UNIT-5

MULTIPHASE FLOW
Prof Ratnadip R Joshi

Hydrodynamics in
Porous Media

Darcys Law for saturated media

In 1856 Darcy hired to figure out the water supply to the
towns central fountain.
Experimentally found that flux of water porous media could
be expressed as the product of the resistance to flow which
characterized the media, and forces acting to push the
fluid through the media.
Q - The rate of flow (L3/T) as the volume of water passed through a
column per unit time.
hi The fluid potential in the media at position i, measured in
standing head equivalent. Under saturated conditions this is composed
of gravitational potential (elevation), and static pressure potential (L:
force per unit area divided by g).
KThe hydraulic conductivity of the media. The proportionality
between specific flux and imposed gradient for a given medium (L/T).
LThe length of media through which flow passes (L).
AThe cross-sectional area of the column (L2).
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Darcys Law

Darcy then observed that the flow of water in a vertical column was
well described by the equation

A
Q= K
(H1 - H 0 )
L
Darcys expression is written in a general form for isotropic media as

q = -K H
q is the specific flux vector (L/T; volume of water per unit area
per unit time),
K is the saturated hydraulic conductivity tensor (second rank)
of the media (L/T), and
H is the gradient in hydraulic head (dimensionless)
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Aside on calculus ...

What is this up-side-down triangle all about?

The dell operator: short hand for 3-d derivative

= i, j, k
x y z
The result of operating on a scalar function (like potential) with
is the slope of the function
F points directly towards the steepest direction of up hill with a
length proportional to the slope of the hill.
Later well use F. The dot just tells us to take the dell and
calculate the dot product of that and the function F (which needs to
be a vector for this to make sense).
dell-dot-F is the divergence of F.
If F were local flux (with magnitude and direction), F would be the
amount of water leaving the point x,y,z. This is a scalar result!
F takes a scalar function F and gives a vector slope
F uses a vector function F and gives a scalar result.
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Now, about those parameters...

Gradient in head is dimensionless, being length per length

H1 H0
H =
L
Q = Aq Q has units volume per unit time
Specific flux, q, has units of length per time, or velocity.
For vertical flow: speed at which the height of a pond of fluid would
drop
CAREFUL: q is not the velocity of particles of water
The specific flux is a vector (magnitude and direction).
Potential expressed as the height of a column of water, has units of
length.

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

About those vectors...

q = -KH
Is the right side of Darcys law indeed a vector?
h is a scalar, but H is a vector
Since K is a tensor (yikes), KH is a vector
So all is well on the right hand side

Notes on K:
we could also obtain a vector on the right hand side by
selecting K to be a scalar, which is often done (i.e.,
assuming that conductivity is independent of direction).
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

A few words about the K tensor

q= =-

K xx K xy K xz h h h
K yx K yy K yz x y z
K zx K zy K zz
h
h
h
h
h
h
K h +K h +K h ;K
+K yy
+K yz
;K zx
+K zy
+K zz
xx
xy
xz
yx
x
z
x
y
y
y
z
x
z

flux in x-direction
flux in y-direction
flux in z-direction

Kab relates gradients in potential in the b-direction to flux

that results in the a-direction.
In anisotropic media, gradients not aligned with bedding
give flux not parallel with potential gradients. If the
coordinate system is aligned with directions of anisotropy
the "off diagonal terms will be zero (i.e., Kab=0 where ab).
If, in addition, these are all equal, then the tensor collapses
to a scalar.
The reason to use the tensor form is to capture the effects
of anisotropy.
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Looking holistically

Check out the intuitively aspects of Darcys result. The

rate of flow is:
Directly related to the area of flow (e.g., put two
columns in parallel and you get twice the flow);
Inversely related to the length of flow (e.g., flow
through twice the length with the same potential
drop gives half the flux);
Directly related to the potential energy drop across
the system (e.g., double the energy expended to
obtain twice the flow).

The expression is patently linear; all properties scale

linearly with changes in system forces and dimensions.
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Why is Darcy Linear?

Because non-turbulent?
No.
Far before turbulence, there will be large local
accelerations: it is the lack of local acceleration which
makes the relationship linear.
Consider the Navier Stokes Equation for fluid flow. The xcomponent of flow in a velocity field with velocities u, v,
and w in the x, y, and z (vertical) directions, may be written

u
u
u -1 P
z
u
+ u
+ v
+ w
=
-g
+ 2u
x
y
z
x
x

t
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

10

Creeping flow

u
u
u
u

z
-1 P
+ u
+ v
+ w
2u
=
+
-g
t
x
y
z

x
x

Now impose the conditions needed for which Darcys Law

Creeping flow; acceleration (du/dx) terms small compared to
the viscous and gravitational terms

u = u = u = 0
x y z
Similarly changes in velocity with time are small

u 0
t

so N-S is:

P + gz = 2u

Linear in gradient of hydraulic potential on left, proportional to

velocity and viscosity on right (same as Darcy).
Proof of Darcys Law? No! Shows that the creeping flow
assumption is sufficient to obtain correct form.
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

11

Capillary tube model for flow

Widely used model for flow through porous media is a group of
cylindrical capillary tubes (e.g.,. Green and Ampt, 1911 and many
more).
Lets derive the equation for steady flow through a capillary
of radius ro
Consider forces on cylindrical control volume shown
F=0
s
s

r
V

ro

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi C y l i n d ri c al C o n t ro l V o lu m e

12

Momentum Transport: Flow in

Flow
in
Porous
Media
Porous Media & Packed Beds
And Packed Beds

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

Volumes of interest may contain a solids fraction, , made up
of:

Granular particles (sand, pebbles)

Wool (steel wool, fiberglass, etc.)
Gauzes, screens (woven metals)
Porous pellets (absorbent, catalyst support)
Void fraction,

=1

Usually, packing geometry is random

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

14

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

> 0.8:

Large void fraction

Flow about each object may be considered as
perturbed external flow
Each wetted object contributes drag

< 0.5:

View as internal flow through tortuous ducts between

particles
Used in following module

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

15

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

In case of flow through a straight duct of noncircular
cross-section, effective duct diameter

d eff

4A

,
P

For flow through a packed bed, effective average

interstitial (duct) diameter

4 ( volume available for flow / total volume ) 4
=
di ,eff
,
wetted area / total volume )
a '''
(
where
particle surface area particle volume Ap
'''
a
. (1 )

particle volume

6
d p ,eff

total volume V p

. (1 )
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

16

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

Effective diameter of each particle in bed

Therefore:

Vp
d p ,eff 6
A
p
2
di ,eff = .
.d p ,eff ,
3 1

Appropriate Reynolds number for internal flow

vi di ,eff
Gi di ,eff
const.
=
Rebed ,eff const
=
.
,

where =
Gi

=
vi

interstitial mass velocity

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

17

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

Empty-duct (superficial) mass velocity

G0 =
v0
=

m / A0

and

Gi =

G0

and

Rebed ,eff .

G0 d p ,eff

(1 )

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

18

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

fbed dimensionless momentum transport coefficient

Function of Re
For a single straight duct of short length, dimensionless
momentum-transfer coefficient

where

d eff dP

4 dz
w
Cf
=
1
1
U 2
U 2
2
2

P p + | gz | z
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

19

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

Hence:
fbed

and

f bed

1
di ,eff ( dP / dz )
const. 2
1 2
vi
2

3
1

dP
d p ,eff dz

G02 /

Correlates well with experimental data (next slide)

Erguns approximation:

150
f bed
+ 1.75
Re R Joshi
MT Unit 5: Prof Rbed

20

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

Experimentally determined dependence of fixed-bed friction factor fbed on

the bed Reynolds number(adapted from Ergun (1952))
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

21

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

Laminar flow region:
Rebed < 10
fbed 150/Rebed
Darcys law:
Linear relationship between G0 and (-dP/dz)
Effective local permeability = G0 / (-dP/dz)
>> intrinsic permeability of each particle
Fully-turbulent asymptote: (Burke-Plummer)
Rebed > 1000
fbed 1.75
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

22

FLOW IN PORUS MEDIA AND PACKED BEDS

Above equations are basis for most practical pressure-drop
calculations in quasi-1D packed ducts

Can be used to estimate incipient fluidization velocity

(by equating p to bed weight per unit area)
Can be generalized to handle multidimensional flows
through isotropic fixed beds
Can be used to estimate inter-phase forces between
a dense cloud of droplets and host (carrier) fluid

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

23

Fixed bed and fluidized bed

Ref: BSL, McCabe & Smith

Why fixed (or fluidized) bed?

Expensive Catalyst
enzyme (immobilized)
Large Surface area

Used in reaction/adsorption/ elution (for example)

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

24

Fixed bed

Filled with particles

Usually not spherical

To increase surface area

To increase void fraction

To decrease pressure drop

For analytical calculation, assume all particles are

identical

Usable, because final formula can be modified by a constant factor

(determined by experiment)

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

25

Fixed bed

What are important parameters?

(For example, for adsorption of a protein from a
broth)

rate of adsorption (faster is better)

saturation concentration (more is better)

From the product requirement (eg X kg per day),

density and product concentration in broth ==>
volumetric flow rate

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

26

Fixed bed

Assume quick adsorption (rate of adsorption is high)

Calculate the surface area of particles needed for
operation

Sphericity <=> specific surface area <=> average particle diameter

Sphericity

Volume of particle = Vp
Surface Area of particle = Ap
Surface Area of sphere of same volume (Vs =Vp) = As
Sphericity = As/Ap
May be around 0.3 for particles used in packed beds
lower sphericity ==> larger surface area

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Ap,
Vp

As,
Vs

27

Fixed bed

Specific surface area

= Ap /Vp
Minimal value for sphere
Some books use S to denote area (instead of A)
Assume all the particles are identical

==> all particles have exactly same specific surface area

Rings (Raschig,etc)

Tarus saddle
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Pall Ring
28

Fixed bed

What is the pressure drop we need, to force the fluid through the column?

(i.e. what should be the pump spec)

We know the volumetric flow rate (from adsorption equations, productivity

requirements etc)
We know the area per particle (we assume all particles are identical). And the
total area for adsorption (or reaction in case of catalytic reactor).
Hence we can calculate how many particles are needed
Given a particle type (eg Raschig ring) , the approximate void fraction is also
known (based on experimental results)

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

29

Fixed bed

What is void fraction?

Volume of reactor = VR
Number of particles = Np
Volume of one particle = Vp
Volume of all the particles = Vp * Np = VALL-PARTICLES
VVOIDS
VR
V V N
= R P P
VR

Void fraction= =

VR VALL PARTICLES
=
VR

Knowing void fraction, we can find the reactor volume

needed

Alternatively, if we know the reactor volume and void

VR (1 )
N =
fraction and the Vp, we can find the number of particles P
VP
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

30

Fixed bed

To find void fraction experimentally

Prepare the adsorption column (or reactor....) and fill it
with particles
Fill it with water
Drain and measure the quantity of water
(= void volume)
Calculate void fraction

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

31

Fixed bed

Since we know Vp, Np, , we can find VR

Choose a diameter and calculate the length (i.e. Height)
of the column (for now)

In normal usage, both the terms height and length may be used
interchangeably (to mean the same thing)
Adsorption rate, equilibrium and other parameters will also influence the
determination of height & diameter

To calculate the pressure drop

Note: columns with large dia and shorter length (height) will have lower
pressure drop
What can be the disadvantage(s) of such design ? (tutorial)

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

32

Fixed bed

To calculate the pressure drop

You want to write it in terms of known quantities
Length of column, void fraction, diameter of particles, flow rate of
fluid, viscosity and density
Obtain equations for two regimes separately (turbulent and laminar)
Consider laminar flow
Pressure drop increases with
velocity
viscosity
inversely proportional to radius
Actually, not all the reactor area is available for flow. Particles
block most of the area. Flow path is not really like a simple tube
Hence, use hydraulic radius
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

33

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar flow)

To calculate the pressure drop, use Force balance

Force = P Area

Area where flow occurs =

D2

Force =
P

D2
4

Resistance : due to Shear

Contact area
Force =

Find Contact Area

Find shear stress

Until now, we havent said anything about laminar

flow. So the above equations are valid for both
laminar and turbulentMTflows
Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

34

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar Flow)

Find contact area

Wetted Area= N p Ap

r =R

r2
=
V Vmax 1 2
R

=VR (1 )

Vp

Vmax = 2 Vavg

Here V refers to velocity for flow in a tube

2 Vmax 4 Vavg
=
=
R
R

Vp

Ap

Ap

To calculate the shear stress, FOR LAMINAR FLOW

dV
=
dr

VR (1 )

8 Vavg
D

However, flow is through

bed, NOT a simple tube
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

35

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar Flow)

Find effective diameter (i.e. Use Hydraulic radius), to substitute in the formula
Also relate the velocity between particles to some quantity we know

To find hydraulic radius ( and hence effective dia)

Flowvolume = VR
Wetted Area= N p Ap

Hydraulic diameter
DH = 4

Flow Area
ContactPerimeter

VR (1 )
Vp

=4

Ap

Flow Area * Column Height

ContactPerimeter * Column Height
=4

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Flowvolume
wetted area

36

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar Flow)
DH =

4
Ap

( ) V
p

Ap
8

V
1

(
)
8 Vavg
avg
Vp
=

=
DH
4
A

2 Vavg (1 ) p
Vp

Vavg is average velocity of fluid in the bed, between

particles
Normally, volumetric flow rate is easier to find
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

37

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar Flow)

Can we relate volumetric flow rate to Vavg ?

Use a new term Superficial velocity (V0)
Volumetric flow rate
V0 =
Column Area

V0 =

Q
D2

I.e. Velocity in an empty column, that will provide the

same volumetric flow rate
Can we relate average velocity and superficial velocity?
Vavg =

V0

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

38

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar Flow)
A

2 Vavg (1 ) p
Vp

2 V0 (1 ) p
Vp

=
2

Force balance: Substitute for etc.

Force = P

D2
4

Force = Contact area

Ap

V
2
1

(
)
0
Vp
Ap
D2

VR (1 )

=
P
2
Vp
4

Volume of reactor (say, height of bed = L)

2

Ap
2 V0 (1 )
V p D 2
D2

=MT2 Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi L

P

4
4

VR =

D2
4

39

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar Flow)
2

Ap

V
2
1

) V D2
0(
D2
p
=2
P
L

4
4
2

Pressure drop

2 LV0 (1 )
=
3

Ap
Vp

Specific surface area vs average diameter

Ap

Vp

Define average Dia of particle as

Some books (BSL) use Dp

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

Dp =

6
Ap

Vp

40

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar Flow)

Pressure drop
P

2 LV0 (1 )
=
3

6
Dp

72 LV0 (1 )

D p 2 3

However, using hydraulic radius etc are only

approximations
Experimental data shows, we need to multiply the
pressure requirement by ~ 2 (exactly 100/48)

In terms of average particle diameter

150 LV0 (1 )
P =
D p 2 3

In terms of specific surface area

P
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

2A

25 LV0 (1 ) p
Vp

=
6 3

41

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Turbulent Flow)

Pressure drop and shear stress equations

Force = P

D2
4

Force = Contact area

Only the expression for shear stress changes

For high turbulence (high Re),

f =
=constant
1 V 2
2 avg
2
=constant 1 Vavg
2

However

Vavg =

Re

V0

=K

V02

2
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

42

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Turbulent Flow)

We have already developed an expression for contact

area
Ap
V (1 )
Wetted Area= N p Ap

Hence, force balance

Vp

Ap

=VR (1 )

Vp

D2

Force =
P
=
Contact area
4
Ap

V02
= K 2 VR (1 )

Vp

Volume of reactor (say, height of bed = L)

VR =

D2
4

Ap

V02
=
P K 3 L (1 )

Vp

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

43

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Turbulent Flow)
In terms of average particle diameter

V02
6

1
(
)

Dp

In terms of specific surface area

2
Ap

V
0
=
P K 3 L (1 )
Vp

Value of K based on experiments ~ 7/24

What if turbulence is not high?

Use the combination of laminar + turbulent pressure drops: valid for all regimes!

PLaminar
=
Ptotal

150 LV0 (1 )
= 2 3
Dp

150 LV0 (1 )
Dp
2

7 LV02 (1 )
4 D p 3
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

+ PTurbulent

7 LV02 (1 )
=

4 D p

Ergun Equation for packed

bed
44

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar OR Turbulent Flow)
=
Ptotal

150 LV0 (1 )
Dp
2

7 LV02 (1 )
4 D p 3

Ergun Equation for packed

bed

If velocity is very low, turbulent part of pressure drop is

negligible
If velocity is very high, laminar part is negligible

Some texts provide equation for friction factor

f =

1 V 2
2 avg

laminar + turbulent
f =
1 V 2
2 avg

Ap
2 V0 (1 ) V 7 V 2
p

+
2
2

24

f =
1 V 2
2 avg
MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi
45

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar OR Turbulent Flow)

Ap
2 V0 (1 ) V
V02
p

+ K 2
2

f =
=
2
V
1 0 2
2

Ap

4
1
( ) V 7

+
V0

12

For pressure drop, we multiplied the laminar part by 2

(based on data) . For the turbulent part, the constant was
based on data anyway.
Similarly...

Ap
Ap

25
1
( ) V 7

100 4 (1 ) V 7
p

48

=
+
V0
12

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

3V0

+
12

46

Fixed bed - pressure drop calculation

(Laminar OR Turbulent Flow)
f

Ap

25
1

( ) V 7

+
=
3V0

12

Multiply by 3 on both sides (why?)

150 (1 ) 7
150 (1 ) 7
3f
+
=
3f
+

25
1
)
(

Dp 7

3V0

12

D p V0

D p V0

Packed bed friction factor = 3 f

150 (1 )
=
+ 1.75
f p 3=
f
Re p

Eqn in McCabe and Smith

Reynolds number for packed bed

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

47

Example

Adsorption of Cephalosporin (antibiotic)

Particles are made of anionic resin(perhaps resin coatings on ceramic
particles)
void fraction 0.3, specific surface area = 50 m2/m3(assumed)
column dia 4 cm, length 1 m
feed concentration 2 mg/liter (not necessary to calculate pressure drop, but
needed for finding out volume of reactor, which, in this case, is given). Superficial
velocity about 2 m / hr
Viscosity = 0.002 Pa-s (assumed)
What is the pressure drop needed to operate this column?

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

48

Fixed Bed

What is the criteria for Laminar flow?

D pVo
Modified Reynolds Number
(1 )
Turbulent flow:- Inertial loss vs turbulent loss
Loss due to expansion and contraction
Packing uniformity
In theory, the bed has a uniform filling and a constant void fraction
Practically, near the walls, the void fraction is more
Ergun Eqn commonly
used, however, other
empirical correlations are
also used
e.g. Chilton Colburn eqn

A
B
f = + n +C
Re Re

0.8

0.4
0.2
MT Unit 5: Prof R REdge
Joshi

Center

49
Edge

Fixed Bed

Sphericity vs Void Fraction

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

~0.4

50

Fixed Bed

Alternate method to arrive at Ergun equation (or similar correlations)

Use Dimensional analysis

P dependent variable

( with out subscript, means fluid density or f )

D p , L, Vo , , Dcolumn , , (i.e. sphericity)
2
D pVo D p
P D p
= f(
,
, , )
2
Vo L

Dcolumn

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

51

Fluidized bed

When the fluid (moving from bottom of the column to the top)
velocity is increased, the particles begin to move at (and above) a
certain velocity.
At fluidization,
Weight of the particles == pressure drop (area)
Remember to include buoyancy
P

D2
4

=
( s f

=
( s f

) (1 )V

) (1 )

D2
4

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

52

Fluidized bed: Operation

Empirical correlation for porosity

V
n
=
Vt

Types of fluidization: Aggregate fluidization vs Particulate

fluidization
Larger particles, large density difference (SOLID - FLUID)
==> Aggregate fluidization (slugging, bubbles, etc)
==> Typically gas fluidization
Even with liquids, lead particles tend to undergo
aggregate fluidization
Archimedes number
g D 3

Ar =

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

p
2

53

Fluidized bed: Operation

Porosity increases
Bed height increases
Fluidization can be sustained until terminal velocity is reached
If the bed has a variety of particles (usually same material, but
different sizes)
calculate the terminal velocity for the smallest particle
Range of operability = R

Minimum fluidization velocity = incipient velocity (min range)

Maximum fluidization velocity = terminal velocity (max range)
Other parameters may limit the actual range further
e.g. Column may not withstand the pressure, may not be tall
enough etc
R = Vt/VOM
Theoretically R can rangeMTfrom
8.4 to 74
Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

54

Fluidized bed: Operation

80

Range of operation
depends on Ar

40

100

104

108

Ar

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

55

Fluidized bed: Operation

Criteria for aggregate fluidization

Semi empirical

D p

2
s

0.5

> 0.6 ( for liquid )

> 0.3 ( for gas )

Particulate fluidization
Typically for low Ar numbers
More homogenous mixture

MT Unit 5: Prof R R Joshi

56