The Comparison Between Electromagnetic and Piezoelectric

Vibrational Energy Harvesters

Chi An Lu1 , Yu Tang Hu1 , Yu Chi Chang1 , and Weileun Fang1,2
1

Power Mechanical Engineering dept., 2NEMS Inst., National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu, TAIWAN

ABSTRACT
In recent years, electronic components are starting to require low power
consumption, combined with electronic components getting tinier and tinier,
conventional batteries does not seem to be the ideal solution. The upcoming of
MEMS energy harvesters is a possible answer to the problem, and this paper
will attempt to determine if certain types of MEMS energy harvesters are up to
the demand. We find that batch produced vibrational piezoelectric energy
harvesters are applicable for low consumption devices, and manually
assembled large electromagnetic energy harvesters can be considered for larger
electronic devices.
KeywordsEnergy harvestElectromagnetic energy harvester
Piezoelectric energy harvester

IIntroduction

surveillance in harsh conditions over extended periods of

MEMS based energy harvesters are similar to

time.

wireless battery chargers in the way that both do not

In recent years, we have seen the rising of wearable

require a transfer cable to provide power to an electronic

devices and the concept: Internet of Things (IoT), as well

component. However, unlike the limited life cycle of

as the rapid evolution of technology. We observed that

batteries, a significant advantage the energy harvester has

the overall design of electronic components leans

is the possibility of allowing low power consumption

towards lowering the power consumption, a trend that

components to theoretically be able to operate infinitely,

gives MEMS energy harvesters a chance to shine and

which in turn allows continuous usage without worry of

perform.

power depletion.

In general, the most common seen types of MEMS

The ability to operate components infinitely creates

possibilities of several new concepts, among them are
[1]

energy harvesters are as follows: Photoelectric,

thermoelectric, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, and

health monitoring devices , where energy harvesters

electrostatic [3]. Amongst photoelectric harvesters, solar

eliminates the need to replace the battery every now and

harvesters are the most effective. Thermoelectric type

then. And another is reconnaissance cyborg insects

[2]

designs generate electricity by using temperature

with energy harvesters providing power to the sensors

differences, whereas the latter three mentioned takes in

and transmitters, it allows highly cost-effective

kinetic energy and transforms it into electrical energy.

Considering most wearable devices are meant to be

used indoors, and not all devices are in direct contact
with our skin, we shall select the most commonplace
kinetic energy as the harvesting energy and chose
electromagnetic and piezoelectric harvester devices as
the focus points of this review.
Fig.2 Summary of oscillatory generator (a) power

1.1 Electromagnetic Energy Harvesters

According to D.P. Arnold

[5]

density and (b) normalized power density (W/cm3*g2)

, we can deduce the

scale law of electromagnetic devices. The scaling

versus size. Two reference lines are shown on (b),

relationship between power P, length L and acceleration

indicating the theoretical scaling trend of normalized

power density with L2 and L4 [5]

a0 as follows:
{

P 5 0 2
P 7 0 2 0

(1)

Other than the two presented above, other

Arnolds paper divides energy harvesters into two

electromagnetic harvesters designs include the Rolling

categories, rotational and vibrational devices, since (1)

Rod Microgenerator [6] and the Linear Vibration

has an acceleration factor embedded within, it makes

Harvester [7], but both designs face the problem of

rotational type harvesters difficult to analyze; as for

stiction which occurs during operation, which is why we

vibrational harvesters, power scales down with length at

only select no-contact vibration design types of

a magnitude between 10-5 ~ 10-7.

harvesters for our review.

Power density graphs for the two harvesters are

shown in Fig.1 and Fig.2. These figures contains datas of
electromagnetic harvesters before 2007

[5]

, where it can

1.2 Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters

Based on the piezoelectric harvester review done by
H. S. Kim, Joo-Hyong Kim and Jaehwan Kim [8], the

observed that the scale law is not completely applicable.

review lists the attributes of all kinds of piezoelectric

Our guess is that the given specifications does not reflect

materials, the point of our interest amongst the database

the best possible performance of the harvesters, which

is the conversion coefficient, which induces the energy

might be a result of lack of advanced technology for

conversion efficiency to grow 4 times the original value

optimization, but it would seem certain that power

when the coefficient doubles in value. As we can see

density will decrease at a faster rate as the scale goes

from Fig.3, piezoelectric membrane thickness is not a

even lower.

contributing factor to conversion efficiency, indicating

the usage of membranes as the energy absorber is an
acceptable design for piezoelectric materials. Although
the effect of volume decrease on power density is not
mentioned in the review, we believe that the ability to
use membrane structure is an important factor to take
into consideration, especially when integrating MEMS
fabricating processes.

Fig.1 Summary of rotational generator (a) power density

3

(W/cm ) and (b) normalized power density

(W/cm3*krpm ) versus size. The data shows no
significant trend with device size.

[5]

Piezoelectric harvest methods are divided into

impulse and vibration modes, impulse harvesters will
encounter stiction problems due to repeated contact
between structures. To get a clean comparison with all

our selected harvesters performing on an even footing,

we choose to take impulse harvesters out of the list,

IIPaper Survey & Discussion

For this section, we will show both electromagnetic

which leaves vibration harvesters for piezoelectric

and piezoelectric energy harvester designs in the past few

energy harvesters.

years, and present their differences in fabrication

Fig.4 categorizes electrostatic, electromagnetic,

process, design specifications and performance.

piezoelectric energy harvesters and their respective

2.1 Vibrational Electromagnetic Energy Harvesters

power densities, where we find a relative low power

2.1.1 S. P. Beeby et al. [9]

density for electromagnetic harvesting, which as

This team uses photolithography to define the shape

mentioned previously might be a problem with lack of

of the stainless steel cantilever beam, and manually

optimization. So we searched for some of the more

attaches the permanent magnet onto the beam as well as

recent electromagnetic harvesters and piezoelectric

the copper coil onto the stationary platform, Fig.5. The

harvesters listed below, in hopes that technology has

sole MEMS fabricating process ends once the cantilever

advanced enough to get fully optimized energy

beam is complete, and the paper focuses on effect of

harvesters.

number of coils has on electromagnetic harvesting,

shown in TABLE 2. Since the coil is stationary, its
effects on oscillating frequency is minimal to a few Hzs.
Something worthy of note is that in the three coil
numbers presented, generated energy all lands around 45
W, showing that generated power ceases to increase
after a certain number of coils. This type of vibrational
energy harvesting mostly use diodes to filter the
alternating electric current, since there will always be a
voltage drop after passing a diode [17], a higher generated
voltage means less energy loss, so a larger number of
coils for electromagnetic energy harvesters is optimal.

Fig.3 Energy conversion efficiency of a piezoelectric

PVDF nanogenerator[8]

Fig.5 Micro cantilever generator[9]

Fig.4 Comparison of the energy density for the three

types of mechanical to electrical energy converters[8]

Harvester specifications are shown in TABLE 3.

mentioned during lectures, not fully supported structures

From the fabrication perspective, this design cannot put

suffer from residual stress; and to obtain a low natural

the batch production of MEMS to use, but the

frequency, the beam must be long in length. From the

performance at low frequency and low acceleration

specifications of this design, the beam shows minimal

achieves 300W/cm3 output energy, which is acceptable

bending, meaning that the beam must be rather thick,

to put into commercial use for wearable devices.

which can only be achieved with bulk micromachining.

2.1.2 Qian Zhang et al. [10]

The authors of this paper made a large scale model

This design defines an array pattern before

in addition to the MEMS scale model. The models are

electroplating copper to form a coil, then uses ICP for

tested on a shaker providing vertical vibration, and

backside dry etching to form a cavity for the magnet

measurement is done with a Laser Doppler Displacement

array. Finally, the magnets are assembled onto the

Meter to find the natural frequency, the component specs

component as the stationary end, distance between beam

are shown in TABLE 3.

and magnet is approx. 100m, as shown in Fig.6. As was

Fig.6 Brief fabrication process of the micro-electromagnetic energy harvester with magnet and coil arrays[10]

TABLE 3. The comparison between four electromagnetic energy harvester.

S. P. Beeby et

Volume

Power

Power

Natural

Voltage

(cm3)

(W)

Density(W/cm3)

Frequency (Hz)

(mV)

0.15

46

307

52

428

al.[9]
Qian Zhang et

0.06

(Vrms)
0.09

2.6

28.9

290

al.[10]
Qian Zhang et

Acceleration (g)

30

(Vp-p)
26

26,300

10,120

65

28,800

12

0.02

-----

-----

365

0.0209

al.[10]
K. Tao et al.[11]

The result is that in comparison with the MEMS

the big advantage this design has over the design by S.P.

fabrication processed model, the manually assembled

Beeby et al. is the lack of the final assembly process,

large model has a much higher power rating, which

which is crucial for mass production.

supports Arnolds assumptions of scale down effects. But

2.1.3 K. Tao et al [11]

and piezoelectric materials for a cantilever beam and a

This team uses LIGA process to make the copper

pure silicon vibrating mass together forming the

coil, macromolecule coating is coated afterwards as an

harvesting device. The beam length and silicon mass is

insulation layer, copper and nickel is then electroplated

tweaked to operate at a lower frequency. Fabrication

as structure layer. And finally, integrates magnetic

process is shown in Fig.8, thermal oxide is first grown on

macromolecule composites to the component, and a lift-

silicon wafer before depositing electrical layer and

off process to remove the sacrificial layer, the process is

piezoelectric PZT layer. A lift-off process difines the

as shown in Fig.7. The most significant aspect of this

electrode pattern, and double-side dry etching forms the

energy harvester is the fact that it is produced using only

beam and mass. The main fabrication processes used are

MEMS fabrication processes, easily achieving batch

thermal growth, sputtering, lift-off, and dry etching, all

production.

of which were mentioned during lectures, indicating a

high probability to be batch produced.

Fig.7 Process flow for fabrication of fully-integrated

energy harvesters[11]

Measurement of this harvester is done on a shaker

as well, shown in TABLE 3. The paper does not provide
the power rating nor power density, but we could use
Power equation (2)[17] to estimate, giving us a power
density graded in degrees of nanoWatt/cm3.
Power = 2

(2)

The energy output of this design is significantly

smaller than the first two presented, but the possibility of

Fig.8 Fabrication flow chart: (a) multilayer

batch production taken into consideration gives this

deposition; (b) top electrode patterning by liftoff (mask

design a slight edge if the manufacturing department.

1); (c) bottom electrode opening via RIE (mask 2); (d)

2.2 Vibrational Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters

cantilever patterning by RIE (mask3); (e) proof mass

2.2.1 D. Shen et al.

[12]

This team proposed in 2008 Journal of

Micromechanics and Microengineering, to use silicon

patterning and cantilever release via backside RIE

(mask4).[12]
Measurements are done using the same methods as

electromagnetic energy harvesters using a shaker to

tungsten, as the vibrating mass. Measurement on a

determine the natural frequency. The additional testing in

shaker gets the data shown in TABLE 4. In comparison

this paper is changing acceleration magnitudes to

with the previous harvester at Fn = 462 Hz, 1.5g; and this

simulate different energy input, calculate the damping

design at Fn = 415 Hz, 1.5g; the power density for this

ratio of the beam, and record the output power and

energy harvester is only half of the previous Shen et al.

voltage under different loadings (RLoad). We therefore

design, which we predict to be a result of too many

choose the maximum power output in this paper as a

fabrication procedures causing accumulation of residual

comparison basis, listed in TABLE 4.

stress.

2.2.2 E. E. Aktakka et al. [13]

2.2.3 R. Elfrink et al. [14]

Aktakkas team bonds PZT bulk materials onto SOI

Elfrink et al. purposes using vacuum packaging to

wafer and applies mechanical thinning to get a

decrease aerial dampening and achieve better power

piezoelectric membrane. Parylene is used as the

density. The fabrication process is shown in Fig.10. The

insulation layer, and the electrodes are patterned via

team made 11 different components and took them all to

sputtering. Double-sided dry etching is used to create the

a shaker for measurement, the results are in Fig.11. We

cantilever beam, and a Transient Liquid Phase (TPL)

can see that power density increases significantly by

bonding completes the fabrication process.

100~200 times with vacuum packaging.

Fig.9 Process steps of thinned-PZT on SOI process

The fabrication processes involved is a lot more

Fig.10 Wafer-scale vacuum package process flow. a. The

complicated than the previous design by Shens team,

piezoelectric capacitor is formed by consecutive

and is likely to have a lower yield. The main point of

deposition, lithography and etching steps of the Pt

selecting this paper is for discussion of the effects of

bottom electrode, the AlN piezoelectric layer and the Al

packaging. Since PZT is affected by residual stress,

top electrode. The Si mass and beam are shaped by

which in turn changes piezoelectric performances, this

paper offers insight into System in Packaging (SIP).

[13]

The authors of this paper made two types of energy

harvesting devices using different materials, silicon and

subsequent front- and backside etching. b. The cavities in

the glass wafer are etched with HF and the contact holes
are made with powder blasting. The SU-8 bonding layer
is applied with a wafer scale roller-coating process. c.

The glass substrates are bonded to the Si device wafer in

two consecutive wafer scale vacuum bonding steps. d.

We selected the best power density component and

Single devices with the movable mass and beam in the

vacuum cavity are obtained after dicing.

placed it into TABLE 4 to compare with the other two

[14]

designs, where we find the selected component to be

slightly weak in power density, but this might be due to
different piezoelectric materials [8]. After reconfiguration
[8]

of each designs power rating, the Elfrink et al.

harvester is approximated at 340 microWatt/cm3, around

100 times the Shen et al. design, showing just how big an
effect vacuum packaging has for vibrational piezoelectric
energy harvesters.

Fig.11 Resonance curves of packaged devices type 3 at

0.1 g and 1.0 g at atmospheric pressure and at vacuum,
showing a 200 and 140 fold increase in power.[14]
TABLE 4 The comparison between four piezoelectric energy harvester

D. Shen et al.[12]

Volume

Power

Power

Natural

Voltage

(cm3)

(W)

Density(W/cm3)

Frequency (Hz)

(mV)

0.000625

2.15

3,272

462.5

150

Acceleration (g)

(Vp-p)
E. E. Aktakka et
al.

E. E. Aktakka et
al.

0.1462

205

1,404

154

-----

1.5

0.1462

160.8

1,099

415

-----

1.5

2.5

85

340

325

-----

1.75

[13]

[13]

R. Elfrink et
al.[14]

is limited, and from the results of S. P. Beeby et al., coil

IIIConclusion
We have now separately compared different

amount could lower the output voltage and power

density Two, the magnets are made using composites, the

vibrational electromagnetic energy harvesters and

energy product is 2 to 3 orders weaker than bulk

vibrational piezoelectric energy harvesters. For the

permanent magnets. Though MEMS production makes

electromagnetic devices, it is observed that as the

electromagnetic energy harvesters capable of batch

manufacturing becomes MEMS based, the power density

producing, the problem remains when implementing

goes down. Since the three designs we choose have

magnetic materials into MEMS [16], and the rapid

volume differences within an order, scale down effects

decrease of power rating due to scaling down is also an

can be neglected, and the main factors to power density

extremely negative factor.

drop are the two following reasons: One, multiple

MEMS processes means lower yield, so the coil number

As for vibrational piezoelectric energy harvesters,

we selected three cantilever beam vibration designs, and

IVAcknowledgement

observed a more stable power output from these

cantilever piezoelectric energy harvesters. The main 4

A thank you to Professor Fang, for introducing us

factors affecting output are: Natural frequency, decided

to the world of MEMS, and providing us the knowledge

by structure distortion; Residual stresses, resulting from

to understand and delve further into micro processes. A

multiple MEMS fabricating procedures and packaging

deep gratitude to National Tsing Hua University for

procedure; Application of vacuum packing, which

providing access to databases of publications around the

decreases the effect of aerial dampening and increases

world.

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