Beruflich Dokumente
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Materials
SBAC Aviation and Environment Briefing Papers
8: Advanced Aircraft Materials
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Summary of Facts
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Advanced
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Materials that have high strength whilst being light weight, have improved temperature
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Developing materials with these characteristics whilst satisfying other customer and design
requirements
challenging,
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Advanced materials currently being investigated and developed include composites,
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ceramics,
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nanomaterials
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Introduction
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This paper is one
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being undertaken by the UK aerospace industry to address the environmental challenges associated
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This paper highlights
# some of the advanced materials, offering environmental and performance
benefits, being developed by the UK aerospace industry.
In addition to this, adaptive materials, materials which have properties that can be altered by
changing the conditions they are subject to, can help to optimise the aircrafts performance
throughout the flight cycle leading to reduced fuel burn and emissions.
Developing materials with these desired characteristics (improved specific strength, high
temperature capability, adaptive properties, etc) whilst satisfying other customer and design
requirements, is extremely difficult. As a result, manufacturers are moving well beyond
traditional materials (see Figure 4 on p.5 for material usage in aircraft), investigating more
innovative and exotic alternatives like composites, advanced metal alloys, ceramics,
nanomaterials and smart materials. These materials and the efforts underway to develop them
are discussed here.
Composites
Composites are materials made from two or more components that have significantly different physical
or chemical properties which remain distinct (on a macroscopic level) within the finished structure. The
advantage of composite materials is that the properties they exhibit are different to simply the sum of
the properties of the constituent materials.
Composites consist of reinforcement and matrix material. The reinforcement, which generally takes
the form of fibres, has high tensile strength but is susceptible to breakage. In contrast, the matrix
which surrounds and supports the reinforcement has a relatively low tensile strength but is extremely
tough. When combined, the matrix and the reinforcement, counteract each others weaknesses to
2
produce a material that is stronger, stiffer and more damage resistant than either material alone.
Many different materials and methods can be used to produce composite materials depending on the
required application and quantity.
In the aerospace industry, composites are generally made of non-metallic fibres like carbon, glass or
aramid, embedded in a polymeric matrix (eg plastic or epoxy); although in some cases, the matrix is a
metal such as aluminium, titanium or magnesium. For example, as seen in Figure 2, glassreinforced
fibre metal laminates known as glares are used in significant proportions in airframes. Ceramic
composites are also being considered for some aerospace applications, as discussed later in the
paper.
1
Whilst increased combustion temperature leads to a reduction in some engine emissions, most notably CO2, at higher
temperatures more NOx emissions are produced (per kg of fuel burn). For details of the emissions from combustion and the
technology being developed to address trade-offs between CO2 and NOx see the SBAC Aviation and Environment Briefing
Paper titled Emissions from Combustion and Their Effects.
2
CompositesWorld, (2008) Aerospace Composites: A Design and Manufacturing Guide, Gardner Publications Inc. U.S.
3
F. Smith, (2008). Composites Materials for Aerospace Structures
2
Global trends and UK Capabilities Presentation. UK Trade and Investment
Sandwich panels
One type of composite structure used in
aerospace is the sandwich panel. In this
structure a light weight core material such
as a honeycomb is sandwiched between
two laminated composite sheets known as
skins. Sandwich panels are popular as
they have the highest stiffness-to-weight
and strength-to-weight ratios of all
composites and have excellent resistance
5
to bending and buckling.
Composite
laminate
Adhesive
ply
Honeycomb
core
An alternative to autoclave curing is closed moulding. One popular type of closed moulding is resin
transfer moulding (RTM). RTM involves placing the fibre layup in a two-part closed mould into which
resin and catalyst are pumped under low to medium pressure. A variation of RTM is vacuum-assisted
RTM (VARTM). In VARTM, the resin is drawn into the mould by vacuum alone. The advantage of this
process is that, in some cases, it does not require high heat or pressure and can be undertaken with
low cost tooling hence allowing for the inexpensive production of large, complex composite parts.
Courtesy of Airbus
CompositesWorld, (2008) Aerospace Composites: A Design and Manufacturing Guide, Gardner Publications Inc. U.S.
6
www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2001/stef/img8.jpg
5
There are many other production methods in which, like RTM and VARTM, the fibres are
infused with resin during the compression process. Some of these require autoclaves to make
the process more robust and safer and/or special tooling. The main advantages of all these
methods are that there are no prepreg costs and that they can use a wider range of fabrics (3D
weaving, 2D and 3D braiding, stitching, knitting, etc).
Another method of composite manufacture used frequently is compression moulding. With this
process, a compound consisting of resin and fibres is arranged in a preheated mould cavity
(shaped according to desired part shape) before the mould is closed, clamped and pressure
applied. As the material viscosity drops, the compound flows to fill the cavity, thereby creating
the required shape. Compression molding requires an expensive press and tools and is
therefore a suitable method of production when the quantity of components is significant.
There are several benefits associated with using composites in aircraft. One clear advantage is their
high specific strength. For example, carbon fibre is stronger and stiffer than aluminium, titanium or steel
at a fraction of the weight. A further benefit is that this strength can be tailored in any direction. By
varying the orientation of the fibres, the strength of a composite material in any direction can be varied in
7
accordance with the applied loads. This is clearly a very useful property for aerospace applications
where components are subject to many different forces but need to avoid being thicker or heavier than
required.
However, the real benefit of composites comes not from their high specific strength but their ability to
resist fatigue (damage which occurs when a material is subject to cyclic loading) and corrosion, and to
withstand temperature extremes. Such attributes can enable reduced maintenance costs as airframe
inspections /maintenance activities do not need to be as frequent or extensive as for metallic aircraft.
Boeings environmental performance group estimates that the period of time between maintenance
activities for composite planes could be twice that required for aluminium aircraft. However, significant
work is required to demonstrate to the relevant authorities that changes to current inspection regimes
8
routines are acceptable from a safety perspective.
Another appealing property of composites is their manufacturability; large, complex shapes can be
accurately cast from composite materials. This means the properties of the part can be tailored precisely
to the application and, as there is no cutting and shaping of sheets from bulk material, there is a
significant reduction in the waste generated. Furthermore, as larger, more integrated parts can be
produced using the composite casting process, part/fastener count and assembly time is reduced.
A further benefit is the increased passenger comfort that a composite aircraft body can offer. The high
fatigue strength of composites means that a composite fuselage can withstand a higher pressure
differential between the cabin and the outside air than an aircraft with a metallic body. As a result, cabin
pressure can be increased to a level closer to that experienced at sea level. Furthermore, the good
corrosion resistance of composites means that an increase in cabin humidity levels is possible with a
composite aircraft body. These two attributes, increased pressure and humidity, result in a significant
reduction in the passenger discomfort and fatigue associated with the low pressure, dry air, normally
experienced in aircraft cabins.
One of the challenges associated with composite design is the lack of design data and tools. As metals
are isotropic (ie exhibit same properties in all directions) and have been well characterized through
extensive testing, to understand how a metal will perform in a certain conditions, a designer can consult
a materials handbook (specifying an alloy and heat treatment), they do not need to conduct expensive
materials testing. However, for a designer working with composites there are no such equivalent tools.
This is due to a number of factors including engineers limited design experience with composite
materials, the huge variability between composite materials and the much closer relationship between
the shape of the component and loading conditions it is being designed for. Small changes in fibre
orientation and fibre/matrix ratio can significantly alter the materials load path and failure mode. As a
result, aerospace designers normally need to test both the composite part and the materials used in its
construction. Although the U.S Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is administering a Composites
Materials Handbook known as CMH-17 to duplicate the guidance available to metals manufacturers,
9
this database is still under development and is by no means comprehensive.
Another challenge is that composites response to damage, particularly due to direct impact, is
significantly different to metals and thus a different approach is required. Although understanding in this
area is still developing, it is believed that with careful choice of materials and tailoring for the required
function, composites can offer enhanced damage tolerance and improved safety.
7
However, detection and repair of damage remains difficult for composites. Whilst certain
events, like being dropped during manufacture or minor collisions with ground servicing
vehicles in service, would leave visible denting in a metallic component, the surface damage
for a composite could be minimal despite significant disbonding within the structure.
Identification of such damage requires specialised techniques and equipment (eg ultrasonic
or X ray crack sensing) and therefore may be difficult to undertake at repair and overhaul
bases. Furthermore, as the appropriate repair technique varies significantly from component
to component, there are few materials or methods of composite repair that can be applied
universally.
Another challenge composites must address is lightning strike protection (LSP). Certification
requirements specify that aircraft must be protected against the potentially catastrophic effects of
lightning strike. However composite structures are either not conductive at all or significantly less
conductive than metals. As a result, in the event of lightning strike, up to 200, 000 amps of electricity
will seek the path of least resistance to the nearest metal component, burning through the composite
laminate and vaporizing metallic cables, hinges, fasteners, etc. in the process. In order to prevent
this, LSP strategies must be undertaken for composite structures. These can include bonding
aluminium or copper mesh to the exterior surface or one layer down, or as done more recently,
10
incorporating prepreg metal meshes in fibre layups.
Finding a way to safely and efficiently recycle composites is another challenge facing the industry.
Much effort has already been spent developing ways of separating the reinforcement from the matrix
whilst preserving the integrity of the fibres, with some promising progress made by UK companies.
Details of this will be discussed further in the SBAC Aviation and Environment Briefing Paper titled
End of Aircraft Life Initiatives.
However, the biggest drawback associated with composites is their high cost. The high equipment,
labour, quality control and post-production testing costs together with the investment required to
understand composite material properties and failure modes, means that the weight savings they
offer do not always offset the costs incurred with this material choice. However, with the use of
certain processes and technologies (eg infusion technologies, the introduction of high tow count
fabrics and component integration) composites can be cost competitive or even lower cost than their
metallic equivalents. Furthermore, as manufacturers improve production efficiency, this technology
matures and the industry acquires more experience with it, there will inevitably be further
opportunities for cost reduction.
Nevertheless, composites have been enthusiastically embraced by the aerospace industry, with
aircraft manufacturers progressively increasing the amount of composite material used in the
airframe and in aircraft systems.
11
Composites have also been developed and used for low temperature engine applications such as
the nacelle (engine casing), bypass duct, propeller and fan blades. Further expansion of composites
into the core of the engine requires further development of high temperature composite materials
12
and the associated design methodologies.
10
CompositesWorld, (2008) Aerospace Composites: A Design and Manufacturing Guide, Gardner Publications Inc. U.S.
Michaels, K. (2007) Aerospace Market Outlook presented at 2007 Credit Suisse Aerospace & Defence Finance
Conference, November 29 2007, New York.
12
Hicks, M.A and M.C Thomas (2003) Advances in Aeroengine Materials presented at Parsons Conference, Dublin, 2003. 5
11
Metal Alloys
An alloy is a material that is comprised of two of more elements, of which at least one is a metal.
Similar to composites, alloys are designed to exhibit properties superior to those displayed by either of
the constituent elements individually. Titanium, nickel and steel alloys are commonly used for engine
components. Aluminium and titanium alloys are used for airframe components.
15
14
16
Joshi, A. Lithium Aluminium Alloys The New Generation
of Aerospace Alloys
17
However a titanium part may need to have a greater volume
than a steel or nickel alloy part and so its weight may be
greater than half that of its steel or nickel alloy equivalent.
18
Hicks, M.A and M.C Thomas (2003) Advances in
Aeroengine Materials presented at Parsons Conference,
Dublin, 2003.
19
Rosner, H. (ed), (2006), Airbus Structure Journal Volume
1, December 2006.
20
Information and image courtesy of Rolls-Royce.
Developments in nickel alloy capability have been one of the major success stories in
metallurgy over the last fifty years. Through a variety of complex heat treatments,
processing and alloying techniques, significant increases in the temperature capability
and thermal stability of nickel alloys have been achieved. As a result, nickel alloys
are the material primarily used for components within the hottest parts of the engine.
To satisfy the demanding temperatures and mechanical forces, single crystal alloys are
used for the high pressure turbine blades. As its name states, a single crystal alloy is an
alloy which contains only one crystal. The absence of crystal boundaries, which are points of
weakness in a material, means that single crystal alloys are much stronger than ordinary
multi-crystal materials. Producing a blade from a single crystal requires complex casting
processes. An example of this process is shown in Figure 7. Examples of multi-crystal and
single crystal blades are shown in Figure 8.
21
Courtesy of Rolls-Royce
Courtesy of Rolls-Royce
23
Rolls- Royce Trent 1000 Wow Facts Brochure
22
Benefits of CMCs over metals and un-reinforced ceramics include increased temperature
capability, reduced weight and improved damage tolerance. Although there have been
some recent promising developments with these materials there are still some significant
technical challenges to overcome. These include:
Thermal expansion matching Ensuring that the elements of the CMC (fibres/matrix),
the CMC part and its environmental coating, and the CMC part and its
adjacent/adjoining parts have similar levels of thermal expansion is difficult.
Joining Joining methods like welding cannot be used for CMCs. The brittleness and
thermal matching issue make it hard to join ceramic and metallic parts.
Furthermore, given that the industry has little in-service experience with CMC components,
extensive testing, including flight testing, is required to understand and develop solutions for the inservice issues associated with this new technology before its commercial application could be
considered.
Demonstration of CMCs is currently underway on some military aircraft. Rolls-Royce have designed
and tested some static CMC components, shown in Figure 9, to build experience with this
technology. They anticipate that incorporation of rotating ceramic parts into aero engines is around
ten years away.
Figure 9: CMC combustor liner and nozzle guide vanes produced by Rolls-Royce
24
Nanomaterials
Nano technology describes the characterisation, manipulation and manufacture of matter at the
-9
length scale of 1-100 nanometers (a nanometer is 1 x 10 meters). At this scale, the vastly
increased ratio of surface area to volume means that quantum mechanical effects such as the
quantum size effect come into play.
The quantum size effect describes the change
in the electronic properties that occur when a
solid is comprised of nanosized crystals. A
number of other physical effects can also occur
at the nanoscale, resulting in matter displaying
very different properties to those normally
exhibited
and
enabling
some
unique
applications.
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Courtesy of Rolls-Royce
ADVACT concentrates on five areas of activity: shape memory alloys, micro-electro mechanical systems,
active vibration control, electro-magnetic actuators, and high-temperature electromagnetic valves.
Engine exhaust nozzles made from shape memory alloys have been developed through ADVACT. With this
technology, the area of the nozzle can be varied for optimum exhaust flow characteristics in different flight
conditions, with reduced weight and mechanical complexity compared to current variable area nozzles.
Previous issues limiting the use of this material to small components have now been solved by a small change
in the alloy; the next challenge is bringing the prototype nozzle onto a production engine. The team will also
look to increase the temperature capability of the alloys so that they can be used within the engine core.
Another technology under development is smart electro-magnetic actuators for active turbine tip clearance
control. Tip clearance control is very important as the air that leaks over the turbine tip does not impart energy
to the turbine, hence resulting in a reduction in its efficiency and increased fuel burn and emissions. The idea is
that smart electro-magnetic actuators would be placed in the engine casing where they could move the seals in
and out, in response to the turbine blades expansion and contraction with temperature, thereby ensuring a
suitable level of tip clearance is maintained over the flight envelope.
High-temperature electromagnetic valves are another promising ADVACT technology. Throughout the flight
cycle, different amounts of fuel are needed in different areas of the engines combustor. These hightemperature electromagnetic valves can potentially be used to precisely control the amount of fuel distribution,
helping to increase fuel efficiency and minimise emissions.
By the time ADVACT draws to a close in around twelve months, six lab-scale experiments demonstrating
potential applications of its technologies will have been completed. The five most promising technologies will
be selected for further development, including work to improve control and self-optimisation, before the
challenge of manufacture.
25
Hicks, M.A and M.C Thomas (2003) Advances in Aeroengine Materials presented at Parsons Conference, Dublin, 2003. 10
Carrie Lambert
If you have any questions about this paper please email briefingpapers@sbac.co.uk