Cover April Hobart 2015_4/06 Cover 3/16/15 3:15 PM Page C1

April 2015

WELDING JOURNAL VOLUME 94 NUMBER 4 APRIL 2015

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING

April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 11:26 AM Page 3

April 2015 Volume 94 Number 4

FEATURES
42

Guidance for Selecting Aluminum Filler Materials

Avoid the confusion when selecting filler metals
for the many different aluminum alloys when gas
metal and gas tungsten arc welding T. Burns and
R. Krause

48

Using Games to Drive Engagement in the Classroom

Serious games can be the stimulus to engage
students in the use of technology J. MCIntosh

52

Choosing an Appropriate Steel Filler Metal for the

Base Metal
Factors that come into play when selecting filler
metals for various carbon steels are explained
T. Myers

58

Welding in the Digital Age

A professor expounds on the challenges a student
who chooses a career as a welding engineer will face
T. DebRoy

66

Benefits Gained with LowHydrogen Filler Metals

Using low-hydrogen filler metals is one measure to
mitigate the risk of cracking when welding
low-alloy high-strength steels D. Railling

CONTENTS
42

52

66

*70 Achieving Higher Productivity Rates Using

Reciprocating Wire Feed Gas Metal Arc Welding
A gas metal arc variation that pulses the welding
wire in and out of the weld pool controls spatter
and heat input N. Kapustka

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

101s Influence of Gas Mixtures in GMAW of Modified
409M Ferritic Stainless Steel
Details are given on the effects shielding gas
mixtures have on bead geometry, microstructure,
and mechanical properties M. Mukherjee et al.

125s Controlling 3D Weld Pool Surface by Adjusting

Welding Speed
An augmented training system uses a machine
algorithm to calculate the optimal welding speed
for an untrained welder to follow Y. K. Liu and
Y. M. Zhang

115s Analytical Modeling of the Friction Stir Welding

Process Using Different Pin Profiles
An analytic model is developed for heat generation
from using different pin configurations
V. S. Gadakh et al.

135s Fusion Zone Microstructure and Geometry in

CompleteJointPenetration LaserArc Hybrid
Welding of LowAlloy Steel
Weld geometry and cooling rates with a laser-arc
hybrid process were investigated both experimentally
and theoretically H. L. Wei et al.

APRIL 2015 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 11:27 AM Page 4

DEPARTMENTS
6
10
12
14
16
22
24
30
34
76

Editorial
Washington Watchword
Press Time News
International Update
News of the Industry
Business Briefs
Aluminum Q&A
Brazing Q&A
Product & Print Spotlight
Book Review

78
82
84
85
86
101
102
108
128
130

Coming Events
Certification Schedule
Welding Workbook
Society News
Tech Topics
Guide to AWS Services
Personnel
School Profiles
Classifieds
Advertiser Index
On the cover: Aluminums higher thermal conductivity
means the welder must use a largediameter wire for
this aluminum wheel than would be used with steel.
(Photo courtesy ESAB Welding & Cutting, Florence, S.C.)

OFFICERS
President David Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Vice President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Vice President Dale Flood
Tri Tool, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society

DIRECTORS
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Welding North America
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Subsea Global Solutions
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), Alstom Power
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
D. L. Doench (At Large), Hobart Bros. Co.
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
M. Krupnicki (Dist. 6), Mahany Welding Supply
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
S. Lindsey (Dist. 21), City of San Diego
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Airgas USA, LLC,
NorthCentral Region
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing
4 WELDING JOURNAL / APRIL 2015

M. Sebergandio (Dist. 3), CNH America

K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
M. Skiles (Dist. 9), Consultant
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), The Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), UL, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Consultant
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
D. R. Wilson (Past President), Welldean Enterprises

WELDING JOURNAL
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coor. Melissa Gomez
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber

D. Levin, Airgas
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, WeldAid Products
D. Wilson, Welldean Enterprises
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman
Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
American Welding Society
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 331666672
(305) 4439353 or (800) 4439353

Design and Production

Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Sr. Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman

Advertising
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Sandra Jorgensen
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Annette Delagrange
Manager of Sales Operations Lea Paneca
Sr. Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson

Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Danielle Garcia
dgarcia@aws.org

PUBLICATIONS, EXPOSITIONS,
MARKETING COMMITTEE
D. L. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair, ESAB Welding
& Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
C. Coffey, Lincoln Electric
D. DeCorte, RoMan Manufacturing
S. Fyffe, Astaras, Inc.

Welding Journal (ISSN 00432296) is published monthly by

the American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the United
States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and $10.00 per single
issue for nonmembers and $14.00 single issue for international.
American Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St., # 130,
Miami, FL 331666672; telephone (305) 4439353. Periodicals
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Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles for
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Copyright 2015 by American Welding Society in both
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any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data and infor
mation developed by the authors of specific articles are for infor
mational purposes only and are not intended for use without inde
pendent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.

Editorial April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 9:10 AM Page 6

EDITORIAL

Certification Is Only the Start

Bill Komlos
Chair, AWS B1 Committee on Methods of
Inspection

While the codes

establish the rights
and the wrongs
used to evaluate
weld quality, our
guides and recom
mended practices
describe the hows
and the whys com
monly employed.

Okay. So, you passed the grueling 8-h CWI

exam. You have your very own stamp and
gold-embossed certificate. Youve proven
you have the knowledge to evaluate welds.
Well, I have news for you. You are just getting
started. You have a long career ahead of you.
The AWS welding inspector certification
program is based upon the competency of
each candidate to examine and evaluate
welds. It is not enough to take welding, inspection, and engineering classes, or to hold
diplomas or degrees. Candidates for certification must have worked in the industry
performing weld-related tasks or metals fabrication or installation. The exam will prove
candidates have the knowledge necessary to
effectively evaluate welding compliance to
welding codes. Unlike other internationally
recognized personnel certification systems,
AWS expects Certified Welding Inspectors to
verify their continued competency every
three years, and prove it all over again by
testing every nine years. Every CWI will tell
you, That isnt as easy as it sounds.
Thats good, because the work keeps getting tougher and more demanding. Stronger
metals and space-age alloys demand welders
comply with strict welding procedures to
meet stringent design requirements. Todays buildings incorporate heavier and
thicker structural shapes to span large, open
spaces and accommodate an ever-growing
population. International pipelines, centralized tank farms, and the new civil infrastructure surrounding them are all big work
critical to our nations continued success.
Big work requires expertise and experience
to build it efficiently, economically, and
safely. AWS CWIs are meeting these new responsibilities head-on.
Engineers, responsible for the creative
designs, know this fact. Our local building
officials, responsible for ensuring the public
safety, know this fact. The civil codes governing their decisions demand each weld be
inspected, preferably by an AWS CWI. Our
CWI program offers a unique path for obtaining a state Special Inspection license to
inspect public buildings. In most jurisdictions, CWIs need only submit copies of their
certification documents and pay their fees
to receive their licenses in the mail. Some
jurisdictions impose additional requirements or exams, but the end result is usual-

6 WELDING JOURNAL / APRIL 2015

ly the same. The fact is AWS CWIs are recognized across the United States for their integrity and commitment to weld quality.
Fortunately, our American Welding Society
is there to keep our skills current. The Education Department offers specialized training
both on-line through AWS Learning and in
person at various seminars across the country.
Certification endorsements focus our knowledge on welding specialties to refine our inspection skills. Local AWS Sections offer technical sessions at their monthly meetings that
provide continuous technical improvement for
us members. No other volunteer organization
provides such in-depth training geared to the
experienced journeyman at so many locations
and so economically.
Our greatest technical resources, however, are the AWS volunteers. We pool our experiences and knowledge to promote quality
welding practices through our gratifying
work on AWS technical committees. AWS
volunteers are responsible for most of the
welding codes used in the United States.
From rebar to rockets, volunteer members
come together to develop and document the
best welding practices our broad knowledge
can provide. As chair of the AWS B1 Committee on Methods of Inspection, I see this
cooperative interaction first-hand. In B1, I
work with more than 20 other welding inspection experts to flesh out the bare-bones
requirements of our welding codes. While
the Codes establish the rights and the
wrongs used to evaluate weld quality, our
guides and recommended practices describe
the hows and the whys commonly employed.
B1 documents, like the Guide to Nondestructive Examination of Welds and the newly revised Guide to Visual Examination of Welds
and Welding Inspection Handbook, offer users
a solid foundation for their difficult quality
decisions. Our efforts on B1 are mirrored by
hundreds of other volunteers serving on the
many other AWS technical committees.
You can be proud of your welding inspector certification. It wasnt easy proving you
were competent to inspect welds. And it certainly isnt easy keeping your inspection skills
current. But you made a good decision to certify as a welding inspector. You can count on
many solid opportunities from AWS and its
volunteers that will keep you sharp and on
the cutting edge of welding technology. WJ

mktg new website ad_FP_TEMP 3/12/15 7:57 AM Page 69

Welding is in growing demand and AWS continues to explore ways to reach new
generations of welding professionals. This new look for the AWS brand and
website will help do just that.
The new mobile-friendly platform, makes sure AWS is easily accessible
wherever you are
The new clean design allows AWS products and services to be suitably
showcased
The new web layout makes sure you find what youre looking for as quickly
as possible, so you can get back to whats important the welding

We invite you to join us in this next step of our journey to make AWS approachable
and accessible to everyone in the welding industry.
Visit www.aws.org today
and discover for yourself what AWS can do for you.

DebRoy Feature April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 1:51 PM Page 58

Welding in the Digital Age

A professor asks young people to choose
a career in welding engineering
BY TARASANKAR DEBROY

s becoming a welding engineer a

good career choice today? Welding
is at the heart of many great engineering achievements. It is essential
for mechanization of agriculture, generation of energy, distribution of clean
water, and production of medical devices. True, in this digital age, selfdriving cars, robots for remote surgery, and other products of emerging
technologies seem more exciting. But,
todays dizzying pace of progress in
engineering often merges the timetested mature fields such as welding
with the new fields like digital data
processing into a powerful stream for
the benefit of all people.
Welding today is much more advanced than it was just a few decades
ago, and I hope this article will help
you make an informed career choice.
From about 3000 welds in a car to
numerous joints in large buildings,
bridges, and other important structures (Fig. 1), welds are everywhere.
Transportation, manufacturing, electronics, and other industries that support our standard of living depend on
it. Welding-related expenditures by
these industries in the United States
were about $34 billion in 2000, which
was about one tenth the cost of all cars
sold annually.
While the joining of metals has
been practiced since prehistoric times,
modern welding technology began after electricity became available in the
19th century. Since then, both its engineering practice and the underlying
scientific knowledge base have matured. Today, structurally sound and
reliable joints of numerous engineering alloys, including many that were
previously considered difficult to weld,
can be made with confidence.
58 WELDING JOURNAL / APRIL 2015

Fig. 1 The stunning Grand Canyon Skywalk was built with round-the-clock welding in
10-h shifts. Designed to withstand large earthquakes, this huge structure consists of three
steel plates, 3200 lb each. The structure houses a 3-in.-thick, heat-strengthened glass
walkway (Ref. 1).

DebRoy Feature April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 1:52 PM Page 59

Fig. 2 A schematic of the fusion welding process is shown at left and a transverse cross
section, perpendicular to the direction of welding, is shown at right (Ref. 2).

Fig. 3 The photo on the left shows pepper on the waters surface and a cotton swab that
was dipped in soap. The photo at right shows the pepper moves away from the center after
the swab is dipped into the water (Ref. 3).

Because of its close connection to

construction projects, many view
welding as a primitive and dangerous
art. At any sizable construction site,
sparks fly, fumes spread their musty
aroma, and large skull and crossbones
warning posters speak volumes about
weldings hazards. However, the reality
is very different from the perception.
The welding industry has an excellent
safety record, robots now perform
many of the repetitious and difficult
tasks, and a mature and sophisticated
scientific knowledge base supports
welding practices. Most exciting, since
the 1970s, the expanding digital data
processing capabilities have been combined with the well-established technological knowledge base of welding,
totally transforming both its practice
and the underlying analytical capability that supports it.
Analytical capability is important
for problem solving because problems
in welding often affect life and property. This article focuses on uncovering a
long-standing mystery in welding that
remained elusive until the tools of the
digital age were used. In a larger context, it shows how the renaissance
brought about by the fusion of mature
and new technologies has taught engineers powerful lessons while providing
significant benefits to all people.

A Welding Primer
As you likely know, the purpose of
welding is to combine two parts
metallic materials in most cases
into a strong joint. Several common
terms used in describing different regions of the weld are shown in Fig. 2
(Ref. 2). In fusion welding processes,
the joint forms by the melting and solidification of the metal parts. The region under the heat source melts
forming a liquid metal puddle called
the weld pool. A small solid region
next to the weld pool, where the structure and properties of the workpiece
are changed by heat, is called the heataffected zone (HAZ). The size and
shape, or geometry, of the weld pool is

affected by how much heat is absorbed

and distributed within it. Temperatures vary within the weld pool, and
heat flows by conduction from high
to low temperatures and by convection
from the motion of the hot liquid
metal.
The molten metal within the weld
pool circulates under the action of several forces. The most important,
Marangoni force, is named after Italian scientist Carlos Marangoni, who
showed that liquids move from regions of low to high surface tension.
The nature of this force can be easily
understood from the motion of pepper
in water Fig. 3. When a cotton swab
dipped in household soap is immersed
in water, the pepper moves away from
the swab (Ref. 3) (Fig. 3, right).
Adding soap to water reduces its surface tension locally. Water flows away
from the low surface tension region to
where the surface tension is relatively
high (Ref. 3). A similar effect causes
weld metal to flow within the weld
pool. Surface tension of the weld metal
depends on temperature. So its value
just under the heat source is different
from that in other regions and this difference drives the flow of weld metal.
The gravitational force tends to
sink the colder, heavier liquid near the
edge of the weld pool and raise the
hotter, lighter liquid metal in the middle of the weld pool. In addition, during arc welding, an electromagnetic
force is generated from the interaction
between the current path in the weld
pool and the magnetic field it generates. Of these three forces, the gravitational force is by far the weakest, and
during arc welding, the electromagnetic force is comparable to the Marangoni force only at fairly high currents. In
most cases, the Marangoni force provides the main driving force for the
flow of weld metal within the weld
pool. The rolling streams of weld met-

Fig. 4 Progression of computational hardware from mechanical to digital devices.

APRIL 2015 / WELDING JOURNAL 59

DebRoy Feature April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 1:52 PM Page 60

Fig. 5 Computed flow of weld metal during arc welding. The colors represent temperatures in K and the dotted lines represent the lines of flow of liquid. The two loops shown
near the surface are from the Marangoni flow and the two loops below the surface result
from electromagnetic force (Ref. 4).

al carry heat from underneath the heat

source to all other locations within the
weld pool. Its circulation determines
the melting pattern of the various regions of the workpiece, the shape and
size of the weld pool, and the structure
and properties of the welded joint. But
the weld metals are opaque and very
hot. As a result, the actual velocities
and temperatures within the weld pool
have not been experimentally measured so far.
A welcome recourse emerged in the
1970s. Advancements in computer
hardware and software (Fig. 4) made
fluid flow and heat transfer calculations accurate and affordable. Engineers now routinely use these calculations in critical designs in aeronautical, aerospace, civil, and other engineering disciplines. In welding, there
are many important problems that
cannot be solved without these calculations, at least not easily.

paradigm has emerged. What is less

apparent but equally important is the
advancement of analytical ability for
problem solving and design based on
fundamental principles.
There are compelling reasons for
detailed understanding of heat transfer and fluid flow in welding. Both the
temperatures and velocities at all locations in the weld pool affect not just
its shape and size, but the mixing of
the filler metals, cooling rates at different locations, vaporization of alloying elements, weld metal composition,
and the structure and properties of
the joint. Local temperatures and velocities can be calculated by solving
equations of conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy (Ref. 4). Since
these equations are too complex to be
solved analytically, an appropriate numerical method is needed. A typical
numerical solution procedure starts by
dividing the workpiece into many

small volumes or cells, typically about

250,000 cells. For each cell, an algebraic equation relates the local values of a
variable with its values at the neighboring cells (Ref. 5). Typically, the
variables include three components of
velocities, enthalpy or temperature,
and pressure, which are solved repeatedly until correct solutions are obtained. For these five variables, a total
of 5 250,000 or 1.25 million equations have to be solved for each attempt at solution, commonly called an
iteration. In most cases, several thousand iterations are needed before correct solutions for the variables at all
cells are obtained. So, several billion
equations are solved cumulatively to
get temperatures and velocities in the
entire workpiece. Today, about a billion such linear algebraic equations
can be solved in about two minutes using inexpensive laptops.
Typical computed temperature and
velocity fields during gas tungsten arc
welding are shown in Fig. 5. The figure
shows regions of different temperatures by specific color bands. Since the
heat source is moving, the temperature changes rapidly in the cold workpiece ahead of the moving weld pool.
Behind the weld pool where the material has already been heated, the metal
cools slowly in air and the temperatures change more gradually. On the
weld pool surface, liquid metal moves
away from the low surface tension region under the heat source to other regions where the surface tension is
higher. The surface is depressed below
the arc because it exerts pressure on
the liquid surface and forms a small
hump behind the arc. The velocities
range from a few tens of centimeters
per second to about a meter per second, and the liquid metal carries a significant amount of heat from under
the heat source to all other locations
within the weld pool.

Billions of Equations
Solved Instantly
Evolution of computational hardware and software from mechanical to
analog to digital calculations has improved both the theory and practice of
welding. The combination of digital
computers and robots has improved
joint quality, enhanced safety, and taken the boredom out of repetitious
welding in automotive and other industries. Clearly, a new manufacturing
60 WELDING JOURNAL / APRIL 2015

Fig. 6 Weld cross sections of 15-mm-thick, high-speed steel plates containing 0.9%C,
3.9%Cr, 6.3%W, 4.8%Mo, 1.8%V, 4.6%Co, 0.2%Mn, 0.5%Si by weight containing 20 ppm
sulfur (left) and 150 ppm sulfur (right) spot welded at a laser power of 5200 W for 5 s (Ref.
11).

DebRoy Feature April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 1:52 PM Page 61

Fig. 7 Variation of surface tension with

temperature (Ref. 12).

An Enduring Mystery
The Puzzle and Its Importance
Failure to reproduce experiments is
unacceptable in science and so, when
the same grade of steels are welded
under the exact same welding conditions, it would be absurd to expect
weld-to-weld variations in geometry.
In reality, this totally unexpected behavior was the norm when the same
grade of steel with minor variations in
composition was welded (Refs. 610).
Figure 6 shows cross sections of two
welds fabricated using the exact same
procedure from the same grade of steel
that are strikingly different (Ref. 11).
The main difference in the steels was
the amount of sulfur, which differed
by 130 parts per million (ppm) by
weight. Finding a solution to this longstanding puzzle (Refs. 610) was important because the weld geometry affects its performance; however, the solution remained elusive for decades
(Refs. 810).

A Promising Hypothesis
A team of scientists at the Rocky
Flats plant, a former nuclear weapons
production facility near Denver, Colo.,
(Refs. 810) first presented a promising solution to this mystery in the early 1980s. They proposed a hypothesis
to explain why a small amount of selenium (Ref. 6) or sulfur (Ref. 7) in steel
significantly increases the depth of
penetration.
They considered how sulfur affects
the surface tension of liquid steel,
weld metal spin, convective heat transfer, and the resulting weld pool geome-

try. Figure 7 shows the surface tension

of pure iron decreases with temperature. The same trend is observed for
steels (very low sulfur). However,
when a small amount of sulfur is present, the surface tension decreases
overall and increases with temperature
as shown in the figure. At temperatures close to the boiling point, the
surface tension decreases with increase in temperature. Sulfur and
many other alloying elements such as
oxygen, nitrogen, selenium, and tellurium have a tendency to migrate to
the surface of the liquid steel. They all
affect the surface tension in a manner
similar to sulfur and are called surfaceactive elements (Ref. 12).
Directly under the heat source, the
liquid metal has the highest temperature and lowest surface tension when
the steel contains practically no sulfur.
Since liquids flow from low to high
surface tension regions, hot liquid
steel moves sideways from the middle
to the edge of the weld pool and melts
metal there. It then turns downward
as shown in Fig. 8A. As a result, the
weld pool becomes wide and shallow.
Small additions of sulfur change
the flow pattern completely. Hot liquid under the heat source now has a
higher surface tension than that in the
cooler regions Fig. 7. So, on the surface of the weld pool, the weld metal
rushes to the middle then moves
downward to the bottom of the weld
pool. The downward flow of the hot
metal in the middle of the weld pool
works like a thermal drill and a deep
weld pool forms, as shown in Fig. 8B.
The Rocky flats team also showed that
selenium affected the shape of the
weld pool just like sulfur.
The hypothesis the Rocky Flats
team proposed provided a plausible explanation. However, in order for their
theory to gain traction, direct proof of

changes in the flow of liquid weld metal was required. Since metals are
opaque and the liquid weld metal is
very hot, this was not an easy task.
They added some tiny alumina particles that floated on the surface of the
weld (Ref. 9) and used a high-speed
camera to film their motion during
welding. The evidence was now at
hand. Sulfur does change the flow pattern of liquid metal (Ref. 9). Insightful
and elegant, their work inspired many
other researchers.

Helpful but Incomplete

The work at Rocky Flats explained
why a small amount of sulfur or selenium changed the shape of welds for
the conditions of their welding. But after more than a decade, when experiments were conducted to cover more
extensive welding conditions, it was
found that sulfur does not always
change the shape and size of the weld
pool, although it does so in many cases
(Ref. 11). So, the mystery actually
deepened. The powerful spark of a
new idea incubated at the Rocky Flats
plant still required more work for a
deeper understanding of when sulfur
changes the shape and when it does
not, and why.
The Rocky Flats team explained the
role of selenium and sulfur assuming
convection as the mechanism of heat
transfer. This mechanism, valid only
when velocities within the weld pool
are large, was indeed valid for their experiments. However, the assumed convective heat transfer mechanism is not
always valid, because the velocities are
small for certain welding conditions. A
rigorous understanding of the role of
surface-active elements for a specific
welding condition requires mechanistic insight of heat transfer achievable
through a combination of experiments

Fig. 8 A Pure iron flows sideways from the middle, making the weld pool wide and
shallow; B when a small amount of sulfur is added, the alloy goes downward in the
middle of the weld pool resulting in a deep weld pool.
APRIL 2015 / WELDING JOURNAL 61

DebRoy Feature April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 1:53 PM Page 62

and mathematical modeling.

The first computational study (Ref.
13) of the effects of surface-active elements in welding was published by a
team at MIT in 1983 that investigated
convection in arc weld pools. They
showed that, in many cases, the surface tension driven flow dominates
the convection in the arc weld pool.
But more important, they also proved
that a small amount of sulfur or selenium influenced the direction and
magnitude of the liquid metal flow, a
behavior the Rocky Flats team observed experimentally. These calculations, with assumed weld pool shape
and size, were a giant step forward because they provided a world of insight
that could not be obtained by any other means.

Only the Numbers Reveal the

Whole Truth
The influence of selenium or sulfur
depends on the mechanism of heat
transfer which, in turn, is determined
by the magnitude of the velocities and
the thermal conductivity of the liquid
metal. If the velocities are small for
the conditions of welding, the direction of liquid metal circulation does
not affect the shape of the weld pool.
As a result, sulfur and other surfaceactive elements do not always affect
the weld pool shape.
Only comprehensive computer simulations can reveal the velocity fields
and the mechanism of heat transfer.
Such calculations show when surfaceactive elements affect weld pool geometry and when they do not. Two welding experiments and their computer
simulations are presented here to
show how the same level of sulfur may
or may not affect the weld pool geometry depending on the welding
conditions.
A side by side comparison of experimentally determined and numerically
computed weld pool cross sections
(Ref. 11) of two high-power laser spot
welds of steels is shown in Fig. 9. For a
sulfur content of 20 ppm, calculations
show a strong convection current
transports liquid metal from the middle of the weld pool sideways. The surface velocities are fairly large, on the
order of about 20 cm/s, and at this velocity, convection is the main mechanism of heat transfer. In comparison,
heat transfer by conduction is negligible (Ref. 11). The molten metal flows
62 WELDING JOURNAL / APRIL 2015

Fig. 9 Experimentally determined and theoretically calculated weld pool geometries in a

15-mm-thick, high-speed steel plate spot laser welded for 5 s. The welds had 20 and 150
ppm sulfur on the left and right sides, respectively (Ref. 11).

sideways from the middle, forming a

shallow weld pool, as shown in Fig. 9A.
When the sulfur content is 150
ppm, the circulation pattern is opposite to what was observed for the 20
ppm sulfur steel weld shown in Fig.
9B. The surface velocities are fairly
large, higher than 20 cm/s. So the heat
is carried mostly by convection, and
conduction heat transfer is unimportant (Ref. 11). Hot weld metal flows
downward under the heat source, the
base metal melts near the root, and a
deep weld pool forms. The computed
weld pool geometry agrees well with
the experimentally determined
geometries in both cases.
But sulfur does not always change
the weld pool geometry (Ref. 11). Figure 10 shows no perceptible difference
in the cross sections of low-power
laser welds in steel containing 20 and
150 ppm of sulfur. The numerical simulation of heat transfer and fluid flow
reveals why.
The computed results show fairly
low peak temperatures and lower velocities in the weld pool for these small
welds. Convection did not carry much
heat since the velocities in both cases

were weak. As a result, conduction was

the main mechanism of heat transfer.
The direction of spin of the weld metal
was opposite in the two cases as expected, but since conduction was the
mechanism of heat transfer, the opposing spin did not result in any difference in geometry (Ref. 11). The
mechanism of heat transfer was the
most important factor, not the concentration of sulfur or the direction of
weld metal spin.
Dramatic effects of sulfur, selenium, and other surface-active elements
known for many decades led many to
believe these elements always affected
weld pool geometry. In fact, only when
convection is the dominant mechanism of heat transfer can the surfaceactive elements play an important role
in affecting weld geometry.
Solving a compelling problem of
lack of reproducibility of the weld
geometry has made the world a safer
place for all people. But does the innovation and discovery stop once a longstanding mystery is solved? Not at all,
because new welding problems that affect life and property arise frequently.
The following example shows that the

Fig. 10 Comparison of the computed and experimental weld pool geometries at a laser
power of 1900 W for steels containing A 20 ppm; B 150 ppm sulfur (Ref. 11).

DebRoy Feature April 2015_Layout 1 3/12/15 1:53 PM Page 63

powerful tools of the digital age can

accelerate the pace of solution and
help in producing reliable and betterengineered welds.

Sulfur Strikes Back

Many of todays welding engineers

have academic degrees in metallurgy
and materials, mechanical, electrical,
and several other branches of engineering. But a degree is just the beginning. From heat transfer to robotics,
computers, control theory, corrosion,
materials performance, and properties, there are many technical areas of
opportunity for lifelong on-the-job
learning.
Highly sought after in the automotive, aerospace, construction, energy,
shipbuilding, electronics, and appliance industries, welding engineers

chinery for better agriculture, housing, energy, clean water, transportation, health care, and practically all
equipment that support our standard
of living. I hope you will consider the
exciting field of welding engineering
as a career. WJ

When each half of the joint conEpilogue and Lessons

tains steels with significantly different
concentrations of sulfur, a totally unSynthesis of the knowledge base of
expected result is observed. Since the
a mature and important field such as
arc is positioned just above the origiwelding with the emerging awesome
nal joint of the two plates, it is expectdigital data processing capabilities has
ed that both plates melt equally. Inhelped in the production of better
stead, melting occurs mainly in the
welds and made the world a betlow-sulfur plate (Ref. 14) Fig.
ter place. Apart from more rigor11. The point of maximum peneous analysis and solution of
tration, B, is laterally shifted
complex problems, the synthesis
from the location of the original
of welding and computational
joint, A. The figure shows the
capabilities has also incubated a
weld bead has clearly shifted totransformative new technology.
ward the plate with lower sulfur
Additive manufacturing, which
content.
has been hailed as the future of
The extent of shift depended
manufacturing, evolved from
on the difference between the
this merger. It starts with a digisulfur concentrations of the two
tal picture of a part in a computplates and the heat input per
er and builds it by adding liquid
unit length (Refs. 14, 15). Furmetal, layer by layer. Machines
thermore, the arc was asymmetFig. 11 Weld geometry when welding two stainless steel
that use an electron beam weldric with a flare toward the low
plates with different sulfur contents. The white vertical line
ing gun and deposit 7 to 20 lb of
sulfur side (Ref. 15). To examine
passing through point A indicates the original interface of
metal per hour to make large
the role of arc flaring and the
the two plates. The location of maximum weld penetration
parts are already available (Ref.
Marangoni convection, experiis indicated by point C, and AB indicates the shift of the
18). This disruptive additive
ments were also done with a
maximum penetration from the original joint of the two
manufacturing process is an exlaser beam to avoid the effect of
plates (Ref. 14).
ample of weldings evolution in
arc flaring (Ref. 16). Pronounced
the digital age and proof that
centerline shift and selective
perform many important tasks. Weldbetter welding can build a better world
melting of the low-sulfur steel were
ing process selection, quality control,
for all.
still observed when a laser beam was
code compliance, and design of hardplaced directly above the original joint
ware and software are just a few examReferences
interface. Numerical modeling estabples of the crucial tasks for welding enlished that Marangoni convection was
gineers in diverse activities ranging
1. Welding the worlds highest walkway.
an important factor in transporting
from underwater construction to nu2006. Welding Journal 85(10): 40, 41.
metal from high- to low-sulfur steel,
2. DebRoy, T., and David, S. A. 1992.
merous manufacturing processes to
which caused selective melting of the
Physical processes in fusion welding. Scibuilding
a
spaceship.
Some
welding
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gineers work in research and developnounced rotational asymmetry (Ref.
3. http://video.mit.edu/watch/thement
in
universities,
national
labs,
16) of the weld bead during laser weldmarangoni-effect-how-to-make-a-soap-proand
industrial
labs
to
solve
problems
ing of steels with dissimilar sulfur conpelled-boat-13540/ Snapshots from a video
and advance the knowledge base that
centrations was also observed. A
downloaded on 30 June 2014.
supports the practice of welding.
4. DebRoy, T. 1995. Role of interfacial
mechanistic understanding of the roAfter four years of engineering colphenomena in numerical analysis of weldtational asymmetry still remains to be
lege, you will be among a highly select
ability. Mathematical Modelling of Weld Phedeveloped (Ref. 17). So, the enduring
group of people, much smaller than
nomena II. London, UK: The Institute of
mystery of the surface-active elements
Materials, pp. 321.
1%
of
the
population,
with
technical
still persists in a different form.
5. Kou, S., and Sun, D. K. 1985. Fluid
skills that are essential in todays
flow and weld penetration in stationary arc
world. If you select the fascinating
welds. Metallurgical Transactions A PhysiWelding Engineering
field of welding engineering as a cacal Metallurgy and Materials Science 16(2):
reer, you will have an awesome opporas a Career
203213.
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6. Linnert, G. E. 1967. Weldability of
technologies into welding and improve
The welding mystery described here
austenitic stainless steel as affected by
our world in numerous ways. Better
shows the diversity of scientific subresidual elements. Effects of Residual Elewelding can build more reliable mafields within welding engineering.
ments on Properties of Austenitic Stainless
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For info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

Steels. Am. Soc. for Testing and Materials,

Publication No. 418, pp. 105119.
7. Bennett, W. S., and Mills, C. S. 1974.
CTA weldability studies on high manganese stainless steel. Welding Journal
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laser, and electron beam welds. Welding
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Acknowledgments

Many thanks to Ashwin Raghavan,

Jared Blecher, Dr. Chobi DebRoy, Dr.
Thomas J. Leinert, Dr. John W. Elmer,
Dr. David G. C. Robertson, Dr. Stan A.
David, Dr. Harry K.D.H. Bhadeshia,
Dr. Ronald M. Latanision, Dr. Kwadwo
Osseo-Asare, and Dr. Thomas W. Eagar for their interest.

TARASANKAR DEBROY (rtd1@psu.edu) is

professor, Materials Science and Engineering,
Penn State University, University Park, Pa.
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