Secondary processes

assignment 2
Task 1
Carburizing
Carburizing is the process of adding carbon to low-carbon iron or steel to make it harder.
Modern carburization is performed using high carbon-content gas such as carbon dioxide
or methane, however earlier carburization methods utilized direct application of charcoal.
When the gas composition has to be accurately controlled, carburization is performed
within a vacuum chamber.
When gas carburizing a piece, it is placed into a vacuum furnace and heated to between
900 and 950C. The gas is then introduced as maximum contact between the work-piece
surfaces and the gas is desired. Depending on the amount of time and the temperature
the piece is exposed to, the surface can vary in carbon content and therefore vary in
hardness. The longer the part is left, and the higher the temperature used increases the
depth of the carbon diffusion and therefore the thickness of the hard surface. If the piece
is quenched, the outer surface will become even harder as the austenite surface changes
to martensite, whereas the core remains soft and tough.
Carburizing is useful for applications that require pieces to be very hard on the outer
surfaces while maintaining its ductility and toughness within the core. This makes the
part very resistant to localized, surface deformation, which includes scratches,
indentations and bending. This makes the part very resistant to wear and fatigue,
meaning the parts would not need to be changed or replaced as often, cutting down
costs for customers.
The process of carburization can be very dangerous as it is dealing with pressurized
gases and large temperatures. Attention should be particularly paid to the use of possibly
harmful substances (COSHH).

Nitriding
Nitriding is the process of diffusing nitrogen into the surface of metal to harden it. It is
most often used on steel, titanium and aluminium. Nitriding can be performed in three

ways, similar to carburizing. Gas nitriding uses a nitrogen rich gas such as ammonia. The
ammonia splits into nitrogen and hydrogen when it comes into contact with the hot metal
and the nitrogen diffuses into the surface of the metal, creating a nitride layer. Salt bath
nitriding is similar only the metal is submerged in a nitrogen-containing salt, such as
cyanide salt. Last is plasma nitriding. Pure nitrogen is placed into an ionized state
through intense electric fields generated around the surface to be nitride. This causes the
same effect as the other two processes. Plasma nitriding has added benefits, including
allowing the process to take place at a wider band of tempteratures, from 260C to more
than 600C.
Similar to carburizing, nitriding causes the surface to harden. The difference is that
nitriding forms a nitride layer instead of carbon. The overall effect is the same however,
making the surface significantly more resistant to scratching, denting, bending and
cutting. This makes the process perfect for hardening gears, valve-parts and die-casting
tools etc. Again, this makes the part very resistant to wear and fatigue, meaning the
parts would not need to be changed or replaced as often, cutting down costs for
customers.
Similar to carburizing again, the chemicals used in nitriding, especially the salts, can be
highly toxic, so a strict use of COSHH regulations is in order.

Annealing
Annealing is the process of making a metal more ductile to allow easier working. It is
done by heating the material to above its critical temperature, maintaining that
temperature, then letting it cool. After cooling, the metal will be more ductile, softer and
its internal stresses will be relieved. It can also improve the overall structure by making it
homogeneous (uniform/tight-knit).
The advantages of annealing metal are increased ductility and workability. This allows the
metal to be easily shaped, stamped or formed. It also reduces internal stresses, paving
the way for a hardening technique.
The main benefit to manufacturer is that the metal does not require as much effort to
work. Customers will find that a piece that has been annealed will contain less stress and
so will be less likely to fail.
Health and safety implications are mainly to do with the heat and all necessary safety
precautions should be followed, including wearing the needed PPE.

Quenching
Quenching is the process of rapid cooling of metal to obtain certain properties. It is most
commonly used to harden steel by creating martensite from austenite. This is done by
rapidly cooling the metal through its eutectoid point which is the temperature at which
austenite becomes unstable. The process consists of three steps, heating, soaking and

cooling. First, the part is heated to the desire temperature. Second, the part is soaked in
air, a bath or in a vacuum. This allows completely even heating. The time taken to soak
a part varies with size and method used. Lastly is cooling, where the part is, usually,
submerged in a liquid. Water is one of the most efficient media and gives maximum
hardness, however it can cause distortion and cracking. Where hardness does not need
to be maximum, oils can be used, usually whale, cottonseed or mineral oils. Oils can
oxidize and form a sludge however, which minimizes their efficiency. Gas can also be
used, helium and nitrogen, being the most common. Gas quenching takes place at a
large pressure, usually ranging up to 20 bar.
Quenching transforms the microstructure of the metal from a pearlite grain structure into
a fine, needle-like grain structure consisting of martensite. This structure and is
significantly harder than pearlite and makes the surface significantly more resistant to
scratching, denting, bending and cutting.
Quenching is easy to perform and as such is rather cheap to do as well. It is an easy, cost
effective method of hardening a material in comparison to other techniques. It also
provides the same benefits of other hardening techniques, making the parts wearresistant and less susceptible to fatigue.
Due to the high temperatures involved, significant care needs to be taken while handling
the materials, especially during the cooling phase where massive amounts of steam can
be created when the part is submerged in water.

Task 2
Screwed fasteners
Screwed fasteners are commonly used to secure two or more pieces together through
the use of a helical ridge also known as a thread. Both screws and bolts use the same

principle and you would be hard-pressed to find any large assembly that doesnt use
some sort of screw or bolt to secure something.
Both screws and bolts come in a massive variety of sizes and they differ largely in their
design as well. Screws are more commonly found used on their own within an assembly,
where as bolts are almost definitely used with a nut to secure it as well.
Screws are capable of cutting their own threads, which makes them suitable for use in
wooden assemblies, such as flat-pack furniture. Bolts are capable of being tightened
significantly more than screws and are more widely available in larger sizes, making
them more suited to larger assemblies and in places where a large amount of weight or
force needs to be held.

Locking devices
Locking devices are used to literally lock or clamp something in place. A popular type of
locking device is the positive locking device which is used in combination with a fastener
to lock the fastener into place. Examples of positive locking devices include a split beam
nut and a split pin, a hex nut or cap screw and a tab washer, a hex nut or cap screw and
a lock plate, and safety wiring with various types of fasteners.
Below are the operations of a locking plate (left) and a tab washer (right).

A locking devices main purpose is to secure a fastener so that it cannot work loose
through vibration. They are used greatly on aircraft and within the aviation industry
where safety is paramount.

Part feeding devices

A part feeding device is an automated mechanism that quite literally feeds a part to
another portion of the assembly process. For example, a vibratory bowl feeder is used at
my company to supply caps to a capper that places the caps on the bottles ready to be
sealed. It does this by dropping caps from a hopper into a stepped bowl. The caps then
travel up the spiral steps, eventually reaching a linear rail that leads to the capper. Any
caps that are in the wrong orientation are blown out by air jets that constantly blow.
These jets also facilitate the flow of the caps, as well as rejecting poorly orientated caps.
This sort of monotonous task is the perfect example of something that could be
automated to reduce needless waste
of human resources. To the right is a
picture of an example bowl feeder.

Task 3
Anodising
Anodising is a process used to increase the thickness of the oxide surface layer on metal
parts, usually aluminium. This is mainly done to increase corrosion resistance but it also
provides a base for paint and glue to be applied to. Anodising is quite often used as a
cosmetic effect with added benefits. It is called anodising because the part that is being
anodised forms the anode of an electrical circuit.

The process of anodizing starts with cleaning the aluminium part, usually in a solvent
bath or a hot soak cleaner/degreaser. The actual anodising takes place when the part is
submersed in an electrolytic solution, usually an acid, and a current is passed through it.
With the aluminium part acts as the anode and releases oxygen, creating a build-up of
aluminium oxide. The cathode meanwhile releases hydrogen. The voltage ranges from 1
volt to 300 volts but typically sits within the 15 volts to 21 volts range. The current can
vary and ranges from 30 amperes to 300 amperes per meter squared.
A major product that utilises anodising is the iPod. Every iPod case is anodised to give it
its colour and protect it from scratches and corrosion. Anodising has likely been chosen
as it offers more variety of colours than plating and is least expensive, cutting down costs
for the manufacturer.
As acid is used, COSHH regulations come into play. Procedures for disposure of the acid
should be observed to ensure that it is disposed of correctly and isnt removed with
normal waste.

Electroplating
Electroplating is a process that uses electrical current to form a metal coat on an
electrode. Electroplating is used to change the surface properties of an object to provide
more wear resistance, corrosion protection and for aesthetic purposes.
The part that is being plated acts as the cathode of the circuit. The piece of donor metal
acts as the anode. Both the anode and cathode are submersed in an electrolytic solution
and a direct current is passed through the anode which allows the metal atoms to
dissolve. The cathode then causes the metal atoms to bond to itself. The rate at which
the metal dissolves is exactly the same as the rate at which the metal is plated. Harmful
chemicals and large amounts of current used within electroplating make the process
potentially harmful.
The most common product of electroplating is coinage, such as the penny. Pennies are
actually small steel plates covered with a layer of copper to give them their finish. This
method is chosen as steel is significantly cheaper than copper.

Task 4
Hardening is done by introducing crystal lattice defects that act as barriers to
dislocation slip. This means that the structure of the metal is altered so that cracks and
fractures cannot form properly. On the microscopic level, this process alters the
crystalline structure of the metal to inhibit the movement of other crystals within it,
causing the structure to be more resistant to cracking and fracture. Quenching is the
most common form of hardening.
Tempering increases the toughness of ferrous materials and is usually done after
hardening. It is used to reduce some of the hardness is favour of toughness. The heat
used during the process determines how much hardness is removed and replaced with
toughness. It entirely depends on what the desired properties of the finished product are,

as a spring may require a very high heat to reduce hardness significantly, whereas tools
will only be tempered at a low heat, removing only a small amount of hardness.
Annealing alters a material to increase ductility and therefore workability. It can also
relieve internal stresses, making the material less likely to break. Annealing is done by
heating the material to above its critical temperature, maintaining that temperature,
then letting it cool. Ferrous materials are heated until glowing for a while then let to cool
to room temperature in air.
The benefits of these processes seriously come to light when used in conjunction with
one another. For example, imagine a piece of thick steel wire is being formed into a
spring. Ordinarily, the work required to bend a piece of steel wire like that would be fairly
substantial. However, if the steel were to be annealed first, then the load and energy
required to bend the wire into the shape would be significantly lowered. Next, the shaped
spring needs to be hardened so that it doesnt bend out of shape the first time it is used.
Hardening the spring makes it much harder to bend, however it is still brittle and could
snap if it used. Finally, the spring is tempered to balance out the hardness and
toughness. In this case, the spring needs to be significantly tougher than it is harder, so a
higher temperature is used to obtain these results. Overall, the three processes support
each other to provide a generally more stable part, perfectly suited to the task it is
required for. Each process can be individually tailored to provide exact results, depending
on what properties are desired for the finished product.