib ra tio n is d e
sired a detailed know ledge o f th e source and stru ctu re is necessary.
Basic research is undertaken at several in s titu te s to fin d suitable c a lib ra
tion m ethods but no g e n e ra lly acceptable m ethod has yet been proposed.
M ost com m ercial transducers available today are calibrated in th e same w a y
as ultrasonic transducers in a face to face configuration w h e re no surface
w aves are generated at a ll. These calib ra tio n s are of lim ited va lu e if the tra n s
fe r fu nction from surface w aves to electrical signals is required.
A d iffe re n t method proposed by Hatano & M ori (see B ibliography) is used at
Bruel & Kj r. This method is based on th e reciprocity p rin cip le w hich is w e ll
know n in n etw ork theory, and also used fo r ca libration of m icrophones, hydro
phones and vibration tra n sd u ce rs.
F ig.9 .6 show s the se t-u p used for th e reciprocity c a lib ra tio n . A w arbled
tone signal is applied to a tra n s m ittin g tra n sd u ce r w hich e xcites Rayleigh
waves in the m edium . These surface w aves are detected by the receiving
tra nsd uce r norm ally positioned 2 0 0 mm fro m th e tra n sm itte r. The output sig218

Fig. 9 .6 . S e t-u p fo r R eciprocity C alibration

nal is am plified and a DC voltage proportional to the RMS value o f th e signal
is supplied to th e V input o f an X-Y recorder. A voltage pro p o rtion a l to the
ce ntre-frequ ency of the w a rbled tone signal is fed to the X -in p u t o f th e X-Y re
corder. The c u rre n t to the tra n s m ittin g tra n sd u ce r is m easured using the
sam e set-up.

Fig. 9. 7. Typical frequency response curves fo r the acoustic e m issio n tra n sd u

cers Types 8 3 1 2 , 8 3 1 3 a n d 8 3 1 4
A bsolute calibra tion is achieved using three transducers, one o f w h ic h can
fu n c tio n e ithe r as a tra n s m itte r or receiver. Three consecutive m easurem ents
are made, as described, w ith a specific interchange of transducers between
each m easurem ent. Typical ca lib ra tio n results are show n in F ig .9 .7 .

219

9 .6 . S IG N A L A M P L IF IC A T IO N
The transducer is fo llo w e d by a p re a m p lifie r - a m p lifie r com bination giving
up to 1 0 0 d B total a m p lific a tio n . The p re a m p lifie r stage, w h ic h has a lo w o u t
put im pedance and can th e re fo re feed long cables, m ay be b u ilt into the tra n s
ducer as show n in F ig .9 .5 . O therw ise a separate p re a m p lifie r, as sh o w n in
F ig.9 .8 , is placed near to the tra n sd u ce r. P re a m p lifie r gain is fixed (e.g.
4 0 dB) and the p re a m p lifie r may also be fitte d w ith bandpass filters.
For m eaningful com parison of p re a m p lifie rs, th e ir noise level should be
m easured and com pared w hen the in p u t is loaded by th e transducer im p e d
ance. If suitable m odern electronic com ponents are used, th e noise level w ill
be determ ined by th e th e rm a l noise of the piezoelectric disc. Because of
noise th e m inim um detectable AE a m p litu d e fo r a tra n s d u c e r in the 2 0 0 kHz
range is in the order o f 1 0 14 m at room te m perature.
The signal from th e p re a m p lifie r is fed in to a c o n d itio n in g am plifier w ith ad
justable gain, e.g. fro m 0 to 6 0 dB in 1 dB steps. F ig .9 .9 show s an a m p lifie r
w h ic h is especially s u ita b le for AE w o rk and w h ich has selectable fre q u e n cy
filte rs so as to suppress interference fro m low fre q u e n cy electrical noise and
m echanical vib ra tio n .

AE Preamplifier

Type 2637

Fig. 9 .8 . AE P re a m p lifie r Type 2 6 3 7

Fig. 9 .9 . C o n d itio n in g A m p lifie r Type 2 6 3 8

9 .7 . D A T A A N A L Y S IS A N D P R E S E N T A T IO N
A variety of m ethods are available fo r analysis and presentation of th e a m
plified AE signal. These are sum m arised in Fig.9 .1 0 . Som e guidelines about
th e choice of the m ost suitable m easuring principle can be given as fo llo w s:

2 20

7 9 10 9 6

Fig. 9 .1 0 . M e th o d s o f AE data a n a lysis and p re s e n ta tio n

The oscilloscope is a lw a ys very useful to get an im m ediate impression of
AE activity.
For c o n tin u o u s em ission th e RMS value is most suitable and physically
also most m eaningfu l.
For burst type signals an indication of to ta l damage or ra te o f damage oc
curring is indicated by rin g down co u n tin g or pulse area m easurem ents.
Three a lte rn a tive s are s h o w n schem atically in F ig .9 .1 1 .
A high freque ncy pulse analyzer m easuring the tim e a thre sh o ld is ex
ceeded w ill give the approxim ate pulse area of an AE signal (Fig.9.11 (a)).
The approxim ation can be im proved by the com bination of several thresholds.
The p rin ciple is illustrated in Fig.9.11 (b). Both of these a n a lysis methods can
be carried o u t w ith the AE pulse analyzer s h o w n in Fig.9.1 2.
R ing-dow n counting, illu s tra te d in Fig.9.1 1 (c), is another w a y of assessing
pulse area. The method is v e ry approximate as it takes no a cco u n t of tim e but
the in stru m e n ta tio n is s im p le and w idely used.
221

M ethods of A E pulse assesment

4429 " 4-ch m ode

79 10 2 0

Fig. 9 . 1 7. M e th o d s o f p u lse m agnitude assessm ent

F ig .9 .1 2 . A c o u s tic E m ission P u lse Analyzer Type 4 4 2 9

A lin e a rity comparison betw een actual pulse area and th e analyzer " c o u n t"
is show n in F ig.9 1 3. The curves are typ ic a l and may depend upon the shape
222

A rea under A E Curve ( d B ) -----

780722

Fig. 9 .1 3 . R elationship betw e e n area u n der the A E curve and o u tp u t co u n t for

various m ethods o f q uantising A E a ctivity. The curves are separ
ated fo r clarity
of the AE signal. For the AE pulse analyzed the rin g -d o w n count m ethod (d)
is approxim ately linear over a 1 5 dB range and th e one-threshold tim e-based
m ethod (c), over a 2 0 dB range. By using 4 th re s h o ld s (b), the lin e a rity range
of the tim e-based method can be im proved to 3 0 dB.
The tape recorder, w h ich is norm ally a m odified videorecorder or special in
stru m entation recorder, -is useful for storing AE s ig n a ls for later analysis, or
w h e n analysis o f m ultiple channels is desired. H ow ever, the d yn a m ic range
is often very lim ite d (~ 3 0 dB).
The tra n sie n t recorder is useful w hen single pulses have to be analysed.
The stored signal can be played back at d iffe re n t rates either to an oscillo
scope, or a level recorder and it can be fre q u e n cy analysed. D ynam ic range
and memory size are lim ite d (e g 8 bits re s o lu tio n ~ 48 dB and 1 - 2 K
words).
A peak detector w ith a sh o rt rise tim e (0 ,5 ps) and a com paratively slow de
cay tim e p e rm its interco n n e ctio n w ith level recorders and sim ila r equipm ent.
In th is way a level recorder can give a tim e p ictu re of the peaks o f AE activity
w h ic h is useful to assess tre n d s. The c o n d itio n in g a m p lifie r show n in Fig.9.9
is equipped w ith a suitable peak detector. An exam ple of an AE a c tiv ity ver
sus tim e plot m ade using th is set-up is show n in th e upper half of F ig .9 .1 8 .
A statistical processor is used to count the n u m b e r of events fa llin g w ith in
223

d iffe re n t am plitude w in d o w s. A loudspeaker connected via the peak detector

co nve rts the AE b u rsts to audible "c ra c k s ".

9 .8 . A C O U S T IC E M IS S IO N S O U R C E LOCATIO N
M ultich a n n e l system s are used fo r AE source location, fo r exam ple on
large pressure vessels. W ith su ita b le control, location systems can d is c rim i
nate betw een signals coming fro m a certain area o f interest and s ig n a ls a rriv
ing from other areas.
W ith tw o transducers a source lo cation can be determ ined in one d im e n
sio n. W ith three transducers the source location can be calculated in tw o d i
m ensions. Usually an extra channel is added enabling th e system to a u to m a ti
cally ignore incon sisten t data.
The tim e diffe re n ce between th e arrival tim e o f the signal at tw o
transducers determ in es a hyperbola in a plane if th e propagation ve lo city is
kn o w n . The inte rse ctio n of hyberbolas obtained fro m other tra n s d u c e r pairs
de fin es the location o f the source. T h is is shown sch e m a tica lly in F ig .9 .1 4 .

Fig. 9 .1 4 . System fo r localization o f A E sources

224

9 .9 . FIELDS OF A P P L IC A T IO N
The study of plastic deform ation and crack form ation and extension are tw o
of th e freque ntly reported application areas of AE m easurem ent. F ig .9 .1 5
show s sketches of tw o typical results fro m plastic d e fo rm a tio n of test pieces.

Liiders d eform atio n

H om ogeneous deform ation

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7 9 0 4 5 2

Fig. 9 .1 5 . Stress and A c o u s tic E m ission a ctivity as a fu n c tio n o f strain fo r tw o

types o f p la s tic deform ation
The decrease in stress at the start o f th e Liiders ra nge is due to the fo rm a
tion of slip-bands (Liiders bands) associated w ith high AE activity. This c o n tin
ues u n til the end of th e Liiders range w h e n w o rk-h a rd e n in g starts and the
AE a c tiv itiy decreases. D uring hom ogeneous defo rm a tio n dislocations occur
th ro u g h o u t the test piece until they are fin a lly trapped and the AE a ctivity de c
reases.
On account of the A E -a ctivity associated w ith crack fo rm a tio n this w a s one
of th e firs t areas of application for AE techniques. If th e A E-activity increases
s ig n ific a n tly before fa ilu re it can be used as a direct w a rn in g . Fig 9 .1 6 show s
results obtained from a fatigue test on a notched specim en, w here th e in
crease in AE activity long before fa ilu re is quite n o ticeable. M e ta llu rg ists and
scientists w orking w ith fracture m echanics have adopted AE as a valuable
tool fo r estim ating ce rta in fra ctu re -to u g h n e ss param eters.
Because AE signals are generated by most m aterials w h e n deform ed, and
may be detected over th e entire su rfa ce of a s tru c tu re , AE analysis has a
large num ber of applications lim ited o n ly by the detection possibilities.
In indu strial applications the AE te ch n iq u e s are used fo r testing and m o n i
to rin g of structures The purpose of AE analysis in th e se application areas is
to detect, locate and evaluate fla w s , fractures and o th e r faults. W h ile the
evaluation is still a d iffic u lt area w h e re other NDT m ethods are n o rm a lly
225

Fig. 9 .1 6 . Im p u lse Rate as a fu n c tio n o f lo a d cycles for a fa tig u e test on a

n o tch e d specimen
used, the unique detection and localization capabilities of AE m o n ito rin g are
generally recognized.
M ethods and in stru m e n ta tio n developed fo r AE can also be used for other
applications. Faults in bearings, w h ich often cause expensive breakdow ns in
industry, re su lt in m echanical noise dependent on the type o f fa u lt and may
be detected on the outside of th e bearings and analysed as AE sig n a ls. Other
examples of related applications are loose p a rticle detection and leak testing.
A list of in d u stria l application areas is show n in Table 9.1.
Fabrication
D uration
Fabrication
W elding

Final te st
Pressure te s tin g of
vessels and pipelines

Heat tre a tm e n t
Hardening

C onstruction

Phase
transform ation

Bonding

Later Inspection
Proof testing

C ontinuous
m o n ito rin g

V essels and
p ip e lin e s

V essels and
p ip e lin e s

Bridges

B u ild in g s
b rid g e s

R otating
m a ch in e ry
M in e s

Table 9. 1. Some in d u s tria l application areas o f AE te ch n iq u e s

226

9 .9 .1 . Advantages and Limitations

Some of th e advantages and lim ita tio n s m en tio ne d are sum m arized and
listed in Tables 9 .2 and 9 .3 . On account of the lo w a ttenuation o f AE signals
in the 10 0 kHz range in m e ta llic s tru ctu re s, fla w s may be detected several
m eters from th e transducer. For concrete and m asonry stru c tu re s low fre
quencies should be used or higher a tte n u a tio n has to be accepted.
A coustic em ission is generated by releasing th e stored energy. T h is energy
has to be supplied, usually in the form of the n o rm a l w orking s tru c tu ra l loads
or by applying extra load as in proof te stin g .

Remote detection and location of fla w s .

Integral m ethod (The e n tire stru ctu re is covered).
The m easuring system can be set-up quickly.
High sensitivity.
Requires only lim ited accessibility to te st objects.
Detects active flaw s.
O nly re la tive ly low loads are required.
Can som etim es be used to forecast fa ilu re load.
Table 9 .2 . A dvantages

The stru ctu re has to be loaded.

AE a ctivity is highly dependent on m aterials.
Irrelevant electrical and m echanical noise can in te rfe re w ith m easure
ments.
Lim ited accuracy of localization.
Gives lim ite d info rm a tio n on the type of fla w .
Interpretation of results may be d iffic u lt.
Table 9 .3 . L im ita tio n s

9 .1 0 . E XA M P LES OF A PP LIC A TIO N

Some exam ples are given to indicate the a p p lica tio n of AE m easurem ents
and the in te rp re ta tio n of the results.

227

9 .1 0 .1 . Tensile Test on a Brass Specimen

A tensile test w as carried out on a brass specim en (Fig.9 .1 7 ). The cross
section w as 45 m m 2 and the alloy w a s M untz m etal (60% Cu and 4 0 % Z n ).
The recording (Fig.9.1 8) plots the o u tp u t from the peak level detector o f the
C onditioning A m p lifie r Type 2 6 3 8 and th e w eighted sum count fro m th e AE
Pulse Analyzer Type 4 4 2 9 . The applied force has been draw n on th e same
ch a rt.

F ig .9 .1 8 . Load, peak o u tp u t and "w e ig h te d su m " as a fu n c tio n o f tim e fo r a

brass specim en

2 28

In th e firs t run the te n sile force w a s raised from 0 to 1 1 kN and th e n re

leased. The yeild point w as expected to be reached at a force of about 6 ,5 kN
and th is is in fact very clearly c o n firm e d in the AE a c tiv ity charts. In the
"w e ig h te d sum c o u n t" plot the p e cu lia r stepwise rise characteristic of th is
m ateria l can be seen.
In th e second run th e load was raised fro m 0 until fra c tu re w hich occurred
at about 1 6 kN as com pared to an expected value of 1 7 k N . The specim en
w as q u ie t below the yield point. This phenom enon, th a t the acoustic e m is
sion, once taken out of the m aterial, is not repeated, is com m only know n as
the K aiser effect. Above the yield p o in t th e Kaiser e ffe ct no longer applies.
The level of acoustic em ission is again h igh after the yield point but m oderate
during th e plastic deform ation.

9 .1 0 .2 . Tensile Test on Carbon-Fibre Braid

A te n sile test on a specimen of c a rb o n -fib re braid of 2 x 10 mm cross se c
tio n w a s perform ed w ith the set-up s h o w n in Fig.9.1 9. Three recording c h a n
nels w e re used, one registering the load applied to the specimen and tw o re
giste ring the AE a ctivity. Fig.9 .2 0 s h o w s the plots obtained. It can be seen
th a t in th is particular example the w e ig h te d sum o u tp u t from the Pulse A n a l
yzer is easier to in te rp re t than the peak detector o u tp u t fro m the C onditioning
A m p lifie r.

F ig .9. T9. In stru m e n ta tio n set-up fo r a te n sile test on a specim en o f c a rb o n -fi

bre braid

229

F ig.9 .2 0 . Load, peak o utput a n d "w e ig h te d s u m " as a fu n c tio n o f tim e for

c a rb o n -fib re braid
The curves s h o w that w h ile th e tensile load is increased lin e a rly , AE activ
ity increases at an even "e x p o n e n tia l" rate w h ic h reflects the pattern as f i
bres break leaving fe w e r in ta ct fib re s to support an ever increasing load.

9 .1 0 .3 . Test on a Pressure Vessel

Part of th e in stru m e n ta tio n set-up used fo r location, as described in the
next example and shown in F ig .9 .2 2 , was used to m onitor a p roof test on a
pressure vessel. A single AE channel consisting o f a transducer and a condi
tioning a m p lifie r fed one ch a n n e l of the level recorder. A pressure transducer
connected to th e second level recorder ch annel m onitored the w a te r pressure
applied to th e vessel.
It was know n th a t the previous m axim um pressure applied to the vessel
w as 170 atm . The Kaiser e ffe ct is clearly dem onstrated in th e AE plot ob
tained (F ig .9 .2 1 ). S ignificant a c tiv ity is observed firs t when the applied pres
sure exceed 1 7 0 atm . Note th a t a logarithm ic am plitude scale is used w here

2 30

a linear scale w as used in the previous example. It can be seen th a t a c tiv ity
decreases w hen the pressure is kept con sta n t.

F ig .9 .2 1 . Pressure a n d A coustic E m issio n activity as a function o f tim e illu s

tra tin g the K aiser effect

Fig. 9 .2 2 . M easurem ent s e t-u p for lo ca liza tio n o f sources

231

9 .1 0 .4 . AE Source Location on a Pressure Vessel

The same vessel as used in th e previous exam ple was m o n ito re d by the
eight-channel system shown in F ig .9 .2 2 in an a tte m p t to locate fa u lts during
a proof test. C alculations on AE pulse arrival tim e s were ca rrie d out by a
desk top ca lcu la to r. The calculated AE 's o u rc e s '' are plotted on a folded out
plan of the tw o vessel ends in F ig .9 .2 3 . S ig n ific a n t AE activity w a s found in
the vicinity of a w e lded seam near transducer 5 (T5 ), this enabled fu rth e r e f
fo rts to be concentrated here.

Fig. 9 .2 3 . Locations o f the sources o f em issions on the two ends o f the pres
sure vessel I folded out)

9 .1 0 .5 . AE Source Location Using Tw o Measuring Channels

W hen a test specim en such as th a t shown in F ig .9 .2 4 is loaded, acoustic
em ission is ge nerated, both at th e loading points due to deform ation and fric-

232

tio n , and at the crack tip. To be able to distin g uish between the tw o sources
of acoustic em ission, a theoretical analysis was firs t carried out to determ ine
the relative tim e of arrival at th e transducers, fo r signals o rig in a tin g at any
part of the test piece.
F ig.9 .2 5 (a) show s th e o re tica lly calculated regions w ith diffe re n t band n u m
bers corresponding to the various tim e differences. For practical m easure
m ents a pencil lead w as broken at various locations on the specim en to gen
erate an a rtificia l source and th e tim e differences fo r the signals to arrive at
the tw o transducer positions w e re measured. The results are s h o w n in
F ig,9 .2 5 (b) and are found to be in good agreem ent w ith the th e o re tic a l val
ues. The in stru m e n ta tio n set-up s h o w n in Fig.9 .2 6 w as used to sto re and dis
play the tim e differences.
The te st piece w as then clam ped and loaded above the expected fracture
load. The acoustic em ission w as m easured and fo u n d to be m ostly in channel
num bers 1 3 as show n in Fig 9 .2 7 (a) confirm ing th a t the activity w a s gener
ated at the loading points. To ensure th a t no defo rm a tio n and fric tio n occurred
at the loading points w hen the cla m p w as rem oved, the specimen w a s loaded
once again above the expected fra c tu re load w ith th e clamp on. F ig .9 .2 7 (b)
show s again the acoustic em ission in channels 13 and some in ch a n n e l 9.
The clam p was n o w removed and th e test perform ed by applying a suitable
load. The acoustic em ission m easured is show n in Fig.9 .2 7 (c). It can be
seen th a t most of it lies in ch annel 0 indicating th a t the activity is generated
at the crack tip.

233

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 790456

Fig 9 .2 5 . Time d iffe re n c e s (band num bers) fo r th e s ig n a ls to arrive fro m the

regions s h o w n to the tw o transducer p o s itio n s
(a) Theoretical
(b) M e a su re d

234

Num ber
o f Signals

-100

D u rin g 1st Preload

-5 0

+ 13
Channel Number

-1 3
N um ber
I k o f Signals
-10

D u rin g 2 n<^ Preload

l.m

.........

+ 13
Channel Number

-1 3
Num ber
j ^ o f Signals
70
60

D urin g Test

50
40
30

20
-10
-1 3

+ 13
Channel Number

Fig.9 2 7 . A m p litu d e d is trib u tio n as a fu n c tio n o f band n u m b e rs (time d iffe r

ences) a) D u rin g firs t preload b) D u rin g second p re lo a d c) D u rin g
the actual test w ith dam p re m o v e d
235

9 .1 1 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A PH Y
ASTM:

A c o u s tic E m ission, ASTM STP 5 0 5 , 1 9 7 2 and

A STM STP 5 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 , A m erican Society for Testing
and M aterials

ASTY, M .:

A c o u s tic em ission source location on a spherical o r

p la n e surface. NDT In ternational, O ct. 1 9 7 8

BECHT, J .,
EISENBLTTER, J.
and JA X , P.:

W e rksto ffp r fu n g m it der Schallem issionsanalyse.

Z e its c h rift f r W e rksto ffte ch n ik 4 (1 9 7 3 ) N r.6

BOLIN, L.A .:

A bibliography on acoustic em ission. Report LITH-IKPR -4 4 , Linkping U n ive rsity, S w eden, 1 9 7 4

DROUILLARD, T.F.:

A c o u s tic E m ission, A B ibliography w ith Abstracts. IFI/P le n u m , New Y ork, 1 9 7 9

H A T A N O ,H .a n d
MORI, E.:

A c o u s tic em ission transducer and its absolute c a lib ra

tio n . J.A .S .A ., V ol. 5 9 , 2 (1 9 7 6 ), p.p. 3 4 4 -3 4 9

HILL, R., and

A D A M S , N.L.:

R e in te rp re ta tio n o f the R eciprocity Theorem fo r C a li

b ra tio n o f A c o u s tic E m ission Transducers O perating
on a Solid. A co u stica , V o l.4 3 , 5 (1 9 7 9 ), p . p . 3 0 5 312

KAISER, J.:

U ntersuchungen ber das A u ftre te n Geruschen

b e im Zugversuch. Ph.D. thesis, Technische H och
s chule, M nchen 1 9 5 0

NICHOLS, R .W ., (ed.):

A c o u s tic Em ission. A pplied S cience Publishers Ltd.

1976

SCHLEGEL, D.,
RUNOW P. and
FINK, W .:

S ch allem issionsanalyse w hrend d e r W asserdruck

p r fu n g . Bnder B leche Rohre 1 2 -1 9 7 8

SPANNER, J.C ., (ed.):

A c o u s tic E m ission: Techniques a n d A pplications. In

tex P ublishing C om pany 1 9 7 4

SPANNER, J.C . and

McELROY, J .W . (eds.):

M o n ito rin g S tru c tu ra l Integrity by A c o u s tic Em ission.

In te x Publishing Com pany 197 5

TOBIAS, A.:

A c o u stic-e m issio n source location in tw o dim ensions

b y an array o f th re e sensors. N on-D estructive T est
ing, Feb. 1 9 7 6 , p.p. 9 -1 2

VIKTOROV, I.A.:

R ayleigh and Lam b Waves, P hysical Theory and A p p li

cations. Plenum Press, New York 1 9 6 7

Proceedings:

J o u rn e s d'tudes de l'm ission acoustique. Proceed

ings from a m eeting in Lyon, M a rch 1 9 7 5 . Inst, des
S ciences A ppliques, V illeurbannes 1 9 7 5

236

10.

VIBRATION A N D SHOCK TESTING

1 0 .1 . V IB R A T IO N TES TIN G
One of the e arliest w orkers to use a system atic fo rm of vib ra tio n testing
w a s W ohler, w h o used special apparatus for his experim ents on th e fatigue
o f m etals over 1 0 0 years ago. H ow ever, most m odern vibration te s tin g te c h
n iques have been developed since th e start of W orld W a r II.
A t th a t tim e it w as im portant to develop parts and equipm ent capable of
w ith sta n d in g the service e n v iro n m e n t in aircraft. Problem s w ere e ncountered
not only w ith m echanical s tru ctu ra l fa ilu re , but also w ith sophisticated elec
tro n ic and electrom echanical in s tru m e n ta tio n and co n tro l systems, w h o se per
form ance and re lia b ility was se n sitive to the vib ra tio n encountered in service.
F urtherm ore, it w a s appreciated th a t theoretical pre d ictio n of the v ib ra tio n re
sponse of a piece of equipm ent in service could be e xtrem ely d iffic u lt.
The developm ent of such te st te ch n iq u e s has ta ke n place p rim a rily in the
aerospace in dustrie s, but vib ra tio n te stin g has a m uch w ider a p p lica tio n to
day in other areas such as the a u to m o b ile , c o n stru ctio n , electronics, m achineto o l, packaging and ship building in d u strie s. The m ost common uses are for:
1.
2.
3.

Production C ontrol
Frequency Response / D ynam ic Performance Testing
E nvironm ental Tests

The most com m on types of v ib ra tio n testing are:

1.
2.
3.

Sinusoidal Testing; fixed or sw e e p in g frequency

Random Testing; w ideband or n a rro w band ch aracteristics
Force Testing; using m echanical impedance or m obility concepts and
stru ctural response m easurem ents.

Electronic equipm e nt is used w id e ly fo r the gene ra tio n of vib ra tio n signals,

and fo r the provision of essential co n tro l fu n ctio n s. Fundamental fe a tu re s of
re lia b ility , sta b ility and re p ro d u cib ility are obtained, and electronic sa fe ty c ir
c u its can be b u ilt in to safeguard objects under te st and the test e q u ip m e n t it
237

se lf. F urtherm ore voltage analogues of frequency and vibration variables and
m echanical para m e te rs can be used readily to p rovide hard copies o f test re
su lts using a n c illa ry recorder or p lo tte r equipm ents.

1 0 .1 .1 . The Exciter
A ny vibration te s t system requires a device w h ic h can be activated to sub
je ct the test o bject to the m echanical m otion re q u ire d . This tra n sd u ce r is the
exciter. Useful o p e rating regions fo r the tw o p rin c ip a l exciter te ch n iq u e s are
show n in Fig.10.1 .

0,1

10

100

10 0 0

10000
Frequency Hz

267002/1

Fig. 10.1. U se fu l operating regions o f modern h y d ra u lic and electro-dynam ic

vib ra tio n m achines (after C.B. Booth)
For lo w -freq ue n cy testing, ty p ic a lly in the range 0 Hz to 2 0 Hz, w here a
large displacem ent stroke is required, the "e le c tro h y d ra u lic " vib ra to r is
w id e ly used. The use of an e le ctro n ic servo-control system a llo w s th e vibra
tio n signal to be derived and regulated easily, w h ils t the hydraulic drive sys
tem can be designed to give long stroke and high fo rc e capabilities.
For frequencies above 10 Hz, and to match com m on vibration te st specifica238

M ovin g table

Upper

790502

Fig. 10.2 . B asic co n stru ctio n o f an e lectrodynam ic exciter

tions, the electrodynam ic vibration exciter is in g e n e ra l use. Its basic con
structio n is show n in F ig .1 0 .2 . A m oving coil assem bly, w hich is connected
to th e w ork table, is positioned in a m agnetic field. The electronic co n tro l sys
tem provides the excitin g signal, w h ic h is am plified and fed to th e m oving
coil to excite the te st object m ounted on the w ork ta b le . For excitation forces
up to about 2 0 0 N, a perm anent m agnet may be used to provide th e m ag
netic fie ld, w h ils t fo r higher force requirem ents an ele ctro -m a g n e tic sta to r as
sem bly is desirable.
The w ork table o f any exciter should be rigid, such th a t all points move in
phase, and the m oving elem ent m u st be suspended so as to a llo w m otion
along one axis only.

1 0 .1 .2 . Characteristics of the Electrodynamic Exciter

To ensure un i-axia l tra n sla to ry m otion of the w o rk -ta b le , and to enable
high force ratings o r acceleration levels to be delivered to suit in d ivid u a l test
specifications, severe constraints are placed on the design of an excite r. Inevi
tably, the effect of m ass (moving assem bly), springs (flexures), and dam ping
gives every exciter its ow n fre q u e n cy response cha ra cte ristic. D iffe re n t re
gions of the response are dom inated by the stiffness o f the flexures, th e m ov
ing mass, and, at very high frequencies, the resonances of the m oving ele
m ent itself. These regions can be seen clearly from th e acceleration ch a ra c
te ristics measured on a typical exciter w hen the d rive cu rre n t to th e moving
coil is kept constant fo r a frequency sw eep (Fig. 1 0 .3 ).
M any power a m p lifie rs operate as constant voltage sources. The accelera
tio n response ch a ra cte ristic of a voltage-fed exciter depends on th e im ped
ance of the m oving coil w in d in g , and on the m echanical damping present in
the system . For a typical low -im pedance, w e ll-d a m p e d vibration exciter
239

Fre q u e n cy Hz

7g0s04

Fig. 10.3. Idealized acceleration ch aracteristics o f electrodynam ic vib ra tio n ex

cite r p lo tte d as a fu n c tio n o f frequency fo r constant drive c u rre n t
d rive n at constant voltage, th e suspension resonance is e lim in a te d ow ing to
th e damping e ffe c t introduced by th e low o utput im pedance of th e pow er am
p lifie r: the b a ck-e.m .f. generated in the moving c o il is s h o rt-c irc u ite d through
th e am plifier. B ack-e.m .f. is p ro p o rtion a l to ve lo c ity (e a d<p/dt), and therefore
th e m oving-elem ent ch a ra cte ristic in the fle xu re -co ntro lle d region w ill be ve
locity-lim ited and th e a cce le ra tio n -a g a in st-fre q u e n cy characteristic w ill show
a rising slope of 6 dB / octave in th is region (Fig. 1 0 .4 ).
Above the fle x u re resonance frequency, w h e re th e motion is m ass conB r iie l & K j r

Measuring O b je c t:_______________

B ru e l &

K j r

Recording N o.:------------------ S ig n .:------------------------------ D a te :---------------------------Potentiometer:-----------------------Zero Level:

Hz

10

20

Q P 1 1 4 3 Po< R w fla :--------- dB

50
R actjfia r.

100
DC

200

Lower Lim . Frag.:

500
_H i

1000

2000

W riting Speed

5000

10000

m m /ie c .

20000

Paper Soaeri:

50000

100000

m m /i* < 7 6 0 5 4 5 /t

Fig. 10.4. Exam ple o f the a cce le ra tio n ch a ra cte ristic o f a p ra c tic a l excite r re
corded as a fu n ctio n o f frequency fo r c o n s ta n t drive voltage
240

tro lle d , the acceleration level available a w ill be lim ite d by the rated fo rce of
th e exciter F (N), th e mass of the te s t object M (kg), and the mass of th e m ov
ing elem ent M e (kg), such that:
F

ms 2

(1 0 .1 )

M + Me
The nom inal force rating for a given exciter design w ill be d ependent on
th e m axim um c u rre n t capability o f th e m oving co il. T h is is seen fro m th e ba
sic relationship
F = [B L ]I

(1 0 .2 )

w h e re
F = force in N
B = m agnetic flu x d ensity in air gap in W b m 2
/ = c u rre n t in m oving coil in A
L = length of conductor in air gap in m
The product BL is called the "h e a d c o n s ta n t" as it is fixed for a given de
sign. It has fu rth e r significance in consideration o f the "d y n a m o " p e rfo r
m ance of the m oving coil, w h ich produces a back e .m .f. according to:
Eb

a c k

= [ B L ]

(1 0 .3 )

w h e re
~ back e m -f- across m oving coil in V
v = velocity of conductor in air gap in m s1

eB A C K

For a constant-voltage source it can be seen th a t th e flexure resonance w ill

be largely ve lo city-lim ite d , w h ils t an integration o f th e back-e.m .f. m ay be
used to provide an analogue of displacem ent for co n tro l purposes. T h is fe a
tu re may be included in more sophisticated exciter c o n tro l systems.
The ultim ate low -freq u e n cy p erform ance w ill be lim ite d by the physical d is
placem ent travel available for th e m oving elem ent. It is usual to in c lu d e me
chanical bump stops in th e design to a llo w occasional maximum tra v e l e xcu r
sions w ith o u t perm anent damage.
Since these constrain ts are fu n c tio n s of the m oving elem ent c o n s tru c tio n ,
additional v e rsa tility may be achieved by the p ro visio n of interchangeable
m oving elem ents. In th is w ay th e m oving mass / w o rk table / fle x u re charac
te ris tic s can be optim ised to s u it p a rticu la r re q u ire m e n ts for high accelera
tio n , large te st objects, long stroke, etc. by in te rch a n g in g exciter heads w h ils t
reta in in g the same basic body (F ig .1 0 .5 and 1 0 .6 ). G eneral-purpose vib ra tio n
exciters w ith fixed heads offer com prom ise sp e cifica tion s for perform ance par
am eters, based on th e ir force ratings.
241

Frequency

F ig .10.5. D iagra m o f the p e rfo rm a n ce lim its o f an exciter s h o w in g con

stra in ts im posed by displacem ent, ve lo city a n d acceleration bounda
ries

Fig. 10.6. E lectrodynam ic

heads
242

vibration

exciter

to g e th e r

w ith

interchangeable

1 0 .1 .3 . The Influences of the Rsonances on the Vibration Signal

D uring a vibration te st, the test o bject w ill be secured to the w o rk ta b le , or
to a lig h t-w e ig h t fix tu re w h ich its e lf is bolted to th e table. W hen a vib ra tio n

F re q u e n cy (Hz)
264479

Fig. 10.7. Example o f a recording o f the acceleration m easured at th e ta b le o f

an electrodynam ic exciter loaded by a test o b je ct having a s in g le de
gree o f freedom

20

50

100

2 00

500

100 0

200 0

5000

F re q u e n cy (Hz)
790 50 3

Fig. 10.8. Example o f a recording o f the acceleration m easured at th e ta b le o f

an electrodynam ic exciter loaded by a te st object and e xcite d w ith a
w id e-b and random sig n a l
243

signal is fed to th e exciter the e le ctrica l drive re q u ire d to m aintain a constant

vibration a m p litu d e w ill not be c o n sta n t, but w ill be a function of th e drive fre
quency. This e ffe ct arises because of the in te ra c tio n s between resonances in
the test specim en, and in the excite r itself. It can be dem onstrated by using a
sinusoidal signal of diffe re n t fre q u e n cie s (F ig .1 0 .7 ) or by using a w ide-band
random signal of u n ifo rm power spectral d e n sity (Fig. 10.8). In all fo rm s of v i
bration testing it is im portant to include some m ethod of e n su rin g th a t the
characteristics of th e test signal can be reproduced at the w ork ta b le .

1 0 .1 .4 . Sinusoidal Excitation
W hen it is re qu ire d to m aintain a constant v ib ra tio n level w ith a sinusoidal
drive signal, th e o u tp u t level fro m a vibration sensor mounted on the w ork
table may be used in a servo loop to control th e input level to th e exciter
(Fig. 1 0.9). In th is w a y the e ffe cts of the system resonances are regulated by
the control sensor, w h ils t behaviour of the te st objects is studied using a re
sponse accelerom eter connected th ro u g h a p re a m p lifie r to a m easuring a m p li
fie r or a graphic level recorder, or using a stroboscopic motion analyzer.
The circu it used to regulate th e excitation sig n a l is known as a com pressor,
and the servo-loop of w hich it fo rm s a part is k n o w n as a com pressor loop.

Fig. 10.9. Exam ple o f a se rvo -co n tro lle d sw e p t-fre q u e n c y test a rra n g em e n t
244

In such testin g, it is com m on to include an a u to m a tic fre q u e n cy sweep

fa c ility in the control oscillator. T hen th e regulation speed in the co n tro l loop
m ust be greater than the speed w ith w h ich resonances are b u ilt up, fo r any
selected frequency sweep rate.
The upper lim it to the re g ulation speed in an u n filte re d loop is set by its in
te ra ctio n w ith the vibration fre q u e n cy. A t low vib ra tio n frequencies th e com
pressor m ust not react so quickly th a t it attem pts to regulate the in s ta n ta n e
ous m otion of th e test object, since th is tendency d isto rts the e x cita tio n sin u s
oid.
The regulation speed should be adjustable to p e rm it optim ization of the au
to m a tic frequency sweep. A u to m a tic variation o f regulation speed w ith
excitation frequency is a useful fa c ility on a vibration te st in sta lla tio n .
Since some te st objects contain a variety of n o n -lin e a r e lem ents, control
and response signals may be s e rio u s ly distorted, even if the signal in p u t to
th e vibration exciter is a pure s in u s o id . To ensure correct re g u la tio n using
th e funda m en tal frequency, a tra c k in g band-pass filte r centred at th e excita
tio n frequency m ay be used to e n su re th a t the co rre ct control sig n a l reaches
th e control c irc u it (F ig.1 0 .1 0 ). T h is filte r should not be tuned too sharply, as

E xcite r C o ntrol
1047

Pow er A m p lifie r
2707

V ib ra tio n E xcite r
4 8 0 5 + Head
______________________ 780264/1

Fig. 1 0 .1 0 . Exam ple o f a se rv o -c o n tro lle d sw e p t-fre q u e n cy test arra n g em e n t

in w h ich the co n tro l a n d response signals are filte re d a t the excita
tion frequency
245

very selective filte rin g of the co n tro l signal reduces th e effective regulation
speed and the s ta b ility of the servo loop.
The most co n ve n ie n t vibration sensors for both co n tro l and response meas
urem ent are piezoelectric accelerom eters. This type of device generates an
e lectrical output signal proportional to instantaneous acceleration. If th is sig
nal (suitably am p lifie d by a c o n d ition in g a m p lifie r) is fed to the com pressor,
th e n it is the m ean acceleration level of the te st object w hich is kept con
sta n t. However, th e signal may, if required, be integrated w ith respect to
tim e , using an e le ctro n ic in te g ra to r. One stage of inte g ra tio n gives a signal
proportional to instantaneous velocity; a second gives a signal proportional to
instantaneous displacem ent. Thus th e incorporation o f one or tw o integrators
in th e com pressor loop perm its re g u la tio n of ve lo city or displacem ent respec
tive ly. If the effects o f m echanical or electrical noise cause the signal to be
n o n -lin e a r, filte rin g m ay be required.
It is som etim es required to cross-over from one required variable to
an o th e r as recom m ended in certain standardised vib ra tio n test program m es,
e.g. IEC 6 8 -2 -6 Test F. A uto m a tic fre q u e n cy-co n tro lle d cross-over sw itch in g
is then necessary (Fig. 10.1 1 ).

F re q ue ncy

V ib ra tio n
Program mers
Z H 0100

2626

I
I
1 ^ 1 ?

11 *

Fixture

C o n d itio n in g
A m p lifie r

1 "
'
E xcite r C ontrol 1047

Drive

I
?
*'

I
'
*

Signal
Pow er A m p lifie r
2707

V ib ra tio n E xcite r
4801 + Head

Fig. 1 0 .1 1 . Exam ple o f an arra n g em e n t fo r p ro g ra m m e d sw e p t-sin e w a ve te s t

ing
246

^Accelerometers
e.g. 4371

V ib ra tio n Programmers
Z H 0100

Pow er A m p lifie r 2708

EB: * :E3

C o n tro l
Signals

C o ntrol
Signal

Charge A m p lifiers
2651

E x c ite r C o n tro l
1047
2307

nm

Level Recorder
Records actual
test level

T w o Channel
Tracking Filte rs
5716
Control Signal Selector

______ ^ _________

*
Pow er
S u pp ly
2805

Fig. 1 0 .1 2 . Example o f a test a rra n g em e n t w ith p ro v is io n for up to s ix co n tro l

p o sitio n s (only fo u r are illu stra te d )

W hen large, com plex test specim ens are bolted to the w ork ta b le , control
from one point may not be s u ffic ie n t, ow ing to irre g u la r m otion in diffe re n t
parts of the test object. It is desirable in such cases to be able to select the
control point required, or to average over a nu m b e r of points, in order to
avoid over-testing (Fig.10.1 2).
W here it is required to perform vib ra tio n tests up to high fre q u e n cie s, and
a very low exciting-force is acceptable, it is in some situ a tio n s advantageous
to use a piezoelectric accelerom eter as an exciter (Fig. 1 0.1 3). This is feasible
because the accelerom eter is a passive device obeying the re cip ro city th e o
rem . The u n ifo rm ity of its fre q u e n cy response as a sensor can be exploited
w h e n it is used, in reverse, as an exciter, to achieve excitation w ith o u t a re-

24 7

2713
Pow er A m p lifier

Fig. 1 0 .1 3 . A rra n g e m e n t fo r h ig h -fre q u e n c y response-m easurem ent o f gra m o

phone ca rtrid g e s using a piezoelectric accelerom eter as a vibra
tion e xcite r
g u la tio n loop. The vib ra tio n level can be predicted fro m the values o f applied
voltage, accelerom eter capacitance, and mass.

1 0 .1 .5 . Random Vibration Testing

S om etim es com ponents or sub-assem blies e x h ib it fa ilu re m echanism s
w h ic h can be in itia te d by random v ib ra tio n but not by sinusoidal vib ra tio n o w
ing to nonlinear in te ra c tio n betw een d iffe re n t fre q u e n cy com ponents.
W ideband random testing is th e re fo re w id e ly used. The drive signal has
chara cte ristics w h ic h approxim ate clo se r to the s ta tis tic a l ch a ra cte ristics of
com m on vibration environm ents in service than does a pure sine signal: all
specim en resonances are excited sim u lta n e o u sly, so th a t im p o rta n t in te ra c
tio n effects are accounted for.
V ibrations occurrin g in service, in an a ircra ft w in g m em ber or in a car stubaxle fo r example, have pow er spectra w hose characters d iffe r w id e ly. The de
v elop m en t of a re a lis tic test sp e cifica tion can be e xtre m e ly d iffic u lt. A com
m on approach is to co lle ct e n viro n m e n ta l data by recording and a nalysis, and
to derive "e n ve lo p e lim its to specify th e vibration te s t spectrum (F ig.1 0 .1 4 ).

248

1000

90% C o n fid e n ce levels

80%

100
O'
0

4 A
I <
o$

A
.
*
0 0

* a<*
A*

10

oI

J ___ I___ I__L

100

1,0 k
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 1 0 .1 4 . Exam ple o f the d e riv a tio n o f vib ra tio n test level specifications
from e n viro n m e n ta l data
W hen a random type of in p u t signal is applied to a vibration te s t system,
th e effect of system resonances can be avoided by using a su ita b le spectrum
shaper, consisting of a bank of p a ra lle l band-pass filte rs w ith in d iv id u a lly ad
ju stable atte n u a tio n (Fig. 1 0 .1 5 ). A real-tim e fre q u e n cy analyzer can be used
to compare the re su ltin g e xcita tio n spectrum w ith th e desired e x c ita tio n spec
tru m , and the atte nuato rs of th e spectrum shaper can be adjusted to achieve
th e spectrum desired. The same arrangem ent can be used to "lin e a riz e " the
response of the exciter system , using a random noise source as a reference,
w h ic h is replaced subsequently by a tape recorder to reproduce th e measured
e nvironm ent at th e w o rk table.
This system has the disadvantage th a t it is passive and provides no control
or regulation of th e test w h ils t it is in progress. Broad-band e q u a lize r / anal
yzer systems w h ic h include com pressor loops fo r many n a rro w band fre
quency com ponents have been m anufactured using analogue e le ctro n ics, but
th e y tend to be com plex and bu lky ow ing to th e large num ber o f electronic
com ponents used. C urrent g e n e ra tio n systems m ake extensive use of digital
techniques, w h e re com parison o f th e measured sig n a l w ith the d e sire d signal
a llow s the required signal to be synthesized.
A vibration testing technique w h ic h eases the problem s associated w ith the
249

P iezoelectric
A cccle ro m e te r 4 3 7 0

C o n d itio n in g
Pream plifier 2 6 3 5

D ig ital F re q ue ncy
A n a ly z e r 21 31

Fig. 10.15. Exam ple o f an a rra n g e m e n t for w id e -b a n d random te s tin g

P iezoelectric

P ie zo e le ctric
A cce lero m e te r
4370

V ib ra tio n Meter
2511

Frequency
synchro nization

X -Y R e co rd e r
2308

Fig. 1 0 .1 6 . Example o f an a rra n g em e n t fo r n a rro w -b a n d random te s tin g using

autom atic fre q u e n cy-b a n d sw eeping
250

generation and co n tro l of w ide band random test s ig n a l, w h ils t re ta in in g the

statistical character of a random signal, is sw eep random vib ra tio n testing
(F ig .1 0.1 6). The n a rro w band n a tu re of the signal m eans that the sam e regu
lation and program m ing fa c ilitie s can be used fo r th e sweep sine w a v e test.
Sweep random te st specifications can be w ritte n as fo r sweep sine tests, di
rectly from the m easured or estim a te d vibration e n v iro n m e n t.

1 0 .1 .6 . Force Testing and S tructural Response

For certain types of vibration te s t a force tra n s d u ce r may be m o u n te d be
tw e e n the w o rkta b le and the te s t object. By com parison of the re s u ltin g vibra
tio n w ith the force input, th e "resistance to be set in m o tio n " or the
"w illin g n e s s to be set in m o tio n " o f the test object can be investigated. When
used to relate vib ra to ry m otion at a point to its e x c itin g force, th e se parame
ters are called p o in t m echanical im pedance and p o in t m echanical m o b ility re
spectively (Fig.1 0.1 7). These concepts can give an in s ig h t into th e equivalent
m echanical system of a com plex stru ctu re , th u s being useful in m ode stud
ies, determ ination of dynam ic properties, and e va lu a tio n of com pliance. The
expressions can be w ritte n :

and

Z = i/

(M echanical Im pedance)

(10 4)

(M echanical M o b ility )

(10.5)

w h e re F is the com plex force vector, and i/ the com plex velocity vector. Fur
th e r definition s apply to tra n s fe r m obility, w hen th e response is m easured at
a different point to th e applied fo rce .

Point Impedance

----- !----- /

Transfer Im pedance

-----

0
800374/1

Fig. 10.1 7. The concepts o f p o in t and transfer im pedance and m o b ility

M echanical im pedance ideas g re w from lum ped-param eter concepts as
used for e lectrical circu its. It w a s required to try to model the beh a vio u r of a
structure in te rm s of discrete m echanical e le m e n ts. For sim ple mechanical
elem ents excited at a fixed e xcita tio n frequency such th a t F = F0 e l u t and ve
locity v = v0 eJw l, th e equation of m otion for a m ass is governed by:
F = ma = jw m v
251

since a - jt j v for vib ra tio n at fixed frequency co.

Thus m echanical im pedance:
Zm = j w m

(10.6)

= - 1

(10.7)

and m echanical m o b ility

/ tom

'

S im ila rly for a spring elem ent of s tiffn e s s k.

F = kd = ~ v
JO)
since v = jcod fo r vib ra tio n of fixed frequency co.
Thus m echanical im pedance

and m echanical m o b ility

M m = J^
k

(10.9)

w he re :
a = a0e i (Ot
v =
d =
m =
k =

- a cce le ra tio n

v0e iwt - v e lo c ity

d0e IU)t - d isp la ce m e n t
mass (kg)
sp rin g co n sta n t ( N /m )

For a dam per elem ent o f dam ping c (N s /m ),

F - cv
Thus m echanical im pedance
Zc = c

(1 0 .1 0 )

Mc=

(1 0 .1 1 )

and m echanical m o b ility

Furtherm ore, m echanical im pedances and m o b ilitie s can be represented

ve cto ria lly in the com plex plane (Fig. 1 0 .1 8 ). Note th a t o ther param eters such
as apparent mass and dynam ic s tiffn e s s may be d e fin e d w hen force is m ea
sured relative to acceleration orto displacem ent respectively. The e q u ivale n t
m o b ility term s
w o u ld
bein e rta n c e ,
and com pliance or
receptance
252

(+)

(+) +j

+i

i^
1I 1 k

i kjwm
X

<
>
_c

1/c

Real Axis (+)

<
>
c
05
E

c
Real Axis (+)

_k_ _ jk
' 1jcj
(jJ

jtom cjm

(-)

(-) -j

-j

(a)

271634

Fig. 1 0 .1 8 . Vector rep resentation o f m e c h a n ic a l im pedance and m o b ility:

(a) M o b ility
(b) Im pedance
(Fig .1 0 .1 9 ). The use of velocity as th e m otion p a ra m e te r gives resonance
peaks w h ic h occur close to the undamped natural fre q u e n c ie s , and u su a lly re
quires less dynam ic range from the m e a su rin g e q u ipm e n t used than th e use
of acceleration or displacem ent.
For practical force and structural response testing, a vib ra tio n exciter drives

(a)

(b)

790500

Fig. 1 0 .1 9 . Frequency dependence o f lu m p e d impedance a n d m obility p a ra m e

ters
(a) M o b ility
(b) Im pedance
253

Charge
Am plifier 2651
Force
Input
Acc. Input
w

Charge
Amp.
2651

O u tp u t
Mass
Compensation
Unit
5565

Measuring
Amplifier
2609

Velocity
Output

FI

J ii

Power Supply
2805
Compressor
Input

Measurinq Am plifier
2609

Frequency synchronization
| Sine Generator
1023

Power Am plifier
2706

m
Level Recorder
2307

Fig. 1 0 .2 0 .

F ig . 1 0 . 2 1 .

Example o f a rra n g e m e n t fo r m a k in g autom atic g ra p h ic record

ings o f point m e c h a n ic a l im pedance as functions o f frequency

P o i n t i m p e d a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s o n t h e c u t t in g t o o l o f a la t h e :
(a) T o o l in n o r m a l p o s i t io n

254

(b) T o o l in o u t e r p o s i t i o n

the object through an im pedance head (F ig.6 .24). This device incorporates
tw o sensors, one d e live rin g a signal p ro portion to the fo rce being applied to
the test object, and th e second m easuring the m otion o f th e point at w h ic h
the force is being applied. W here larger forces are re q u ire d to be tra n sm itte d
it is best to separate th e fu n ctio n s by using separate fo rce and m otion s e n
sors. S ince the m otion tra n sd u ce r is u s u a lly an accelerom eter, th e signal o u t
put m ust be integrated e le c tric a lly to produce a velocity s ig n a l.
For m echanical im pedance m easurem ents the velocity level of the m e a su r
ing point is kept co n sta n t, w hereby a recording of th e fo rce level indicates
the m odulus of the im pedance a s |Z | = | f i | / | v | (Fig. 1 0 .2 0 ). This representa
tion is p a rticu la rly u sefu l w h e re properties of sub-system s m ust be com bined
to give the impedance m a trix of a com plete system. F ig .10.2 1 shows a ty p i
cal application of m echanical impedance m easurem ent.
S im ila rly, to m easure th e m obility, th e driving force sh o u ld be kept c o n
stant and the velocity level recorded as \ M \ = \ v \ / \ F \ . This representation is
pa rticu la rly useful w h e n m odal param eters of a system are to be found.
The phase difference betw een force and velocity sig n a ls can be m easured
by m eans of a phase m e te r. W here sig n a l harm onics or extraneous noise in
terfere w ith m easurem ents, tracking filte rs can be used (F ig .1 0 .2 2 ).

A = Response signal
B = Fo rce co n tro l signal

A cce lero m e te r
4370
Force
\
J
Transducer

A d d itio n a l
measuring
Accelerom eter
p osition s

Charge
A m p lifie r
2635

m
T w o C hann el
T racking F ilte r
57 16

: < frs |

'

m
i

F ig . 1 0 .2 2 .

- -

Response
Signal

Phase Meter
2971

Force
C o n tro l
Signal

Pow er
A m p lifie r
2708

V oltm e te r
2425

Frequency
tracking
signal

E x c ite r C o n tro l
1047

E x a m p le

Phase difference
L B - A
G raphic
Level Recorder
2307

<?

##

o f a rra n g e m e n t

f o r m a k in g m o b i l i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s o n

t h e r u d d e r o f a s h ip

255

10.2. SHOCK TESTING

Shock te stin g of e q u ipm e n t is a method o f q u a lifica tio n te s tin g to ensure
th a t delicate equipm ent w ill operate sa tis fa c to rily in the p ra ctica l shock e n v ir
onm ent. A ll equipm ent experiences some kind of shock d u rin g handling or
tra nspo rta tion , w h ils t e q u ip m e n t mounted in vehicles may be exposed to a
w ide variety o f shock c o n d itio n s in service.

1 0 .2 .1 . Laboratory Testing
In general, it is im practicable to reproduce th e actual shock e n vironm ent in
a test It is better to ensure th a t the effects of the test shock upon the tested
equipm ent are sim ila r to th o se of the shock(s) occurring in p ra ctice , and to e n
sure that these shock e ffe cts are com pletely reproducible. The latter is of
prim e im portance w hen com parisons are m ade betw een te s t re su lts obtained
at diffe rent in s titu tio n s , or w h e n different product designs are evaluated.
One m ethod of specifying a
eration of th e shock pulse as
27), together w ith a llo w a b le
change produced by the pulse

Fig. 10.23.
256

shock test is to define the in sta n ta n e o u s accel

a function of tim e (IEC R ecom m endation 6 8 -2 tolerances on pulse shape and total velocity
(Fig. 10.23).

IEC p re fe rre d pulse fo rm s fo r shock te s tin g

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2 7 1 5 3 5

Fig. 1 0 .2 4 .

Example o f a shock p u ls e upon w hich a ce rta in am ount o f ripple

is superim posed

Tolerances a llo w fo r the fact th a t a certain ripple (caused by resonance e f

fects in th e shock m achine and te s t fix tu re ) is often superim posed upon the
te st pulse in practice (Fig.1 0 .2 4 ). The extra damage potential m ig h t in v a li
date th e te st results, if it w ere s ig n ific a n t.
A n alte rna tive m ethod of testing is to specify th e type or m a n u fa ctu re of
test m achine to be used. The s im p le s t design is th e drop-test m a ch in e ,
w h e re a test specim en is bolted on to a carriage and dropped from a certain
h e ig h t (Fig.1 0 .2 5 ). The shape of th e shock pulse is determ ined p rim a rily by
th e m aterial and shape of the im p a ctin g surfaces. Shock pulses up to
8 0 0 km s2 have been obtained in th is w ay. Further types of test m a ch in e u t
ilize hydraulic or pneum atic p rin cip le s, and do not depend upon th e a ctio n of

169094

Fig. 1 0 .2 5 .

C o n stru ctio n o f a d ro p -te st m achine

257

2 6 90 66

Fig. 70 .2 6 .

C onstruction o f a p n e u m a tic shock-test m a ch in e

gravity (Fig. 1 0 .2 6 ). Operation o f such m achines can be a u tom ated, and a

brake can be actuated im m ediately after the im p a ct so that rebounding of the
carriage, and consequent d isto rtio n o f the shock p u lse , does not o ccu r.
W hen a shock te st is specified, th e m ounting m ethod to be used, the m axi
m um allow able transverse m otion (< 30% of th e nom inal peak value), and
th e num ber of te s t shocks to be applied in each direction of th re e m utually
perpendicular axes are norm ally stipulated. F u rth e rm o re , the phase character
istics of the m easu rin g and m o n ito rin g e quipm ent m u st be u n ifo rm over a re l
ative ly w ide freq ue n cy range to ensure the co rre ct frequency re la tio n sh ip be
tw e e n the various frequency com ponents of the m easured pulse (Fig. 1 0 .27).
O w ing to th e response of ce rta in system s, a specified overall shock spec
tru m could be produced by a v a rie ty of shock pulse shapes. T here is no
un iq ue tim e fu n c tio n associated w ith a specific shock spectrum . Damage due
to accum ulation of stress cycles (m echanical fa tig u e ) may th e re fo re d iffe r be
tw e e n the tests, w h ils t peak a cceleration levels and peak stress levels w ill us258

25 kH z
Fre q u e n cy
271534

Fig. 1 0 .2 7 .

Frequency characteristics re q u ire d from sh o ck m easurem ent s y s

tem s (I.E.C.)

F ig .1 0 .2 8 .

A rra n g e m e n t o f e q u ip m e n t fo r a th ird -o cta ve shock-spectrum

synthesis system

ually be sim ila r. As a shock test is devised to test th e resistance o f e q u ip

m ent against sho rt-d u ra tio n peak stre sse s, th is a llo w s fo r the p o s s ib ility of
specifying the test in te rm s of its shock spectrum ra th e r than acceleration-versu s-tim e characteristic. F urtherm ore, m any shock-induced motions observed
in service have w aveform s w hich are p redom inantly o scilla to ry in ch a ra cte r.
259

In practice, a shock-testing arrangem ent can be realised using an electrody

nam ic vib ra tio n exciter connected to sp e cia lly-ta ilo re d e le ctro n ic excitation
sources (Fig. 1 0 .2 8 ). Typically, a short d u ra tio n impulse, or " u n it impulse,
from a pulse generator, excites a bank of p a ra lle l filte rs (e.g. 1/3 -o c ta v e set).
The tim e fu n c tio n of the sum m ed output fro m th e filte rs is te rm e d a synthes
ized shock.
If the response of the object to th is synthesized shock is analyzed, it is
found th a t th e peak response is roughly five tim e s larger than th e peak of the
exciting tra n s ie n t (Fig. 1 0 .2 9 ). A ctu a lly, to produce a specified shock re
sponse in a specim en, a considerably lo w e r in p u t force is required than
w he n using a conventional te s t m achine. T his occurs because th e specimen
is subjected to an oscillating tra n s ie n t, rather th a n to a single im p u lse .
Often th e bandw idth of 1/3 -o c ta v e filte rs is too w ide to equalize n a rro w
band test specim en resonances, w h ils t m anual adjustm ent o f m u ltip le filte rs
can be p ro h ib itive ly tim e c o n su m in g . Testing has also been c a rrie d out using
autom atic n a rro w band test system s, but th e se are considerably more com-

Fig. 10.29 .

260

Time fu n ctio n o f a third-octave syn th e size d shock

(a) O verall vibration table m o tio n (su m m e d output fro m the thirdoctave filte r bank o f Fig. 10.2 8 )
(b) Shock spectrum analyzer (n a rro w band) output o f the signal
sh o w n in (a)

plex in operation. A s in the case o f broad band v ib ra tio n test system s, anal
ogue signal generators have la rg e ly been superseded by digital system s in
th is field.
O scillatory shock m otio n s, such as those described above, are o fte n term ed
com plex shocks. W h ile the p o ssib ility of producing a large variety o f complex
shocks is offered by a shock syn th e sis system, som e "s im p le r m achines do
exist w h ich produce specific com plex shocks. These are in general designed
according to the p e n dulum p rin cip le (F ig .1 0.30).

Fig. 1 0 .3 0 .

Shock te s tin g by m eans o f a p e n d u lu m -typ e shock m a ch in e

(a) C o nstructio n o f th e m achine
(b) Typical trace o f a cceleration versus tim e produced by th e m a
chine

1 0 .2 .2 . Service Testing
The transport m edium or packaging method has to be specified fo r a piece
of vulnerable e qu ipm en t, so th a t it w ill not be dam aged by shocks occurring
d u rin g shipping or h a n dlin g . This s itu a tio n m ight a rise in the d e live ry of con
signm ents of delicate products su ch as fila m e n t devices, as w e ll as fo r the
261

tra n sp o rt of high capital cost e q u ip m e n t such as la rg e electrical tra n sfo rm e rs

or tu rb in e assem blies produced to fin e tolerances. A lte rn a tive ly, it m ay be ne
cessary to m o nito r th e shocks induced in the e q u ip m e n t at sp ecific handling
p oin ts (e.g. dock loading) or by sp e cific transport m edia (e.g. belts and convey
ors).
In these cases a special m e a su rin g u n it can be used to m easure th e maxi
m um shock values occurring in service. Typical m echanical devices are sim
ple, and usually w o rk on an in e rtia principle; th e y are made up o f an assem
bly of a mass and springs or m ass and magnet (Fig .1 0 .3 1 ). H ow ever, they
s u ffe r the m ajor disadvantages th a t th e y are sin g le -e ve n t devices in general,
and that th e ir th re s h o ld levels o f operation tend to e x h ib it considerable to le r
ance spread. Once th e y are trip p e d , subsequent shock inform ation is lost: fu r
the rm o re the m axim u m value of shock experienced and the tim e a t w h ic h it
occurred is u n kn o w n . The usual p rin cip le is th a t th e mass is dislodged w hen
th e threshold level is exceeded.
The
shock
w h ic h
bum p
axes)

use of an e le ctro n ic m e a su rin g device, activated only w h e n a threshold

level is exceeded, enables th e inform ation concerning th e tim e at
shocks occu r and th e ir m axim um values to be retained. In a typical
recorder, th e sensor (w h ic h may be se n sitive to shocks in all three
is m ounted on the e q u ipm e n t under test (Fig. 1 0 .3 2 ), or else th e whole

790779

Fig. 1 0 .3 1 .

262

Typical m echanical s h o c k -trip device

Fig. 1 0 .3 2 .

Exam ple o f application o f an electronic B u m p Recorder

assem bly may be packaged together. The recorder may m o n ito r the progress
of the cargo over several w eeks, p rin tin g o u t on an in te g ra l p rin te r the tim e
and shock value on each occasion the preset threshold level is exceeded
(Fig.1 0 .3 3 ). The inclusion of an integrator in the device enables the shock v e
locity values to be obtained fo r use in th o se cases w h e re th e consignm ent is
pa rticu la rly sensitive to im pact velocity. A m uch more precise assessm ent of
the m axim um shocks o ccu rrin g in service and th e ir tim e of occurrence can
thus be obtained using an apparatus of th is kind.

D< V
y

V e loc ty (m/s)

H o ur
M inute
I

Acceleration (m /s2 )
|

7 6 0 6 1 4 /1

Fig. 1 0 .3 3 .

Typical p rin t out o b tained fro m B & K 2 5 0 3 B um p Recorder

263

1 0 .3 . S ELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y
ANDERSON, D.:

"M u lti-P o in t E xcita tio n

E ngineering, Dec. 1971

BOOTH, G.B. and

BROCH, J.T.:

" A n a lo g E xperim ents Compare Im p ro ve d Sweep R a n

d om Tests and W ide B and R andom a n d Sweep S ine
Tests. Shock and V ib r. Bull. 3 4 , N o .5, and Bruel &
K j r Tech. Rev. N o .3-1 9 6 5

BOOTH, G.B.:

"Inte rch a n g e a b le H ead V ibration Exciters.

K j r Tech. Rev. N o .2-1 971

BROCH, J.T.:

"A u to m a tic Level R egulation o f V ibration E xciters".

B ruel & Kjr Tech. Rev. No. 2-1 9 5 8

BROCH, J.T.:

"V ib ra tio n Exciter C haracteristics.

Tech. Rev. No.3-1 9 6 0

BROCH, J.T.:

"A n Introduction to S weep R andom V ibration". Bruel

& K j r Tech. Rev. No. 2-1 9 6 4

BROCH, J.T.:

"S o m e Aspects o f S weep R andom

S o und V ibr. Vol. 3, N o .2, 1 9 6 6

BROCH, J.T.:

S om e E xperim ental Tests w ith S w eep Random Vibra

t io n . " Bruel & Kj r Tech. Rev. No. 2 -1 9 6 6

BROCH, J.T.:

"V ib ra tio n Testing The Reasons a n d the M e a n s".

B ruel & Kjr Tech. Rev. N o.3-1 9 6 7

BROCH, J.T.:

"S o m e Aspects o f Vibration Testing. Proc. of A nglo

D utch Symposium on E nvironm ental Engineering.
D e lft, A p ril 1 9 7 0

BROOKS, G .W . and
CARDEN, H.D.:

"A V ersatile Drop Test Procedure fo r the S im ulation

o f Im p a ct E n viro n m e n ts". Noise C o n tro l, V o l.7 No 51961

T e ch n iq u e s". E nvironm ental

Bruel

Bruel &

&

Kj r

V ibration".

J.

CRANDALL, S.H. et al. : "R a n d o m V ibration". Jo h n W iley and Sons, Inc. New
York 1 9 5 9
CRANDALL, S.H. et al.

"R a n d o m
Vibration
M ass. 1 9 6 3

CREDE, C.E. and

LUNNEY, E.J.:

"E s ta b lis h m e n t o f V ibration and S hock Tests for M is

s ile E lectronics as D e riv e d from th e M e a su re d E n vir
o n m e n t". WADC Tech. Report No. 5 6 -5 0 3 . ASTIA
Doc. No. 1 183. 1 9 5 6

DAS, B.M.:

"N o n -D e stru ctive P avem ent E v a lu a tio n ". Civil and En

viro n m e n ta l E ngineering D evelopm ent O ffice. March
1978

264

II".

MIT

Press,

Cambridge,

DAVIS, A.G . and

DUNN, C.S.:

"From Theory to Field E xperience w ith the N on-D es

tructive Testing o f P iles". Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs.
Part 2, 5 7 , Dec. 1 9 7 4 , pp. 5 7 1 -5 7 3

EWINS, D.J.:

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"E ffects o f Im pact on sim p le E lastic S tru c tu re s ". Pro

ceedings o f th e SESA, V o l.6 , N o .2-1 9 4 9

IEC:

"B asic E n viro n m e n ta l T esting Procedures fo r Elec

tronic Com ponents and E le c tro n ic E q u ip m e n t". Rec
om m endation Publication 6 8 2 27. Test Ea: Shock

IEC:

"B asic E n viro n m e n ta l Testing Procedures fo r Elec

tro n ic C om ponents and E le c tro n ic E q u ip m e n t". Rec
om m endation Publication 6 8 2 27 Eb: B um p

IEC:

"V ib ra tio n Test for E lectronic Equipm ents a n d Compo

n e n ts ". R ecom m endation P ublication 6 8 -2 - 6 . Test F:
V ibration

ISO DRAFT
INTERNATIONAL
STANDARD 5 3 4 4 :

"E le ctro d yn a m ic Test E q u ip m e n t fo r G e n e ra tin g Vi

bration M ethods o f D e s c rib in g E quipm ent Charac
te ris tic s "

JACOBSEN, L.S. and

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S tructural Dynamics, C o n tra ct N6 0R I 1 5 4 , Task
1, S tanford U niversity, 1 9 5 2

JACOBSEN, L.S. and

AYRE, R.S.:

" E n g in e e rin g V ib ra tio n s".

pany, Inc. 1 9 5 8

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"Shock R esponse Spectrum S ynthesis a n d A n a ly s is ".

Proc. of th e Inst, of E n vironm ental Sciences 1 9 6 7

KEEFFE, R E. and
BATHKE, E.A.:

"Shock P u lse Shaping U sing Drop Test Techniques".

Shock and V ib r. Bull. N o.41 . Part 5. 1 9 7 0

KITTELSEN, K.E.:

"M e a s u re m e n t and D e s c rip tio n o f S hock". Brel &

Kjr Tech. Rev. No.3-1 9 6 6

LEVENSON, M. and
SUSSHOLZ, B.:

"The Response o f a S ystem w ith a S ingle Degree o f

Freedom to a Blast L o a d ". T aylor Model B asin Report
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M ASSO UD, M . and

PASTOREL, H.:

"Im pedance M ethods fo r M a c h in e A n a ly s is ", Shock

and V ib ra tio n Digest, Sept. 1 9 7 8

M cG r a t h , m b .:

"A D iscu ssio n o f P yrotechnic Shock C rite ria ". Shock

and V ibr. B u ll. No.41. Part 5 . 1 9 7 0

M cG ra w -H ill

Book Com

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METZGAR, K.J.:

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a nd S y n th e s is ". Proc. o f th e Inst, of E nvironm ental
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MONROE, J.:

"A P roblem o f S in u so id a l vs. Random

Proc. Inst. Env. Sci. A p ril 196 1

MORROW, C.T. and

MUCHMORE, R.B.:

"S h o rtc o m in g s o f Present M e th o d s o f M e a s u rin g and

S im u la tin g Vibration E n v iro n m e n ts ". J. A p p l. Mech.
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MORROW, C.T. and

SARGEANT, H I.:

" S a w to o th Shock as a C om ponent Test". J.A .S .A .

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MORROW, C.T.:

"The S hock S pectrum as a C riterion o f S e ve rity of

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MORROW, C.T.:

" Shock a n d Vibration E n g in e e rin g ". Jo h n W ile y and

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"A p p lic a tio n o f the M e c h a n ic a l Im pedance Concept

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M 0LLER
PETERSEN, P.E.:

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"A N a rro w B a n d V ibration

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PIERSOL, A.G..

G eneration o f Vibration Test S p e c ific a tio n s ". M eas

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PIERSOL, A.G.:

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N o.6. 1 9 5 8

266

V ibration".

V ibration".

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V o l.4

SPANG, K.:

"The A dvantages o f U sing In itia l S aw tooth Pulse

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STAHLE, C.V.:

"Phase S e paration Technique fo r Ground V ibration

Testing". A erospace E ngineering. J u ly 196 2

S0RENSEN, O B.:

"H ig h F requency Testing o f G ram ophone C artridges

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TROTTER, W .D.:

"A n E xp e rim e n ta l Evaluation o f S inusoidal S u b s ti

tu te s for R andom V ibration". Shock and V ib r. Bull.
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TRULL, R.V.:

"S w e e p S peed Effects in R e so n an t System s". Shock

and Vibr. B u ll.41 . Part 2. 1 9 7 0

VIGNESS, I.:

" Some C haracteristics o f N avy "H ig h Im p a c t" Type

Shock M a c h in e s ". Proceedings of the SESA, V o l.5,
N o .1 , 1 9 4 7

VIGNESS, I.:

"N avy H ig h -lm p a ct Shock M a c h in e s for L ig h tw e ig h t

a n d M e d iu m w e ig h t E q u ip m e n t". NRL Report 5 6 1 8 .
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. Ju n e 1961

WITTE, A.F.:

"S p ecifica tio n o f Sine V ibration Test Levels U sin g a

F orce-acceleration Product T e c h n iq u e ". Shock and
V ibr. Bull. 41 . Part 2. 1 9 7 0

WITTE, A.F.:

"D u a l S p e cifica tio n s in R andom Vibration Testing, an

A p p lica tio n o f M echanical Im pedance". Shock and
V ibr. Bull. 4 1 . Part 2. 1 9 7 0

267

11.

BALANCING OF ROTATING MACHINES

1 1 .1 . IN T R O D U C T IO N
Unbalance in ro ta tin g m a ch in e ry has become an increasingly im p o rta n t fac
to r in the developm ent of m odern equipm ent especially w here th e needs for
speed a n d /o r re lia b ility are h ig h . Techniques fo r balancing su ch equipm ent
have advanced s ig n ifica n tly in recent years, e n a bling both p ro d u ctio n and
fie ld balancing to be executed system atically and w ith a m in im u m o f fuss and
experim entation. Balancing o f m achines is im p o rta n t to prevent fa tig u e fa i
lure in associated structures, to prevent excessive loading of su p p o rt bear
ings, to prevent transm ission o f excessive e xte rn a l noise and v ib ra tio n , and
to improve the d u ra b ility and u se fu ln e ss of the m achines in service.

1 1 .2 . U N B A L A N C E OF R IG ID R O TO R S
The sim plest case of unbalance can be considered for a u n ifo rm th in disc

Fig. 11.1. Illu s tra tio n o f th e three d iffe re n t kin d s o f unbalance

268

of mass M (kg), ro ta tio n a lly sym m etrical about its axis o f rotation. W hen a
small m ass m (g) is fix e d to the disc at a distance r (m m) fro m that axis, th e
disc is said to be in a s ta te of "u n b a la n c e . This type of unbalance can be d e
tected by supporting th e axle on a p a ir of knife edges to fin d the "h e a vy
spot": fo r th is reason it is often called static (or sin g le -p la n e ) unbalance
F ig .1 1 .1(a)). The c e n trifu g a l force F generated by the uncom pensated mass,
w hen the disc rotates a speed
(ra d /s), is given by

10

F = mra>2*

H 1-1)

This force is equivalent to th e force generated by a sm all ecce n tricity e of th e

centre of mass of the d isc fro m the axis o f rotation:
F = M ew 2

(1 1 .2 )

The unbalance of the disc , or rotor, is d e fin e d as u g-m m , w h e re :

u = mr

(1 1 3 )

It is also possible to e lim in a te F betw een (1 1.1) and (1 1 .2) to see that the e c
centricity term e in m a ls o represents th e specific unbalance
of the rotor in
g -m m /kg :

The term fo r specific unb a la n ce is p a rtic u la rly useful fo r reference and c o m

parison purposes, as th e effects of unbalance in practice are found to be d e
pendent upon the mass o f th e rotor itself.
From expression (1 1 .1 ) ce rta in im portant conclusions can be drawn. U n b a l
ance effects are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

synchronous w ith ro ta tio n speed

radial in their line o f action
vector quantities possessing both size and direction
the re su lt of a discrepancy between th e geom etric- and m ass-sym m etries
of a rotor.

As such, unbalance is th e most comm on source of vib ra tio n in rotating e q u ip

ment: com m on rotors in clude electric arm atures, tu rb o m a ch in e ry, drive
shafts, grin ding w h eels, m achine tool e le m e n ts, and c ra n ksh a fts. In p rin cip le

* F, r have a d e fin ite line of a c tio n w ith respect to th e geo m e try of th e ro to r, a nd are th u s d en o te d
as vector q u a n titie s ,

cj

= 2 n n / 6 0 * n /1 0 , w h e re n is ro ta tio n speed in r / m i n .

The u n its q u o te d are co n s is te n t w it h ISO 1 9 4 0 .

269

the procedure of balancing involves an a d ju stm e n t of the m ass d istrib u tio n of

the rotor, so th a t the re s u ltin g geom etrical and inertial axes m ore nearly c o in
cide w ith one another. The ta sk is to m inim ise

F =
/= 1
M any practical m achines, such as g rin d in g w heels, in d u s tria l blowers and
flyw he els, can be considered as though th e ir mass w ere concentrated in a
single disc, but the m a jo rity of rotors have mass d is trib u te d along th e ir
length. This gives the p o s s ib ility of a second form of u n balance. For the case
of a rig h t cylinder, it is possible to have tw o equal uncom pensated masses
sym m e trically placed about th e centre of m ass, but positioned at 1 8 0 to one
another. The rotor is in s ta tic balance, yet centrifugal fo rce s w ill produce a
m om ent about the centre of mass w hen th e rotor tu rn s. T h is type of u n b a l
ance is called couple u nbalance (Fig. 11 1(b)), and it results in a tiltin g or pend
ulum action o f the p rin cip a l in e rtia axis about the shaft axis at the centre of
mass. To counteract th e couple it is necessary to make co rre ctio n s on tw o
planes.
The general condition w h e n both static and couple unb a la n ce are present
is called dynam ic unbalance (F ig . 1 1.1(c)). The principal in e rtia axis is now in
clined to th e geom etric s h a ft axis, but th e re is also an e c c e n tric ity at the c e n
tre of mass. This unbalance condition can be resolved by s u ita b le in s tru m e n
tation for correction in tw o planes. C orrection is made by m ass addition (w e ld
ing, rivets, etc.) or mass rem oval (boring, p laning etc.), using a n cilla ry eq u ip
m ent.

1 1 .3 . R O TO R SUPPO R T S Y S T E M
In an assembled m achine, th e rotor is supported by a b e a rin g and base as
sembly. This m ust restrain th e unbalance-excited motion of th e rotor jo u rn a l.
For the case of a single b e a rin g , the ro to r/s u p p o rt assembly m ay be modelled
as a single degree of freedom system . The d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n o f motion can
be expressed:
M x + c x + kx = m r w 2 sin cot
For sinusoidal motion the displacem ent x can be w ritten:
x - x 0 sin (tu t - <j>)
giving the solution:

270

(1 1 .5 )

Relative R o ta tio n Speed/

Fig. 11.2. C haracteristic response o f a single b e a rin g suspension system , illu s

tra tin g th e d istin ctio n betw e e n a h a rd -b e a rin g (rigid) b a la n c in g m a
chine a n d a so ft-b e a rin g one

and

oj0 = n a tu ra l (angular) fre q u e n cy of suspension, in ra d /s ,

k = s tiffn e s s of susp e n sio n in N /m ,
c = dam ping of suspension in N / m s ~ 1

= ro ta tio n speed in r / m in

The solution indicates d iffe re n t regim es of in te re st, depending on th e rela

tiv e values of rotor a n g u la r velocity, w , and the n a tu ra l frequency of th e s u
spension system co0 (F ig. 11.2). W h e re the support resonance is m uch higher
th a n the rotation speed ( c j u g ) unbalance forces are reacted by ela stic fo r
ces in the supports (hard supports) as given by expression (1 1 .1 ). W h e re the
support resonance is much lo w e r th a n the rotation speed (oj oj0 , soft sup
ports), unbalance forces are reacted by inertia fo rce s in the rotor its e lf as
given by expression (1 1 .2 ). In the general case unbalance forces are reacted
by some com bination of the tw o e ffe cts depending on the ch a ra cte ristics of
th e supports and fo u n d a tio n .
For a rotor m oving in one p lane, but possessing tw o degrees of freedom
(F ig . 1 1.3), the ge om etry and th e m om ent of inertia o f the rotor becom e im
po rta n t. That is, the existence of unbalance in one plane w ill excite vibrations
in both suspension system s depending on geom etric location o f th e u n bal
ance on the m om ent of inertia of th e rotor, and on th e support c h a ra c te ris
tics. This interaction is called th e cross effect b e tw een the tw o su p p o rt sys
tem s. For rotation at a fixed fre q u e n cy th is relation can be w ritte n as a m atrix
o f com plex term s:
Le ft S u p p o rt Plane

R ig h t Support Plane
Unbalance 2

Unbalance 1

'L
7T7T7T7TT

'R

7ft7777777'

7905 19

Fig. 1 1.3. Unbalance of a rotating body vibrating with two degrees of freedom

w he re [a] is called th e influence coefficient matrix and

*L 1 (XL2
_a /?7 a/?2

1, 2 refer to unbalance planes 1 , 2 .

L, R refer to support planes L, R.
In th is w ay, it is possible to b u ild up increasingly m ore sophisticated mod
els of the dynam ic system . H ow ever, the sim ple s in g le - and tw o -d e g ree of
freedom models can be very useful fo r describing th e behaviour o f real ma
chines.

1 1 .4 . S E TTIN G THE S T A N D A R D S
Ideally, a com pletely balanced m achine w ould s h o w no unbalance at all. In
practice, th o u g h , ow ing to m a ch in in g tolerances, m echanical play, run-out,
m isalignm ent d isto rtio n etc. perfect balance can never be achieved. In any
production or m aintenance s itu a tio n an appropriate residual unbalance, "b a l
ance q u a lity " or vib ra tion tolerance m ust be selected w h ich depends on the
perform ance required from the m achine and the econom ics of th e balancing
process.
In the fiftie s m uch w ork w as done in W est G e rm a n y to collect th e experi
ences of engineers w o rkin g in th is field. VDI 2 0 6 0 , "B e urteilungsm a stbe
f r den A usw uch tzusta nd ro tie re n de r, starrer K rp e r", has now been adopted
in te rn a tio n a lly as recom m endation ISO Standard 1 9 4 0 , "B alance Q uality of
Rotating Rigid B o dies". The recom m endations re la te acceptable re sidual un
balance to the m axim um service speed of the ro to r, and associate various
types of representative rotors w ith ranges of recom m ended q u a lity grades
(Figs. 1 1 4 and 1 1.5). The q u a lity grade, G, (e q u iva le n t to the p ro d u ct ew for
an unrestrained rotor) is introduced, as it enables th e physically observed be
haviour of m achines ru nn in g at d iffe re n t speeds to be compared. The values
of G in the Standard are n u m e rica lly equivalent to th e eccentricity e in /um for
a rotor runn ing at 9 5 0 0 RPM. The q uality grade, o r unbalance, o f a rotor can
be assessed using a calibrated balancing machine.
For m achines in service, unbalance vibrations are influenced considerably

Balancing Grades for Various Groups of Representative Rigid Rotors

Q u a lity
grade
G

m <2)
mm/sec

R o to r type s - General e xam ples

G 4000

4000

Chrankshaft-drives
o f cy lin d e rs (4).

G 1600

1600

Crankshaft-drives of rig id ly m o u n te d large tw o-cycle engines.

G 630

630

Crankshaft-drives o f rig id ly m o u n ted large four-cycle engines. Crankshaft-drives o f

e la stically mounted marine diesel engines.

G 250

250

Crankshaft-drives of rig id ly m o u n te d fast four-cylinder diesel engines

G 100

100

Crankshaft-drives-of fast diesel engines w ith six and m ore c y lin d e rs <4>. C o m p le te engines
(gasoline o r diesel) fo r cars, tru c k s and locom otives <5>.

G 40

40

Car w heels, wheel rims, w heel sets, d rive shafts. Crankshaft-drives o f ela stically m oun ted
fast fo u r-cy c le engines (gasoline o r diesel) w ith six and m ore cylinders*4). C ran ksha ftdrives fo r engines o f cars, tru c k s and locom otives.

G 16

16

Drive shafts (propeller shafts, card a n shafts) w ith special requirem ents. Parts o f cru shin g
m achinery. Parts of agricultu ra l m achinery. Individual com p on e nts o f engines (gasoline
or diesel, fo r cars, trucks and lo com otiv e s. Crankshaft-drives o f engines w ith six and
more c y lin d e rs under special requirem ents.

G 6.3

6.3

Parts o f process plant m achines. M a rin e main turbine gears (merchant service).
C e ntrifug e drums. Fans. A sse m b le d aircra ft gas turb in e rotors.
F ly wheels. Pump im pellers. M a c h in e -to o l and general m achin ery parts. N orm al
e lectrical armatures. Ind ivid ual com p on ents o f engines u n d e r special requirem ents.

2.5

Gas and steam turbines, in c lu d in g m arine main turbines (m erchant service). R ig id

tu rb o generator rotors. Ro to rs. Turbo-com pressors. M ach ine -too l drives. M e d iu m and
large ele ctrica l armatures w ith sp ecial requirements. Sm all e lectrical armatures.
T u rb ine-d riven punps.

G 2.5

G 1

G 0.4

0.4

o f rig id ly m oun ted slow m arine diesel engines w ith uneven num ber

Tape recorder and phonograph (gram ophone) drives. G rin din g -m ach ine drives.
Sm all e lectrical armatures w ith special requirements.
Sp in dles, discs, and arm atures o f p re cisio n grinders. Gyroscopes.

Notes:
1.

co = 2 7r n/60

n /1 0, if n is measured in re v o lu tio n s per m inute and co in radians per second.

2.

In general, for rigid roto rs w ith tw o co rre ctio n planes, one half of the recom m ended residual unbalance
is to be taken fo r each plane; these values a p p ly usu a lly for any tw o a rb itra rily chosen planes, b u t the
state o f unbalance m ay be im proved upon at the bearings. For disc-shaped rotors the fu ll recom m ended
value holds for one plane.

3.

A crankshaft-drive is an assembly w hich in clu d e s the crankshaft, a fly w h e e l, clutch, p ulley, v ib ra tio n
damper, rotating p o rtio n o f connecting rod, etc.

4.

F o r the present purposes, slow diesel engines are those w ith a piston v e lo c ity o f less than 9 m/s; fast
diesel engines are those w ith a piston v e lo c ity o f greater than 9 m/s.

5.

In com plete engines the ro to r mass com prises th e sum o f all masses b elonging to the cranksh aft-d rive
described in fo o tn o te 3 above.
800624

Fig. 7 1.4. M axim u m re sid u a l u n b a la n ce corresponding to re com m ended B a l

ance Q u a lity Grades, G, as la id down in ISO 1 9 4 0 (1 9 7 3 )

274

displacement e in pm
per unit of rotor mass in ------------------------ or centre-of-gravity
residual unbalance
Acceptable

1.6

2.5

10

16

25

100

160 25 0

500

1000
Hz

1600

800778

Fig. 11.5. M axim u m re s id u a ! unbalance as la id down in ISO 1 9 4 0 (1 9 7 3 )

275

by the physical c h a ra cte ristics of the bearings and base. Consequently it is

m ost convenient to assess the run q u a lity of the m achine using vibration le
vels as recom m ended in standards such as VDI 2 0 5 6 , "B e u rte ilu n g s
m astbe f r m echanische S chw in g u n g e n von M a s c h in e n , adopted in te rn a
tio n a lly as ISO 2 3 7 2 , "M e ch a n ica l V ib ra tio n of M a ch in e s w ith Operating
Speeds from 10 to 2 0 0 r e v /s " . These standards give guidance as to w h e n
m aintenance m ight be required on a m achine in service (Fig. 11.6). W here
the m ajor source of v ib ra tio n is unbalance the Standard can be used as a ba
sis fo r specifying the acceptable residual vibration level.

45
Not perm issible

28

0)
>
w

Not perm issible

N o t permissible

18
N o t perm issible

Just tolerable

11'2
7,1

Just tolerable

4,5

2,8

Just tolerable

A llow able

0,28
0,18

Good
Good

Good

0,71
0,45

A llow able
A llo w ab le

1,8
1,12

A llow able

Just tolerable

Good

Sm all machines, up to
15 kW.

M edium machines
1575 kW o r up to
3 0 0 kW on special
foundations.

Large machines w ith

rig id and heavy fo u n
dations whose n a tu ra l
frequency exceeds
m achine speed.

Large machines ope

rating a t speeds above
foundatio n n atural
frequency.
(eg. Turbomachines)
273268

Fig. 11.6. V ibration crite rio n c h a rt (from VDI 2 0 5 6 )

O ther useful S tandards related to balancing e q u ipm e n t its e lf include ISO
2 9 5 3 "B alancing M a c h in e s D escription and E v a lu a tio n " and ISO 2 3 7 1
"F ie ld Balancing E quipm ent D escription and E valuation .
In all cases, these Standards re present com m ittee decisions made by
groups of engineers fo r th e guidance of others: experience is often required
to indicate how they can be interpreted best fo r any given balancing problem .

1 1 .5 . B A LA N C IN G M A C H IN E S
A dynam ic balancing m achine consists o f a bed assem bly (Fig. 1 1.7) and an
associated m easurem ent u n it (F ig.1 1 .8 ). Instrum ented support pedestals
carry th e rotor to be balanced, w hich is driven at co n sta n t speed by a m otor
276

F ig .1 1.7. A n example o f a so ft-b e a rin g universal b a la n cin g m achine,

B & K Type 3 9 0 5

the

;a * r
m,

99

S i l l
Fig 1 7 8 A n example o f the console fo r a dynamic b a la n cin g m achine, B & K
Type 2 5 0 4
and drive system. M ost tw o -p la n e m achines operate w ith the rotor axis h o riz
o n ta l, and are described as ''u n iv e rs a l". Typically, d rive to the rotor is p ro
vided via an axial cardan shaft or a c irc u m fe re n tia l belt arrangem ent, de p e n d
ing on th e size and specification of th e balancing re q u ire m e n t. The support
pedestals can be set at any co nvenient position along th e bed to suit d iffe re n t
roto r geom etries w ith in the mass ra nge of the m achine, w h ils t the m e a s u re
m ent head, or console, is designed to accomm odate an y likely co m bination of
m easuring and correction planes presented to it. The electrical signals
sensed at the supports are analysed in the console to display d ire c tly the
am o unt and angle of unbalance to be corrected on th e tw o correction planes
selected for the rotor. The balancing bench and the console com plem ent one
another; if they are used correctly, an unbalance re d u ctio n ratio of 8 0
90% m ight be typical fo r a single ru n .
277

Balancing m achines may be designed w ith so ft bearings or w ith h a rd

bearings. These descriptions re fe r to the ch a ra cte ristics of th e support sys
tem s as discussed in Section 1 1.3. In a so ft-b e a rin g m achine, sensors are
used to m easure the vibratory m otion at th e jo u rn a ls . The m oving elem ent,
operating above resonance, is decoupled fro m external vib ra tio n effects, e n
abling the bed and support posts to be of re la tiv e ly lig h t-w e ig h t construction,
to give a tran sp orta b le m achine offering high se n s itiv ity over its mass range.
Hard-bearing m achines m easure force at the bearings. To re s tra in the rotor
adequately, a stro n g e r, heavier form of c o n s tru c tio n is necessary to give the
high m echanical impedance required at the bearings. This fo rm o f construc
tio n has the disadvantage of g re a te r se n sitivity to extraneous vib ra tio n s.
W hichever type of transducer is used in th e supports, the console must pro
cess the raw unbalance signals to yield c a lib ra te d correction values. In prac
tice, the signals fro m the sensors must be filte re d to e lim in a te higher-order
effects and noise. The re su ltin g cleaned-up sin u so id a l signals are processed
th roug h a n e tw o rk of se n sitivity and mixing potentiom eters so th a t appropri
ate calibrated corre ctio n values, fo r the co rre ctio n planes to be used, appear
and are held on th e display. The display is u s u a lly selectable to indicate mass
addition or m ass rem oval on th e chosen co rre ctio n planes. S ingle-variable a n
alogue displays are less com m on than the ve cto r-m e te r display, w h ic h gives
a pictorial representation of th e state of unbalance: a lte rn a tive ly, the use of
digital electronics perm its very consistent and stable operation and lends it
se lf to application to a digital d isp la y for clear, unam biguous inte rp re ta tio n in
th e industrial w orkplace.
The front panel controls of th e console are adjustable by th e operator to
achieve plane separation and calibration of th e unbalance, measured in
te rm s of mass corrections (practical correction u nits). In th is w a y the operator
can obtain independent readings fo r each co rre ctio n plane, and th e confusing
correction p la n e in te rfe re n ce , or cross effect, is e lim in a te d . A d ynam ic calibra
tio n procedure is used to set up soft-bearing m achines, whereas geom etric d i
m ensions are d ia lle d -in sta tica lly to set up th e hard-bearing m achine. Once
the balancing m achine is ca lib ra te d , unbalance corrections can be found for
any subsequent ro to r in the series w ith a single ba la ncin g run.

1 1 .6 . FIELD B A L A N C IN G
Som etim es access to a balancing m achine is not available; th e rotor to be
balanced is too large to suit a balancing m achine, or the rotor m u st be bal
anced in its no rm al service c o n d itio n s. In these cases " fie ld " or " in - s itu " bal
ancing can be carrie d out using suitable p o rta b le instru m e n ts. Generally,
such instru m e nts require more k n o w -h o w on th e part of the user th a n a bal
ancing m achine, but are more ve rsa tile in a p p lica tio n ow ing to th e ir portabil
ity and the range o f d iffe re n t tra n sd u ce r s e n s itiv itie s w hich can be used w ith
278

Fig. 11.9. Three-point m e th o d for single-phase b a la n cin g - S iebert's C o n stru c

tion
the same in stru m e n ts. Such in s tru m e n ts are also u s e fu l fo r m achinery co n d i
tio n m o nitoring , vibration spectrum analysis, and fa u lt diagnosis.
For a m achine in opera tio n , it is n o rm a lly only possible to m ount sensors
e xtern ally, fo r exam ple on the bearing housings. T h u s it is the m otion of the
bearing housings w h ic h is m easured. In practice, th e dynam ic system has
m any degrees of freedom , as the s p rin g /d a m p e r chara cte ristics o f each of
the tw o bearings w ill be d iffe re n t not o n ly from each o ther but also in the
tw o orthogonal radial directions at each bearing. By analogy w ith equation
1 1 .6 fo r the single degree of freedom system , the o n ly w ay of ca lib ra tin g the
dynam ic system is to introduce a value of known unbalance to th e system ,
and m easure the tra n s fe r ch a ra cte ristics between th e unbalance pla n e and
the m easuring p ositio n. If lin e a rity and phase fid e lity between unbalance
changes and corresponding vibration changes (at le a st over a lim ite d range)
can be assum ed, corresponding co rre ctio n values can be calculated. It is im
p o rta nt, thoug h, th a t th e m achine sh o u ld be run up to the same speed, and
th a t th e sensors should not be moved, d u rin g the b a la ncin g runs.
One method of d e term in in g the size and position o f the unbalance fo r a
279

single plane is to use a sim ple vib ra tio n meter connected to an accelerom eter
m ounted on the bearing. First th e in itia l unbalance is measured. Then a trial
mass is used to introduce a k n o w n unbalance by attaching it to th e rotor at
th e same radius to be used fo r th e fin a l co rre ctio n mass. Three te s t runs are
carried out w ith th e tria l mass placed at 0 , 1 2 0 , 2 4 0 on th e ro to r. Geom
e trica lly, S ie b e rt's co n stru ctio n (F ig . 1 1.9) can be used to evaluate th e correc
tio n values. Three vectors of eq u a l length, corresponding to in itia l unbalance
V0 , at 0 , 1 2 0 , 2 4 0 respectively, are draw n o u t from the o rig in . Vectors
corresponding to V j (0), V j (1 2 0 ), V j (2 4 0 ) are constructed by centring a
com pass point on each of th e V0 vectors in tu rn : th e point o f in te rse ctio n of
these arcs enables the vectors corresponding to the trial m ass alone to be
constructed. The correction m ass can be calculated directly.
Usually it is im practicable to ca rry out three tria l runs; fu rth e rm o re it is ne
cessary to use a filte r synchronised to rotation speed, to ensure th a t the u n
balance com ponent of the vib ra tio n signal can be isolated from o th e r m echan
ical influences. The inclusion o f som e form of phase-m easuring device in the
system enables a m ore practical procedure to be im plem ented. O ne way of
d eterm ining th e phase is to tape o r mark a scale graduated in a n g u la r units
on the rotor, and illu m in a te th e scale during th e tria l balancing ru n s w ith the
lig h t from a stroboscope triggered by the filte re d vib ra tio n signal. A n example
o f such a system is show n in Fig .1 1 .1 0 .
P urpose-built fie ld -b a la n cin g sets, how ever, e m p lo y a non-contact tachom e
te r probe to trig g e r an a ll-e le c tro n ic phase in d ic a to r from a s in g le arbitrary
m ark on the ro tor. The example s h o w n in Fig. 1 1 .11 is designed to be equally
suitable for m o n ito rin g and analysis tasks as m e n tio n e d above.
For single-plane balancing, such as fo r a g rin d in g w heel, an in itia l reading
o f vibration a m p litu d e , \ V0 \, and phase angle, a 0 (w ith reference to a fixed

Fig. 1 1 .1 0 .
280

F ie ld b a la ncin g w ith a stroboscopic m otion a n a lyzer

Fig. 1 1 .1 1 .

Example o f a portable fie ld b alancing set, g iv in g direct d ig ita l in

dication o f ph a se by the use o f a n o n -co n ta ctin g probe

Fig. 1 1 .1 2 .

S in g le -p o in t phase-angle m ethod for s in g le -p la n e balancing

V0 = in itia l unbalance
V 1 = re s u lta n t o f V0 + VT

point on the rotor) are obtained (Fig. 1 1 .1 2 ). The m achine is then stopped and
a tria l mass M T is fixe d to the rotor at some a rbitrary p osition. R unning the
m achine at the same speed as before yields a new v ib ra tio n am plitude, \ V i\ ,
and phase angle, a^ , enabling a vector diagram to be constructed dire ctly.
281

Plane 1

Plane 2
V 2.0

V 1.1

V ,0

V 1.0

^2.1 V 2.0

_<l
o

V2.2 - V2.0

Fig. 11.13 .

V ectorial re p re s e n ta tio n o f vib ra tio n levels fo r tw o -p la n e balan

cin g

The difference (V r V0 ) re p re se nts the e ffect of tria l mass, M T , on the mea

sured vibration. Thus the size o f th e correction mass is given by:
282

Mc = ,
, Mr
\V ,~ V j

(11 .8)

placed at an angle a c to counteract Va . W here n o n -lin e a ritie s , or in co rre ct

choice of tria l mass, do not allow acceptable residual unbalance to be
achieved in the first ru n , it may be necessary to repeat th e procedure.
W here fie ld balancing in tw o planes is to be carried o u t, tw o tria l ru n s
must be made, introd ucin g known un b a la n ce in tw o co rre ctio n planes and
making m easurem ents on tw o bearing h o u sing s. These ru n s are necessary to
enable all the term s of th e influence co e ffic ie n t m atrix, defined in e q uation
(1 1 .7), to be generated (Fig. 1 1.1 3).
In ru n 0 , the in itia l c o n d ition of unbalance is assessed m easuring | V/i 0 1
La0 and 1V 2o I Po (P s ig n ifie s phase in th e second m easuring plane).
In run 1, a tria l mass /WT1 is placed on correction plane 1, m easuring 11/-, , |
La 1 and | V2i I /Si

In run 2, a tria l mass M 12 is placed on correction plane 2, m easuring | V 1 2 I

02 and | V 22\ -P2

It can be seen that:
(I/-I!
(I/12
( V/21
(V

22

V^io ) = effect o f M j-\ at m easuring

V-\ q ) =
effect of M j2
at
V
) =
effect o f /W-p
at
^20 ) =
effect o f M j 2
at

20

position 1.
m easuring position
m easuring position
m easuring position

1.
2.
2.

To balance the rotor, correction masses should be placed in planes 1 and 2

to generate vibrations equal in m ag n itu d e but opposite in direction to V 10
and V 2o- A graphical so lu tio n is possible, but m an ip u la tio n of the six ve cto r
values in th e tw o m ea su rin g planes is te d io u s. It is m uch easier to execute
the required calculations on an electronic com puter (Fig. 1 1 .1 4 ) or c a lcu la tor.
The w idespread a v a ila b ility of program m able pocket c a lcu la to rs now makes it
possible fo r balancing-set users to o b ta in com m ercial m agnetic card-program s pre-program m ed specifically fo r balancing. These can be fed d ire c tly
into the u se rs own c a lc u la to r to solve ba la ncin g equations a utom atically w it h
out any involvem ent on th e part of the ope ra to r in p rogram m ing or m a th e m a t
ics. M a them a tically, it is required to c a lcu la te correction values /Wc1 , M c2
w hich sa tisfy the equations:

283

rY U D A L

'

L I ST

1C DIM

, c<

2 )/D C 2

CC

D IM
D IM

K C 2 /2 )/L C /2 )/
SC2 , 2 ) / TC2 , 2 ) ,

F0P

Y=

READ
LET

) , C2 /

1(2/

) / PC 2 /

/ CC /

J*( 2,

1 T0

A (Y )jL (Y )
Y
C(
C(
C(

1
1

1 ) = AC

I )*C 0SC B C

2 ) =AC

1 )*S IM C B C

I )=

1) )
1) )
BrOel & Kjr

LET
LET

1)

C<
DC

2 ) =CC
1)=AC

C0SCBC

LET

DC

2 ) = AC

F I K C b c

LET
LET

DC
DC

1) = - D C
2 ) = DC

LET

EC

LET

EC

1 ) = AC
2 ) = AC

1)

3) )

3>*C 0SC BC
3 > *S IM C B C

3) )

100
105

LET
LET

EC

2/

1) = -E C

2)

EC

2/

2 ) =EC

1/

1 10

LET

FC

1 ) =AC

4>*C 0C bC

4) )

1 15

LET

FC

1/

2 ) = AC

4 > * S IM C bC

4) )

120
125

LET
LET

FC
FC

2/
2*

2)
1) = - F C 1/
2>=FC
1/
1)

130

LET

GC

1/

135

LET

GC

1/

1 ) = AC
2 ) =A C

140

LET

GC

2
2,

6100

1/

QP

LET
LET

1)

5 ) * C0 S Cb C
5 ) * S I M CbC
=- G C 1/ 2 )
=G C 1/
1)
1 ) = AC 6 > * C 0 S C B C

)
)

5)
5)

1)
2 )

LET

GC

LET

HC

155

LET

HC

1/

160

LET

HC

2.

2 ) = AC 6 ) * S I N C B C
1) = -H C
1/
2)

165

LET

HC

2/

2 ) =H C

200

MAT

1/

\>

Brel & K|r

145
150

6) )
6) )

1)

I =E- C

MAT

J = F -D

210

MAT

K = G -C

215

MAT

220
225

MAT
MAT

L=F-D
M=H- D
N

230
235

MAT
MAT

0 = D* I
P=C *J

240
245

MAT
MAT

250
255

MAT
MAT

T = Q-R

260
265

MAT
MAT

U =11JV
v=s*u

270
275

MAT
MAT

280
285

MAT

I = C *M
J =D *K
K= I - J

MAT

X=K*U

290
300

LET
LET

Y 1 = S CP CV C
Y2=SGRCXC

3 10

IF

320

LET

330

G0T0

Y3= 0
350

340

LET

Y3=

350
360

IF
XC 2 f
2) <
LET Y4=
0

370
380

G0T0
390
LF.T Y 4 =
ISC

390

LET

Y 5 = Y 3 + C AT fJ Cv C

1/

2)/V C

1#

l)) ) /A T r i(

1) +

LF.T

Y 6 - Y 4 + C A T N C XC

1/

2 )/X C

1,

1 ) ) ) / ATiJ C

1)*

6100

=E-

QP

205

0=K *L
R=M *N
S= 0 - P

VC

1/

CT

>

I X

1/
1/

1)
l) t

2+VC
2+XC

TH EIJ

340

THEM

330

1/
1/

QP

BrOel & K j r
6100

400

/ J C2 /

BC Y>=EC Y)*A TM (

NEXT

LET

r,

j2(2>

18C

P R IN T
P R ItJT

"M O D U LI :
"M 0DULUS

499
5 1C
RUIJ

DATA

17 C>

112/

AIJ2
AMD
5 3/

A P G U ! 1 EM T
APGME TJ T

73,

235/

dF
3F

r i * , Y2 *Y t

END

M0DULUT

A_'J D

A P G U ! I F ;J T

M0DULUS

AMD

A P G U : ! I:

0F

C l:

. 7f . 1 2 7
53C379

t.

17

1. r144

B r sl & Kjao

4 10
420

READY

Fig. 1 1. 14.

C om puter program m e in B a sic fo r dynam ic balancing

(1 1 9 )

W hen a phase meter and an accurate num erical c a lcu la tio n technique are
used, the residual unbalance is often reduced to acceptable levels after th e
firs t ru n . W here d iffic u ltie s are experienced, it may be necessary to verify th e
lin e a rity and phase re produceability betw e e n trial unbalance placed on th e
correction planes and vib ra tio n m easurem ents in the m easuring planes. In
th is case, some experim ents w ith p o sitio nin g of the sensors, or selection of
correction planes, may enable a technique to be evolved to give more sa tisfa c
tory results.

1 1 .7 . D IFFIC U LT B A L A N C IN G TASKS
1 1 .7 .1 . Fine Balancing
To achieve unbalance q u a lity grades as lo w as G1 and GO ,4 for equipm ent
such as record players and gyroscopes, special techniques are required. For
exam ple at GO,4 a roto r ru n n in g at 6 0 0 0 r/m in w ill re q u ire an ecce n tricity
of the ce ntre of mass of less than 0 , 6 3 /m. Considering th a t in stru m e n t ball
bearings may them selves be m anufactured to a radial ru n -o u t tolerance of
1 /jm , w h ils t the typical tolerance on fin e m achining (b o rin g , tu rn in g , g rin d
ing) is 2 5 /um, it is clear th a t the unbalance introduced at all stages of p ro d u c
tion and assembly m ust be controlled to achieve precision. This w ill necessi
tate balancing at the fin a l stage.
S im ple support ro lle rs, or prism atic blocks w hich are used to support th e
rotor jo u rn a ls for general-purpose tasks on industrial b alancing m achines, are
inadequate in these cases. For grades b e tte r than G1 th e rotor should be
m ounted in its own su p p o rt bearings on the balancing m achine; for grade
GO,4 the rotor should be driven as it w o u ld in service, so th a t the actual s e r
vice en viron m en t in te rm s of electrical and aerodynamic e ffe cts may be re p ro
duced. Examples are gyroscopes excited by a half-stator assem bly, and tu rb o
chargers driven by com pressed air.

1 1 .7 .2 . Flexible Rotors
A t high rotational speeds, the rotor can no longer be regarded as rigid. For
ro tational speeds greater th a n 50% of th e firs t critical speed it may be said to
be fle xib le (Fig. 1 1.15). The axial d is trib u tio n of unbalance along the rotor w ill
tend to excite the various mode shapes o f the rotor, depending on its speed
285

_________________________________

Fig.1T. 15.

C c r ' t________________________ _______________________________________________

R elationship b e tw e e n c e n trifu g a l force,

sh aft speed fo r one c ritic a l speed

s h a ft

790521

deflection

and

of rotation and form of s u p p o rt. Theoretically, such a sh a ft possesses an in fi

nite num ber of principal m odes, each w ith its corresponding natural fre
quency. In th e absence o f dam ping a n d /o r non -lin e a r e ffe cts th e deflections
at these c ritic a l frequencies w ould become in fin ite ly large, and destroy the
m achine. Balancing is n o w a process to "d yn a m ica lly s tra ig h te n " the rotor to
re-align its principal in e rtia axis w ith the axis of rotation in o rd e r that the m a
chine can be run up sa fe ly to its operating speed (Fig. 1 1 .1 6 ). One technique
is to perform a sequence o f balancing op e ra tin g s in the v ic in ity o f each of the
critical speeds in tu rn , to reduce the in te rn a l bending m o m e n ts for each
mode to zero. The procedure is to start at th e firs t critical fre q u e n cy, and p ro
ceed to each of the oth e rs in tu rn until service speed is achieved. This is sa
tisfactory w h e re service speed is less th a n 50% of the subsequent critical
speed. A t each speed, c o rre c tio n mass sets are fitted on selected planes,
such th a t unbalance is not introduced w h ic h w ould excite th e lower, p re vi
ously balanced, principal m odes.
For exam ple, to correct th e firs t (V-) p rin cip a l mode, a co rre ctio n mass M
w ill be located at the c e n tre , w ith tw o m asses each of M / 2 at 1 8 0 posi
tioned adjacent to the su p p o rt bearings in o rder not to e ffe ct th e rigid balance
condition. Corresponding m ass sets a llo w com pensation o f higher modes.
286

Fig. 1 1 .1 6 .

D ynam ic stra ig h te n in g o f firs t and second p rin c ip a l modes

This technique is called m odal balancing. W h e re com puting fa c ilitie s are a v a il

able the "in flu e n ce c o e ffic ie n t m atrix may be used, but th is w ill require re la
tive displacem ent tra n sd u ce rs to establish the d eflections at interm ediate
points betw een support bearings. A typical exam ple of th is type of rotor is the
autom otive cardan sh a ft, balanced by w e ld in g sheet-m etal com pensatingw eights. A s the shaft does not run at u n ifo rm speed it is possible to achieve
only a com prom ise so lu tio n to the balancing problem.

1 1 .7 .3 . Crankshaft Balancing
C rankshafts are used to convert the reciprocating m otion o f a piston into ro
tary m otion of a shaft For design purposes the moving e le m e n ts can be d i
vided into purely rotary com ponents (big-end pin, connecting rod big-end) and
purely reciprocating com ponents (piston assem bly, connecting rod sm all-end).
Therefore suitable counterbalance w e ig h ts can be devised and incorporated
in the crankshaft w ebs, w h ic h balance th e rotary com ponents plus a propor
tion (or factor) of the re cip ro ca tin g com ponents (Fig. 1 1 .1 7 ). In th e production
process, such crankshafts can be balanced on balancing m achines, so p h isti
cated autom ated handling and correction equipm ent is w id e ly used in the car
industry fo r th is purpose. In certain c o n fig u ra tio n s such as in V -4 and V -6 d e
signs, the com ponent of unbalance at tw ic e the rotation frequency of the
287

B ig-End
P in

Counterbalance

Pin

Fig. 1 1 .1 7 .

______ 790523

T w in -cylin d e r crankshaft w ith counterbalance w eights

shaft, o w ing to the com plex m otion of th e connecting rods, can be unaccept
able. In these cases, balance can be achieved by provision of a contra-rotating balance shaft driven at tw ic e engine speed. These s h a fts are fabricated
w ith specially calculated counterbalance w ebs.

1 1 .7 .4 . M ultiple-Span S hafts
The m ajority of c u rre n t te ch n iq u e s have evolved for use w ith single-span ro
tors, supported in bearings at each end. The problems o f ro to r assem blies
supported in three or m ore bearings is th e subject of c u rre n t research
(F ig.1 1 .1 8 ).

288

For a rigid rotor, m easured values w ill depend not only on rotor unbalance,
but also on th e accuracy of the alig n m e n t of the bearings and on the ru n -o u t
at the jo u rn a ls . In contrast to unbalance fo rce s, the latter effects are p re d o m i
nantly speed-independent, causing a co n s ta n t centre-of-m ass eccentricity. Re
building of th e m achine (e.g. for lin e -b o rin g of the bearing housings and ro to r
balancing) w ould be necessary to correct su ch a fa u lt. For fle xib le rotors, it is
extrem ely d iffic u lt if not im possible to p re d ict how the bearing systems w ill a f
fect the mode shapes and vibration response at the critic a l speeds. It is c o m
mon to consider the roto r spans in tu rn , as separate sim ply-supported sys
tem s. The sh a ft-stiffn e ss is often such th a t interm ediate bearing assem blies
are assum ed to decouple separate rotor spans. A lte rn a tiv e ly , where lin e a rity
and phase fid e lity is observed betw een unbalance added on any co rrection
plane and the vibration m easurem ents on every support bearing, then th e in
fluence coe fficie n t m ethod may be used. In general, one extra co rrection
plane is required for every extra bearing m easurem ent. Portable m easuring
e quipm ent may be used fo r th is w ork, w ith sw itches to a llo w connection of
extra vib ra tio n sensors: b u t, as the n u m b e r of bearings increases, the s o lu
tion of th e re sulting m a trix equations becom es increasingly complex and ca lls
for su b sta n tia l com puting fa cilitie s.

1 1 .8 . S ELECTED B IB LIO G R A PH Y
ADKINS, F.E. and
GRAY, A .:

"D ynam ic B a la n c in g at Heaton

N ewcastle upon Tyne, 1 9 6 0

W orks".

Parsons,

BISHOP, R.E.D. and

G LADW ELL, G .M .L.:

"T h e Vibration a n d Balancing o f an Unbalanced F le x i

ble R otor". J. M e ch . Eng. S ci., V ol. 1, No.1. J u n e
1959

BRUNNENGRBER, H.
and DRUST, P.:

" M essverfahren in der A u s w u c h tte c h n ik ".

und Prfen / A u to m a tik May 1 9 7 8

BISHOP, R E D ,
PARKINSON, A .G :

"O n the use o f B a la n cin g M a c h in e s for Flexible R o

to rs ". ASME Paper No. 7 1 -V ib r.-7 3

BISHOP, R E D. and
GLADW ELL, G .M .L.:

"T he Vibration a n d B alancing o f an Unbalanced F le x i

ble R otor". J o u rn a l M echanical Engineering S cience
V o l.1 , No. 1 . 1 9 5 9

EL-HADI, I.:

"Z u sa m m e n ste llu n g , K ritische U ntersuchung u n d

W e ite re n tw ic k lu n g der V erfahren zum A u s w u c h te n
betriebsm ig a u fg e s te llte r M a s c h in e n m it s ta rre n
u n d m it ela stisch en L u fe rn ", Diss. Darmstadt 1 9 6 2

M essen

289

FEDERN, K.:

"G ru n dla g e n e in e r system atischen S c h w in g u n g s e n t

s t ru n g w e lle n e la s tis c h e r R otoren". VDI B erichte,
Band 2 4 , 1 9 5 7

FEDERN, K.:

"A u s w u c h tte c h n ik B a n d 1". S pringer-V erlag 1 9 7 7

GRGIC, A.:

"Z w e i Verfahren zu m B estim m en d e r E igenfrequen

zen des Systems W elle -F u n d a m e n t". V D I-Z 1 2 0 N r.5,
M a rch 1 9 6 8 , pp. 2 1 3 2 1 9

GUINS, S B. and
BURMIST, J.:

" P re cisio n B a la n cin g o f Rotating M a c h in e P arts". M a

ch in e Design. V o l.2 4 , No. 1 2, Decem ber 1 952

HIMM LER, G.:

"T echnologien u n d M itte l zum M a s s e n a u s g le ic h ".

W e rk s ta tt und B etrieb 1 1 0 (1 9 7 7 ) 1 1

JUDGE, A .W .:

"T h e Testing o f H ig h S peed In te rn a l Com bustion E n

g in e s w ith S pecial R eference to A u to m o b ile and A ir
c ra ft Types, In c lu d in g Gas Turbines". Chapman &
H all, 4 th ed., London, 1 9 5 5

KELLENBERGER, W.

"S h o u ld a Flexible R o to r be B alanced in N or (N + 2)

"P la n e s ", ASM E Paper No. 7 1 -V ib r.-5 5

KOLBE, W .:

"W u c h te n g ro er In d u k to re n ". E le ktrizit tsw irtsch a ft,

5 7 . Ja h rg . Heft 1, Feb. 1 9 5 8

LAWRIE, G.C.:

" P re cisio n P roduction B alancing".

Vol. 3, N o.4, A p ril 1 9 5 3

LUND, J.W . and

T0NNESEN, J.:

" E xp e rim e n ta l a n d A n a ly tic In ve stig a tio n o f H igh

S peed Rotor B a la n c in g ". Research Report No. FR8.
D ept, of Mach. D esign. Tech. Univ. o f Denmark. De
cem ber 1 9 7 0

LUND, J .W . and
T0NNESEN, J.:

"A n a ly s is and E xp e rim e n ts on M u lti-P la n e Balancing

o f a F lexible R otor". A S M E Paper No. 7 1 -V ib r.-7 4

MACDUFF, J.N .:

"A Procedure fo r F ie ld Balancing R o ta tin g M a c h in

e ry ". Sound and V ib ra tio n . July 1 9 6 7

MOORE, L.S. and

DODD, E.G.:

"M a s s B alancing o f Large Flexible R otors".

I. M ech.E . Vol. 1 7 7 1 9 6 3 pp.81 1-841

PETERMANN, J.E .:

"B a la n c in g Heavy S h a fts and R otors". A llis Chalmers

E lectrical Review. V ol. XXIII, No. 1 1 9 5 8

290

Tool

Engineer,

Proc.

RIEGER, N.F.:

"R o to r B earing D ynam ics State o f the A rt". M e

ch a n ism and M achine Theory, Pergam on 1 9 7 7 .
V ol. 1 2 p p .2 6 1 2 7 0

SCHNEIDER, H.:

" VDI Taschenbcher T29 A u s w u c h tte c h n ik ". VDI V e r

lag D sseldorf 1 9 7 7

THEARLE, E L :

"D y n a m ic B alancing in the F ield". T rans. ASM E, 5 6

(1 0 ). 1 9 3 5

TESSERZIK, J .M .,
BADGLEY, R.H. and
ANDERSON, W .J.:

"F le xib le Rotor B a la n cin g by the E xact Point-Speed In

flu e n c e C oefficient M e th o d ". A SM E Paper No. 7 1 V ib r.-9 1

THEARLE, E.L.:

"D y n a m ic B alancing o f R otating M a c h in e ry in the

F ie ld ". Applied M echanics A P M -5 6 -1 9

T0NNESEN, J.:

"F u rth e r E xperim ents on B alancing o f a H igh-S peed

F lexible R otor". A SM E Paper No. 7 3 -D E T -9 9

W ILCOX, J.B .:

"D y n a m ic B alancing o f R otating M a c h in e ry ". Pitm an,

London 1 967

291

12. FUNDAMENTALS OF SHOCK A ND VIBRATION

CONTROL

1 2 .1 . IS O LA TIO N OF V IB R A T IO N A N D S H O C K
Undesired vibration and shock may o rig in a te from a w id e variety of
sources, such as unbalance and reciprocating motion in m echanical m a ch in
ery, aerodynam ic tu rb u le n c e , rough sea m ovem ents, earthquakes, road and
rail tra n sp o rta tio n , rough h a n dling of e quipm ent, etc.
Even th ough ideally all undesirable v ib ra tio n s should be e lim inated at the
source it is obvious from th e above " lis t" o f sources th a t th is may be possible
only in very fe w cases. In o th e r cases, how ever, it may be possible to " is o
la te " the source by m eans o f shock and vib ra tio n isolators, or to reduce the
shock and vibration effects by means of effe ctive ly designed vibration absorb
ers, or the use of dam ping treatm ents.
On the other hand, " n a tu r a l" vibration sources like aerodynam ic tu rb u
lence, rough sea m ovem ents and earthquakes cannot be "is o la te d " in the us
ual sense of the w ord. The o n ly way to d im in is h undesirable vibration effects
o rig inating from these types of sources is to "is o la te " th e equipm ent to
w h ich the vibrations may cause serious dam age.
Now, w h e th e r it is the source or the equ ipm e n t that is going to be isolated,
the physical principles involved are sim ilar.
1 2 .1 .1 . Vibration Isolation
Fig. 12.1 show s the " u n iv e rs a l" so lution to isolation problem s, i.e. the
proper m ounting of the source (machine), Fig. 12.1 a), or the equipm ent,
Fig. 1 2.1 b), on springs and dam pers. (If th e springs consist o f cork or ru bber
like m aterials dam ping is a u to m a tica lly b u ilt-in to the spring in the form of in
ternal m aterial damping).
Consider firs t the vib ra tio n iso la tio n o f the source, Fig. 1 2.1 a).
The equation of m otion fo r th e mass, m, in the system, Fig. 1 2.1 a), was fo r292

Equipm ent m

M achine m

-[*)

- J * (

271506

ClX

F f = k x + c -d T

b)

a)

Fig. 1 2 .1 . Illu stra tio n o f th e basic p rin c ip le s involved in vib ra tio n isolation, i.e.
The m o u n tin g o f the m achine p ro d u c in g the vib ra tio n , or the e q u ip
m e n t to be iso la te d from the vib ra tio n , m, on sp rin g s and dam pers
m ulated and solved in Chapter 3, se ctio n
force, F0 e i2nft\

3 .1 , for an a rb itra ry sinusoidal

x { f ) = H {f)F 0 e i2*ft
1
,
4 n 2f02m
w h e re H [f) = ------------

In th e case of vibration isolation, one is not norm ally interested in x(f) but
in the force tra n sm itte d to the fo u n d a tio n . This force is the vector sum of
the force transm itte d thro u g h the sp rin g elem ent and that tra n s m itte d
th rough th e damper, i.e.:
F (f) = kx +

= k x ( f) + c d - Xd\ = Ff e / l 2 * 't + >

Ff eH 2*ft + ) = [k H ( f) + j 2 n fc H (f)]F 0 ei 2n,t

w hereby:

293

where T is the force tra n sm issib ility. M a n ip u la tio n of this equation results in

Here f0 is th e natural undam ped resonant frequency of th e spring-m ass sys

tem and j j is a measure of th e system dam ping:

f = dam ping ratio

cc = critica l dam ping co e fficie n t (cc = 2\Z~km)
Fig. 1 2 .2 show s a graphical representation of the form ula given for 17"| fo r
various d am ping ratios.
The basic p rin c ip le o f vib ra tio n isolation n o w consists in se le c tin g a spring
m o u n tin g so th a t the n a tu ra l frequency, f0 , o f th e spring-m ass system is c o n
siderably lo w e r than the lo w e s t frequency com p o n e n t in the fo rc in g spectrum
produced by th e m achine.
W ith regard to the choice of dam ping ra tio th is should be selected w ith a
view both to give a relatively lo w tra n s m is s ib ility am plification at the springmass resonant frequency, a n d to give s a tisfa cto ry isolation (lo w tra n s m is s ib il
ity) at fre q u e n cie s w ell above resonance.
There are, how ever, o th e r factors w h ic h e n te r the p ic tu re
Some of these are briefly discussed in the fo llo w in g .

in practice.

A rigid m achine w hich is m ounted on fo u r springs as s h o w n in F ig.1 2 .3

may exhibit m ore than one degree-of-freedom in its motion. G e n e ra lly speak
ing it is a six degree-of-freedom system, in th a t it may have tra n sla to ry m o
tions in th ree directions, as w e ll as rotary m o tio n s about th re e m u tu a lly p e r
pendicular axes. (See also section 3.3). In s e le ctin g a proper isolation m oun
ting the lo w e st frequency com ponent in th e fo rc in g spectrum o f the m achin
ery m ust th e n be considerably higher than th e highest resonant frequency of
the (m ulti-degree-of-freedom ) m ou n tin g system .
A no ther fa c to r to be considered is the la te ra l sta b ility of th e m ounting sys
tem . This, in m any cases, sets a lim it to h o w so ft the m ou n tin g springs can
be chosen. In practice a resonant frequency o f the simple spring-m ass sys
tem , Fig. 1 2 .1 , o f the order of 5 1 0 Hz is o fte n used.
294

U ndam ped natural fre qu e n cy, f0

2 7 1 5 0 7 /1

Fig. 1 2 .2 . Curves sh o w in g the absolute tra n s m is s ib ility as a function o f the

frequency ra tio f / f 0 for various dam ping ratios
A t high frequencies so-called "w a ve effects may som etim es occur in th e
m ounting springs. These are due to lo n g itu d in a l standing waves (chapter 3,
section 3 .6 ) in the sp rin g s. They seem, h o w e ver, not to pose too serious p ro b
lems in practice w hen th e springs are produced from m a te ria ls w ith re la tive ly
high in te rn a l dam ping. A curve illu s tra tin g th e o re tica lly th e concept of w a ve effects is show n in Fig. 1 2 .4 .
A n o th e r effect w h ich m ay be of som e concern in th e design of practical v i
bration isolation m o untin g s is the e ffe c t o f foundation reaction. In the above
discussion the fo und atio n has been a ssum ed to be in fin ite ly rigid, i.e. th e m o
tion of th e mass, m . in F ig . 1 2.1 a), is com pletely taken up by the spring and
the dam per. This is not always the case, although in m any practical s itu a
tions it m ay represent a proper a pproxim ation.
295

Fig. 12.3. Sketch o f a m achine m o u n te d on four s p rin g s

I I 111 1 1

1
w
\ \
%

Hevea
(N atural ru bber)-------- V v \
fh

C5R-S----------

GR-

Massless iso a t o r --------------\

i\
\ :l
\ A

0,001
0,1

....................
1,0
R a tio -

l i

...........1
10
Forcing fre qu e ncy

\ i

Rigid body natural frequency

100
f/t
27 15 08

Fig. 12.4. Curves sh o w in g w a ve -e ffe cts in isolators

A som ew hat better approxim ation is to represent the fo u n d a tio n in the
form of a mass w hich is able to move in th e X -d ire ctio n , F ig .1 2 .5 . By solving
the d iffe re n tia l equations of m otion for th is sytem one finds th a t th e resonant
frequency is now:
f o = f0 |A ~ 4

296

m
~B

(12.3)

w h e re f0 is the " o rig in a l" resonant frequency of th e system w ith mass, m,

and stiffness k (B = ). If the fo u n d a tio n is best represented by a p la te , a th e
o retical tre a tm e n t of the situ a tio n involves the th e o ry of stru ctu re s (chapter
3, section 3.6) and may become e xtrem ely com plicated.

M achine m

1
Fo un d atio n, B

Fig. 12.5. Illu s tra tio n o f the approxim ation o f th e m achine fo u n d a tio n by a
mass, B
A p ra ctica l approach to vib ra tio n problem s of the type sketched in
Fig 12.1 a), is to frequency analyze the vibrations produced by th e m achine.
From the m easured (or estim ated) spectrum the lo w e s t frequency com ponent
to be "iso la te d can be determ ined.
By then u tilizin g the curves, F ig .1 2 .2 , the re so n a n t fre q u e n cy of the
m ounted system , as w e ll as the dam ping, necessary to provide s u ffic ie n t iso
lation, can be estim ated.
To find the stiffn e ss required fro m the isolation m o u n t (spring) w h e n the de
sired resonant fre q u e n cy has been determ ined th e fo rm u la :
k

3 9 ,2 P f02 N /m

(12.4)

can be used. Here P is the w e ig h t of the m achine to be isolated in kilogram s

and f0 is the resonant frequency of the m achine and isolation m o u n t system.
F ig s .1 2 .6 , 1 2 .7 and 1 2 .8 illu s tra te a practical case. In F ig .1 2 .6 the fre
quency spectrum m easured on a rotating electrical m achine is s h o w n , w hile
Fig. 12 .7 show s the m easuring arrangem ent used. From th e spectrum .
Fig. 1 2 .6 it is seen th a t the m ajor vibrations (acceleration) are fo u n d in the
frequency range from around 2 0 0 Hz to just above some 1 0 0 0 Hz. A lthough
the re are some distu rb in g v ib ra tio n s also at fre q u e n cie s low er th a n 1 0 0 Hz,
an effective vib ra tio n isolation is re la tive ly easy to ob tain in this case.
If the resonant frequency of th e isolated system is chosen a ro u n d 10 Hz
the isolation of freq uency com ponents higher th a n 1 0 0 Hz w ill be nearly per
fect, and th is is taken as a basis fo r the isolation design. Since, in general it
29 7

Fig. 12.6. V ibration frequency s p e c tru m produced by a ro ta tin g e le c tric a l m a

chine

791021

Fig. 1 2 .7 . M easurin g arrangem ent u s e d to determ ine the frequency spectrum

show n in Fig. 12.6.
is necessary to use at least fo u r v ib ra tio n
o f th e isolators ca rrie s only one q u a rte r
For th e machine in question w h ic h has a
each isolator w ill ca rry a w e ig h t o f 2 kg.
becom es (see Equation (12.4)):

isolators in practice, F ig. 1 2 .3 , each

of the to ta l w e ig h t of th e m achine.
total w e ig h t of 8 kg th is m eans that
The required isolator s tiffn e s s then

k = 3 9 , 2 - 2 -1 0 2 = 7840 N /m
From the m a n u fa ctu re r's catalogue it w as found, how ever, th a t he did not
supply a vibration isolator w ith e xactly th is stiffness, and use th e re fo re had to
be made of isolators w ith a stiffness o f 1 1 8 0 0 N /m .
298

A ctually, it should be m e n tio n e d here th a t m ost vibration isolator m anufac

tu re rs do not publish th e ir data in term s of stiffn e s s but rather in te rm s of the
static deflection corresponding to a certain (m axim um ) static load. If it is as
sumed th a t th e isolator in q u e stio n behaves lin e a rly the stiffness can, on the
o ther hand, be readily estim a te d from the m a n u fa ctu re r's data by means of
the sim ple relationship.
, _

P (m ax)
d [m ax)

W here P is th e w eight of th e m achine per isolator and d is the sta tic deflec
tion produced by this load. In th e above exam ple th e m axim um w e ig h t per iso
lator was given by the m a n u fa ctu re r to be 3 ,6 kgf, and the corresponding def
lection 3 mm th u s
k = 3,6 kgf = 3,6 ~9,S- N/m = 11800 N/m
3 mm
0,003
It is now necessary to check h ow th is in flu e n ce s the resonant frequency of
th e isolation system . R earranging Eqn. (1 2.4) gives:

. /
^
. / 1 1800
fn = V --------- = V ---------- = 12,3 Hz
0
V 39 2 P
y 39,2 2

Brual & K)<r

Mraurfns Obtc*: R o t a t in g e le c tric a l m a ch in e

BrUal

O O

dB

(cording No.: __________ S*orv M .M ----------------------Do: 5 / 5 /7 8 -------------------

D O

D O

O D D O

D D O

O D O

Lm l: ------------------------------

M a c h in e V ib r a t io n

b) F o u n d a tio n V ib r a t io n a fte r Is o la tio n

Int. N o ise " F lo o r '

50000

0000

Fig. 12.8. C urves show ing th e e ffe ct o f vibration isolation

a) V ibration fre q u e n cy spectrum p ro d u ce d by the m achine
b) V ibration fre q u e n c y spectrum m e a su re d on the fo u n d a tio n after
iso la tio n o f the m a ch in e
299

C onsidering th a t th e m ajor frequency com ponents to be isolated are c o n sid

erably higher than 1 2 ,3 Hz this change in resonant frequency is quite accept
able. The resulting iso la tio n can be seen from the curves, F ig .1 2 .8 . Here the
curve a) corresponds to th a t shown in F ig .1 2 .6 , w h ile th e curve b) w as m ea
sured on the fo u n d a tio n after isolation of the m achine.
Note th a t it has been assumed here th a t acceleration w as the im p o rta n t v i
bration param eter to isolate. In m any cases it w o u ld be considered th a t veloc
ity is m ore relevant, and that w ould change the p ictu re som ew hat. The d o m i
nant frequency c o m p o n e n t w ould th e n be at 1 5 Hz w h ic h w ould re q u ire a
considerably low er m o u n tin g resonance frequency to isolate it, but the same
principles can be used.
B efore leaving th e subject of vib ra tio n isolation of m echanical (or e lectrical)
m achinery a fe w fu rth e r considerations should be b rie fly touched upon.
F irstly, it is im p o rta n t th a t the vib ra tio n isolators are placed correctly w ith
respect to the m otion of the center o f gravity of th e m achine, see F ig s.12.1 1
and 1 2 .9 .

1 -------------- 1
^
M achine
I

| Center o f g ravity
^
<

V ib ra tio n
isolators

1
|

< |
>

/ / / / , F o u n d atio n V / / /
V / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Z / / / / / / / , ^// / / / / / / /
271510

Fig. 1 2 .9 . Illu stra tio n o f p ro p e r m o u n tin g o f the m achine. The vibration is o la

tors sh o u ld be placed sym m e trica lly w ith respect to the ce n te r o f
gravity o f th e m otion
Secondly, the ce n te r o f gravity of th e m achine sh o u ld be located as lo w as
possible. If serious "ro c k in g " effects (section 3 .3), or o ther in sta b ilitie s, be
come a problem in th e m ounting, th e effective ce n te r of gravity may be lo w
ered by firs t m ou n tin g th e machine on a heavy m ass and then isolating the
mass + m achine, Figs. 1 2.1 0 and 1 2 .1 1 . F ig .12 .1 1 a ctu a lly also illu s tra te s
the p rinciple of the " flo a tin g " floor.
Thirdly, it is possible by means of a com pound v ib ra tio n isolation system ,
Fig . 1 2.1 2, to obtain a force tra n s m is s ib ility ch a ra cte ristic w h ich gives greater
atte n u a tio n for fre q u e n c y com ponents above the (com pound) system reson-

300

Fig. 1 2 .1 0 .

S ketch sh o w in g the center o f g ra v ity o f a m a c h in e can be " a r t if i

c ia lly " lo w e re d by adding m a s s (w eight) d ire c tly onto the m a
chine
a) M achine
b) M a ch in e w ith properly a d d e d m ass (w eight)

Fig. 1 2 .1 1 .

S ketch sh o w in g h ow the a d d itio n o f mass is utilized in th e socalled " flo a tin g " floor

301

ances th a n does the "s im p le " system d iscussed above, see Fig. 1 2 .1 3 . The
design of such compound system s is, on th e other hand, m ore com plicated
and critica l th a n the design o f a "s im p le " v ib ra tio n isolator.
For readers w ho are fa m ilia r w ith e le c tric a l filte r theory and ele ctro -m e chanical analogies the design problem s in vo lve d may, how ever, not seem to o
form idable.

0,1

0,2

0,5

10
20
50 100
Freq uency ratio f/f-|
2 7 15 14

Fig. 1 2 .1 3 .

Transm issibility curves illu s tra tin g th e difference in tra n s m is s ib ility betw een the s im p le and the com pound system

R eturning n o w to the second "ca se o f vib ra tio n isolation, i.e. the case
w he re e q u ipm e n t is to be isolated from a vib ra tin g fou n d a tio n , Fig 12 1 b),
th e equation o f m otion for th e mass, m, is:

(1 2 .5 )
A gain solving the equation fo r an
xo = X 0 e i2n,t results in

302

a rb itra ry sinusoidal fo u n d a tio n vibration

jf_
Qfo
1
4n*f*

2nfc\

-,

+
m + 1 m

1 If

1 + \ To
2

1 If

= \T\

12.6)

+ o A fa

Thus the displacem ent tra n s m is s ib ility is n o w given by exactly th e same re

lationship, \T\, as was the fo rc e tra n s m is s ib ility in the case w h e re the vib ra
tio n source w a s to be isolated from the fo u n d a tio n . Sim ple m anipulations
w ith the above form ula s h o w th a t the same re la tio n sh ip is also obtained for
the velocity and acceleration tra n s m is s ib ility of th e system of F ig . 1 2.1 b).
The tra n sm issib ility fo rm u la (and the curves show n in Fig. 1 2 .2 ) are th e re
fore generally valid in vib ra tio n isolation problem s. This again m eans that the
same procedures as o u tlin e d in the foregoing are involved in designing a v i
bration isolation system w h e th e r it is the source or equipm ent th a t has to be
isolated.
There is, how ever, one s ig n ific a n t d ifference w h ic h should be borne in mind.
In determ ining the vibration frequency spectrum of the source, F ig .12.1 a)
and F ig .1 2 .6 , the effects of in te rn a l resonances in the m achine are a u to m a ti
cally taken into account. A s th e foundation on w h ic h the m a ch in e (and isola
tor) is placed is assumed to e x h ib it no d is tu rb in g resonance th e isolation prob
lem consists here sim ply in selecting an is o la to r/m a c h in e c o n fig u ra tio n w ith
a resonant frequency, f0 , w h ic h is low enough to ensure s u ffic ie n t isolation
of the forcing frequency com ponents.
W hen the vibrations o rig in a te in the fo u n d a tio n and are tra n sm itte d to
equipm ent F ig .12.1 b), it is not only im p o rta n t to know the fo rc in g vibration
frequency spectrum , but also the internal resonances in th e equipm ent.
These may be excited and could cause se rio u s damage, even if the exciting
frequency com ponents are heavily attenuated by the vib ra tio n isolation sys
tem . This is due to resonance am plification effects w ith in th e equipm ent it
self. It is th e re fo re necessary w hen an e ffe ctive vibration iso la tio n system is
to be designed also to take s u ch in te rn a l e q u ip m e n t resonances in to account.
If these resonances ca n n o t be predicted th e o re tica lly the e q u ipm e n t may be
subjected to a vibration te s t (see Chapter 10) prior to the design of a proper
vibration isolation system . By means of s u ita b le vibration te s tin g , dangerous
303

resonances and th e ir effects can be detected e xp e rim e n ta lly, and corre sp o nd

ing iso latio n criteria established.
1 2 .1 .2 . Shock Isolation
Even though the p rin c ip le s involved in shock iso la tio n are very s im ila r to
those involved in vib ra tio n isolation som e differences e x is t due to th e tra n
sien t na ture of a shock. The re d u ctio n in shock severity, w hich m ay be ob
ta in e d by the use o f isolators, results fro m the storage o f the shock energy
w ith in the isolators a n d its subsequent release in a " s m o o th e r" form i.e. over
a m u ch lon ger p e rio d o f tim e. H ow ever, the energy storage can o nly take
place by deflection of th e isolators.

Fig. 1 2 .1 4 .

304

M axim ax (overall) undam ped shock response spectra for re c ta n

gular, fin a l peak sawtooth, a n d ha lf-sin e shock pulses

A s a shock pulse may co n ta in frequency com ponents ranging fro m 0 to it

is, generally speaking, not possible to avoid e xcita tio n of the is o la to r/m a s s re
sonance. On th e other hand, i f the d u ra tio n o f the shock p u ls e is sh o rt in
com parison w ith one h a lf p e rio d o f the is o la tio n system re s o n a n t frequency
(f0 ), the response o f the syste m m ay not have serious consequences. This
may be best illustrated by m eans of Fig.3.1 3, section 3 .5 , and th e shock re
sponse spectrum type of d e scrip tio n , also o u tlin e d in section 3 .5 .
In this case th e shock response spectrum of greatest in te re s t is the socalled m axim ax, or overall, spectrum (section 3 .5 ). Fig. 1 2 .1 4 s h o w s the m ax
imax shock spectra for the th re e types of shock pulses discussed in section
3 .5 . From th e figure it can be seen th a t as long as the resonant frequency,
f
of the iso la tio n system is considerably lo w e r than j j w h e re T is the d u ra
tio n of the shock pulse, th e shapes of the m axim ax spectra are q u ite sim ila r.
This is in co n fo rm ity w ith th e statem ent made in Chapter 2, section 2 .3 , th a t
"w h e n the d u ra tio n of the shock pulse is sh o rt compared w ith th e natural pe
riod of the m echanical system on w h ich it acts, the severity o f th e shock is
determ ined by the area o f th e shock p u lse a lo n e ". In Fig. 1 2 .1 5 the sta te
m ent may be illustrated even clearer in th a t here the three m axim ax shock
spectra show n in Fig. 1 2.1 4 are redrawn to scales w here th e o rdinate is no
longer S (f)/F but

s w /fJ V

m *.

So F(t) dt is the area of th e shock pulse and jS jF ( t) dt is th e "e ffe ctive

pulse h e ig h t , see Fig.1 2.1 6. Fig. 1 2.1 5 m ay actually be used as basis for
the design and evaluation o f an undamped shock isolation system , as de
scribed below . Consider firs t the system s h o w n in Fig. 1 2.1 7 a), w h ic h is a ctu
ally the same system as s h o w n in F ig .12.1 a), but w ith o u t dam ping. Let the
tim e dependency of the fo rce F (t), in th is
case
be as indicated in
Fig 12 18 a).

The m axim um force a ctin g on the fo u n d a tio n Fr, can n o w be found from
Fig 12 18 b) and Fig.1 2 .1 5 , provided th a t th e resonant fre q u e n cy, f0 , of the
system F ig . 1 2 .1 7 is know n. A ssum ing th a t th is is f0 =1 / 1 0 T
th e m axim um
force acting on the fo u n d a tio n is
found
fro m Fig.
1 2.1 5 to be approxim ate
0 ,6 tim es th e "e ffe ctive fo rce , Fig. 1 2 .1 8 b), i.e.:
M a xim um force "re s p o n s e " = 0 ,6 F0 = Fr
The m axim um displacem ent of the mass, m , is equal to th e force divided by
the stiffness, k, of the isolator:

*'

= Fl _ 0 ,6 Fp
k
k
305

271516

Fig. 1 2 .1 5 .

The firs t p a rt o f the m axim ax to d iffe re n t scales. The spectra are

here n o rm a liz e d to pulses o f the same " e ffe c tiv e " height

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2 7 1 5 1 7

Fig. 1 2 .1 6 .

Illu s tra tio n o f the concept o f "e ffe c tiv e " p u lse height

As th e m otion of th e mass w ill consist o f an o scilla tio n w ith a frequency

equal to the natural fre q u e n cy (resonant frequency) of th e isolation system ,
306

Fig. 1 2 .1 7 .

Fig. 1 2 .1 8 .

S ketch o f basic sp ring-m ass system s fw ith o u t d a m p in g

Shock force pulse a c tin g upon the system show n in Fig. 1 2 .1 7

a) A c tu a l shock pulse
b) "E ffe c tiv e " shock p u lse

the m axim um velocity and acceleration of the mass, m , can then be fo u n d d i

rectly from the relationships:

vr
and

= dxdt

ar =

d 2x
d t2

= 2 n f0 x r = 2 n f0 ~

= 1, 2 n f F

= (2 n f0)2x r = 4 n 2 f 2 = 2 ,4 k 2 f 2 ^

W hen the fo rcing fu n ctio n , F(t), is unknow n, o r d iffic u lt to m easure, it is

often convenient to m easure istead the a cceleration, a, of the m ass, by
means of an accelerom eter. C alculations may th e n be perform ed "back
w a rd s " to d eterm ine the "e ffe c tiv e " force, F0 , as w e ll as other q u a n titie s of
interest.
If viscous dam ping is included in th e isolation system , and it n o rm a lly is,
the above ca lculatio ns m ust be m odified.
S tarting again w ith the m axim ax shock spectrum fo r a damped system,
such a "s p e c tru m is show n in Fig. 12 19 for h a lf sine shock p ulses. In this
case, Fr , is fou nd from F ig. 1 2.1 9, utilizing the curve w hich corresponds to
307

Resonance fre q u e n c y ------

271520

Fig. 1 2 .1 9 .

D a m p e d shock response spectrum fo r h a lf sine shock pu lse s

the damping included in the system . The re la tio n sh ip between Fr and xr is

how ever, in this case no longer q u ite so simple, because Fr is the vector sum
of the forces tra n s m itte d th ro u g h both the spring elem ent and th e damper
(F ig .12.1 a)).
A lso, because o f th e dam ping, f
.
rather*):

w h e re

*)

c
cc

is no longer s im p ly equal to

c
2 \/k m

tt

but

1
2Q

In e ffe ct th is d iffe re n c e in re sonant fre q u e n c y betw een d am p e d and undam ped re s o n a n c e s also
a pp lies to vib ra tio n is o la tio n .s y s te m s . H o w e v e r, th e dam p in g in c lu d e d in these s y s te m s in p rac
tice is often so s m a ll ( f 1) th a t th e re so n a n ce s h ift is n o rm a lly neglected.

308

Taking these factors into account the m axim um displacem ent, xr , o f the
mass, m , becomes:
x = -----

(1 2 7)

r k\/1 + {2^y

U tilizing the relation sh ip s betw een xr , vr and ar one has:

V / - i 2
+

and

a' _ v

1-Z2
/ i W

F,
k
Fr
i

(1oo,

W hen the shock pulse d u ra tio n is no longer short com pared w ith one half
period of the isolation system m otion, u tiliza tio n of th e shock spectrum te c h
nique becomes som ew hat m ore com plicated.
It seems, how ever, that u tiliza tio n of th e "s p e c tru m ' show n in F ig .1 2 .1 9
and the method of e stim a tio n described above for dam ped systems m ay re
s u lt in reasonably good approxim ations to actual practical problems.
In conjunction w ith the practical a p p lication of shock isolators ce rta in facts
should be noted:
F irstly, as m entioned above, reduction in shock fo rc e tra n s m is s ib ility can
only take place by a llo w in g th e isolator to deflect, i.e. by m otion w h ic h a llo w s
the shock energy to be dissipated over a m uch longer period of tim e th a n that
occupied by the shock itself. Thus ce rta in space clearances must be allo w e d
fo r the isolated equipm ent.
Secondly, if the resonant frequency of th e isolation system is chosen in c o r
rectly the isolator may "a m p lify " the d estructive e ffe c ts of the shock rather
than provide the desired isolation. This requires th a t th e resonant fre q u e n cy
of th e isolation system is aw ay from all resonances w ith in the m a ch in e or
equipm ent to be isolated.
Thirdly, if the isolator tu rn s out to have unexpected non-linear c h a ra c te ris
tics (and many practical isolator m a te ria ls do p e rfo rm non-linearly) a great
num ber of "e x tra " response effects m ay take place a t harm onic or s u b -h a r
m onic frequencies.
In some cases isolators are, on purpose, designed to be non -lin e a r. If, for
instance, space lim ita tio n s do not a llo w fo r the re q u ire d (linear) m o tio n of
equipm ent one may be tem ped to em ploy non -lin e a r isolators of the "h a rd e n
30 9

in g spring type (see also C hapter 3, section 3 .2 ). This kind o f isolator w ill,
w h en deflecting into the n o n -lin e a r region, firs tly change the resonant fre
quency of the isolation system (f0 increases w ith increasing is o la to r deflec
tion), and secondly produce a num ber of h a rm o n ic force com ponents w hich
may excite in te rn a l resonances in th e isolated equipm ent. A lso th e peak ac
celeration of the equipm ent m ay be considerably increased by th e use of
"h a rd e n in g " spring type isolators.
On the other hand, i f the is o la tio n system c o n ta in s a fa ir a m o u n t o f dam p
ing, the d e terioratin g effects m entioned above are drastically reduced. Thus,
a heavily damped, "h a rd e n in g " sp rin g type is o la tio n system m a y in some
cases provide the appropriate s o lu tio n to a d iffic u lt iso la tio n p roblem .
BASIC TYPES OF ISOLATORS
Material

F re q u e n c y Range

O p tim u m Frequencies

Dam pin g

L im ita tio n s

R em ark s

M etal Springs:
H elical Com pression
Sprin gs

A ll (th eo retica lly)

L o w freq uen cies

(w ith high sta tic
d eflectio ns)

V e ry lo w
0.1% o f
critic a l

R e a d ily transm it
high frequencies

W id e ly u sed and easy

to p ro d u c e w ith
req u ired c h aracteristics

H elical T ension S prin gs

A ll (th eo retica lly)

L o w freq uen cies

V e ry low

L it t le used

Lea f Springs

Low

Low

F a irly good
(due to fr ic tio n )

L im ite d t o s pecific
a p p lic a tio n s

B elleville Washers

Rubber:
(i) In Shear
(ii) In Com pression
(iii) Shear-Com pression

Hig h w ith
parallel
stackin g

S u b je c t to fatigue:
m o re com plicated
assem bly

C o m p a c t. S tiffn e s s
depends o n m eth o d o f
s tack in g . C o n tr o lle d
n o n -lin e a r stiffness

I lim ite d
> lo ad-carrying
| capacity

(i) S m a ll energy storage

(ii) N o c h a n g e in volum e
( iii) H a s secon dary
s n u b b in g action

depends on
com position
and hardness

High

C o rk

Depends on den sity

H igh

L o w (6% o f
critical)

Pra c tic a l lim it to

m in im u m natural
fre q u e n c y attainable

H ig h ly com p ressib le
w ith o u t lateral
ex pan sion

F elt

Depends on density
& thickn ess. Exten ds
in t o au dio -frequ en cy
range

H ig h (u su a lly above
4 0 Hz

High

Pra c tic a l lim it to

m in im u m natural
fre q u e n c y dependent
o n load & thickness

1 /2 " t o 1" thickn ess

n o rm a lly used

Low

Fair

L o w stiffness with
h igh com p ressib ility

Used in th e fo rm of
m o u ld ed pads or
c u t slabs

Low

Fa ir t o high

L im ite d load-carrying
c a p a c ity

Used in fo r m o f pads;
also as in serts

Sponge Rubber

Steel Mesh

I
|

Increases
w ith rub ber
hardness

Pneum atic (Cushions,

A ir Bellows)

F re q u e n c y con tro lle d

b y a ir volum e

Low

R e la tiv e ly u ndeveloped

R ubber Com posites

Depends on design &

rub ber hardness

H ig h

Depends on
design

M o u ld e d ru b b e r mounting
pads w ith m e ta llic casings
a n d/o r in serts

Sprin g and R ubb er

Com posites

W id e range depends
o n design

D ep end s o n desig n

Low

B a s ic a lly m etal springs

encased in rub ber. M ay
in c o rp o ra te dam ping

Rubberised F a b ric

10

6 8% ty p ic a l

P ro p e rtie s in term ediate

betw een ru b b e r and
steel sprin gs

Cork -R ub ber

High

Stu dded o r R ibbed

Rubb er Mats

M o d e ra te ly lo w

Steel-Bound C o rk

D ep end s on density

Hig h

12 H z typical

Low

A lte r n a tiv e t o rubber

or c o r k

depends
on rubber
hardness

P ro p e rtie s s im ila r to
s o lid r u b b e r b u t w ith
increased s ta tic
de fle c tio n s

U p to 6% o f
critica l

..

Table 12 1
310

C o r k c o m p o s itio n w ith
bo nde d m e ta l faces.
P a r tic u la r ly ap p licab le
fo r is o la tio n o f concrete
m o u n tin g b lo c k s

A n o th e r type of n o n lin e a r shock iso la to r is that w ith "s o fte n in g spring

ch a racteristics. These are fou n d less fre q u e n tly in practice, b u t th e ir main ad
vantage is th a t they very e ffectively reduce th e tra n sm itte d force via large d e f
lections. In cases w h e re equipm ent is to be protected against one severe
shock o nly, use may p ro fita b ly be made of "s o fte n in g or collapsing spring is
olators. The landing system of the am erican Lunar Excursion M odule (1 9 6 9 )
is a good exam ple of the use of this type o f isolator.
It should also be m entioned that, in analogy w ith v ib ra tio n isolation sys
tem s, shock isolation m ay also be provided in the form of com pound system s
(Fig. 1 2.1 2). This seems, however, to be less fre q u e n tly utilized in practice
than is th e case for com pound vibration is o la tio n system s.
Finally, to give the reader an idea of som e im portant characteristics and fe a
tures of com m only used isolators the ta b le 12.1 above has been reproduced
from R.H. W arring (ed ): "Handbook of Noise and V ib ra tio n Control (1 9 7 0
edn.).

1 2 .2 . D Y N A M IC V IB R A T IO N C O N TR O L A N D V IB R A T IO N D A M P IN G
In th e previous section th e basic aspects involved in th e isolation of v ib ra
tions and shocks w ere o u tlin e d . There a re , how ever, practical cases w here v i
bration isolation is not suitable, or d iffic u lt to arrange, and other m ethods of
vibration reduction m ust be sought. O ne w a y of reducing th e vibration m ay
then be to utilize the p rin cip le of the d yn a m ic vibration absorber. This p rin c i
ple can, in general, only be used e ffe c tiv e ly w hen th e "o rig in a l vib ra tio n s
contain one major freq u e n cy com ponent o nly (or they co n sist of a very n a r
ro w band of frequencies such as a lig h tly dam ped, random ly excited single re
sonance).
If vib ra tio n reduction is to be achieved in cases of ra n d o m ly excited m u ltidegree-of-freedom system s (plates and beam s) the a p p lication of dynam ic v i
bration absorbers is n o rm a lly com plicated and use is th e n preferably made of
some sort of general dam ping treatm ent.

1 2 .2 .1 . The Dynam ic Vibration Absorber

The basic physical p rin cip le of the d yn a m ic vibration absorber is th a t of a t
taching to a vibrating stru ctu re a resonance system w h ic h counteracts th e
o rigin al vibrations. Idea lly such a system w o u ld com pletely elim inate the v i
bra tio n o f the structure , by its own vibrations.
Fig. 1 2 .2 0 illu stra te s these ideas. The mass, M , is here assumed to be th e
mass of a (rigid) m achine structure producing the vibrating force, P0 s in (2 w ft).
31 1

A b so rb e r system

m"
k

M achine

| P0 sin(27r ft)
x 2 = X 2 sin(27r ft)

x 1 = X t sin(27r ft)
Isolator

TV ^77
////////

/ / r oFoun
u n adation
a iio n

271521

Fig. 1 2 .2 0 .

Illu s tra tio n o f the p rin c ip le o f th e dynamic vib ra tio n absorber

The m achine is m ounted on a vibration iso la to r w ith a s tiffn e s s , K. Attached

to th e m achine is a resonance (dynam ic absorber) system consisting of the
mass, m , and the spring ele m e n t, k. It is n o w a simple m a tte r to w rite dow n
the equations of motion fo r th e com plete system :
rJ2x .

~^2

+ Kx^ - k [x 2 - x, ) = P0 sin (2 n ft)

(

12. 10)

A ssum ing th a t the sta tio n a ry solutions to these equations can be w ritte n
(w here X j and X 2 can be e ith e r positive or negative)
* i = X , sin (2 n f t )
and

x 2 - X 2 sin ( 2 n f t )

then

and

w h ere

By setting

312

(12 1 1 )
resonant frequency of th e attached (absorber) system

the m otion, X J , of the m a ch in e w ill be zero, i.e. the m a c h in e w ill not vibrate
at all. The m axim um a m p litu d e of the mass, m , is in this case:

This again means th a t by tu n in g the a bsorber system re s o n a n t frequency to

equal th e "d is tu rb in g fre q u e n cy, the v ib ra tio n of the m a ch in e can be e lim i
nated.
A ctu a lly, in practical cases the "d is tu rb in g " frequency re g io n often covers
the resonant frequency o f th e m a ch in e -iso la to r system , and both the ab
sorber and th e isolation system contain som e mechanical dam ping. The e q u a
tions of m o tio n for the co m p le te system th e n become considerably more co m
plex, and so do th e ir s o lu tio n s .
Figs. 1 2 .2 1 , 1 2 .2 2 and 1 2 .2 3 illustrate th e effects upon th e vibration tra n s m issib ility o f a m a c h in e /is o la to r system w h e n the m achine is supplied w ith a
dynam ic vib ra tio n absorber.
From F ig .12.21 it is seen that w h e n th e complete system contains no
dam ping at all and the absorber system is tu n e d to the re s o n a n t frequency of
the m a c h in e /is o la to r system the tra n s m is s ib ility at th is fre q u e n cy is zero, in
c o n fo rm ity w ith the above statem ents and m athem atical derivations. H o w
ever, on both "sid e s" of th e resonant fre q u e n c y tw o, th e o re tic a lly in fin ite ly

269109

Fig. 1 2 .2 1 .

Theoretical tra n s m is s ib ility c u rve s for a v ib ra tio n isolated system

supplied w ith an undamped d ynam ic vibration absorber, see also
Fig. 1 2 .2 0

3 13

Frequency ratio (r )
To
269082

Fig. 1 2 .2 2 .

E ffect o f extrem e absorber d a m p in g upon the tra n s m is s ib iiity r a

tio o f an u n d a m p e d m a c h in e /is o la to r system

27152 2

Fig. 1 2 .2 3 .

314

T ransm issibiiity o f a m a c h in e /is o la to r system w h e n the m achine

is supplied w ith a damped vib ra tio n absorber. The degree o f
dam ping is in d ic a te d on the curves. (Snowdon)

high, tra n sm issib ility "p e a k s " are found. The shape of the curve is caused by
th e dynam ic coupling betw een th e m a c h in e /is o la to r system and th e absorber
system . C oupling effects of th is sort are quite com m on in m any branches of
physics.
If the absorber damping is in fin ite , the absorber mass is v irtu a lly clamped
to the m achine and the absorber system does not fu n ctio n at a ll. Fig. 1 2 .2 2 .
In practice, w h e n a damped vib ra tio n absorber is applied to a m a c h in e /is o la
to r system th e tra n s m is s ib ility curve m ust lie betw een th e tw o extrem es
sketched in F ig .1 2 .2 2 . This is illu stra te d in F ig .1 2 .2 3 for va rio u s values of
absorber dam ping ratio.
Theory has show n th a t w h e n dam ping is added to the absorber th e " o p ti
m u m " perform ance co n d itio n s*) are, in general, no longer obtained by tuning
the resonant frequency o f th e absorber system to equal th e re sonant fre
quency of th e m a c h in e /is o la to r system . A c tu a lly the most fa vo u ra b le tuning
depends upon the ratio b e tw e e n the absorber mass and the m ass o f the ma
chine i.e. m /M . It has been fo u n d th a t w h e n th e dam ping is of th e viscous
type then th e ratio betw een th e absorber resonant frequency, fa , and the ma
c h in e /is o la to r resonant fre q u e n cy f0 , should be:

269076

Fig. 1 2 .2 4 .

*)

Curve sh o w in g " o p tim u m " viscous dam ping fa cto r as a function

o f the mass ra tio ~ (Snowdon)

" O p tim u m " co n d itio n s are a s s u m e d to be th o se w h ic h e n su re a m a x im a lly " f l a t pea k-n o tch region of th e tra n s m is s ib ility c u rv e . Fig. 1 2 .2 3 , to be o b ta in e d .

315

From th is equation it is noted th a t w h e n m / M is sm a ll the d ifference be

tw e en the tw o re so n a n t frequencies is negligible, w h ile for an increasing

Fre q u e n cy ratio (t-)

T1
269075

Fig. 1 2 .2 5 .

Theoretical tra n s m is s ib ility curves fo r a system o f the type

show n in Fig. 1 2 .2 0 s u p p lie d w ith a visco u sly dam ped dynam ic
vibration absorber. O p tim u m absorber tu n in g and dam ping for
mass ra tio s o f jfi = 0 .1 , & = 0 ,2 , m = 0 ,5 . (Snow don)

Fig. 1 2 .2 6 .

316

D ynam ic vib ra tio n absorber a p p lie d to:

a) M achine (source)
b) Equipm ent

m ass-ratio th e "d e -tu n in g " o f th e absorber m ay become very sig n ifica n t. A lso
the "o p tim u m viscous d a m p in g factor depends upon th e m ass-ratio, see
F ig .1 2 .2 4 . Finally, F ig .1 2 .2 5 shows some theoretical tra n s m is s ib ility curves
calculated fo r various m a ss-ra tio s and "o p tim u m dam ping. Note the dec
rease in resonant a m p lific a tio n w ith increasing m ass-ratios.
As pointed out in section 12.1 the th e o re tica l tre a tm e n t of the vibration
tra n s m is s ib ility from a v ib ra tin g source (m achine) to its fo u n d a tio n , and th a t

Vibration of
specimen mass

afija:__

v 25 mm/sec
10000

V ib r a t io n o f
specim en mass
w ith absorber
attached_______

!5 mm/sec
1 mm/sec
QP1123

Fig. 1 2 .2 7 .

10000

269121

Curves s h o w in g a p ra ctica l exam ple o f the e ffe c t o f applying a

dynamic v ib ra tio n absorber to a sim ple vib ra tin g system
a) T ra nsm issib ility curve fo r th e system before th e dynamic v ib ra
tion absorber was applied
b) T ransm issib ility curve fo r th e system w ith absorber

317

of the vib ra tio n tra n s m is s ib ility from a vib ra tin g fo u n d a tio n to a m ounted
equipm ent is more or less identical. This, of course, also applies w ith respect
to the use of dynam ic v ib ra tio n absorbers see, F ig. 1 2 .2 6 .
To illu s tra te this s ta te m e n t consider a rig id equipm ent (m ass: M) e lastically
m ounted on an e le ctro-dynam ic vibration m a ch in e (see also section 10.1). The
tra n s m is s ib ility curve fo r th is system w a s measured and a utom atically re
corded on a Bruel & K j r Level R ecorder, Fig. 1 2 .2 7 a). By attaching a
damped dynam ic absorber system (mass: m = 0 ,5 M ) to th e m ass M the tra n s
m issib ility curve was changed into the one show n in Fig. 1 2 .2 7 b). The e ffect
of the absorber is cle a rly noted. For th e sake of com pletion th e vibration o f
the absorber mass, m , w a s also m easured and recorded, Fig. 1 2 .2 8 . Before
fin ish in g th is brief discussion of the d yn a m ic vibration a bsorber it should be
m entioned th a t the p rin c ip le of the absorber may be used not only to reduce
resonance effects in v ib ra tio n and shock is o la tio n system s, b u t also to reduce
the vib ra tio n of beams and plates v ib ra tin g in one of th e ir fundam ental
modes. Thereby the acoustic radiation fro m , fo r instance, a plate, may be re
duced, m aking the dynam ic vibration absorber an e fficie n t to o l in the "b a ttle
against a coustic noise.

Fig. 1 2 .2 8 .

V ibration o f th e absorber m ass, m , in the syste m used to obtain

the tra n s m is s ib ility curve s h o w n in Fig. 1 2 .2 7 b j

1 2 .2 .2 . Application of D am ping Treatm ents

As pointed out in section 3 .6 , structural ele m e n ts like beam s and plates ex
h ib it a, th e o re tica lly in fin ite , num ber of resonances (norm al modes). If these
elem ents are subjected to vibrations of v a ria b le frequency (m o to r w ith v a ri
able speed), or to w id e band random v ib ra tio n s , a n u m b e r of resonances
318

m ight be excited and th e application of separate dynam ic vibration absorbers

becomes im practical. Because most e n gineering m a te ria ls like steel, a lu m i
niu m , copper etc. conta in little in h e re n t dam ping, re so n a n t vibrations m u st
be reduced by some "e x te rn a l" means. In the case of plates, use is so m e
tim es made of some sort of "s tiffe n in g " arrangem ents. These arrangem ents
do, how ever, not dam p th e resonances, they m erely s h ift them to w a rd s
higher frequencies. If th e resonances can be shifted to frequencies w h ic h
w ill not be excited d urin g norm al operation of the e q u ip m e n t th is solution to
the problem of reducing plate vibrations m ay be acceptable.*)
On the o ther hand, in com plicated m achinery, the s h iftin g of resonant fr e
quencies in one elem ent m ay cause serious vibration tro u b le s to occur in
some other elem ent. The m ost general so lu tio n to the problem w ill th e re fo re
be, in some w ay or oth e r, to apply som e sort of external dam ping to th e e le
ments considered.
External dam ping can be applied in several ways: (1) By means of in te rfa ce
dam ping (friction), (2) by spraying a layer of material w ith high internal losses
over the surface of the vib ra tin g e lem ent or (3) by de sig nin g the critica l e le
m ents as "s a n d w ic h " stru ctu re s.
Interface dam ping is obtained by le ttin g tw o surfaces " s lid e on each o th e r
under pressure, see Fig 1 2 29 a). If th e re is no lu b rica tin g m aterial betw een
the surfaces the dam ping effect is produced by dry fric tio n (Coulomb d a m p
ing). The force versus displacem ent re la tio n sh ip for th is type of dam ping is
show n in Fig. 1 2 .2 9 b), and the total dissipated vib ra tio n a l energy (dam ping
energy) is given by th e area enclosed by the curve B C D E B.
Even if dry frictio n can be a very e ffective means of d a m ping excessive v ib ra
tions it has the disadvantage that it m ay lead to fre ttin g corrosion of th e tw o
surfaces. To avoid the fre ttin g corrosion use is som etim es made of an a d h e
sive separator The arra n g em e n t th e n , how ever, tu rn s in to w h a t is co m m o n ly
term ed a sandw ich s tru c tu re , a type of damping a rra n g em e n t w hich is f u r
th e r discussed later in th is section.
One of the "s im p le s t" m ethods of applying damping to a structural e le m e n t
vibrating in bending is to spray a layer of viscoelastic m a te ria l w ith high in te r
nal losses over the surface of the e le m e n t. This kind of dam ping te ch n iq u e
has been w idely used in th e autom otive industry for m any years. The m ost
w e ll-k n o w n m aterials, solely made fo r th e purpose, are th e so-called m astic
deadeners made from an asphalt base.

*)

A c tu a lly because in te rn a l m a te ria l d am ping o fte n increases w ith fre q u e n c y a certain " d a m p in g "
e ffe c t m ay also be a chie ve d by s h iftin g th e re s o n a n t frequencies.

319

Fig. 12.29.

Exam ple o f in te rfa c e damping

a) Sketch s h o w in g a physical syste m producing d ry frictio n type
o f interface d a m p in g
b) Force versus displacem ent re la tio n s h ip fo r th is type o f dam p
in g

Other types of ''d e a d e n in g '' materials are at present co m m e rcia lly avail
able. Common to all of th e m are that they are made from hig h polym er m ate
rials possessing optim um d a m p in g properties over certain fre q u e n c y and te m
perature regions. These re g io n s may, how ever, fo r some m astic m aterials, be
fa irly wide.
To obtain o ptim u m dam ping of the co m bination stru ctu ra l e le m e n t + dam p
ing m aterial, not only m ust th e internal loss fa cto r of the d a m ping material
be high, but so also must its m odulus of e la s tic ity (Young's m odulus).
An approxim ate form ula governing the dam ping properties of a treated
panel in practice is given by th e expression:
2

w h e re (see also F ig . 1 2.30):

320

= Loss factor of th e com bination s tru c tu re e lem ent (panel)

+ dam ping m aterial
tj = Loss factor of th e dam ping m a te ria l
E 1 = M odulus of e la s tic ity (Youngs m odulus) of th e s tru c tu
ral elem ent
E2 = M odulus of e la sticity of the dam ping material
d j = Thickness of th e stru ctu ra l e le m e n t (panel)
d = Thickness of th e layer of dam ping material

One fact, w h ich is im m ediately obvious from the above form ula, is th a t the
relative thickness of th e layer of dam ping m aterial, (d 2 / d j ) , plays a ve ry im
portant role in the re su lta n t dam ping. In practice th e ra tio is norm ally chosen
to be of the order of th re e to one. A ls o , it can be seen th a t it is g e n e ra lly ad
vantageous to apply one (thick) layer of damping m a te ria l rather than dividing
the layer in tw o by using doublesided coating.
A th ird method of applying dam ping to stru ctu ra l elem ents is th e use of
sandw ich stru ctu re s, F ig .1 2 .3 1 . S everal types of su ch con stru ctio n s exist:
The original stru ctu re may be supplied w ith a co n stra in e d viscoelastic layer,
i.e. the dam ping m ateria l is covered w ith a thin m etal sheet, F ig .1 2 .3 1 a): a
th in visco-elastic layer is placed b e tw een tw o e q u a lly th ick plates (adhesive
separator), Fig 12.3 1 b); or fin a lly use may be m ade of a thick visco-elastic
layer betw een the tw o plates, F ig. 1 2 .3 1 c).
A considerable nu m b e r of th e o re tica l and exp e rim e n ta l investigations have
been carried out to a llo w the p re d ictio n and com parison of dam ping p ro p e rt
ies of sandw ich stru ctu re s . The ge n e ra l results of th e se investigations in d i
cate th a t, con trary to the above discussed a p p lication of mastic deadeners,
the thickness of th e visco-elastic layer is not a fa c to r of prim e im portance. It
seems, how ever, th a t th e overall geom etry of th e c o n stru ctio n (sym m etrical,
unsym m etrical) is im p o rta n t, the sym m etrical c o n s tru c tio n show ing th e most
favourable overall dam ping p roperties. On the o th e r hand, w hen th e th ic k
ness of the visco-elastic layer is increased, the te m p e ra tu re and frequency
ranges w ith in w h ic h optim um dam ping can be o b tained also increases.
E 2 ;r)2
V iscoe la stic

d2

layer

:
Panel
Ej

Fig. 1 2 .3 0 .

2 7 15 25

S ketch illu s tra tin g the use o f a s in g le visco-elastic la y e r to ob

ta in th e re q u ire d vib ra tio n damping e ffe c t

T h in m etal sheet

Viscoelastic layer

Panel -

Panel

V is c o e la s tic layer

a)
Fig. 1 2 .3 1 .

Panel -

V iscoelastic layer

b)

c)

Examples o f sa n d w ich s tru c tu re s

a) Use o f a co n stra in e d visco e la s tic layer
b) S a n d w ich s tru c tu re w ith a th in visco-elastic la ye r
c) S a n d w ich s tru c tu re w ith a th ic k visco-elastic la ye r

To illustrate th e general d iffe re n c e in dam ping obtained betw e e n a system

using sin gle-layer mastic deadening and a sa n d w ich con stru ctio n , som e mea
sured results (C rem er and Heckl) are reproduced in F ig . 1 2 .3 2 .
The m easurem ent of m aterial dam ping pro p e rties is norm ally ca rrie d out by
one of tw o basic m easurem ent methods:
1.

The fre quen cy response m e th o d , and

2.

The decay-rate (reverberation) method.

The practical application of th e frequency response method n o rm a lly consits of cutting a bar-shaped sam ple from the m a te ria l to be te ste d , clamping

50

100

200

4 00

8 00

1600

Hz

3200

6400

Frequency, f
27 15 27

Fig. 12.32.

322

R e su lts o f loss fa c to r m easurem ents on a sa n d w ich structure

w ith a th in visco -e la stic layer, a n d on a plate s u p p lie d w ith
sin g le -la y e r m a stic deadening (d2 / d 1 ~ 2,5). (A fte r C re m e r and
H eckl)

Fig. 1 2 .3 3 .

Com plete frequency response curve o b tained from

m ents on a sample bar d a m p e d at one e n d

m e a su re

the sample bar at one end, or both ends, and e x c itin g it into b e n ding vibra
tio n s w ith a variable frequency, sinusoidal force.
The am plitude o f the response vib ra tio n s is then p lotted as a fu n c tio n of fre
quency, see Fig. 1 2 .3 3 . From such a curve, at a resonance peak, th e loss fac
tor can be calculated as
r, = A fn t f n

(1 2 .1 4 )

w h e re A / is th e bandw idth at th e half power p o in ts (3 d B points) and fn is

the resonant frequ ency. The index n is the order of the resonance, or mode
num ber. The m o dulus of e la sticity*) (Young's m odulus) can be fo u n d fro m the
resonant frequency and the m echanical dim ensions of the bar:
E = 48n2 Q

^ j 2 N /m 2

(1 2 .1 5 )

/
h
p
Kn

is the active length (m) of the bar,

is the th ickn ess in the plane of vibration
(m)
is the m aterial density (k g /m 3 )
depends on th e boundary co n d ition s of the bar:

*)

The m o du lu s o f e la s tic ity fo u n d a ccord in g to th e described te c h n iq u e actu a lly is th e re al part of

a com plex m o d u lu s of e la s tic ity (d yna m ic m o d u lu sl. In m o st p ra c tic a l cases, h o w e v e r, th e d iffe r
ence b e tw e e n th e m o d u lu s of e la s tic ity fo u n d fro m th e fo rm u la g iven here and Y o u n g 's m odu
lus is n e g lig ib le .

3 23

both ends free or clam ped:

K, = 4 ,7 3 ; K 2 = 7 ,8 5 3 ; K3 = 1 0 ,9 9 6

n>3
one end free, one end clamped:
K, = 1,875; K 2 = 4 ,6 9 4 ; K 3 = 7 ,8 5 5

n>3
T his measuring m ethod is
0 ,0 0 1 . W hen the loss factor
plitu d e because no standing
resonance peaks w ill be too
w ith reasonable accuracy.

s u ita b le fo r values o f r j between ab o u t 0 ,6 and

is large it w ill be im p o ssib le to m easure the am
w aves w ill be present, and if it is too sm all the
n a rro w to allow th e b andw idth to be measured

For the second m ethod m entioned above, i.e. th e decay rate m ethod, the
external exciting fo rce is tuned to a resonant fre q u e n c y of the sam ple w hich
w ill start a forced oscilla tio n w ith steady a m p litu d e when e q u ilib riu m is
reached. If the e xcitin g force is stopped instantly, th e vibration a m p litu d e de
cays exponentially w ith tim e. (Thus lin e a rly w ith tim e if plotted o u t lo g a rith m i
cally.) The loss fa c to r rj is found fro m
1 =

(1 2 .1 6 )

w h e re D is the decay rate in d B /s and fn is the re sonant (modal) frequency.

The m odulus of e la s tic ity , E, is fo u n d as described above for the fre q u e n c y re
sponse method (Eqn. (12.1 5)).
In th e decay rate m ethod, the upper lim it for m ea su rin g the loss fa c to r de
pends on the m easu rin g in stru m e n ts. There is no th e o re tic a l low er lim it.
A type of decay-rate m easurem ent w h ich has been extensively used in the
past, especially in th e U .S .A ., is th e so-called G eiger thick-plate te st. The ba
sic principle of th is te s t is the sam e as already o u tlin e d for c u t-o u t sample
bars, only that the sam ple in th is case consists o f a suspended plate, see
F ig .1 2 .3 4 .
N orm ally decay m easurem ents according to th e G eiger test are made at
one frequency only. A s th is test has been used m a in ly in co n ju nctio n w ith au
to m o tive panels the frequency has com m only been chosen around 1 6 0 Hz.
324

Fig. 1 2 .3 4 .

M e a s u rin g arra n g em e n t suitable fo r use in co n ju n c tio n w ith the

G eiger thick-p la te test

Fig. 1 2 .3 5 .

S ketch sho w in g h o w the a tte n u a tio n o f progressive m echanical

waves m ay be m e asured

So far the decay-rate type of te sts discussed have been based on the inter
ruption of a steady state norm al mode (resonant) vib ra tio n , i.e. tim e decay
m easurem ents. O ther types of decay-rate m easurem ents are sometim es
used: the de te rm in atio n of the decay-rate of progressive w aves. T h is is based
on decay-rate d e term in atio n s in space rather th a n in tim e, as described be
low. W hen a long strip of m aterial is excited in transverse vib ra tio n at one
end, and te rm in a te d at the o th e r end in such a w a y th a t pra ctica lly no reflec
tio n takes place. F ig .1 2 .3 5 , one-dim ensional m echanical w aves progress
325

along the strip. The a tte n u a tio n of th e se waves m ay th e n be used a m easure

o f th e damping pro p e rties of the m a te ria l strip:

7 = 2 7 ,3

(1 2 .1 7 )

w h e re D^ is the a tte n u a tio n along th e s trip in dB per w ave le n g th .

1 2 .3 . SELECTED B IB LIO G R A P H Y
BLAY, D.,
BOURGAIN, L., and
S A M S O N , G.:

A p p lica tio n o f E le ctro -A co u stica l Techniques to the

D e te rm in a tio n o f the M o d u lu s o f E la sticity by a NonD e stru ctive Process. B & K Tech. Rev. N o.4 , 1 971

CRANDALL, S .H.:

The Role o f D am ping in V ib ra tio n Theory. J . Sound

Vib. Vol. 1 1. No. 1. 1 9 7 0

CREDE, C E.

V ibration a n d Shock Isolation. Jo h n W ile y and Sons,

Inc. New York 1951 (1 9 6 2 )

CREMER, L. and
HECKL, M .:

K rperschall. S pringer V erlag.

N ew York, 1 9 6 7

DERBY, T.E. and

RUZICKA, J.E.:

Loss Factor, R esonant F re q u e n cy o f V iscoelastic

S hear D a m p e d S tru c tu ra l Com ponents. N ASA Report
CR 1 2 6 9 , 1 9 6 9

GROOTENHUIS, P.:

M e a su re m e n t o f the D ynam ic Properties o f D am ping

M a te ria l. Proc. Int. Symp. A ssoc. Beige A co u stie u s,
Leuw en 1 9 6 7

GROOTENHUIS, P.:

S a n d w ich D a m p in g Treatm ent A p p lie d to Concrete

S tructures. T rans. R. Soc. A 2 6 3 , 4 5 5 . 1 9 6 8

GROOTENHUIS, P.

The C o n tro l o f Vibrations w ith Viscoelastic M a te ria ls,

J . Sound V ib. V ol. 1 1, No. 4 . 1 9 7 0

GROOTENHUIS, P.:

The A n ti-S h o c k M o u n tin g o f Testing M achines. Proc.

Inst. M ech. Engrs. 1 9 6 5 -1 9 6 6

KUNICA, S.:

S e rv o -c o n tro lle d P neum atic Iso la to rs Their P ro p e rt

ies and A p p lic a tio n s . ASM E Paper N o .6 5 -W A /M D 1 2. Nov. 1 9 6 5

KURTZE, G.:

Physik u n d Technik der Lrm ebekm pfung. V erlag G.

Braun. K a rlsru h e , 1 9 6 4

326

B erlin, H eidelberg /

MEAD, D.J.:

The P ractica/ P roblem s o f Assessing D a m p in g Treat

m ents. Jo u rn a l of S ound and V ibration. V ol. 1, No.
3, J u ly 1 9 6 4

MUSTIN, G S.:

Theory o f Cushion D esign. M onograph No. S VM -2,

Shock and Vibration In fo rm a tio n Center W ashington,
DC. 1968

OBERST, H.:

S ch w ingungsdm pfenden K unststoffe aus optim al

e in g este llte n Polym eren. K o llo id -Z e itsch rift. Zeitsch
rift f r Polymere. Band 21 6-21 7, S. 6 4 -8 0 , 1 967

O L E S E N ,H P . and
DELPY, D.T.:

Shock a n d Vibration Is o la tio n o f a Punch Press. Brel

& Kj r Tech. Rev. No. 1 -1 9 7 1

ROSS, D ..U N G A R , E.
and KERWIN, E.M .:

, D a m p in g o f Plate F le x u ra l Vibrations by M e a n s o f Vis

coelastic Laminae. A S M E Publ. S tru c tu ra l Damping.
Section 3. 1 9 6 9

RUZICKA, J E.:

Resonance C haracteristics o f U n id ire c tio n a l Viscous

and C oulom b-Dam ped V ibration Iso la tio n Systems.
Trans. ASM E, Jo u rn . o f Eng. for Industry, 8 9 , Series
B, N o .4 , Nov. 1 9 6 7

SNOWDON, J.C .:

R ubberlike M aterials, Their In te rn a l D a m p in g and

Role in Vibration Iso la tio n . Journal of S ound and V i
bration. Vol. 2, No. 2, A p ril 1 9 6 5

SNOWDON, J.C .:

V ibration and Shock in D am ped M e c h a n ic a l Systems.

John W ile y and Sons, In c. N ew York, 1 9 6 8

SNOWDON, J.C .:

Iso la tio n and A b so rp tio n o f M a ch in e ry Vibration. US

Navy Report TM 7 6 - 1 8 8 , 1 9 7 6

SOLIM AN, J .l. and

HALLM AN , M .G .:

V ibration Isolation B e tw e e n N o n -rig id M a ch in e s and

N o n -rig id Foundations. J o u rn a l of S ound and V ibra
tio n . V ol. 8, No. 2, S eptem ber 1 9 6 8

ZAVERI, K., and

OLESEN, H P.:

M e a su re m e n t o f E lastic M o d u lu s and Loss Factor o f

A sp h a lt. B & K Tech. Rev. N o.4, 1 9 7 2

UNGAR, E.E. and

DIETRICH, C.W .:

H igh Frequency V ib ra tio n Isolation. J o u rn a l of Sound

and V ib ra tio n. V o l.4, N o .2, September 1 9 6 6

WARRING, R.H. ed.:

H andbook o f Noise a n d V ibration C ontrol. Trade and

T echnical Press, Ltd. M o rd e n , S urrey, England 1 9 7 8
(Previous edition, 1 9 7 0 )
327

APPENDICES
A P P E N D IX A

On th e Statistical Interpretation o f th e R M S -V alu e

In co nju nction w ith th e brief discu ssio n in Chapter 2, section 2 .2 , on the
p ro b a b ilistic description of random v ib ra tio n signals it m ig h t be of c o n s id e r
able in te re st to re la te the concept o f th e signal R M S -value to th is k in d of
data.
The d e fin itio n of p ro b a b ility d ensity given in section 2 .2

,.

Hm

P(*) = j...
x >o

P(x)P(x+Ax)

Ax------- L

(A. 1 )

im m e d ia te ly leads to th e fo llo w in g expression for the p ro b a b ility of fin d in g in

stan tane ous am plitude values w ith in th e (sm all) a m p litu d e interval, A x:

P (x ) P ( x + A x) = P ( x ; x + Ax) = J

p (x )d x

W hen x is a fu n c tio n o f tim e as in d ica ted in Fig .A. 1, th e n

Ax

fx+

P (x ; x + A x) =
X

D e fin in g now the s ta tis tic a l q u a n tity

OC

x 2 p (x )d x

(A .2)

th is m ay be expressed as follow s.
f*
(T2 =

Hm
x 2 p (x) dx

J oc

Ax*0

x
Yj X2 P {x , x + Ax)
oo

( A . 3)
328

Fig.A. 1. Example o f a s ta tio n a ry random tim e fu n ctio n (vib ra tio n )

Fig.A. 2. Illu s tra tio n o f the re la tio n s h ip betw e e n the in s ta n ta n e o u s m agnitude

values in a G aussian random vibration s ig n a l and th e G aussian p ro b
a b ility density curve

( j 2 is, in the literature on sta tistics, com m only term ed variance and the
square-root of the variance is called the sta n d a rd deviation, a . However,
w h en the statistical phenom enon being studied is a sta tio n a ry tim e -fu n c tio n
as show n in Fig.A. 1, then
329

(A. 4)
w h ic h is nothing but th e expression used in engineering dynam ics fo r th e s ig
nal R M S -value. Thus, besides being related to the p o w e r involved in th e p ro
cess, th e RM S-value is also directly re la te d to the process sta tistics. This may
be best appreciated by considering th e fact th a t m ost probability d ensity
curves are expressed in te rm s of standard deviations (R M S -deviations), see
also F ig .2 .9 .
F inally, F ig .A .2 illu s tra te s the re la tio n sh ip between th e instantaneous a m
plitu d e values in a G aussian random vib ra tio n signal and th e Gaussian p roba
b ility density curve.

A P P E N D IX B

Response Versus E xcitation Characteristics for Linear Single D egree-ofFreedom Systems

In C hapter 3, section 3 .1 , the d iffe re n tia l equation of m o tio n fo r a fo rc e -e x
cited, linear, single degree-of-freedom system w as fo rm u la te d (see also
F ig.3.1 b) and Fig.B.1 a) below):

By Fourier tra n s fo rm a tio n it was s h o w n , fu rth e rm o re , th a t the d isplace

m ent response, x, of th e mass, m , to a sinusoidal e xcitin g force can be w r it
ten:
x = H (f) F0e i 2nft

(B. 1)

w h e re H(f) w as term e d th e complex fre q u e n cy response fu n ctio n .

H (f) =

330

(B.2)

Fig.B. 1. M odels o f a single degree-of-freedom system

a) S ystem excited by a fo rc e a cting upon th e m ass
b) S ystem excited by m o tio n o f the fo u n d a tio n
from w h ich
l ( 0 l

(B.3)

Q 2Vo

d>(f) = tan 1

(B.4)

Q \j

w here \FI(f)\ is the absolute value of th e displacem ent fre q u e n cy response

fu nctio n and cp(f) is the p h a se lag betw een th e displacem ent o f the mass, m ,
and the e xcitin g force.
By u tiliz in g the relation sh ip s

v(t)

= dxd t

a(t) =

d 2x
W

the ve lo city and acceleration frequency response fu n c tio n s can be readily

found. The results are given in the firs t ta b le and the corresponding fu n ctio n s
are gra p h ica lly illustrated in Fig.B.2.
If th e e xcita tion of the system is not a fo rc e , but a m o tio n o f the foun d a tio n
Fig.B. 1 b) a large num ber of response ve rsu s excitation fu n c tio n s can be fo r
m ulated. The response o f interest may, fo r instance, be th e absolute m otion
of the m ass, m , or it m ay be the relative m otion betw een th e mass and th e foundation (the loading on th e spring elem ent).

331

F ig.B .2. C urves sh o w in g th e displacem ent, velocity a n d acceleration r e

sponse o f a fo rce -e xcite d single degree-of-freedom system . Note th a t
th e curves fo r ve lo city and a cce le ra tio n response can be fo u n d s im
p ly by adding re sp e ctive ly 6 a n d 12 d B /octave to th e displacem ent
response
Force-excited, linear, single degree-of-freedom system
Response q u a n tity
D isplacem ent of mass, m ,
Fig. B. 1a)

V elocity of mass, m,
Fig. B. 1a)

A cceleration of mass, m ,
Fig. B. 1a)

Frequency response fu n ctio n

H A f) = k

/A
'Vv/

Hrl

K r : Ur)
*

- 4 n 2f 2
' 'a y >
k

'- ( 0 ] *b(f)
8 0 0 12 9

332

Response versus e xcita tio n functions fo r th e absolute m o tio n o f the m ass

are ta bulated in the second table.
Response
Q u antity,
Fig.B. 1 b)
Displacement
x ft)

E xcitation Q u a n tity Fig.B. 1b)

Displacement

V e lo c ity

\H ( f) \ - %

Acceleration

= 2 n fD 2

|WW|

- J p D ,

V e locity
vx (t)
Acceleration

\H (f)\ =

lH W l * 2 M ,

\H {f)\ - 4 n l 2D'

\m n \ = ^

! ( /)! -

800130

w here

and

S im ila rly respijn se versus excitation fu n c tio n s fo r th e re la tiv e m otion betw een th e mass and the foundation are ta b u la te d in the th ird table:

Response
Q uantity,
Fig.B. 1b)
Relative
Displacement
x ( t) - x 0 (t)
Relative
V elocity

Excitation Q u a n tity Fig.B. 1b)

Displacement,

V e lo c ity ,

Acceleration,

x 0 (t)

vxo ^

ax o M

\H {f)\ - f L
' 0

\H (f)\ =

vx M - Vx o (t)
Relative
A cceleration
aJ t ) ~ ax o (^

\H {f)\ =

lH W l '

\H {f)\ -

2 ,/ k

fL
J0 U

|WOTl - J t i o ,

'

\H ( f) \ '0

2 , 'H D 2

[
J0 U

800131

w h e re D2 has the same meaning as before.

333

By studying the three ta b le s it is readily noticed that when one of the de

sired response versus excitation functions, \H (/)|, has been formulated the
other follows immediately by manipulating with the quantity 2 nf, see also
the curves, F ig.B .2. That th is m ust be so fo llo w s im m ediately fro m the m a th e
m atical rela tion sh ip s betw e e n the displacem ent, velocity and a cceleration.*)

A P P E N D IX C

On the W ave-Shape D istortion in Non-Linear Mechanical Systems

W h ile a line ar resonance system may act as a signal "w a v e filte r" s u p
pressing possible harm onic d isto rtio n a non-linear resonance system actually
produces waveform distortion. The degree o f distortion depends on the typ e
of n o n -lin e a rity and upon th e excitation of th e system.
As a firs t example co n sid er a n o n -lin e a r, single degree-of-freedom system
of the hardening spring typ e , Fig.C.1 (see also Chapter 3, section 3.2). A s
sum e fu rth e r th a t the fo u n d a tio n of the system moves sin u so id a lly at a fr e
quency close to the system resonance. The w aveform of th e displacem ent o f
the mass may then look as sh o w n in Fig.C.2 a).

271546

Fig.C.1. Model of a single degree-of-freedom system containing a non-linear

spring element

---------------------*)

D<

For th e sp ecia l case | W(/)l = = , see also F ig .1 2 .2 o f th e text.

2

334

Fig.C.2. Typical resonance wave shapes fo r th e m otion o f th e m ass in a

single degree-of-freedom system c o n ta in in g a h a rd e n in g sp rin g type
s tiffn e ss elem ent
a) D isplacem ent
b) V elocity
c) A ccele ration

By d iffe re n tia tio n of the d isplacem ent signal w ith respect to tim e one finds
th a t the corresponding velocity of th e mass w ill have a w ave-shape as in d i
cated in Fig.C.2 b). Finally, a second d iffe re n tia tio n yields the acceleration
w ave-shape show n in Fig.C.2 c).

Fig. C. 3. S im ila r to Fig. C. 2, the s tiffn e s s e le m e n t in th is case b e in g o f the so f

te n in g sp rin g type
a) D isplacem ent
b) Velocity
c) A cceleration
335

A s a second exam ple of n o n -lin e a r resonance d is to rtio n , assume th a t the

system , F ig.C .1, is of th e softening spring type. U nder th e same excitation
con d ition s as stated above the m o tio n of the m ass th e n produces w a ve
shapes as show n in Fig.C .3. A lth o u g h th e w ave-shape disto rtio n is here not
n e arly as heavy as in th e hardening sp rin g case it can be cle a rly noticed.

Fig.C.4. Model of a two degree-of-freedom system containing one non-linear

stiffness element of the hardening spring type

Bm.1 8, C,OK

Brtil 4 K|<w

Bftid&Klw

Fig C. 5. Frequency response curves for the motion of the second mass in the
system sketched in Fig.C.4. Curves are shown for different levels of
excitation of the foundation
336

W ave-shape d is to rtio n w ill also be produced w hen th e n o n -lin e a rity is s itu

ated in the damping elem e n t of the syste m . It seems, h o w e ver, that th e m o st
p ro n o u n ce d d isto rtio n effects are p ro d u c e d by the h a rd e n in g spring type re s o
n a n t no n -lin e a ritie s. This is im portant to rem ember as th e use of h a rd e n in g
springs in practice is not at all uncom m on (Chapter 1 2 , section 12.1).
Before closing th is b rie f discussion on w aveform d is to rtio n s in m echanical
system s it should be m entioned th a t n o n -lin e a ritie s in one or more e le m e n ts
in a m u lti degree-of-freedom system m ay cause m any "u n e xp e cte d " e ffe c ts
in th e response. As an example of s u ch effects the response of the second
mass in a tw o degree-of-freedom syste m , Fig.C.4, to a sw eeping sin u so id a l
excitation of the fo u n d a tio n is illu s tra te d in Fig.C.5. The sw eep was h ere c a r
ried out w ith increasing frequency and both the change in w ave-shape and
the " ju m p phenom enon, described in section 3 .2 , are dem onstrated.

A P P E N D IX D

Connection Between th e Fourier S pectru m of a Shock Pulse and the R esid

ual Shock Spectrum
To dem onstrate th e relationship b e tw e e n the Fourier spectrum of a shock
pulse and the undam ped residual shock spectrum co n sid er th e fo llo w in g .

Fig.D. 1. Example o f a shock excitation w aveform illu s tra tin g the p rin c ip le o f
superposition in the tim e d o m a in

337

Fig.D.1 sh o w s an a rbitrary acceleration shock am plitude as a fun ctio n of

tim e .
A ssum ing a lin e a r resonance system , its response to such a shock can be
calculated as th e superposition of the responses to a num ber o f step fu n c
tio n s approxim ating the shock pulse.
The change in excitation ve lo c ity per step is
A v = a (x) Ax
w h e re a ( r ) is th e value of th e acceleration e x c ita tio n at tim e r and A t is the
w id th of the step.
The partial ve lo c ity response at some tim e t a fte r the step has occurred is
A vr = h ( t T )a (r) Ax
w h e re h (t r) is the velocity response to a u n it velocity step. The total re
sponse at a tim e t after the shock has occurred is then
vR = L h ( t - x )a { x )A x
Letting the w id th of the steps. A t , approach zero, the sum tu rn s into an in
tegral
|-r
vR = I

h ( t x) a ( t ) d x

(D.1)

Now, the v e lo city response to a unit velocity step can be fo u n d by solving

th e linear d iffe re n tia l equation fo r the system un d e r consideration (single degree-of-freedom , undamped system ), u tilizing th e boundary co n d ition s given
by the unit v e lo c ity step. The s o lu tio n is sim ply:

h ( t- x) = 1 - co s[2 n f(t- r)]

thus:
I't
vr

cos{2nf(t x)}]a(x)dx

. X

ff

a(x)dx\
X

I7

cos{2nf(t x))a(x)dx
J -

rt

338

a(x) cos\2 n f ( t - x) }dx

Letting f (residual spectrum ) th e n v(t) = Const, (see Fig.D.1) and

vR = |

a (r)

co s \ 2 n f ( t z ) \d z +const

(D.2)

This is also
th e expression fo r th e Fourier sp e ctru m of the acceleration
shock pulse except fo r the phase (see Chapter 2, s e ctio n 2.3). Thus
M ax

vR = \Fa (f)\

(D.3)

For each frequ ency com ponent in th e response "s p e c tru m " the re lationship
aR =2 n fv Ris valid, w hereby
Sa (f)

= 2 n f\F a(f)\

(D.4)

A P P E N D IX E

Electronic Integration of A ccelerom eter Output Signals

It w as stated in Chapter 6, section 6 .1 , th a t it does not n o rm a lly matter
w h ic h of the th re e q u a n titie s a cceleration, velocity or displacem ent is actually
m easured in an experim ental vib ra tio n study, because they are all in te rre
lated by sim ple d iffe re n tia tin g and integrating o p e ra tio n s. It w as fu rth e rm o re
m entioned th a t these operations can be readily perform ed e le ctro n ica lly on
the output signal from the tra n sd u ce r.
There are, how ever, certain p ra ctica l re strictio n s im posed upon th e s e state
m ents.
Firstly, as w ill be obvious from th e succeeding d e scrip tio n of e le c tro n ic inte
g ration, this cannot include zero frequency (D C), and a certain lo w frequency
does therefore alw ays exist in practice below w h ic h no in te g ra tio n takes
place. S im ila rly, electronic d iffe re n tia to rs m ust e x h ib it a certain u p per fre
quency lim it.
Secondly, e le ctro n ic d iffe re n tia to rs are very se n sitive to high frequency
noise, and to th e high fre q u e n cy perform ance o f th e transducer used for the
actual m easurem ent.
Due to the preference given today to a cceleration sensitive transducers
only the problem of electronic in te g ra tio n is considered in detail in th e fo llo w
ing.
339

If an arbitrary Fourier com ponent, a = A0 e i 2 nft , o f an a cceleration signal

spectrum is integrated the re su lt w ill be the corresponding Fourier com po
ne n t of the corresponding velocity sig n a l spectrum:

v = I a d t = I A 0e i2nft d t =
J

jZnt

ei2nft = V0 e<2nfl

Thus:
K)

(E.1)

j2 n f

S im ila rly, a second integration o f th e acceleration signal com ponent yields

th e displacem ent sig n a l com ponent:

x = 11 a d td t = I v d t = I V0e i2n,'d t = ~^~e i2n,t =

JJ

J2nf

2nf)2

e i2nft = X 0e i2n,t

Thus:
Y

K>

j2 n f

^0

/c

O)

(.2nf)2

Note that fo r th e co n tin u o u s sin u so id a l com ponents assumed above, the

co nsta nts of in te g ra tio n have been assumed to be zero. This a ssu m p tio n is
not valid for tra n s ie n t signals w h ic h are discussed la te r.
N ow , if the o u tp u t signal from an accelerom eter (or rather accelerom eter +
pream plifier), ea , is fed to an e le c tro n ic circu it of th e type show n in Fig.E.1,
th e voltage across th e capacitor C, i.e. the circuit o u tp u t voltage, ec , is:
7
e.
j2 n fR C a
Thus w hen 2 n fR C

1 then

RC j2 n f

(E 3)

By com paring th e expressions (E.1) and (E.3) it is readily seen th a t w hen

ea represents a p a rtic u la r a cceleration signal com ponent then ec m u st repres
en t th e corresponding velocity sig n a l com ponent, i.e. an e le ctro n ic in te g ra
tio n has taken place in the n e tw o rk , Fig.E.1. (The m u ltip lyin g fa c to r 1 /R C is
taken care of in th e in te rn a l ca lib ra tio n of the in tegrator).
340

-o
a

oi I

Fig.E. 1. Typical e le ctrica l in te g ra tio n n e tw o rk o f the sim ple RC-type

The absolute value of the expression
k

7
7 + j2 n fR C

(E.4)

is plotted in F ig .E .2 and dem onstrates clearly th e m eaning of th e condition

2-rrfRC
1 stated above. It also illu stra te s th e fa c t th a t a certain lo w fre
quency lim it, fL, exists below w h ic h no in te g ra tio n takes place. B etw een fL
and fT , i.e. in th e frequency region around fn = 1 / ( 2 ttRC), the signal is only
"p a rtly " integrated.

Fig.E.2. G ra phical illu s tra tio n o f th e fun ctio n

ec
ea

1
1 + j2 n fR C

in d ic a tin g the frequency region w here tru e in te g ra tio n o f th e input

signal, ea , takes place
341

The low frequency lim it fo r " tr u e " integration, f T , is in the in te g ra to rs pro

duced by B riiel & Kj r taken to be th e frequency at w h ich an in te g ra tio n e r
ro r of 1 ,5 d B (= 1 5 % ) exists. To e n su re true in te g ra tio n of the signal it m ust
th e re fo re not conta in frequencies b e lo w f j .
If frequency com ponents lo w e r th a n f T exist in th e signal to be integrated
th e problem can som etim es be solved by the use of magnetic tape recording
and tape speed tra n sfo rm a tio n s.
A s m entioned previously, th e above discussion does not apply fu lly to the
in tegratio n of tra n sie n ts.
A s an illu s tra tio n of general p rin cip le s, the exam ple w ill be ta ke n of a
single "p e rio d " sine pulse as th e acceleration signal w h ic h is to be integrated
to both velocity and displacem ent.
Fig.E.3 a) illu s tra te s the tra n s ie n t w h ic h may be described by th e fo rm u la :

a (t) = A 0 sin ( 2 7i f t ) ,
= 0,

0 < t < T ,

f = f

o th e rw is e

The corresponding velocity signal is obtained as fo llo w s by in te g ra tio n :

v ( t) = | a ( f ) c f r =

A 0 sin ( 2 n fx )d x

~ - ^ c o s (2 n fx )

'0

= 1 7 f [ - cos ( 2 H

fo r 0 < t <

(E.6)

i.e. a raised cosine because of th e constant of in te g ra tio n . This is illu s tra te d

in Fig.E.3.b).
Thus, the peak value is 2 A 0 / 2 n f w h ic h is tw ic e th a t obtained fo r a c o n tin
uous signal in E quation (E.1).
C ontinuing in th e same way th e displacem ent m ay be obtained by a fu rth e r
integration:

342

a) Acceleration:
a(t) = A 0 sin 27rft; f = *~r
a(t)

;
fo r 0 < t < T

a(t) = 0

t< 0 ,

t > T

V/
b) V elocity:
i k 2A
v(t)

v (t) =
27rf

(1

- cos 27rft)

i.e. raised cosine

A
T

.
t

c) Displacement:

(t)

' . A 0T
2nf

---------------

x(t) =

X ,/

2 ttt

(t -
si n 27rft)
2irf

i.e. sine on linear slope

t
800465

Fig.E.3, Integration o f an acceleration p u lse to velocity a n d displacem ent

1 cos (2 n fx ) d r

2nf

x -r^.sin (2 n fx )

2 n f t - ~2^fsm ( ^ n f t)

( 7 )

w h ich is a negative sin e superim posed on a linear slope as depicted in

Fig.E.3.c).
Fig.E.4 show s the re s u lts of some a ctu a l m easurem ents made w ith th e in
tegrator Type ZR 0 0 2 0 w ith single period sine pulses o f 1 0 ms (1 0 0 Hz) and
1 ms (1 kHz) duration respectively, w h e re th e main fre q u e n c y in the pulse is
respectively a factor of 1 0 and 1 0 0 above the nom inal c u t-o ff frequency of
the in tegrato r. The re su lts are norm alised so as to com pare directly w ith th e
th e oretical result in each case. It is seen that both re s u lts fo r peak ve lo city
are acceptable (max. e rro r 8% for the 1 0 ms pulse), b u t th a t the 16% e rro r
on double integration o f th e 10 ms pulse may not be acceptable. It is em pha343

800440

Fig.E.4. P ra ctica l in te g ra tio n o f 2 diffe re n t le n g th acceleration p u ls e s to veloc

ity a n d displacem ent u s in g the same in te g ra tio n c u to ff frequency

Fig.E.5. Id e a l and p ra c tic a l im p u lse responses fo r an in te g ra to r w ith single

an d double in te g ra tio n
344

sized th a t it is only m e a n in g fu l to ta lk o f peak d isplacem ent w hen the "D C "

com ponent of the a cce le ra tio n tra n s ie n t is zero, so th a t th e fin a l velocity is
zero.
It can be seen th a t th e problem is very sim ila r to th a t discussed in S ection
7 .3 .3 in relation to th e exponential averaging (RC in te g ra tio n ) of im pulses,
and th is gives a guide to th e w ay in w h ic h th e error can be estim ated. The ac
tual im pulse response of th e integrator can be com pared w ith those fo r ideal
single and double in te g ra to rs (Fig.E.5), and the d e via tion estim ated fo r the
tim e delay of the m easured peak value. A ssum ing a u n ifo rm (or at least s y m
m etrical) energy d is trib u tio n along the tra n s ie n t, the e rro r w o u ld be a p p ro xi
m ately h a lf this deviation. This procedure w o u ld only be v a lid w here the m a x i
m um velocity (or displacem ent) comes a fte r the firs t lobe of the acceleration
(or velocity) im pulse, and w h e re the d eviation is sm all.

A P P E N D IX F

On the Use of Decibels

M odern day e n gineerin g requires th a t accurate m easurem ents are made
over w ide dynam ic ranges.
W hen the dynam ic range considered covers more th a n one or tw o decades
the graphical presentation of the m easured results on lin e a r scales often b e
comes im practical. The m a jo r reason fo r th is is that the accuracy of the graph
near th e zero axis becom es extrem ely d iffic u lt to in te rp re t. A com m only used
solution to the problem is then to present the data in te rm s of lo g a rith m ic
scales. One such lo g a rith m ic scale w h ic h is becoming in cre a sin g ly popular in
various fields of eng in e e rin g is the de cib el (dB) scale. A lth o u g h the decibel
scale orig inates from tra n sm issio n line th e o ry and te le p h o n e engineering it is
at present w id ely used not only in the general field of e le ctro n ic engineering
but also in the fields of sound and vib ra tio n engineering.
The o rig in a l d e fin itio n o f the decibel is based on p o w e r ra tio s:

(F. 1)
w he re W0 is a reference pow er. H ow ever, as the p o w e r measured across a
certain impedance is related to the square of the force a ctin g upon th is im p e d
ance, Z, a more com m on ly used d e fin itio n is

345

dB = 7 0 /o ^ 10( ^ | ) =

2 0 lo g ,

where F and Fa are the RMS (root mean square) values of th e forces.
A ctually, as long as the m easurem ents are re la te d to one a n d the same im
pedance the d e cib el-n o ta tio n in the form 2 0 lo g w ( X /X 0 ) m a y be used as a
convenient re la tive m a g n itu d e scale for a variety o f q u a n titie s, not only fo r
ces. X may, fo r instance, be an RMS displacem ent, a velocity o r an accelera
tio n . X0 , how ever, m ust a lw a ys be a reference q uantity of th e same type as
X. That is w h e n X represents a displacem ent th e n X 0 re p re se nts a reference
displacem ent, and w hen X represents an acceleration th e n X0 represents a
reference acceleration.
A useful application of th e decibel scale is evident in th e fre q u e n cy analy
sis of m echanical vib ra tio n s w h e re large changes in a m p litu d e s occur at re
sonance. The use of decibels (dB) compresses a range of disp la ce m e n t or ac
celeration m agnitudes of 1 : 1 0 0 0 to 0 - 6 0 dB, at the sam e tim e attaining
constant re la tive accuracy in th e graphical presentation. A fu rth e r conse
quence th a t arises from th e decibel scale is th a t m u ltip lica tive fa c to rs become
additive te rm s in th e ir lo g a rith m ic equivalents.
Also, w h e n th e ratio X / X 0 is sm aller th a n 1 ,0 the lo g a rith m to the base
ten of the ra tio , and th u s th e decibel value, becomes negative. In the table
given below only ratios X / X 0 larger than u n ity have been considered. The
same table can, how ever, also be used in cases w here X /X 0 is sm aller than
u n ity rem em bering that

2 0 /w , 0( ^ ) - 2 0 to s , 0( ^ ) - - 2 0 / w , 0 )

i.e. by fin d in g the decibel va lu e for the in ve rse ratio (X0/ X ) and assigning to
it a negative value.

Exam ple
Find the n u m b e r o f dB corresponding to:

As X /X Q is sm aller th a n one it is necessary to calculate th e inverse ratio:

346

From the table the corresponding decibel value is found to be 6,0 2 1 dB,
and because of the inverting operation the actual decibel value is 6 ,0 2 1 .
To fin d X / X 0 w hen th e decibel value is g iven, the nearest dB -value is
sought in the table and the corresponding ratio read off the le ft hand and top
colum ns.
E xam ples
a)

F ind the ra tio corresponding to 3 ,5 dB.

From the table it is seen th a t the nearest dB -value ta b u la te d is 3 ,5 2 2 ,
corresponding to a ratio o f 1 ,5 .

b)

Find the ra tio corresponding to 3 dB.

The nearest dB-value given in the table is 2 ,9 8 4 corresponding to a ratio
of 1 ,4 1 . However, as th e dB -value stated above has a negative sign it is
necessary to invert the ra tio 1 ,4 1 , i.e. 3 dB corresponds to a ratio of

W hen the ra tio is > 1 0 it m ay be possible to use Table F .2 d ire ctly, or in

fact Table F.1 may be used if th e ratio is divided by 10 a s u ffic ie n t num ber of
tim es to bring it into the range 1 10. To th e re su lt fo r th is fa c to r is added
2 0 dB fo r each factor 1 0 by w h ic h the original ra tio was divided.
E xam ples
a) F ind the n u m b e r o f dB co rre sp o nd in g to:
Y
Ao- = 3 2 ' 5
Either: from Table F.2 the dB value is approx.
30.103 + 30.370

= 3 0 2 3 7 dB

or: 3 2 ,5 = 3 ,2 5 * 10 and fro m Table F.1 th e dB value fo r 3 ,2 5 = 1 0 ,2 3 8

/ . fo r 3 2 ,5 it equals 1 0 ,2 3 8 + 2 0 dB = 3 0 ,2 3 8 dB.
b) F ind the ra tio corresponding to 6 8 dB.
68 = 8 + (3 x 20)
Ratio

= 2,5 1 x 10 3

S ince ratio 2,51 in Table F.1 gives 7 ,9 9 3 dB (= 8 ).

347

Table F. 7.

348

Table o f (A m plitude) R atio-to-D ecibe! Conversion

(ir )

.00

.01

.02

.03

.04

1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

.000
.828
1.584
2.279
2.923

.086
.906
1.656
2.345
2.984

.172
.984
1.727
2.411
3.046

.257
1.062
1.798
2.477
3.107

.341
1.138
1.868
2.542
3.167

1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

3.522
4.082
4.609
5.105
5.575

3.580
4.137
4.660
5.154
5.621

3.637
4.190
4.711
5.201
5.666

3.694
4.244
4.761
5.249
5.711

2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

6.021
6.444
6.848
7.235
7.604

6.064
6.486
6.888
7.272
7.640

6.107
6.527
6.927
7.310
7.676

2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

7.959
8.299
8.627
8.943
9.248

7.993
8.333
8.659
8.974
9.278

3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

9.542
9.827
10.103
10.370
10.630

3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

.05

.06

.07

.08

.09

.424
1.214
1.938
2.607
3.227

.506
1.289
2.007
2.671
3.287

.588
1.364
2.076
2.734
3.346

.668
1.438
2.144
2.798
3.405

.749
1.511
2.212
2.860
3.464

3.750
4.297
4.811
5.296
5.756

3.807
4.350
4.861
5.343
5.801

3.862
4.402
4.910
5.390
5.845

3.918
4.454
4.959
5.437
5.889

3.973
4.506
5.008
5.483
5.933

4.028
4.558
5.057
5.529
5.977

6.150
6.568
6.966
7.347
7.712

6.193
6.608
7.008
7.384
7.748

6.235
6.649
7.044
7.421
7.783

6.277
6.689
7.082
7.458
7.819

6.319
6.729
7.121
7.495
7.854

6.361
6.769
7.159
7.532
7.889

6.403
6.809
7.197
7.568
7.924

8.028
8.366
8.691
9.005
9.308

8.062
8.399
8.723
9.036
9.337

8.097
8.432
8.755
9.066
9.367

8.131
8.465
8.787
9.097
9.396

8.165
8.498
8.818
9.127
9.426

8.199
8.530
8.850
9.158
9.455

8.232
8.563
8.881
9.188
9.484

8.266
8.595
8.912
9.218
9.513

9.571
9.855
10.130
10.397
10.655

9.600
9.883
10.157
10.423
10.681

9.629
9.911
10.184
10.449
10.706

9.657
9.939
10.211
10.475
10.731

9.686
9.966
10.238
10.501
10.756

9.714
9.994
10.264
10.527
10.782

9.743
10.021
10.291
10.553
10.807

9.771
10.049
10.317
10.578
10.832

9.799
10.076
10.344
10.604
10.857

10.881
11.126
11.364
11.596
11.821

10.906
11.150
11.387
11.618
11.844

10.931
11.174
11.411
11.641
11.866

10.955
11.198
11.434
11.664
11.888

10.980
11.222
11.457
11.687
11.910

11.005
11.246
11.481
11.709
11.932

11.029
11.270
11.504
11.732
11.954

11.053
11.293
11.527
11.754
11.976

11.078
11.317
11.550
11.777
11.998

11.102
11.341
11.573
11.799
12.019

4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

12.041
12.256
12.465
12.669
12.869

12.063
12.277
12.486
12.690
12.889

12.085
12.298
12.506
12.710
12.908

12.106
12.319
12.527
12.730
12.928

12.128
12.340
12.547
12.750
12.948

12.149
12.361
12.568
12.770
12.967

12.171
12.382
12.588
12.790
12.987

12.192
12.403
12.609
12.810
13.006

12.213
12.424
12.629
12.829
13.026

12.234
12.444
12.649
12.849
13.045

4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

13.064
13.255
13.442
13.625
13.804

13.084
13.274
13.460
13.643
13.822

13.103
13.293
13.479
13 661
13.839

13.122
13.312
13.497
13.679
13.857

13.141
13.330
13.516
13.697
13.875

13.160
13.349
13.534
13.715
13.892

13.179
13.368
13.552
13.733
13.910

13.198
13.386
13.570
13.751
13.927

13.217
13.405
13.589
13.768
13.945

13.236
13.423
13.607
13.786
13.962

5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

13.979
14.151
14.320
14.486
14.648 i

13.997
14.168
14.337
14.502
14.664

14.014
14.185
14.553
14.518
14.680

14.031
14.202
14.370
14.535
14.696

14.049
14.219
14.387
14.551
14.712

14.066
14.236
14.403
14.567
14.728

14.083
14.253
14.420
14.583
14.744

14.100
14.270
14.436
14.599
14.760

14.117
14.287
14.453
14.616
14.776

14.134
14.303
14.469
14.632
14.791

5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9

14.807
14.964
15.117
15.269
15.417

14.823
14.979
15.133
15.284
15.432

14.839
14.995
15.148
15.298
15.446

14.855
15.010
15.163
15.313
15.461

14.870
15.026
15.178
15.328
15.476

14.886
15.041
15.193
15.343
15.490

14.902
15.056
15.208
15.358
15.505

14.917
15.072
15.224
15.373
15.519

14.933
15.087
15.239
15.388
15.534

14.948
15.102
15.254
15.402
15.549

6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

15.563
15.707
15.848
15.987
16.124

15.577
15.721
15.862
16.001
16.137

15.592
15.735
15.876
16.014
16.151

15.606
15.749
15.890
16.028
16.164

15.621
15.763
15.904
16.042
16.178

15.635
15.778
15.918
16.055
16.191

15.649
15.792
15.931
16.069
16.205

15.664
15.806
15.945
16.083
16.218

15.678
15.820
15.959
16.096
16.232

15.692
15.834
15.973
16.110
16.245

(continued)

Table F. 1 .
R a tio
.00

.01

.02

.03

.04

.05

.06

.07

.08

.09

6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9

16.258
16.391
16.521
16.650
16.777

16.272
16.404
16.534
16.663
16.790

16.285
16.417
16.547
16.676
16.802

16.298
16.430
16.560
16.688
16.815

16.312
16.443
16.573
16.701
16.827

16.325
16.456
16.586
16.714
16.840

16.338
16.469
16.599
16.726
16.852

16.351
16.483
16.612
16.739
16.865

16.365
16.496
16.625
16.752
16.877

16.378
16.509
16.637
16.764
16.890

7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

16.902
17.025
17.147
17.266
17.385

16.914
17.037
17.159
17.278
17.396

16.927
17.050
17.171
17.290
17.408

16.939
17.062
17.183
17.302
17.420

16.951
17.074
17.195
17.314
17.431

16.964
17.086
17.207
17.326
17.443

16.976
17.098
17.219
17.338
17.455

16.988
17.110
17.231
17.349
17.466

17.001
17.122
17.243
17.361
17.478

17.013
17.135
17.255
17.373
17.490

7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9

17.501
17.616
17.730
17.842
17.953

17.513
17.628
17.741
17.853
17.964

17.524
17.639
17.752
17.864
17.975

17.536
17.650
17.764
17.875
17.985

17.547
17.662
17.775
17.886
17.996

17.559
17.673
17.786
17.897
18.007

17.570
17.685
17.797
17.908
18.018

17.582
17.696
17.808
17.919
18.029

17.593
17.707
17.820
17.931
18.040

17.605
17.719
17.831
17.942
18.051

8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

18.062
18.170
18.276
18.382
18.486

18.073
18.180
18.287
18.392
18.496

18.083
18.191
18.297
18.402
18.506

18.094
18.202
18.308
18.413
18.517

18.105
18.212
18.319
18.423
18.527

18.116
18.223
18.329
18.434
18.537

18.127
18.234
18.340
18.444
18.547

18.137
18.244
18.350
18.455
18.558

18.148
18.255
18.361
18.465
18.568

18.159
18.266
18.371
18.475
18.578

8.5
8.6
8.7
8 8
8.9

18.588
18.690
18.790
18.890
18.988

18.599
18.700
18.800
18.900
18.998

18.609
18.710
18.810
18.909
19.007

18.619
18.720
18.820
18.919
19.017

18.629
18.730
18.830
18.929
19.027

18.639
18.740
18.840
18.939
19.036

18.649
18.750
18.850
18.949
19.046

18.660
18.760
18.860
18.958
19.056

18.670
18.770
18.870
18.968
19.066

18.680
18.780
18.880
18.978
19.075

9.0
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

19.085
19.181
19.276
19.370
19.463

19.094
19.190
19.285
19.379
19.472

19.104
19.200
19.295
19.388
19.481

19.114
19.209
19.304
19.398
19.490

19.123
19.219
19.313
19.407
19.499

19.133
19.228
19.323
19.416
19.509

19.143
19.238
19.332
19.426
19.518

19.152
19.247
19.342
19.435
19.527

19.162
19.257
19.351
19.444
19.536

19.171
19.266
19.360
19.453
19.545

9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9

19.554
19.645
19.735
19.825
19.913

19.564
19.654
19.744
19.833
19.921

19.573
19.664
19.753
19.842
19.930

19.582
19.673
19.762
19.851
19.939

19.591
19.682
19.771
19.860
19.948

19.600
19.691
19.780
19.869
19.956

19.609
19.700
19.789
19.878
19.965

19.618
19.709
19.798
19.886
19.974

19.627
19.718
19.807
19.895
19.983

19.636
19.726
19.816
19.904
19.991

10
20
30
40

20.000
26.021
29.542
32.041

20.828
26.444
29.827
32.256

21.584
26.848
30.103
32.465

22.279
27.235
30.370
32.669

22.923
27.604
30.630
32.869

23.522
27.959
30.881
33.064

24.082
28.299
31.126
33.255

24.609
28.627
31.364
33.442

25.105
28.943
31.596
33.625

25.575
29.248
31.821
33.804

50
60
70
80
90

33.979
35.563
36.902
38.062
39.085

34.151
35.707
37.025
38.170
39.181

34.320
35.848
37.147
38.276
39.276

34.486
35.987
37.266
38.382
39.370

34.648
36.124
37.385
38.486
39.463

34.807
36.258
37.501
38.588
39.554

34.964
36.391
37.616
38.690
39.645

35.117
36.521
37.730
33.790
39.735

35.269
36.650
37.842
38.890
39.825

35.417
36.777
37.953
38.988
39.913

100

40.000

( )
V xo 1

R atio

(=)

Table F.2.

A m p litu d e R atios > 1 0

349

A P P E N D IX G

C O N V E R S IO N C H A R T S , TABLES etc.
Conversion of Length
m

cm

mm

ft

in

100

1000

3,281

39,37

0,01

10

0,001

0,1

0,3048

30,48

304,8

0,0254

2,54

25,4

0 ,0328

0,3937

0,00328

0,03937

12

0 ,0833

1
8 0 0 18 4

Conversion of Velocity
m/s

km/h

ft/m in

mile/h

3,6

196,85

2,2369

0,2778

54,68

0,6214

5,08 x 10 3

1,829 x 10 2

0,4470

1,6093

1,136 x 10 2

88

1
8 0 0 18 5

Conversion of Acceleration
9

m/s2

cm / s2

ft/s 2

in /s 2

9,81

981

32,2

386

0,102

100

0,00102

0,01

0,03109

0,3048

30,48

0,00259

0,0254

2,54

3,281
0,0328
1
0,0833

39,37
0,3937
12
1
80 0 18 6

350

Conversion of Area
m2

cm 2

ft2

in 2

yd2

1
10 4
9,29 x 1 0 - 2
6,452 x 10 4
0,8361

104
1
929
6,452
8361

10,764

1550
0,1550
144
1
1296

1,196
0,0011
0,1111
0,0 0 0 8
1

1,0764 x 1CT3
1
6,9 4 4 x 10 3
9

8 0 0 18 7

Conversion of V olum e
m3

I = (dm )3

ft3

gal (UK)

gal (US)

yd3

1
10 3
2,8317 x 10 2
4,546 x 1 0 " 3

103
1
28,317
4,546
3,785

35,315
0 ,0 35315
1
0,1 6 0 5

219,98
0,21998
6,2290
1

1,308
0 ,0 0 1 3
0 ,0 3 7 0
0,0 0 5 9

0,13368
27

0,8326
168,16

264,28
0,26428
7,4805
1,2011
1
201,97

3,785 x 1 0 - 3
0,7646

764,56

0,0 0 5 0
1
8 0 0 18 2

Conversion of Mass
kg

tekma

lb

oz

0,102

1000

2,2046

35,274

9,807

9807

21,6205

345,93

10-3

1 ,0 2 x 10 4

2,205 x 1 0 " 3

3,527 x 10 2

0,45359

4 ,6 2 5 x 10-2

453,59

16

2,835 x 1 0 - 2

2,8908 x 10~3

28,35

6,25 x IQ 2

1
8 0 0 18 3

Conversion of Specific Mass (density)

kg/m 3

lb / f t 3

6 ,2 4 3 x 10-2

16,0185

1
8 0 0 18 1

351

Conversion of Force

Conversion of Pressure
Pa

m bar

mm H 2 0

atm

1
100
9,807
1,013 x 105
249,10
6908,9

1 0 -2
1
9,8 0 7 x 1 0 -2
1013
2,491
69 ,0 8 9

0,102
10,917
1
1,0332 x 104
25,4
704,49

9.869
9.869
9,678
1
2,453
6,805

x IO 6
x 1 0 -4
x 1 0 -5
x 10 3
x 10~2

in W G

Ib f/in 2

4,0 2 x 10 -3
0,402
3,937 x 10-2
406,77
1
27,736

1.4 5 0 4 x 1 0 - 4
1 .4 5 0 4 x 1 0 -2
1 ,4 2 2 3 x 1 0 -3
14 ,6 9 6
3 ,6 0 5 x 1 0 - 2
1
800630

Conversion o f W o rk , Energy and Heat

J = Ws

kW h

kpm

kcal

Btu

ft Ibf

1
3,6 x 106
9,807
4187
1,055
1,3558

2 ,7 7 8 x I O - 7
1
2,7241 x 1 0 " 6
1,1 6 3 x 103
2,9 3 x 104
3 ,7 6 6 x 1 0 - 7

0,1020
3 ,6 7 1 0 x 105
1
427
107,59
0,1383

2,39 x 1 0 - 4
860
2,3423 x 1 0 - 3
1
0,25198
3,239 x 10 4

9,4 8 x 1 0 "4
34 13
9,2949 x 1 0 -3
3,9685
1
1,285 x IO " 3

0 ,7 3 7 6
2 ,6 5 5 x 106
7 ,2 3 3
3 0 8 7 ,4
7 7 7 ,9 7
1
800629

Conversion of P ow er

352

kW

kpm /s

hk

kcal/h

f t Ibf/s

hp

1
9,81 x 1 0 -3
0,735
1,16 x 1 0 -3
1,36
0,745
2,93 x 1 0 - 4
3,52

102
1
75
0,1 19
0,13 8
76
2,99 x 1 0 -2
35,9

1,36
1,33 x
1
1,58 x
1,84 x
1,014
3,99 x
0,479

860
8,44
632
1
1,17
642
0,252
3024

738
7,23
542
0,858
1
550
0,216
259

1,34
1,32 x
0 ,9 8 6
1,56 x
1,82 x
1
3 ,9 3 x
0,471

1 0 -2
1 0 -3
IO 3
1 0 -4

1 0 -2
IO "3
1 0 -3
10 4

Tem perature:
F = - C + 32
5

C = - ( F - 32)
9

Single Degree o f Freedom System

m = mass (kg)
k = S tiffness (N /m )

Resonant frequency

w he re
g = g ravitationa l acceleration
A st = static d eflection of the mass

For Single Frequency (Sinusoidal) Vibration

Acceleration

V elocity

Displacement

a0 cos 2 n ft

-J ?an sin 2 n ft
2nf u

- 4 n 2 f2 a o c s 2 * f t

- 2 n fv 0 sin 2 n ft

v0 cos 2 n ft

1
o ,
-v n sin 2 n ft
2nf 0

- 4 n 2f 2d 0 cos 2 n ft

- 2 n fd 0 sin 2 n ft

d0 cos 2 n f t
80 01 80

353

Frequency, acceleration, velocity, displacement nomograph

(SI Units)

10

too

V e lo c it y , Displacem ent and A c c e le r a tio n , R M S values (or peak valu es)

354

1k
F re q u e n c y

Hz

10 k

A P P E N D IX H

Standards Related to
Vibration and Shock M easurem ents
H . 1. G e n e ra l
ste rre ich isch e s N o rm u n g s in s titu t
L eopoldsg 4
1 0 2 0 W ien
M e ch a n is c h e S c h w in g u n g e n ; E rs c h tte
ru n g e n

A u s tr ia
S 9 00 1

S c h w in g u n g s le h re ; K in e m a tis c h e B e
g riffe

S 9100

O ffic e fo r S tandards and

M e a su re m e n ts,
1 1 3 4 7 Praha 1,
V clavsk N m sti 1 9

C .S .S .R .

S N 01 1 3 1 2
1975

Q u a n titie s and u n its p e rta in in g to

m e c h a n ic a l vib ra tio n a n d shocks

SN 01 1 3 9 0

M e th o d s of
m e c h a n ic a l
M e c h a n ic a l
e q u ip m e n t.

S N 01 1391

M e a s u re m e n ts of
vib ra tion s
vib ra tio n m e a s u rin g
G en e ra l te rm in o lo g y

M e c h a n ic a l vib ra tio n s a nd shocks.

T e rm in o lo g y
B a la n c in g of ro ta tin g m a c h in e
e le m e n ts . T e rm ino lo gy

SN 01 1 4 0 0
1975
S N 01 1401

W irk u n g
m e c h a n i
TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 3 A rb eitsh ygien e ;
scher S c h w in g u n g e n a u f den M e n
1 97 1
schen; M e m e th o d ik f r G anzkrper
sch w in g u n g e n
TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 4 A rb e itsh yg ie n e ;
W irk u n g
m e c h a n i
1972
scher
S c h w in g u n g e n
a uf
den
M enschen; G re n z w e rte f r T e ilk rp e r
s c h w in g u n g e n
TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 5 A rb eitsh ygien e ;
W irk u n g
scher S c h w in g u n g e n a u f
1972
schen; M e m e th o d ik f r
s c h w in g u n g e n

TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 6 A rb eitsh ygien e ;

W irk u n g
m e c h a n i
1974
scher
S c h w in g u n g e n
auf
den
M e n sche n; B e w e rtu n g s filte r f r Ganzund T e ilk rp e rs c h w in g u n g e n

G r e a t B r ita in
BS 3 0 1 5
1958
H i in n a r v
"
Y

British S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n ,

2, Park S tre e t,
London W . 1
G lossary o f te rm s used in vib ra tion
and shock te s tin g
M agyar S za b v ng g yi Hivatal,
Budapest 1X,
llu l u t.2 5
Fizikai m e n n yis g e k neve s je le . Rezgsek

SN 02 8 9 0 2

C h a ra c te ris tic data fo r d e s ig n o f elastic

b ea rin g e lem en ts

SN 12 3 0 6 2

M e a s u re m e n t of noise a n d vib ra tio n

fro m ve n tila to rs
L 'A s s o c ia tio n Franaise de
N o rm a lisa tio n (AFNOR)
T o u r E urope, 9 2 C o urb e vo ie

M .S z 4 9 0 0 / 2
-7 8

V ib ra tio n s et chocs m c a n iq u e s
v o ca b u la ire
M th o d e s d 'essais Essais g n rau x
c lim a tiq u e s et m ca n iq u e s. G uide pour
l essai de chocs sp ectre s de chocs et
a u tre s c a ra ct ristiq u e s des fo rm e s de
ch ocs
B e u th V erlag G mbH
B u rg g ra fe n s tr 4 10
1 0 0 0 B erlin 3 0
S c h w in g u n g s le h re
Teil 1 K in em a tisch e B e g riffe
Teil 2 E infache S c h w in g e r
Teil 3: S chw ing system e
Teil 4 S chw ing e nd e K o n tin u a

NEN- ISO 1 9 2 5 Sam e as (ISO 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 7 4 )

F ra n c e
NF E 9 0 -0 0 1
1972
C 20408
Ja n . 1 9 7 4

G e rm a n y
(BR D )
DIN 131 1

E rs c h tte ru n g e n im B a u w e s e n , G ru n d
stze
K la ssie rve rfa h re n f r das E rfassen
DIN 4 5 6 6 7
re g e llo s e r S c h w in g u n g e n
A m t f r S ta n d a rd is ie ru n g , M e w e sen
G e rm a n y
u nd W a re n p r fu n g der D e u tsch e n De
(D D R )
m o kra tis c h e n R epublik
1 0 2 6 B erlin
W a lls tra e 1 6
TG L 0 - 1 3 1 1 / 0 1 S c h w in g u n g s le h re ; B e n e n n u n g e n
1963
DIN 41 5 0 T

TGL 0 -1 3 1 1 /0 2 S c h w in g u n g s le h re ; E in fa c h e S c h w in
ger
1963
S c h w in g u n g s s y
TGL 0 -1 3 1 1 /0 3 S c h w in g u n g s le h re ;
ste m e m it e nd lich vie le n F re ih e itsg ra
1963
den
W irk u n g
m e ch a n i
TG L 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 1 A rb e its h y g ie n e ;
s c h e r S c h w in g u n g e n a u f den M e n
1 971
sch en ; B egriffe
W irk u n g
m e ch a n i
TGL 2 2 3 1 2 / 0 2 A rb e its h y g ie n e ;
s c h e r S c h w in g u n g e n a u f den M e n
1971
sch en ; G re nzw erte f r G an zk rp er
sch w in g u n g e n

m e c h a n i
den M e n
T e ilk rp er

N e t h e r la n d s

NEN- ISO 2 0 4 1

Nederlands N o rm a lis a tie -In s titu u t,

Polakweg 5,
R ijs w ijk (Z-H)

Sam e as (ISO 2 0 4 1 - 1 9 7 5 )

NEN 1 0 0 5 0 ( 2 0 ) Sam e as (IEC 5 0 ( 2 0 )-1 9 5 8 )

P n la n H

Polski K o m ite t N o rm a liza cji i M ia r,

ul. Ele kt0 ra ln a 2,
0 0 - 1 3 9 W a rs z a w a

PN 7 5
M -5 3 5 2 7

In s tru m e n ts fo r m e c h a n ica l vib ra tion

m e a sure m e n ts. T e rm s and d e fin itio n s

Sw eden

S veriges S ta n d a rd ise rin g sko m m issio n ,

Box 3 2 9 5 ,
1 0 3 6 6 S to ckh o lm

SS 4 0 1 1 4 0 1
M C A

S1 1 - 1 9 6 0
(R 1 9 7 6 )

| O rd lista , V ib ra tio n e r och Stot

A m e rica n N a tio n a l S tandards In s titu te ,
1 4 3 0 B ro ad w a y,
N e w York, NY 1 0 0 1 8
A cou stic T e rm in o lo g y (inclu d ing M e
ch an ica l Shock a n d V ib ratio n )

N o m e nclatu re a n d S ym bols fo r S p e cif

A N S I S 2 .6 1 9 6 3 (R 1 9 7 6 ) ying the M e c h a n ic a l Impedance of
S tructu re s
Te rm ino lo gy fo r B a la n cin g Rotating M a
A N S I S 2 .7 1 9 6 4 (R 1 9 7 6 ) ch in e ry
A N S I S 2 .1 0 1 9 7 1 (R 1 9 7 6 )

M e tho d s fo r A n a ly s is and P resentation

of Shock and V ib ra tio n Data

ANSI S 3 - W 3 9 The E ffects of S h o ck and V ib ra tio n on

M an
- 1960
11 ^

c; R

G ost 1 3 7 3 1 - 6 8

G ost 1 6 8 1 9 -7 1

K o m ite t S ta n d a rto v ,
L en in sky P ro sp e kt 9 b,
1 1 7 0 4 9 M o skva M - 4 9
M e ch a n ica l v ib ra tio n . G eneral
re q u ire m e n ts fo r m e a su re m e n t
perfo rm an ces
V ib rom ete rs.
Term s and d e fin itio n s

355

In te r n a tio n a l In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r

r- ~ ,
( l.b .L .)

S tandardization.
1. Rue de V a re m b ^ ,
G eneva. S w itz e rla n d

50

Inte rn a tio n a l E le c tro te c h n ic a l

V ocabulary

5 0 (2 0 ) (1 9 5 8 )

S cie n tific and in d u s tria l m e a suring

in stru m e n ts

5 0 (4 1 1) ( 1 9 7 3 ) R otating m a chines

I n t e r n a t io n a l
(I S O .)

In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n for

S tanda rd iza tion ,
1' Rue de V a rem be ,
G eneva. S w itz e rla n d

R .1 9 2 5 -1 9 7 4

B alancing V o c a b u la ry

R 2 0 4 1 -1 9 7 5

V ib ra tio n and shock V oca b ula ry

DP 4 8 6 3

Flexible co u p lin g s G u id e fo r
specifica tio ns, s e le c tio n and
a pplica tio n

DP 4 8 6 5

A n a lo g analysis a n d p re s e n ta tio n of
vib ra tio n and shock d ata

DP 4 8 6 6

E valua tion and m e a s u re m e n t of

v ib ra tio n in b u ild in g s

DP 5 3 4 5

D e fin itio n s re la tin g to ro ta tin g rigid

bodies

DIS 5 8 0 5

V oca b ula ry of m e c h a n ic a l V ib ra tio n

and shock a ffe c tin g m a n . S upplem ent
to ISO 2 04 1 1 9 7 5

DIS 5 9 8 2

V ib ra tio n and shock M e ch a n ica l

d riv in g point im p e d a n ce of th e hum an
body

E 9 0 -6 0 0
1970

E qu ilib ra g e et m a ch ine q u ilib re r

q u a lit d ' q u ilib ra g e des ro to rs rig id e s

E 9 0 -6 0 1
1973

D e s c rip tio n , c a ra ct ristiq u e s et

p o s s ib ilit s des m a ch ine s q u ilib re r

G e rm a n y
/O D i-M
(b n U )
DIN 4 1 5 0

E rs c h tte ru n g e n im B au w e sen
T 2: E in w irk u n g a u f M e n sch e n
T 3: E in w irk u n g e n a uf b a u lic h e A n la
gen

VDI 2 0 5 6

B e u rte ilu n g s m a s t b e f r m e c h a n is c h e
S c h w in g u n g e n von M a sch in e n

VD I 2 0 5 7

B e u rte ilu n g der E in w irku ng

m e c h a n is c h e r S ch w in g u n g e n a u f den
M e n sch e n
+ N e u e n tw u rf
B la tt 1 G ru n d la g e n . G lie d e ru n g ,
B e g riffe
B latt 2: S c h w in g u n g s e in w irk u n g a u f
d e n m e n sch lich e n K rpe r
B la tt 3: S c h w in g u n g s b e a n s p ru c h u n g
de s M e n sche n

G r e a t B r ita in B ritis h S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n ,

2, Park S tre e t,
Lon do n W 1
DD 2 3

G uide to s a fe ty aspects of h u m a n
v ib ra tio n e xp e rim e n ts

DD 3 2

G uide to th e e va lu a tio n of h u m a n
expo sure o f w h o le body v ib ra tio n

DD 4 3

G uide to th e e va lu a tio n o f e xp o sure o f

the h u m a n h a n d /a rm system to
vib ra tio n

H u n q a rv
H . 2 . V ib r a tio n R a tin g R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
A u s t r ia

ste rreichisch e s N o rm u n g s in s titu t

Leopoldsg 4
1 0 2 0 W ien

S 9010

W irku n g e n von E rs c h tte ru n g e n a uf

den ganzen M e n sch e n

S 9020

W irku n g e n von E rs c h tte ru n g e n a uf

Bauw erke

C .S .S .R .

O ffice fo r S ta n da rd s a nd
M e a sure m e n ts.
1 1 3 4 7 Praha 1.
V clavsk N m sti 1 9

CSN 01 1 4 1 0
1 971

P erm itted lim its fo r u n b a la n c e d solid

m a ch ine e lem en ts

D e n m a rk

A rb e jd sm ilj fo n d e t
V esterbrogade 69
1 6 2 0 Kbenhavn V
Hvide Fingre
V ibratio n sskad e r fra h n d v rkt je r

F in la n d

F ra n c e
E 9 0 -4 0 0
1971

356

V a ltio n P ain a tu ske sku s

PL 5 1 6 . 0 0 1 0 1 H e ls in k i 10

KG S T 7 1 5 -7 7

M a g yar S zabvnggyi Hivatal

B ud a pe st 1X
ll l t. 2 5
M o to ro s kziszerszm ok re zg sje lle m
zinek m e g e n g e d e tt rtkei s h szig e tel vd be vo na ta

KGST 1 9 3 2 -7 9 M u n k a h e ly e n m egengedett rezgs szin tek

N e th e r la n d s

N e d e rla n d s N o rm a lis a tie -ln s titu u t,

P olakw e g 5,
R ijs w ijk (Z-H)

NE N- ISO 1 9 4 0 S am e as (IS O 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 7 3 )
NEN- ISO 2 3 7 2 S am e a s (IS O 2 3 7 2 - 1 9 7 4 )
NEN 2 2 3 7 3

S am e as (IS O 2 3 7 3 - 1 9 7 4 )

NEN- ISO 2 631

S am e as (IS O 2 6 3 1 - 1 9 7 4 )

P o la n d
P N -7 3
E -0 6 0 2 0

U .S .A .

Y le iset ko n e te k n illis e t
tu rva llis u u s o h je e t

A N S I S 2 .19
1975

L'A sso cia tion F ra n a ise de

N o rm a lisa tio n (A FNO R),
T o ur Europe, 9 2 C o u rb e vo ie

U .S .S R

E xposition des in d iv id u s a u x vib ra tio n s

e t aux chocs g u id e p o u r l'e s tim a tio n
de l'e xp ositio n des in d iv id u s des
vib ra tio n s globales d u co rp s

B eu th V e rla g G mbH
B u rg g ra fe n s tr 4 10
1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0

G o st
G ost
G o st
G o st
G o st

P olski K o m ite t N o rm a liza cji i M ia r,

ul E le k to ra ln a 2,
0 0 -1 3 9 - W a rsza w a
R o tatin g e le c tric a l m a ch ine s. V ib ra tio n
lim its
A m e ric a n N a tio n a l S tandards In s titu te
1 4 3 0 B ro a d w a y
N e w Y ork. NY 1 0 0 1 8
Balance Q u a lity of R otating Rigid
Bodies
K o m ite t S ta n d a rto v,
L e n in sky P rospekt 9 b,
M o skva M - 4 9

1 7 7 7 0 - 7 2 Hand to o ls . A ccep tab le v ib ra tio n le vels

1 3 7 3 1 -6 8
1 6 5 1 9 -7 0
1 6 8 4 4 -7 1
1 6 4 3 6 -7 0

GOST 2 3 5 5 2
-7 9

In te r n a tio n a l
(I.S .O .)

C ivil a eroplanes. A cce p ta b le levels of

so u n d shock in te n s ity on th e g round
and m e a su rin g m ethods
In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r
S ta n d a rd iza tio n ,
1, Rue de V arem b6,
G en e va, S w itze rla n d

R .1 9 4 0 -1 9 7 3

B a la n ce q u a lity of ro ta tin g rig id bodies

2 3 7 2 -1 9 7 4

M e c h a n ic a l vib ra tio n o f m a ch in e s w ith

o p e ra tin g speeds fro m 1 0 to 2 0 0
r e v / s Basis fo r sp e cifyin g
e v a lu a tio n standards
M e c h a n ic a l vib ra tio n o f c e rta in
ro ta tin g e le ctrica l m a c h in e ry w ith
s h a ft h e ig h ts b etw e en 8 0 and
4 0 0 m m M e a s u re m e n t and
e v a lu a tio n o f th e v ib ra tio n se verity
G u id e fo r th e e va lu a tio n o f hum an
e xpo sure to w h o le -b o d y v ib ra tio n

2 3 7 3 -1 9 7 4

R 2 6 3 1 -1 9 7 4
DP 4 8 6 7

Code fo r th e m e a su re m e n t fo r
re p o rtin g of sh ipb o ard V ib ra tio n
data

DP 4 8 6 8

Code fo r sh ipboard L oca l vib ra tio n

m e a su re m e n ts

E 9 0 -2 1 0
1970

C a ra ct ristiq u e s d es ensem bles

gn ra te u rs le ctro d yn a m iq u e s de
vib ra tio n s (Exp.)

E 9 0 -2 1 1
1970

C a ra ct ristiq u e s des gnrateurs

le c tro d y n a m iq u e s de vib ra tion s (Exp.)

E 9 0 -2 1 3
1970

C a ra ct ristiq u e s des a m p lifica te u rs de

puissa n ce p o u r g n ra te u rs
le c tro d y n a m iq u e s de vib ra tion s (Exp.)

G e rm a n y
(B n U )

B eu th V erlag G m bH
B u rg g ra fe n str 4 10
1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0

DIN 4 5 6 6 1

S c h w in g u n g s m e g e r te ; B egriffe,
K e n n g r e n , S t rg r e n

DIN 4 5 6 6 2

E ig en scha ften vo n S c h w in g u n g s m e
g e rte n, A n g a b e n in Typ en b ltte rn

DIN 4 5 6 6 4

A nko p plu n g vo n S c h w in g u n g s m e g e r
ten und b e rp r fu n g a u f S t re in fl sse

DIN 4 6 6 6 6

S c h w in g s t rk e m e g e r t; A n fo rd e ru n
gen

DIN 4 5 6 6 9
Teil 1
E n tw u rf

M e ssu ng von
S c h w in g u n g s im m is s io n e n
(S c h w in g u n g sm e sse r)

G e rm a n y

Amt
S ta n d a rd is ie ru n g ,
M e w e se n
und
W a re n p r fu n g
der
D eutsch en D e m o kra tisch e n Republik
1 0 2 6 B erlin
W a lls tra e 1 6

DP 5 3 4 3

C rite ria fo r fle x ib le ro to r balance

DIS 5 3 4 9

P rin cip le s fo r the m e a s u re m e n t and

th e e va lu a tio n of h u m a n e xp o sure to
v ib ra tio n tra n s m itte d to th e hand

(D D R )

DP 6 8 9 7

G uide to th e e va lu a tio n o f th e
re sp on se o f o ccup an ts o f fixe d
stru c tu re s , e spe cia lly b u ild in g s , and
o ff-s h o re stru c tu re s to lo w fre q u e n cy
h o riz o n ta l m o tio n ( 0 ,0 6 3 Hz to 1 Hz)

TGL 2 2 7 4 7 / 0 1 G erte und E in ric h tu n g e n zur M e s

sung n ic h te le k tris c h e r G ren; S c h w in
1975
g u n g s m e e in ric h tu n g e n ; B egriffe
TG L 2 2 7 4 7 / 0 2 G erte und E in ric h tu n g e n zur M e s
sung n ic h te le k tris c h e r G ren; S c h w in
1975
g u n g s m e e in ric h tu n g e n ; K enngren

N e t h e r la n d s

N e derlands N o rm a lis a tie -In s titu u t,

P olakw eg 5,
R ijs w ijk (Z-H)

H .3 . V ib r a tio n M e a s u r in g E q u ip m e n t
NEN 1 0 2 1 7

C .S .S . R .

O ffic e fo r S ta n da rd s and
M e a su re m e n ts.
1 1 3 4 7 Praha 1
V clavsk N am sti 19

CSN 01 1391
1970

M e c h a n ic a l v ib ra tio n m e a su rin g
e q u ip m e n t G en e ra l te rm in o lo g y

SN 3 5 6 8 5 0
1972

In s tru m e n ts fo r v ib ra tio n
m e a su re m e n ts. T e ch n ica l
re q u ire m e n ts

SN 3 5 6 8 5 8
1975

In s tru m e n ts w ith p ie z o e le c tric pick-ups

fo r se rvice v ib ra tio n m e a su re m e n ts.
M e tro lo g ie te stin g

F in la n d

S u o m e n S ta n d a rd is o im is liitto
PL 2 0 5 , 0 0 1 2 1 H e ls in k i 12

SFS 2 8 8 2

S am e as IEC 1 8 4 ( 1 9 6 5 )

SFS 2 8 8 3

S am e as IEC 2 2 2 ( 1 9 6 6 )

F ra n c e

L A sso cia tio n F ra n aise de

N o rm a lis a tio n (AFNOR),
T o u r Europe, 9 2 C o urbe vo ie

E 9 0 -1 0 0
1973

In s tru m e n ts de m e su re des
c a ra c t ris tiq u e s d in te n s it vib ra toire
des m a ch ine s to u rn a n te s ou
a lte rn a tiv e s

E 9 0 -1 1 0
1973

D e scrip tio n s et c a ra c t ris tiq u e s des

a p p a re ils pour l q u ilib ra g e in situ

E 9 0 -2 0 0
1970

A b a q u e destin au tra c des

c a ra c t ris tiq u e s des e nse m b le s
g n ra te u rs de v ib ra tio n s (Exp.)

S am e as (IEC 2 1 7 - 1 9 6 7 )

NEN - ISO 2 3 7 1 Sam e as (ISO 2 3 7 1 - 1 9 7 4 )

NEN - ISO 2 9 5 3 Sam e as (ISO 2 9 5 3 - 1 9 7 5 )
NEN - ISO 2 9 5 4 Sam e as (ISO 2 9 5 4 - 1 9 7 5 )
NEN 1 0 3 4 8

Sam e as IEC 3 4 8 - 1 9 7 1 , 3 4 8 A -1 9 7 4 )

S p a in

In s titu to N a cio n a l de R acionalizacin y

Norm a liza ci n
(IRANOR)
Z urbano, 4 6
M a d rid 10

21 3 2 8 7 5 ( 1 )

C a ra cterstica s re la tiv a s a los tra n s d u c

to res e le c tro m e c n ic o s destinados a la
m edida de c h o q u e s y vibraciones

21 3 2 8 7 5 ( 2 )

Clases de c a p ta d o re s de vib ra ci n y
e lem en tos
se n sib le s
em pleados en
estos capta do re s

21 3 2 8 7 5 (3)

M todos para la e specificacin de las

ca ra cte rstica s re la tiv a s al equipo a u x i
lia r para la m e d id a de choques y v ib ra
ciones

U S A

A m e rica n N a tio n a l
S ta n da rd s In s titu te ,
1 4 3 0 B ro a d w a y,
N e w Y ork, NY 1 0 0 1 8

M e tho d s fo r th e C alibration o f S hock

A N S I S 2 .2 1 9 5 9 (R 1 9 7 6 ) and V ib ra tio n P ick-U ps
S pe cifica tio n s fo r H ig h -lm p a ct
AN S I S 2 .3 1 9 6 4 (R 1 9 7 6 ) M a ch in e fo r E le c tro n ic Devices

S hock

357

A N S I S 2 .4 1976

M e th o d o f S pe cifyin g th e C h a ra cte ri
stics of A u x ilia ry E q u ip m e n t fo r Shock
and V ib ratio n M e a s u re m e n ts

A N S I S 2 .5 1 9 6 2 (R 1 9 7 6 )

R ecom m e nd a tion s fo r S pecifyin g th e

P erform ance o f V ib ra tin g M a ch ine s

A N S I S 2 .1 1
1 9 6 9 (R 1 9 7 8 )

S electio n of C a lib ra tio n s and Tests fo r

E le ctrical T ra n sdu cers used for
M e a su rin g S hock a nd V ib ra tio n

ANSI S 2 .1 4
1 9 7 3 (R 1 9 7 8 )

M e tho d s for S pe cifyin g the

P erform ance of S ho ck M a ch in e s

A N S I S 2 .1 5 1 9 7 2 (R 1 9 7 7 )

S p e cifica tion s fo r th e D esign, C o n s tru c

tio n and O pe ra tio n o f Class HI ShockTe sting
M a ch in e s
fo r
L ig h t-W e ig h t
E quipm ent

A N S I Z 2 4 .2 1 1957
(R 1 9 7 8 )

M e tho d s for S pe cifyin g th e C h a ra cte ri

stics of P ick-Ups fo r S hock and V ib ra
tio n M e a sure m e n ts

DIS 5 3 4 4

E le ctro d yn a m ic te st e q u ip m e n t fo r
g e n e ra tin g v ib ra tio n M e th o d s of
d e scrib in g th e c h a ra cte ristics o f th e
e q u ip m e n t

DP 5 3 4 7

S ta n da rd m e th o d s fo r th e c a lib ra tio n
of v ib ra tio n and shock pickups

DP 5 3 4 8

M e c h a n ic a l m o u n tin g o f vib ra tio n

tra n s d u c e rs (pickups)

DIS 6 0 7 0

C h a ra c te ris tic s o f a u x ilia ry ta b le s fo r

v ib ra tio n g e n e ra to rs

H .4 . M e a s u r e m e n t of Vibration of M a c h i n e s
Austria

In stru m e n t S ociety o f A m e rica

4 0 0 S ta n w ix S tree t
P ittsb u rg , PA 1 5 2 2 2
G uide fo r S p e c ific a tio n s and Tests fo r
P iezoelectric A c c e le ra tio n T ransducers
fo r Aerospace Te sting

IS A S 3 7 .2
1964

U.S.S.R.

K o m ite t S ta n da rto v,
L en in sky Prospekt 9 b,
1 1 7 0 4 9 M oskva M - 4 9

O A L -R ic h tlin ie
N r. 4

K rp e rsch a llg e d m m te A u fs te llu n g

von M a s c h in e n

O A L -R ic h tlin ie
Nr 7

S ch w in g u n g s g e d m m te M a s c h in e n a u f
ste llu n g

Bulgaria

G ost 5 .2 9 5 - 6 9

E le ctro m e ch a n ica l v ib ra to r type L V -2 2

(p o w e r 0 ,8 kw ) fo r g e n e ra l use

B DS 5 6 2 6 - 6 5

G ost 5 .3 0 4 - 6 9

E le ctro m e ch a n ica l v ib ra to r type IV -1 9

(p o w e r 0 ,2 7 kw ) fo r g e n e ra l use

C.S.S.R.

G o st 1 5 9 3 9 - 7 0 V ib ra tio n m e a su rin g e q u ip m e n t w ith

p iezo e le ctric tra n s d u c e rs
G ost 1 6 8 2 6 -7 1

V ib ro m e te rs
B asic param e ters

International
(I.E.C.)

In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r
S ta n da rd iza tion ,
1, Rue de V arem b6 ,
G eneva, S w itz e rla n d

1 8 4 (1 9 6 5 )

M e th o d s fo r sp e cifyin g th e
ch a ra cte ristics o f e le c tro -m e c h a n ic a l
tra n sd u ce rs fo r sh ock and vib ra tio n
m e a sure m e n ts

2 1 7 (1 9 6 7 )

E le ctro n ic vo ltm e te rs

2 2 2 (1 9 6 6 )

M e th o d s fo r sp e cifyin g the
c h a ra cte ristics of a u x ilia ry e q u ip m e n t
fo r shock and v ib ra tio n m e a su re m e n t

2 2 5 (1 9 6 6 )

O ctave, h a lf-o cta ve and th ird -o cta ve

b and filte rs in te n d e d fo r th e ana lysis
o f sounds and v ib ra tio n s

3 4 8 (1 9 7 8 )

S afe ty re q u ire m e n ts fo r e le ctro n ic

m e a su rin g a p p aratu s

International
(I.S.O.)

In te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n fo r
S ta n da rd iza tion ,
1 ' Rue de V a re m b e ,
G eneva, S w itz e rla n d

R 2 3 7 1 -1 9 7 4

Field bala n cin g e q u ip m e n t

d e sc rip tio n and e v a lu a tio n

R .2 9 5 3 - 1 9 7 5

B alancing m a ch in e s d e sc rip tio n and

e va lu a tio n

R 2 9 5 4 -1 9 7 5

M e c h a n ica l v ib ra tio n o f ro ta tin g and

re cip ro ca tin g m a c h in e ry
R e q u irem e n ts fo r in s tru m e n ts fo r
m e a su rin g v ib ra tio n se ve rity

DIS 3 7 1 9 2

358

B alan cin g m a ch ine s S ym bols fo r

fro n t panels

s te rre ic h is c h e r A rb e its rin g f r

L rm b e k m p fu n g ,
R e gierun gsg e b u de ,
1 0 1 2 W ie n

In s titu t de N o rm a lisa tio n ,

8, ru e S veta S ofia,
S ofia
M e a s u re m e n t of vib ra tio n on e le c tric a l
ro ta tin g m a c h in e s
O ffice fo r S ta n da rd s and
M e a s u re m e n ts ,
1 1 3 4 7 P raha 1,
V clavsk N a m sti 19

S N 0 2 8 9 0 2
1 97 1

E lastic fo u n d a tio n ch a ra c te ris tic s o f

e lastic m o u n tin g and iso la to rs

CSN 12 3 0 6 2
1 96 1

M e a s u re m e n t of noise and v ib ra tio n

fro m v e n tila to rs

S N 12 3 0 6 3
1971

Fans. P re s c rip tio n fo r m e a s u re m e n t o f

vib ra tio n

France

L 'A s s o c ia tio n Franaise de

N o rm a lis a tio n (AFNOR),
To ur E u ro p e , 9 2 Courbevoie

E 9 0 -3 0 0
1973

V ib ra tio n s m ca n iq u e s des m a c h in e s
ayant u ne vite sse de fo n c tio n n e m e n t
co m p rise e n tre 1 0 et 2 0 0 to u rs par
seconde v a lu a tio n de l'in te n s it
vib ra to ire

E 9 0 -3 1 0
1973

V ib ra tio n s m ca n iq u e s des m a ch in e s
le c triq u e s to u rn a n te s de h a u te u r
d'axe c o m p ris e s e n tre 8 0 et 4 0 0 m m
v a lu a tio n de l'in te n s it v ib ra to ire

H 0 0 -0 4 2
1971

Essais de c h o c v e rtica l par c h u te lib re

H 0 0 -0 4 3
1971

Essai de v ib ra tio n

NFC 2 0 6 1 6
AVR 1 9 7 3

M th o d e s d 'e ssa is app lica b les aux

co m p osa nts. Essais gn rau x
clim a tiq u e s e t m ca niq u es. V ib ra tio n s

Germ any
(BRD)

DIN 4 5 6 6 5

Beuth V e rla g G mbH

B u rg g ra fe n s tr. 4 10
1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0
S c h w in g s t rk e von ro tie re n d e n e le k tr i
schen M a s c h in e n der B au g r e n 8 0
bis 3 1 5 . M e v e rfa h re n und G re n
zw e rte

DIN 4 5 6 6 8

A n k o p p lu n g f r S c h w in g u n g s a u fn e h
m er zu r b erw a chu ng von G ro m a
sch ine n

DIN ISO 2 3 7 3

M e c h a n isch e S ch w in g u n g e n vo n
u m la u fe n d e n e le ktrische n M a s c h in e n
m it A c h s h h e n von 8 0 4 0 0 m m

VDI 2 0 5 9
E n tw u rf

W e lle n s c h w in g u n g e n von T u rb o s tze n

Bl l : G ru n d la g e n f r die M e s s u n g und
B e u rte ilu n g
Bl 2: D am p ftu rb os tze f r K ra ftw e rk e
B l.3: Ind u strie tu rb os tze
Bl 4 G asturbostze

VD I 2 0 6 0

B e u rte ilu n g sm a st b e f r d e n A u s
w u c h tz u s ta n d ro tie re n d e r s ta r re r K r
per

G r e a t Britain

B S .4 6 7 5 : 1971

R 1 9 4 0 -1 9 7 3

B alance q u a lity o f ro ta tin g rig id bodies

R 2 3 7 2 -1 9 7 4

M e ch a n ica l v ib ra tio n o f m a ch in e s w ith

o p e ra ting speeds fro m 1 0 to
2 0 0 re v /s B a sis fo r sp e cifyin g
e valu a tion stan d a rd s

R .2 3 7 3 - 1 9 7 4

M e ch a n ica l v ib ra tio n o f c e rta in

ro ta tin g e le ctrica l m a c h in e ry w ith
s h a ft h eig h ts b e tw e e n 8 0 and
4 0 0 mm M e a s u re m e n t and
e valu a tion o f th e v ib ra tio n se verity

R 3 0 8 0 -1 9 7 4

G uide for th e m e c h a n ic a l b a la n cin g of

m a rin e m ain ste a m tu r b in e m a ch ine ry
fo r m e rch an t se rvice

3945 - 1977

M e ch an ica l v ib ra tio n o f la rg e ro tatin g

m a chines w ith speed ra n g e fro m 10 to
2 0 0 re v /s
M e a sure m e n t a nd e v a lu a tio n of
vib ra tio n se ve rity in s itu

DIS 5 4 0 6

The m ech an ica l b a la n c in g o f fle xible

ro tors

B ritis h S tandards In s titu tio n ,

2 Park S tree t,
Lon do n W . 1
R e co m m e nd a tion s fo r a b a sis fo r
co m p a ra tive e valu a tion o f v ib ra tio n in
m a ch in e ry

BS 4 9 9 9 : 1 9 7 2 P art 5 0: M e ch a n ica l p e rfo rm a n c e v ib ra tio n

Hungary

M a g yar Szabrnygyi H iva ta l,

B ud a pe st IX
ll l u t. 2 5

M .S z 1 9 4 2 6 -7 7 Forgogpek rezgserssgnek m r se
KGST 7 1 6 -7 7
Netherlands

M o to ro s kziszerszm ok
zinek m r si mdszerei

H . 5. V i b r a t i o n T e s t i n g
Belqium

re z g s je lle m -

N e de rlan ds N o rm a lis a tie -ln s titu u t,

P olakw e g 5,
R ijs w ijk (Z-H)

NEN - ISO 3 0 8 0 S am e as (ISO 3 0 8 0 1 9 7 4 )

B I N. (B elgisch In s titu u t vo o r N o rm a lisa tie )

VZW
B ra ba no n ne la an 2 9
1 0 4 0 B russel T e l.: 0 2 / 7 3 4 . 9 2 . 0 5
I.B .N . (In s titu t Belge de N o rm a lis a tio n ) ASBL
A ven u e de la B ra b a n o n n e 2 9
1 0 4 0 B ru xe lle s T e l.: 0 2 / 7 3 4 . 9 2 . 0 5

C 0 6 -2 0 6

NEN - ISO 3 9 4 5 S am e as (ISO 3 9 4 5 1 9 7 7 )

Poland

PN 7 3
E 04255
Roumania

STAS 7 5 3 6 6 6
U.S.A.

A F B M A S ta n d a rc
No. 1 3 ( 1 9 6 8 )
U.S.S.R.

P olski K o m ite t N o rm a liza cji i M ia r,

u l. E le kto ra ln a 2,
0 0 -1 3 9 - W arszaw a

Essais fo n d a m e n ta u x c lim a tiq u e s et de

robustesse m ca n iq u e : P a rtie II:
Essais; Essai Fc: V ib ra tio n s
(sinusoidales)

E le ctrica l ro ta tin g m a ch ine s.

M e a s u re m e n t of vib ra tion s
O fic iu l de stat p en tru S ta n d a rd e .
S tr Edgar Q uine t 6,
B u ca re st 1
M e a s u re m e n t of vib ra tio n fro m
e le c tric a l ro ta tin g m achines
A n ti-F ric tio n B earing M a n u fa c tu re rs
A sso c ia tio n
6 0 East 4 2 n d S treet
N e w Y ork. NY 1 0 0 1 7
R o llin g bea rin g v ib ra tio n and n o is e
K o m ite t S tandartov,
L e n in sky P rospekt 9 b,
M oskva M - 4 9

Fu nd a m n tele k lim a to lo g is c h e en
m echanische b e p ro e vin g sm e th o d e n :
Deel II: Proeven; P ro ef Fc:
(S in usvo rm ige ) t rillin g e n

C 06 229
France

Idem: Proef Eb: T rilp ro e f

Idem: Essai Eb: S e co u sse s
L 'A sso cia tio n F ra n a is e de
N o rm a lisa tio n (A FNO R),
T o u r Europe. 9 2 C o u rb e vo ie

UTE C 2 0 - 4 0 8
1974

G uide pour l e ssai de ch o c s

S pectres de ch ocs e t a u tre s
ca ra ct ristiq u e s d es fo rm e s de chocs
(11 pages)

NF C 2 0 - 5 0 8
1975

Essai 8: Chocs (E n r.) ( 1 0 pages)

NF C 2 0 - 5 2 3
1975

Essai 2 3: A c c l ra tio n co nsta nte

(E nr.) (8 pages)
Essai 2 4: S e co u sse s (E n r.) (7
pages)

G ost 1 2 3 7 9 -6 6

M e a s u re m e n t of vib ra tio n on e le c tric a l

ro ta tin g m a chines

NF C 2 0 - 5 2 4
1975

G ost 1 6 5 2 9 - 7 0

A g ric u ltu ra l m ounted m a c h in e s ,

m e tho d s o f d e te rm in a tio n o s c illa tin g
and n oise ch a racte ristics

NF C 2 0 - 5 2 6
1975

V ib ra tio n s a l a to ire s (Essai Fd)

(E nr.) (1 7 pages)

NF C 2 0 - 5 2 7
1975

V ib ra tio n s a l a to ire s (Essai Fda)

(E nr.) (2 5 pages)

NF C 2 0 - 5 2 8
1975

V ib ra tio n s a l a to ire s (Essai Fdb)

(E nr.) (2 5 pages)

NF C 2 0 - 5 2 9
1975

V ib ra tio n s a l a to ire s (Essai Fdc)

(E nr.) (1 4 pages)

NF C 2 0 - 6 0 8
1974

Essai 8 B: C h ocs (E n r.) (1 0 pages)

G ost 2 3 7 1 9 - 7 9 Passenger and tra n sp o rt a e ro p la n e s

and h e lico p te rs. M e tho d s o f m e a s u rin g
v ib ra tio n param eters in s a lo o n s and
c re w ca bin s
International
(I.S . O . )

In te rn a tio n a l O rg an iza tion fo r

S ta n d a rd iza tio n ,
1, Rue de V arem b,
G en e va. S w itze rla nd

359

NF C 2 0 - 6 1 6
1973

Essai 1 6 B: V ib ra tio n s (Enr.) (1 0

pages)

NF C 2 0 - 6 2 3
1973

Essai 2 3 A : A c c l ra tio n co nsta nte

(Enr.) (6 pages)

NF C 2 0 - 6 2 4
1973

Essai 2 4 A : S e co u sses (Enr.) (7

pages)

NF C 9 0 - 1 6 3
1967

Essai N r. 1 6 3 : Essai de vib ra tio n s

(Enr.) (1 0 pages)

E 9 0 -2 0 0
1970

M a ch ine s p o u r e ssa is de vib ra tio n s et

de chocs a b a q u e d e stin au trac
des c a ra c t ris tiq u e s des ensem bles
g n rate urs de v ib ra tio n s
M a ch ine s p o u r e ssa is de v ib ra tio n s et
de chocs c a ra c t ris tiq u e s des
ensem bles g n ra te u rs
le c tro d y n a m iq u e s de vib ra tion s

E 9 0 -2 1 0
1978

E m ballages d 'e x p d itio n com plets et

pleins essai de v ib ra tio n

H 0 0 -0 4 3
1 97 1

B euth V e rla g G m bH
B u rg g ra fe n s tr. 4 10
1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0

G erm any

/O D n \
( M U )
DIN 4 0 0 4 6

K lim a tisch e u n d m e c h a n isch e P r fu n

gen f r e le k tris c h e B au e lem en te und
G erte der N a c h ric h te n te c h n ik
Teil 7: P r fu n g E. S to e n
Teil 8: P r fu n g F. S ch w in g e n

DIN 5 0 1 0 0

D a u e rs c h w in g v e rs u c h e . B e g riffe , Z e i
chen. D u rc h f h ru n g . A u s w e rtu n g

DIN 5 1 2 2 8

D a u e rs c h w in g p r fm a s c h in e n

G r e a t Britain

B ritish S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n ,

2 Park S tre e t,
London W . 1

BS 3 0 1 5 : 1 9 5 8 G lossary o f te rm s used in vib ra tion

and shock te s tin g
B S .2 0 1 1: 1 9 8 0 Part 1.1 B asic E n v iro n m e n ta l Testing
P ro ce d u re s. GENERAL
Part 2.1 ea Test ea Shock
Part 2 1 eb Test eb B um p
Part 2.1 fc Test fc V ib ra tio n
(s in u s o id a l)
Part 2 1 fd R a n d o m V ib ra tio n W id e
band G e n e ra l Req
Part 2.1 fda R a n d o m V ib ra tio n
W id e b a n d R e p ro d u cib ility h ig h
Part 2.1 fdb R a nd o m V ib ra tio n W id e
b and R e p ro d u c ib ility m e d ium
Part 2.1 fd c R a nd o m V ib ra tio n W id e
b an d R e p ro d u c ib ility lo w
BS 3 G 1 0 0 :
Part 2: G e n e ra l re q u ire m e n t for
eq u ip m e n t in a irc ra ft
1969
Hunoarv

M agyar S zab v n g g yi Hivatal

Budapest 1X
ll l t.2 5

KGST 1 3 6 7 - 7 8 Forggpek re zg serossgnek vizsglata s rt ke l se

KGST 1 3 6 8 - 7 8
India

2106

360

Nagy
fo rg g p e k
rezgserssgnek
helyszini vizsg la ta s m in sitse
Indian S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n ,
M anak B ha va n
9 B ahadur S h a h , Z a fa r M arg,
N ew D e lh i 1 1 0 0 0 2
E n viro n m e n ta l te s ts fo r e lectron ic and
e le ctrica l e q u ip m e n t:
Part VII B um p T e st (1 9 6 4 )
Part VIII Im p act o r sh ock test (1 9 6 4 )
Part IX D rop te s t (1 9 6 4 )
Part XIV C o n s ta n t a ccele ra tio n test
(1 9 6 6 )
Part XVI V ib ra tio n te s t (1 9 7 1 )

Japan

J a p a n e s e S tandards A s s o c ia tio n
1 -2 4 , A kasaka 4 ch m e, M in a to -k u
T okyo

JIS C 0 91 1
(1 9 6 0 )

V ib ra tio n te s tin g pro ced ures fo r

e le c tr ic m a ch in e s and e q u ip m e n t

JIS C 0 9 1 2
(1 9 6 0 )

S h o ck te s tin g procedures fo r e le c tric

m a c h in e s and e qu ip m e nt

JIS 1601
(1 9 6 7 )

V ib ra tile te s tin g m ethods fo r

a u to m o b ile parts

JIS B 6 0 0 3
(1 9 6 2 )

M e th o d s of vib ra tio n te s tin g fo r

m a c h in e to o ls

JIS W 6 05 1
(1 9 5 4 )

V ib ra tio n te s tin g m ethod fo r

a e ro n a u tic a l in stru m e n ts

JIS W 6 0 5 3
(1 9 5 5 )

S h o ck te s tin g m ethods fo r a e ro n a u tic a l

in s tru m e n ts

JIS W 6 0 5 4
(1 9 5 5 )

A c c e le ra tio n te stin g m e tho d fo r

a e ro n a u tic a l in stru m e n ts

Poland

P N -7 5
0 -7 9 1 6 6
Sw eden

P o lski K o m ite t N o rm a liza cji i M ia r,

u l. E le kto ra ln a 2,
0 0 -1 3 9 - W arszaw a
T ra n s p o rt packages. M e th o d s of
v ib ra tio n tests
S v e rig e s S ta n d a rd ise rin g s
k o m m is s io n , Box 3 2 9 5 ,
1 0 3 6 6 S to ckh olm

SEN 4 3 1 6 0 0

M ilj p ro v n k ig av
e le k tro n ik k o m p o n e n te r, a llm n t

SEN 4 3 1 6 0 5

M ilj p ro v n in g av
e le k tro n ik k o m p o n e n te r, ska kprov

SEN 4 3 1 6 0 6

M ilj p ro v n in g av
e le k tro n ik k o m p o n e n te r, v ib ra tio n

U S.A.

N aval P u b lica tio n and F orm s C e n te r,

5 8 0 1 Ta bo r A venue,
P h ila d e lp h ia , PA 1 9 1 2 0

M IL
STD 81 OC

E n v iro n m e n ta l Test M e tho d s

(E q u ip m e n t)

M IL
E 4158 E

E le c tro n ic E qu ip m e nt G ro un d ; G e n e ra l
R e q u ire m e n ts for

M IL
E 5272 C

E n v iro n m e n ta l Testing. A e ro n a u tic a l

a nd A s s o c ia te d E quipm ent, G e n e ra l
S p e c ific a tio n s

M IL
E 5400 P

E le c tro n ic E quipm ent, A irb o rn e ;

G e n e ra l S p e cifica tio n s fo r

MIL
T 5422 F

T e s tin g , E n viro n m e n ta l. A irc ra ft,

E le c tro n ic E quipm ent

M IL
E 16400 G

E le c tro n ic , In te rio r C o m m u n ic a tio n and

N a v ig a tio n E quipm ent, N aval S h ip and
S h o re , G e n e ra l S p e cifica tio n s fo r

M IL
T 21200 L

Test E q u ip m e n t for use w ith E le c tro n ic

a nd E le c tric a l E quipm ent, G e n e ra l
S p e c ific a tio n s for

M IL
STD 2 0 2 E

Test M e th o d s fo r E le ctron ic a nd
E le c tric a l C om ponents

NATO
STAN AG 3 5 1 8

E n v iro n m e n ta l Test M e th o d s fo r
A ir c r a ft E q u ip m e nt and A sso cia te d
G ro u n d E qu ip m e nt

International
(I. E.C.)

In te rn a tio n a l O rg an iza tion fo r

S ta n d a rd iz a tio n ,
1 R ue de V arem b^,
G e n e va , S w itze rla nd

68

B a sic e n v iro n m e n ta l te stin g

p ro c e d u re s

68 -1 (1 9 6 8 )

P a rt 1. G e n e ra l

6 8 -1 A (1 9 7 4 )

First s u p p le m e n t to p u b lica tio n 6 8 -1

(1 9 6 8 )

6 8 -2

Part 2. T e sts

6 8 - 2 - 6 (1 9 7 0 )

Test Fc: V ib ra tio n (sinusoidal)

6 8 - 2 - 7 (1 9 6 8 )

Test Ga: A c c e le ra tio n , steady state

G r e a t Britain

B ritis h S tandards In s titu tio n ,

2 Park S treet,
London W . 1

BS 1 8 8 1 : 1 9 7 0

P a rt 5: M e tho d s of te s tin g co n cre te .

M e th o d s of testin g h a rd e n e d co ncrete
fo r o th e r tha n stre ng th

BS.AU 125:
1966

A u to m o b ile series s p e c ific a tio n fo r

m e th o d s of te st fo r p an el d a m p in g
m a te ria ls

6 8 - 2 - 3 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ) Test Fd: R a nd o m vib ra tio n w id e band

G e n e ra l re q u ire m e n ts

DD 4 7

V ib ra tio n iso la tion of s tru c tu re s by

e la s to m e tric m o u n tin g s

6 8 - 2 - 3 5 (1 9 7 3 ) Test Fda: R a nd o m vib ra tio n w id e b an d

R e p ro d u c ib ility h igh

Netherlands

6 8 - 2 - 3 6 (1 9 7 3 ) Test Fdb: R a nd o m v ib ra tio n w id e b an d

R e p ro d u c ib ility m edium

NEN - ISO 2 01 7 | S a m e as (ISO 201 7-1 9 7 2 )

6 8 - 2 - 3 7 (1 9 7 3 ) Test Fdc: R a ndom vib ra tio n w id e b and

R e p ro d u c ib ility lo w

Roumania

6 8 - 2 - 2 7 (1 9 7 2 ) Test Ea: S ho ck
6 8 - 2 - 2 9 (1 9 6 8 ) Test Eb: B u m p

STAS 8 0 4 8 - 6 7
H .6.

Measurement

Dynamic

of

Properties of M aterials

F ra n rp

L 'A s s o c ia tio n Franaise de

N o rm a lis a tio n (AFNOR),
To ur E urop e, 9 2 Courbevoie

U.S.A.

N e d e rla n d s N o rm a lis a tie -ln s titu u t,

P olakw e g 5,
R ijs w ijk (Z-H)

O fic iu l de stat p en tru S ta n d a rd e

S tr. Edgar Q uine t 6,
B uca re st 1
M e a s u re m e n t of d yn a m ic s tiffn e s s of
v ib ra tio n absorbing m a te ria ls in
b u ild in g acoustics
A m e ric a n Society fo r T e s tin g
a n d M a te ria ls,
1 9 1 6 Race S t.,
P hila d e lp h ia , Pa. 1 9 1 0 3

ASTM
C 2 1 5 -6 0

"S ta nd ard m ethod o f te s t fo r

fu n d a m e n ta l tra n sve rse , lo n g itu d in a l
a n d to rs io n a l fre q u e n cie s o f concrete
s p e c im e n s ". A n n u a l A S T M S ta n da rd s
P a rt 10

IDEM (poste s d 'essais)

ASTM
C 5 9 7 -7 1

"S ta nd ard m ethod of te s t fo r p ulse

v e lo c ity th ro u g h c o n c re te . A n n u a l
A S T M S tandards Part 1 0

NFS 3 1 0 5 1
F E V .1979

IDEM - P o u vo ir d 'is o la tio n a co u stiq u e

au b ru it a rie n des lm en ts de
c o n s tru c tio n

ASTM
D1 5 7 7 -6 6

NFS 3 1 0 5 2
FEV 1 9 7 9

IDEM - M e s u re en laboratoire de la
tra n s m is s io n du b ru it de choc par le s
pla n ch e rs

"S ta nd ard m ethods of te s t fo r lin e a r

d e n s ity of te xtile fib e rs ". (V ib ro scop e
m e th o d ) A n n u a l ASTM S ta n d a rd s Part
25

IDEM - M e s u re de la r d uctio n de la
tra n s m is s io n du b ru it de choc par les
re v te m e n ts de sol et les dalles
flo tta n te s

ASTM
D 2 2 3 1 -7 1

NFS 3 1 0 5 3
F E V .1979

"S ta n d a rd re com m ended p ra c tic e fo r

fo rc e d v ib ra tio n te s tin g of
v u lc a n iz a te s " A n n u a l A S T M
S ta n d a rd s Part 2 8

NFS 3 1 0 4 9
FEV. 1 9 7 9

M e su re du p o u v o ir d 'iso latio n
a co u stiq u e des l m e n ts de
co n s tru c tio n et de l'iso le m e n t des
im m e u b le s, (fid lit )

NFS 3 1 0 5 0
FEV 1 9 7 9

G e rm a n y
,D D m
(B R D )

B eu th V e rla g G m bH
B u rg g ra fe n s tr 4 - 1 0
1 0 0 0 B e rlin 3 0

DIN 5 2 2 1 4

B a u a ku stisch e P r fu n g e n B e s tim
m ung der d yn a m is c h e n S te ifig k e it von
D m m s c h ic h te n f r s ch w im m e n d e B
den

DIN 5 3 4 2 6

P r fu n g vo n S ch a u m sto ffe n ; B e s tim

m ung des d yn a m is c h e n E la s tiz it ts m o
duls u nd des V e rlu s tfa k to rs nach d em
V ib ro m e te rv e rfa h re n

DIN 5 3 4 4 0

P r fu n g vo n K u n s ts to ffe n und s c h w in
g u n g sg e d m p fte n g e sch ich te ten S y s te
men
B ie g e sch w in g u n g sve rsu ch .
Teil 1: A llg e m e in e G rundlagen
Teil 2: B e s tim m u n g des kom plexen
E la stiz it ts m o d u ls
Teil 3: M e h rs c h ic h ts y s te m e

DIN 5 3 4 4 5

P r fu n g vo n K u n ststo ffe n ;
T o rs io n s s c h w in g u n g s v e rs u c h

DIN 5 3 5 1 3

B e s tim m u n g d e r visko -e la stisch e n E i

g e n s c h a fte n von G u m m i bei e rz w u n g e
nen S c h w in g u n g e n a u e rh alb d e r R e
sonanz

DIN 541 19

U ltra s c h a llp r fu n g , B egriffe

A m e ric a n N ational S ta n d a rd s Institu te

1 4 3 0 Broadway
N e w York. NY 1 0 0 1 8
ANSI S2 8
1 9 7 2 (R 1 9 7 8 )

G u id e fo r D escribing the
C h a ra c te ris tic s o f R e s ilie n t M o u n tin g s

ANSI S2 9
1976

N o m e n c la tu re for S p e c ify in g D am ping

P ro p e rtie s of M a te ria ls

International
(I. S O . )

l n te rn a t'o na l O rg a n iza tio n fo r

S ta n da rd iza tion ,
1 , Rue de V arem b6
G en e va, S w itze rla nd

2 0 1 7 -1 9 7 2

V ib ra tio n and Shock Is o la to rs

S p e c ify in g ch a ra cte ristics fo r
m e ch a n ica l iso la tion (G u id e fo r
s e le c tin g and app lyin g re s ilie n t
device s)

DP 5 4 0 5

N o m e n cla tu re fo r sp e cifyin g dam pin g

p ro p e rtie s of m a te ria ls

361

INDEX

1/ 1 2-octave analysis .............................................................. 169, 1 8 4 , 1 8 5 , 190

1/3 -o c ta v e analysis ...................................................... 1 4 9 , 164, 1 7 6 , 1 8 4 , 190
absolute vibration ............................................................................................ 1 9 7 , 199
absorber tu n in g .......................................................................................................... 31 5
AC recording .................................................................................................... 1 6 3 , 173
acceleration ............................................................................................... 9 7 , 3 3 5 , 33 9
accelerom eter .............. 9 8 , 1 0 0 1 1 1 , 199, 2 0 0 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 5 , 2 5 5 , 2 8 0 , 33 9
accelerom eter advantages .......................................................................................... 98
accelerom eter ch aracteristics .................................................................... 1 0 0 111
accelerom eter m o u n tin g ............................................................................. 1 2 2 129
accelerom eter p ream plifiers ...................................................................... 11 2 11 5
accelerom eter sealant ............................................................................................... 110
accelerom eter se n sitivity, charge ............................................................. 11 2 11 3
accelerom eter se n sitivity, e n viro n m e n ta l ............................................... 1 0 8 111
accelerom eter se n sitivity, transverse .................................................................
105
accelerom eter se n sitivity, voltage ........................................................................
112
accelerom eter table ..................................................................................................
101
accelerom eters, com pression type ........................................................................ 100
accelerom eters, shear type ...................................................................................... 100
acoustic em ission (AE) .............................................................................................. 212
acoustic fatigue ................................................................................................... 7 9 82
acoustics ............................................................................................................ 1 7 5 , 184
AE source location ............................................................................. 2 2 4 , 2 3 2 23 5
AE transducer .............................................................................................................. 21 5
aliasing .......................................................................................................................... 1 65
a m p lifie r, charge ........................................................................................................ 11 2
a m p lifie r, voltage ....................................................................................................... 112
analysis param eters, selection of ............................................................. 1 7 1 175
analysis speed, analysis tim e ................................................ 163, 1 6 8 , 1 7 3 175
analyzers, frequency ............................................ 3 1 , 1 3 0 , 1 37, 1 4 9 1 5 6 , 160
analyzers, heterodyne ............................................................................................... 151
ang u la r stiffness ............................................................................................................ 53
apparent mass ............................................................................................................. 2 5 2
autocorrela tion fu n c tio n ..................................................................................... 2 8 , 55
autom atic frequ en cy sweep .................................................................................... 245
average absolute value ................................................................................................. 21
averaging circu it properties .................................................. 1 6 1 1 6 3 , 1 8 9 , 190
averaging tim e ........................................................................... 1 6 1 , 1 7 3 , 1 8 4 186
362

background noise ......................................................................................................

159
balancing ......................................................................................................... 2 6 8 291
balancing m achine ............................................................................. 2 7 6 2 7 8 , 285
balancing q uality ............................................................................................. 2 7 3 , 285
bandw idth ...................................................................................................................
177
bearing supports, bearing housing vib ra tio n ................................. 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 , 279
best param eter ................................................................................................ 2 0 2 , 209
broad-band com ponents .........................................................................................
180
BT a product ........................................................................................... 1 7 3 , 1 7 9 , 184
bum p recorder ......................................................................... 1 4 4 1 4 5 , 2 6 2 263
cable noise .............................................................................................. 1 0 9 , 1 2 7 , 128
calibration .......................................................................................................... 1 1 5 , 218
calibrators (vibration) .................................................................................... 11 6 1 20
calculator ...................................................................................... 15 6 , 1 8 4 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 0
charge a m plifiers ......................................................................................................
112
charge se n sitivity ............................................................................................ 1 12, 113
check-list (vibration m easurem ents) ....................................................................
158
coherence fu n c tio n .......................................................................................................... 5
com fort boundary ........................................................................................................... 91
com plex frequency response .................................................................. 4 3 , 5 5 , 33 0
com plex shock .................................................................................................... 3 3 ,2 6 1
com pliance ........................................................................................................ 2 5 1 , 252
compound system ............................................................................................... 302
com pressional vib ra tio n .............................................................................................. 65
compressor ....................................................................................................... 2 4 4 , 249
com puter program fo r balancing ............................................................... 2 8 3 , 284
constant % b a n dw idth analysis ....................... 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 8 , 1 6 9 , 1 8 6 , 196
constant % b a n d w id th analyzer .......................................... 1 3 2 1 3 3 , 1 4 9 151
constant bandw idth a n a ly s is ............................................................. 1 6 0 , 1 6 8 , 186
constant bandw idth analyzer .................................................................................. 151
continuous processes .................................................................................................. 27
continuous spectra .............................................................................. 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 3 , 34
convolution .......................................................................................................... 4 2 , 165
Coulomb dam ping ...................................................................................................... 319
Coulum b fric tio n ............................................................................................................ 53
couple unbalance ....................................................................................................... 27 0
coupling ................................................................................................................. 4 6 , 315
crack fo rm a tion , detection of ................................................................................. 225
crankshaft balancing ................................................................................................ 287
crest factor ............................................................................................................ 2 3 , 161
critica l speed ............................................................................................................... 285
cross correlation .............................................................................................................. 5
cross spectral density .................................................................................................... 5
dam ping m atrix .............................................................................................................. 67
DC recording ......................................................................................... 1 6 3 , 1 7 3 , 175
decay rate m ethod .......................................................................................... 3 2 2 , 3 2 4
363

decibels (dB) .................................................................................................................. 3 4 5

desktop calculator ..................................................................... 156, 1 8 4 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 0
d e te cto r ......................................................................................................................... 1 60
d e tecto r response ................................................................................. 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 191
d ig ita l cassette tape recorder .................................................................................. 156
d ig ita l filte r analyzer ..................................................... 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 4 193
d ig ita l filte rin g ........................................................ 3 3 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 1 8 9 192
d ig ita l processing ............................................................................................ 1 5 5 , 1 5 6
D iscrete Fourier Transform (DFT) ............................................................................. 164
d iscre te frequency com ponents ................................................................... 1 8 0 , 185
dislocations .......................................................................................................... 7 3 , 2 1 3
displacem ent ............................................................................................. 9 7 , 3 3 5 , 3 39
drop te st m achine ...................................................................................................... 257
d yn a m ic absorber ........................................................................................... 3 1 1 3 18
d yna m ic balancing ......................................................................................... 2 7 6 , 2 83
d yn a m ic range ....................................................... 1 7 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 , 345
d yna m ic stiffness ....................................................................................................... 252
d yna m ic strain ........................................................................................................ 5, 171
d yna m ic unbalance ................................................................................................... 2 7 0
effe ctive impulse length ........................................................................................... 161
effe ctive record length ............................................................. 177, 1 7 9 , 1 8 8 , 193
electrodynam ic vib ra to r ................................................................................ 2 3 9 24 2
electrohydraulic v ib ra to r ........................................................................................... 23 8
electrom agnetic noise .................................................................................... 1 0 9 , 129
ensem ble averaging ..................................................................................................... 37
enveloping .................................................................................................................... 24 8
e n vironm ental effects (accelerom eters) .................................................. 1 0 8 111
e n vironm ental te stin g ............................................................................................... 23 7
e q u a lize r/a n a lyze r system s .................................................................................... 24 9
e q u ivale n t averaging tim e ............................................................................ 1 8 8 , 192
e rro r, standard .................................................................................................. 1 7 3 , 179
e xcite r ........................................................................................................................... 2 3 8
e xcite r control ................................................................................................. 2 4 4 2 47
exponential averaging ............................................................... 184, 1 9 1 , 1 9 2 , 3 45
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) .............................. 3 2 , 1 6 0 , 164, 1 7 5 1 8 4 , 186
FFT analyzer ..................................................................... 1 5 0 , 154, 1 7 6 , 1 9 3 , 194
fa tig u e ......................................................................................................... 7 2 , 2 2 5 , 26 8
fatigue-decreased proficiency .................................................................................... 90
fie ld balancing ..................................................................................... 2 6 8 , 2 7 8 28 5
filte r ................................................................ 9 9 , 1 4 7 1 4 8 , 160, 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 , 28 0
filte r characteristic .............................................................................. 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 168
filte r response ................................................................ 1 6 0 161, 1 6 8 , 1 7 3 , 189
fin e balancing .............................................................................................................. 28 5
fin ite elem ent te chniques ................................................................................. 6 5 69
fix tu re , vibration te st ................................................................................................ 243
fle x ib le rotors ................................................................................................... 2 8 5 , 28 9
364

fle xu re resonance ...................................................................................................... 2 4 0

flo a tin g floor ................................................................................................................. 3 0 0
force testing ......................................................................................... 2 3 7 , 2 5 1 2 5 5
force tra nsd uce r ............................................................................................... 1 2 0 ,2 5 1
fo rm factor ....................................................................................................................... 23
found atio n reaction ................................................................................................... 2 9 5
Fourier frequency spectrum ........................................... 2 3 , 29, 3 6 , 5 7 , 5 9 , 3 3 7
Fourier integral ..................................................................................................... 2 9 , 34
Fourier tra n sfo rm .............................................................................. 3 4 , 4 3 , 5 5 , 164
frequency analysis ....................................................................................... 2 3 , 3 1 , 9 9
frequency analysis, shock ................................................................ 1 7 6 , 1 8 5 192
frequency analyzer ............................................................. 3 1 , 9 9 , 1 4 9 1 5 6 , 2 1 0
frequency analyzer, analogue ............................................................ 3 1 , 1 4 9 152
frequency analyzer, digital ........................................................................... 1 5 2 156
frequency dom ain ......................................................................................................... 25
frequency range ............................................................................................... 1 0 2 , 2 0 0
frequency resolution ...................................................................................... 1 7 7 , 193
frequency response ....................................... 4 3 , 5 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 7 , 2 3 7 , 331
frequency spectrum (continuous) ..................................................... 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 3 , 34
frequency sw eep test ................................................................................................. 2 45
gamma fun ctio n ............................................................................................................. 77
Gaussian curve .................................................................................................... 2 8 , 3 3 0
Gaussian random process ............................................................................... 5 5 , 3 3 0
gearbox vibrations .......................................................................................... 1 7 1 , 181
Geiger test .................................................................................................................... 3 2 4
ground loops .................................................................................................... 1 0 9 , 129
half-pow er points ............................................................................................... 4 4 , 3 23
hand-arm vibration .......................................................................... 8 8 , 9 1 9 4 , 132
hardening spring ........................................................................... 4 7 , 3 0 9 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 7
harm onic m otion ........................................................................................................... 20
harm onics ............................................................................................................. 5 2 , 1 75
Hanning w e ig h tin g ................................... 1 6 4 , 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 , 179, 1 8 0 , 1 8 8 , 193
head constant ............................................................................................................... 241
heterodyne analyzer ................................................................................................... 151
heterodyne slave filte r .............................................................................................. 148
histogram ......................................................................................................................... 74
IEC/IEEE Interface ..................................................................................................... 156
impedance head .......................................................................................................... 2 55
impedance transducer .............................................................................................. 120
im pulse analysis ................................................................................. 1 7 6 , 1 8 5 192
inertance ...................................................................................................................... 2 52
in fin ite degrees of freedom ................................................................................ 6 0 , 63
influence coe fficie n t method (balancing) ........................... 2 7 3 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 7 , 289
integration (electronic) ..................................................... 9 7 , 114, 1 3 6 , 2 4 6 , 3 39
in tegration, of continuous signals ........................................................... 3 3 9 3 4 2
in tegration, of tra n sien ts ............................................................................. 3 4 2 345
365

in te r-h a rm o n ics .......................................................................................................... 175

interchangeable heads ............................................................................................. 241
interface dam ping ...................................................................................................... 3 1 9
iso la tio n ............................................................................................................ 2 9 2 311
iso la tio n , vibration ......................................................................................... 2 9 2 3 0 3
iso la tio n , shock ............................................................................................... 3 0 4 311
iso la to r table ............................................................................................................... 3 1 0
ja w -s k u ll system ............................................................................................................ 86
jo u rn a l bearings .......................................................................................................... 1 98
Kaiser effect ...................................................................................................... 2 2 9 , 2 3 0
kinetosis (m otion sickness) .............................................................................. 8 8 , 132
lateral stability ............................................................................................................. 2 9 4
level recorder ........................................................ 1 3 1 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 3 , 2 4 4
lin e a r am plitude scale .................................................................................... 2 0 3 , 3 4 5
lin e a r averaging .............................................................. 1 6 2 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 0 , 192
lin e a r frequency scale ............................................................. 1 6 8 1 7 1 , 1 8 6 , 196
LM S detector ................................................................................................................. 161
lo g a rith m ic am plitude scale .................................................. 1 6 8 1 7 1 , 2 0 3 , 3 4 5
lo g a rith m ic frequency scale .................................................. 1 6 8 1 7 1 , 1 8 6 , 196
long transients, an a lysis o f ......................................................................... 1 8 7 1 89
loss factor ...................................................................................................................... 3 2 2
m achine health m o n ito rin g , condition m onitoring ........... 1 7 6 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 5
m achine run-up or ru n -d o w n ................................................................................... 193
m ains-operated in s tru m e n ts ...................................................................... 1 4 7 158
mass m atrix ........................................................................................................... 6 7 , 68
m astic deadeners ........................................................................................................ 3 1 9
m axim ax spectrum ................................................................................ 5 8 , 3 0 4 3 0 6
m ean square spectral density .................................................................. 2 6 , 2 9 , 55
m ean stress effects (on fatigue) ....................................................................... 7 8 , 79
m easuring a m p lifie rs .................................................................................... 1 4 7 148
m echanical im pedance ..................................................................... 1 2 1 ,2 5 1 2 5 5
m echanical im pedance transducer ........................................................................ 12 0
m o b ility ................................................................................................... 2 5 1 2 5 5 , 198
modal balancing ........................................................................................................... 2 8 7
modal density .................................................................................................................. 69
mode ........................................................................................................................ 6 0 64
m o m e n t of inertia .......................................................................................................... 53
m otion analyzer ............................................................................................................ 141
m oving elem ent ........................................................................................................... 2 4 0
m ulti-degree of freedom ....................................................... 4 6 , 5 2 , 5 8 , 2 9 4 , 3 3 7
m ultiple-span shafts ................................................................................................... 2 8 8
N -w ave (sonic boom) ..................................................................................... 1 8 9 , 190
negative damping ............................................................................................................ 53
negative frequency .............................................................................................. 3 0 , 176
noise flo o r ...................................................................................................................... 159
non-destructive te s tin g (N D T )................................................................................... 2 1 2
366

n on-linear isolators ................................................................................................... 3 0 9

non -lin e a r stiffn e ss ..................................................................... 4 7 5 2 , 3 3 4 3 3 6
non -lin e a r system s ................................................................ 4 6 5 3 , 5 8 , 2 4 5 , 3 3 4
non -station ary signals ................................................................. 3 6 3 8 , 1 8 1 , 184
non -station ary signal analysis .................................................................... 1 9 2 196
norm alized Gaussian curve ........................................................................................ 28
Nyquist freq uency ....................................................................................................... 176
o il-film properties ............................................................................................. 1 9 8 ,1 9 9
on-condition m aintenance .................................................................. 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 , 211
o rb it plots ...................................................................................................................... 144
order analysis .................................................................................................... 1 5 4 , 155
oscillator ....................................................................................................................... 245
peak probability d e n s ity ................................................................................................ 75
periodic signals ......................................................................................
2 0 , 1 6 8 , 177
perm anent m onitoring ............................................................................................... 2 0 8
phase m eter ............................................................................................ 2 5 5 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 5
picket fence e ffect ............................................................................................ 1 6 6 , 194
piezoelectric accelerom eters .............................................................. 1 0 0 , 2 4 6 , 24 7
plastic deform ation, detection o f .......................................................................... 22 5
point im pedance ........................................................................................................ 251
point m obility ............................................................................................................... 251
portable battery-operated e q u ipm e n t ....................................................... 1 2 9 147
pow er a m p lifie r .......................................................................... 2 3 9 , 2 4 4 2 4 8 , 2 5 0
pream plifiers ...................................................... 1 1 2 1 1 5 ,1 3 8 1 4 1 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 0
pream plifier table ....................................................................................................... 115
predictive m aintenance ............................................................................................ 205
preventive m aintenance ............................................................................................ 2 0 4
probability density .................................................................................... 2 6 2 8 , 32 8
production co n tro l, quality c o n tro l ........................................................................ 23 7
pulse height, effective ................................................................................. 3 0 5 30 7
pulse shape .................................................................................................................. 25 6
pulse-area m easurem ents ......................................................................................... 221
q u a lity control ............................................................................................................... 176
q u a lity factor, Q-factor ..........................................................................
4 4 , 1 6 8 , 186
R .M .S. value .............................................................................................. 2 2 , 3 3 , 328
random testing ................................................................................... 2 3 7 , 2 4 8 251
random signals .................................................................. 26, 1 7 4 , 1 8 4 , 2 4 4 , 32 8
Rayleigh d istrib u tio n ...................................................................................................... 75
Raynaud's disease (w hite fin g e r, "dead hand ) .................................................... 94
real-tim e analysis .......................................................................................... 1 7 5 196
Real-Time Analyzer (RTA) ............................................ 1 5 2 1 5 6 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 5 , 249
real-tim e frequency ..................................................................................................... 181
receptance ..................................................................................................................... 252
reciprocating m achines ................................................................................... 1 8 1 , 193
recorder ........................................................................................................................ 1 60
reduced com fort boundary ............................................................................................ 91
367

re gulation speed ........................................................................................................ 2 4 5

relative vibration, d is p la c e m e n t............................................. 1 9 7 , 1 99, 2 0 0 , 201
residual shock spe ctru m ................................................................................. 5 8 , 3 3 7
resonant frequency ...................................................................................................... 4 4
response, acceleration ..................................................................................... 4 1 ,3 3 1
response, displacem ent .................................................................................. 4 1 , 3 3 0
response, force ............................................................................................................. 3 0 5
response, shock .............................................................................................................. 5 8
response, velocity ................................................................................... 4 1 , 3 3 1 , 3 3 8
rin g -d o w n counting ..................................................................................................... 221
rocking effects .............................................................................................................. 3 0 0
ro llin g elem ent bearings .............................................................................. 2 0 0 , 2 2 6
rota tio n a l vibrations ....................................................................................................... 53
ru n -to -b re a k m aintenance ........................................................................................ 2 0 4
ru n n in g exponential average ...................................................................... 1 6 2 , 1 9 0
ru n n in g linear average ........................................................................ 1 62, 1 8 9 , 1 9 0
S-N curve ............................................................................................... 7 4 , 7 5 , 7 7 79
sam pling frequency ........................................................................................ 1 6 5 , 1 7 7
sandw ich structures ......................................................................................... 3 2 1 , 3 2 2
scan analysis ...................................................................................................... 1 8 1 , 1 8 8
scan average ................................................................................................................. 1 8 8
serial analysis (swept fre q u e n cy analysis) .................................. 1 7 1 1 7 5 ,2 0 7
shape factor, filte r ...................................................................................................... 1 6 8
shock ............................................................................................................. 3 3 , 1 8 5 , 3 3 7
shock isolation ................................................................................................ 3 0 4 311
shock m achine ................................................................................................ 2 5 7 261
shock response ...................................................................................................... 5 7 , 58
shock spectra ......................................................................................................... 5 7 6 0
shock synthesis ........................................................................................................... 2 6 0
shock testing ................................................................................................... 2 5 6 261
sh o rt-te rm frequency spectrum ............................................................................... 19 2
sidebands ........................................................................................................... 1 7 5 , 181
sidelobes ............................................................................................................ 1 6 5 , 1 66
S iebert's construction .................................................................................... 2 7 9 , 2 8 0
single degree of freedom .............................................................. 4 1 , 45 , 3 3 0 , 3 3 4
sinusoidal testing ................................................................................ 2 3 7 , 2 4 4 2 4 8
six degree of freedom ................................................................................................. 2 9 4
slave filte r ...................................................................................................................... 14 8
slip bands ......................................................................................................................... 73
softening spring ......................................................................................... 47 , 31 1, 3 3 6
sonic boom, see N -wave
Sound Level M eter ........................................................................................ 1 3 5 13 8
specific unbalance ........................................................................................................ 2 6 9
spectral density, pow er .................................................................... 2 6 , 29, 3 4 , 17 9
spectral density, energy .................................................................................... 3 4 , 18 6
spectrum equalization ................................................................................................. 2 4 9
368

spectral line ..................................................................................................................... 36

spectrum averaging ................................................................................................... 178
spectrum shaper ............................................................................................... 2 4 9 , 259
squaring c irc u it ..................................................................................... 1 6 1 , 1 8 9 , 190
standing w ave ................................................................................................................. 61
static unbalance .......................................................................................................... 2 6 9
stationary process .................................................................. 2 6 , 2 7 , 3 0 , 1 8 0 , 32 9
stationary signals ..................................................................... 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 1 185
statistical energy analysis ........................................................................................... 69
stiffness m atrix ...................................................................................................... 66, 67
stress concentrations .................................................................................................... 73
stress ratio .............................................................................................................. 7 8 , 79
stress reversals .................................................................................................... 7 3 77
stress-w ave em ission (SWE) ................................................................................... 212
stroboscope ................................................................................... 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 , 2 4 4 , 28 0
structural response testing ......................................................................... 2 5 1 255
subharm onics ......................................................................................................... 5 0 , 52
superharm onics .............................................................................................................. 52
superposition p rinciple ............................................................................. 4 1 , 4 7 , 338
suspension resonance .............................................................................................. 24 0
sw ept frequency analysis ........................................................................................ 163
tachom eter .............................................................................................. 1 8 1 , 1 9 4 , 28 0
tape recorder ................................................................................ 1 3 8 , 1 7 5 , 2 0 7 , 249
tem perature tra n s ie n ts ............................................................................................ 109
thorax-abdom en system ............................................................................................... 85
tim e averaging ................................................................................................................ 37
tim e history ...................................................................................................................... 28
tim e w in d o w , fla t .......................................................... 1 6 4 1 6 5 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 6 , 187
tim e w in d o w , H anning ...................................................................... 1 6 4 1 6 5 , 177
tim e w in d o w , tim e w eig h tin g fu n ctio n .......................................... 1 6 5 , 1 9 2 , 193
torque ................................................................................................................................ 53
torsional vibrations ........................................................................................................ 53
tracking filte r .......................................................................................... 1 3 4 , 2 4 5 , 255
tra n sfe r im pedance ................................................................................................... 251
tra n sfe r m obility .......................................................................................................... 251
transform size .............................................................................................................. 176
tra n sie n t analysis ........................................................... 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 185
tra n sie n t phenom enon ................................................................. 3 3 3 6 , 1 8 7 ,3 4 2
tra n sie n t response .................................................................................................... 106
tra n sm issib ility, displacem ent ................................................................................ 303
tra n sm issib ility, force ............................................................................................... 2 9 4
transverse s e n sitivity (accelerometer) ................................................................. 105
transverse vib ra tio n s (beams) .................................................................................... 61
transverse vib ra tio n s (plates) ..................................................................................... 63
tria l mass ...................................................................................................................... 280
trib o -e lectric effects ......................................................................................... 1 0 9 , 127
3 69

tu n a b le f i l t e r .................................................................................................................. 1 3 0
tu n in g , absorber .......................................................................................................... 3 1 5
unbalance ...................................................................................................................... 2 7 3
ve lo c ity ....................................................................................................... 9 7 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 9
vib ra tio n absorber .......................................................................................... 3 1 1 3 1 8
vib ra tio n calibrator ........................................................................................ 1 1 6 1 2 0
v ib ra tio n exposure c rite ria ......................................................................... 9 0 , 9 1 , 93
vib ra tio n m easurem ent scheme (s u m m a ry )......................................................... 15 8
v ib ra tio n meter .............................................................. 1 2 9 13 5, 1 7 5 , 2 0 6 , 2 8 0
vib ra tio n testing .............................................................................................. 2 3 7 2 5 5
v ib ra to r, e lectrohydraulic ........................................................................................... 2 3 8
vib ra to r, electrodynam ic .............................................................................. 2 3 9 2 4 2
viscoelastic m aterials .................................................................................... 3 1 9 3 2 2
voltage am plifier .......................................................................................................... 112
voltage sensitivity ......................................................................................................... 112
w ave effects .................................................................................................................. 2 9 5
w ave-shape ............................................................................................... 5 1 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 5
w ave-shape d isto rtio n ................................................................................................ 3 3 4
w a ve fo rm analysis ........................................................................................ 1 4 3 14 4
w h ite fin g e r ...................................................................................................................... 94
w hole -b o d y vibration ......................................................................................... 8.8, 132
w id e band test .............................................................................................................. 2 4 8
W ie n e r-K h in ch in re la tio n s ........................................................................................... 3 0
W o h le r Kurve ....................................................................................................... 7 4 , 2 3 7
X-Y recorder ................................................................................................................... 157
zero s h ift ......................................................................................................................... 106
zoom analysis ................................................................................................... 1 8 1 , 1 87

370

Bruel & Kjr

DK-2850 NRUM, DENMARK Telephone: + 4 5 2 8 0 0 5 0 0

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