Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
subject verb
object
>
Cats
eat
fish.
Passive voice
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the
verb:
Example
passive
subject verb
object
are eaten
by cats.
<
Fish
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
Example
subject verb
object
active
Everybody
drinks water.
passive
Water is drunk
by everybody.
Use of Passive
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I
of irregular verbs)
following:
passive sentence
participle)
Subject
Simple Present
Passive:
Active:Rita
A letteris written
Simple Past
Passive:
Verb
Active:Rita
A letterwas written
Present Perfect
Active:Rita
Object
writes a letter.
by Rita.
wrote a letter.
by Rita.
has written
a letter.
Passive:
by Rita.
Future I
Active:Rita
a letter.
Passive:
Hilfsverben
Passive:
will write
Active:Rita
can write
a letter.
Examples of Passive
Tense
Subject
Present Progressive
Passive:
Verb
Active:Rita
Active:Rita
Passive:
by Rita.
a letter.
by Rita.
had written
Future II Active:Rita
is writing
was writing
Past Perfect
Passive:
Object
a letter.
by Rita.
a letter.
Conditional I
Active:Rita
would write
a letter.
a letter.
Passive:
A letterwould be written
Conditional II
Passive:
Active:Rita
by Rita.
a letter.
by Rita.
Examples of Passive
Subject
Verb
Object 1
Object 2
Active:
Rita
Passive:
A letterwas written
to me by Rita.
Passive:
a letter by Rita.
was written
As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. Thats
why it is usually
dropped.
personal passive
Example: They say that women live longer than men. - It is said that women live longer
than men.
Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.
Example: They say that women live longer than men. - Women are said to live longer
than men.
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of
sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The
added using an infinitive construction with
the
dropped).
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of
an active sentence is to become the
The object of the verb takes the position of Subject.The Subject of the verb in the active
preceeded by the preposition by.The tense of
the verb in the passive voice remains the same as in the active voice.In the passive voice,
third form of the verb is used.
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
Tense
Rules
has/have + been + V3
was/were + V3
will/shall + have+been + V3
Modal Verb: will, shall, would should, can, could, may, might,must,ought to + V1
Modal Verb + be + V3
Infinity: to + V1 to be + V3
I, We, He, She, They are changed into
Verb/helping verb
sentence showing order, or request. So, accordingly, in the passive voice, we say:
You are requested/ordered/advised + infinive with to.
Sentences involving order/advice are preferably changed into
wordlet or should. Please close the door. You
your soul. Your soul should be
should be
subject
to be attached
with themeven in the passive form. Please listen to him. You are requested to listen to him.
He turneddown my proposal. My
having two
Hari gave me an apple. I was given an apple by Hari. An apple was given to me byHari.
Intransitive verbs do not have passive forms. I go to school. Go is intransitive verb. Sono
passive form. What is done, cannot be
Quasi Passive Verbs: The rose smells sweet. The rose is sweet when smelt. Quinine
tastes bitter. Quinine is bitter when tasted.
tasted.
With some verbs, preposition by is not used. Like know (to), surprise (at), annoy
(with),contain (in), vex (with), please (with), displease (at), alarm (at), line (with), throng
(with)
The object of the verb takes the position of Subject.The Subject of the verb in the active
voice becomes the object and is usually
the verb in the passive voice remains the same as in the active voice.In the passive voice,
third form of the verb is used.
Rules
has/have + been + V3
was/were + V3
will/shall + have+been + V3
Modal Verb: will, shall, would should, can, could, may, might,must,ought to + V1
Modal Verb + be + V3
Infinity: to + V1 to be + V3
I, We, He, She, They are changed into
Verb/helping verb
sentence showing order, or request. So, accordingly, in the passive voice, we say:
You are requested/ordered/advised + infinive with to.
Sentences involving order/advice are preferably changed into
wordlet or should. Please close the door. You
your soul. Your soul should be
should be
subject
to be attached
with themeven in the passive form. Please listen to him. You are requested to listen to him.
He turneddown my proposal. My
having two
Hari gave me an apple. I was given an apple by Hari. An apple was given to me byHari.
Intransitive verbs do not have passive forms. I go to school. Go is intransitive verb. Sono
passive form. What is done, cannot be
Quasi Passive Verbs: The rose smells sweet. The rose is sweet when smelt. Quinine
tastes bitter. Quinine is bitter when tasted.
tasted.
With some verbs, preposition by is not used. Like know (to), surprise (at), annoy
(with),contain (in), vex (with), please (with), displease (at), alarm (at), line (with), throng
(with)
Adjectives describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.
For example:The grey dog barked. (The adjective grey describes the noun
"dog".
The good news is that the form of an adjective does not change.
if the noun being modified is male or female,
Some adjectives give us factual information about the noun adjectives - can't be argued with). Some
something or somebody -
may agree).
If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind, or how
an adjective to be able to answer.
There are different types of adjectives in the English language:
1) Numeric: six, one hundred and one
than enough
compared.
In the third sentence, the word tallest is the superlative form of the adjective. The
superlative form of the adjective denotes
comparatives and
superlatives.
RULE 1
For most adjectives, er is added for the comparative form and est
Stronger Strongest
Kinder - Kindest
RULE 2
For adjectives ending with e, r is added for the comparative form
superlative form. Wise Wiser Wisest
Large Larger Largest
Nice Nicer Nicest
Fine
RULE 3
Finer - Finest
comparative form
Lazier Laziest
Wealthier Wealthiest
Most Difficult
RULE 5
Irregular Adjectives: There are some irregular adjectives for which
the comparative
Most
Colour
Origin
Material
Examples:
a lovely old red post-box
some small round plastic tables
some charming small silver ornaments
Usage
Common adverbs of certainty:
certainly , definitely,
morning.
verb:
He has certainly forgotten the
meeting.
a great politician.
sentence:
the adjective.
Examples
quickly,softly,strongly,honestly,interestingly
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. "Friendly", for
example, is an adjective.
carefully
nice
nicely
horrible
horriblely
easy
easyly
irregular forms
good
well
fast
fast
hard
hard
modifies is in italics.
Modify a verb:
- John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
- Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
- She never smokes. (When does she smoke?)
Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly. But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
Modify a whole sentence:
- Obviously, I can't know everything.
Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It's immediately inside the door.
an adverb modifies other verbs(verbs are in bold/adverbs are in italics)
The thief acts stupidly. (answers the
question:how?)
extremely stupid.
use.
with a vowel - a, e, i, o,
The meaning of the article a is similar to the number one, but one is stronger and gives
more emphasis. It is possible to say I have a book or I have one book,
sententence emphasizes that I do not have two or three
have an article. In
or possessive adjective can be used instead of an article as in the sentences I sat on that chair
and
Example:
a one-way street, a one-eyed man, a one-year course, a one-day holiday, etc.
An is used:
Before a noun which begins with a vowel.
Example:
an apple
Before a word which begins with a vowel sound or a silent
h.
Example:
an hour, an honest man, an heir, an honour, an honourable
man, etc
or silent h
Example:
an orange
The is used:
When the same thing or person mentioned again, that is, a
Example:
I bought an orange.
The orange is sweet.
When there is only one such thing.
Example:
the earth, the sun, the moon
and the U.A.E., The Nile, The Dead Sea, The Pacific Ocean, The
Example:
Barcelona is a beautiful city. (not A or The Barcelona)
Before names of materials.
Example:
Gold is found in Australia. (not A or The gold)
Before abstract nouns used in a general sense.
Example:
We love all beauty. (not a beauty or the beauty)
Uncount nouns
You cannot say a/an with an uncount noun.
You cannot put a number in front of an uncount noun. (You cannot make an uncount
noun plural.)
You use an uncount noun with no article if you mean
You use the with an uncount noun when you are talking about a particular example of
that thing.
Count nouns
You can put a number in front of a count noun. (You can make a count noun plural.)
You can put both a/an and the in front of a
count noun.
You usually use a/an with a count noun the first time you say or write that noun.
You
listener knows what you are referring to (maybe because there is only
sound.
Note:
The above rules apply whether there is or there is not an adjective in
Some nouns can be either count or uncount,
Do you have paper? I
Can you
Uncount nouns are often preceded by phrases such as: a lot of .. (luck), a piece of ..
(cake), a bottle of .. (milk), a grain of ..
(rice).
sentences:
Tenses & Rules
You use an uncount noun with no article
if you
like music?
talking about
the garden!
there is
I think
class of lexical words. An auxiliary verb is used to add functional or grammatical content to
the information expressed by another verb, considered to be the main
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs
Examples:
I am writing a book.
He has done the work.
We will be there in a minute.
Would you help me with this homework?
Can you open the door?
Did you visit New York last holiday?
Do you like chocolate?
They must get there on time.
The 23 auxiliary verbs
am is
are
was
were
has have
had
do does
did
will
would
shall
should
can could
may
might must
verb.
Be Been Being
Progressive Verbs
In present progressive sentences, the verb expresses action that is in progress as the
speaker says it. I am typing is an example of
is type while the
We also use past and future progressives to explain what was or will be happening when
some other event occurred or will occur.
He was watching TV when the phone rang. Here, was is the auxiliary that helps us
understand when the main verb (watch)
happened.
future.
Passive Voice
If you can add the phrase, by a purple monster to the end of your verb phrase and still
have a grammatically correct sentence,
some examples:
The chair was moved (by a purple monster) to the other side
of the room.
I was hit in the head (by a purple monster) and knocked unconscious (by a purple
monster).
It has been decided (by a purple monster) that the play will
monster).
Theres nothing grammatically wrong with passive voice; its an
the verb be. Its just not very exciting writing.
excellent use of
with him.
The perfect tenses in English explain the order of things. When we use present perfect,
we are explaining what has happened up until
happened in the past before
what
All the perfect tenses use at least one auxiliary verb, have.
I have visited Stockholm many times.
He had seen many cathedrals, but none so grand as that one.
The future perfect also uses will.
We will have traveled to every country in the world after
this trip.
home.
not seasons).
in this magazine.
states.
rocky.
: My boyfriend has got a new job. (or just "has a new job")
us.
as
to conflict.)
I REPORTED that
.
(EXPLANATION:
report,
.
(EXPLANATION:
have been .)
much.
redundant.)
again.
do again again.)
Wrong: After you have studied the proposed
Right:
to
(EXPLANATION:
of.)
visitors.
Right:
me on its progress?
REGARD TO
Right: AS REGARDS
to Project A
disciplines.
SO we have to continue
question: As
what?.
Example: John has just been appointed team leader. As such (as a team leader), he now
has a greater responsibility in the office.
Wrong: Although Janes report is not
goes on vacation.
of is redundant.
missing document.
Right:
place or an area.)
half of an
week.
company.)
Wrong: Why are you not DRINKING your soup?
Right: Why are you not HAVING your soup?
(EXPLANATION: As soup typically contains solid ingredients, unlike water or milk or
juice, it is generally not appropriate to use
(EXPLANATION:
finished.)
ANYTHING ELSE!
Wrong: Sorry. I LEFT only one Sri Lanka crab. CAN TAKE local crabs instead?
Right:
I HAVE only one small Sri Lanka crab LEFT. CAN you TAKE
sleep. In Singapore it
dont
you?
(EXPLANATION: If it is a best dress competition, John would not be eligible unless
he is a cross dresser.)
Wrong: Do you like the FRAGRANCE of the wine?
Right: Do you like the
ones.
Right:
I see that you prefer the champagne coloured roses TO the red
ones.
SALOON.
Right:
redundant.
me?
COMMENT: A cocktail means a glass of alcoholic drink. Mary may rather go
a cocktail party.
Wrong: I saw you holding Bee Hongs hands. You are both in love, ISNT IT?
Right:
dark.
mode.
voice down.
to
the bus.
house.
house.
umbrella OR NOT?
him AS a snob.
AS.
really mad.
if you apologise
tomorrow?
Right:
nowadays.
SO nowadays,
I dont know.
ago.
The words, 'accept' and 'except' are homophones which are often
confused by
English speakers. 'Accept' is a verb which means 'to receive' or 'to agree'. Most of the time
'except' is used as a preposition which means 'excluding'.
The following
Examples of Passive
ACCEPT (VERB) EXCEPT (PREPOSITION)
Amit accepted the job offer.
I can come with you on all days except Sunday.
Sanjiv accepted the allegation that he had cheated.
All the athletes except Anjali finished the race.
He accepted the invitation to the party.
Everyone except Shantanu was invited to the party.
Use of 'Bought' and 'Brought'
The difference between these two words is a very simple one.
a glass of water.
The difference can be remembered easily too, as 'bring' shares its first two letters with
'brought' ('br').
Use of 'Can' and 'May'
Many English speakers are confused about the usage of the words 'can' and 'may'. For
e.g., 'Can I drink water?' is
this
case.
The key difference between 'can' and
'affect'. 'Affect' is
AFFECT
The dropped catch did not affect the result of the game.
The
EFFECT
The effect of the tsunami was devastating.
The side effect
big house.'
- pluralised nouns: Example : ' Doctors have a rough time,
the time.'
'Has' is used with the third person singular ( he, she, it) . Examples : ' She has your
money.' 'Amit has the book.'
Use of 'There', 'Their' and 'They're'
Many speakers tend to get confused between 'There', 'Their' and
knowing how to use these three words correctly is an
'They're' and
English.
The words 'There' and' Their' are homophones. Homophones are
spelt differently but pronounced the same. It is a
other.
What are conditionals in English grammar? Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They
describe the result of something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have
happened but didn't (in the past) . They are made using different English verb
tenses.
present simple)
will + infinitive)
cinema.
would + infinitive)
clause'):
situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main cluase.
The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when'
meaning.
For example: If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils . (It is
be a different result sometimes). If I eat
maybe, not for everyone, but it's still true that I'm sick every time I eat peanuts)
Here are some more examples:
Examples
If people eat too much, they get fat.
If you touch a fire, you get burned.
come true.
If it rains , I won't go to the park.
If I study today, I 'll go to the party tonight.
If I have enough money, I 'll buy some new shoes.
She 'll be late if the train is delayed.
She 'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
If I see her, I 'll tell her.
First vs. Zero Conditional:
The first conditional describes a particular situation,
describes what happens in
general .
sitting)
But (first conditional): if you sit in
about what will happen
For example (first conditional): If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam (I think
it's
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:
if + past simple, ...would + infinitive
(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal
writing).
It has two uses.
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true.
Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
She would pass the exam if she ever studied .(She never studies, so this won't happen)
Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because
it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:
If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for
me to call him).
If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.
How is this different from the first conditional?
This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a
lot more unlikely.
For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with
twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's
just a dream, not very real)
But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more
likely that'll have enough money to buy some shoes)
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have'
and the past participle in
Subordinating Conjunctions
Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
Compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided
so...that
Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a
grammatically equal. The two parts may be single
Position
Coordinating conjunctions
always come between the words or
Subordinating conjunctions
or
coordinating
conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:
Look at these examples
- the two elements that the
brackets [ ]:
coffee].
they join.
it is always correct to
F-For
A-And
N-Nor
B-But
O-Or
Y-Yet
S-So
clause.
conjunctions.
after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until,
when, where, whether, while
An adverb clause is always introduced by a subordinating
clause and adjective clause sometimes are.
conjunction. A noun
Many subordinating
fallen.
POSITIVE DEGREE.
taller than
greater than
as SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.
If ' er ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Comaparative
when ' est ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
clever
long
high
great
sweet
young
tall cleverer
longer
higher
greater
sweeter
younger
taller
cleverest
longest
highest
greatest
sweetest
youngest
tallest
If positive ends in 'e' add 'r' and 'st' to form comparative and superlative.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE
large
wise
white
brave
SUPERLATIVE
pure
fine
able
larger
wiser
whiter
braver
purer
finer
abler
largest
wisest
whitest
bravest
purest
finest
ablest
We can add more and most before adjective to form comparative
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
beautiful
useful
famous
difficult
important
honest
powerful more beautiful
more useful
more famous
more
difficult
more important
more honest
more
most useful
powerful
most beautiful
and superlative.
most famous
most
difficult
most important
most honest
most
powerful
SUPERLATIVE
lovely
wealthy
holy
easy
happy
heavy
healthy
lovelier
wealthier
holier
easier
happier
heavier
healthier
loveliest
wealthiest
holiest
easiest
happiest
heaviest
healthiest
For some adjectives that ends mainly with 'd, g, t, m, n' to
superlative, add the last letter twice and then add 'er' and 'est'.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
red
sad
big
hot
fat
dim
thin
redder
sadder
bigger
hotter
fatter
dimmer
thinner
reddest
saddest
biggest
hottest
fattest
dimmest
thinnest
For some adjectives(positive) form comparative and
different from the positive form.
Examples
POSITIVECOMPARATIVE
late
good
bad
much
near
little
many
better
worse
more
later, latter
SUPERLATIVE
nearer
less,
lesser
more
latest, last
best
worst
most
nearest,
next
least
most
is, a determiner may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element
of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to
a specified person
and several).
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to.
The word ' people ' by itself is a general reference to some group of
someone says 'these people', we know which group they are
say '
human beings. If
' These ' and ' a lot of ' are determiners in these sentences.
Classes of Determiners
There are several classes of determiners:
Articles
The definite and indefinite articles are all determiners.
article - a or an (a is used before
When they are used as determiners they are followed by the nouns they modify. Compare:
This
is) This
Demonstratives
this, that,
these, those
Possessives
Possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their - modify the noun
following it in order to show possession.
possessive pronouns - mine, his, hers, yours, ours, their. Possessive pronouns can stand
alone and
determiner. It is
followed by the noun house which it modifies) Is that car yours? (yours is a possessive
pronoun. It is not followed by a noun.)
Possessives
my, your, his,
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are followed by nouns which they modify. Examples of
include: some, any, few, little, more, much, many, each,
little, whole, less etc. Quantifiers
uncountable nouns. He
dangerous thing
Quantifiers
quantifiers
are
a few, a little,
Numerals
Numbers are cardinal (one, two, three, etc) and ordinal (first,
Cardinal numbers are adjectives that indicate
table), and ordinal numbers
known as distributives.
Difference words
other,
another
Question words
Which, what,
whose
Defining words
which, whose
The following words are pre-determiners . They go before determiners,
articles:
You can answer the question "What did he/she say?" in two ways:
such as
).
Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words
speech in writing, we place the words
there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for
example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a
previous
conversation
Examples
She says "What time will you be home?"
She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! "
"There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
John said, "There's an elephant outside the
window."
Reported Speech
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of
the words spoken. We use
reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word
'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She said, "I saw him."
She said
are used:
Simple past
continuous
Past continuous
book
Past perfect
Past perfect
Saturday
Past perfect
me.
in Paris.
Future
Present conditional
said
NOTE:
1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is
original statement was about something that is still true, e.g.
Example
"I will see you here tomorrow ", she said.
next day .
The most common of these changes are shown below:
Examples of Passive
Today
that day
he said.
the previous/week/month/year
us.
that
the
there
Peter lived .
I spoke English .
"Is it raining?"
She asked if
it was raining .
She asked if
I could type .
3. Question words :
This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or
question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the
necessary tense change.
"What is your name?" he asked me.
He asked
lived .
clause .
Examples
He told me to go away.
The pattern is verb + indirect object +
to-clause .
Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command,
order,
Examples
"Can I have an apple?", she asked.
She asked for an apple
"Can I have the newspaper, please?"
He asked
"Sugar, please."
She asked for the sugar .
"Could I have three kilos of onions?"
He asked
these clauses:
She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?"
She suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the
get a mechanic to
Examples
"It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother.
My mother suggested I see the dentist.
The dentist said, "I think you should use a different
The dentist recommended that
toothbrush".
reporting verb
Examples
"I'll be back by lunchtime."
He promised to be back by
lunchtime.
by lunchtime.
Examples
1. All cheese contains
protein
paper on my desk?
born in Italy.
Examples
Half +
1
2
3
4
a
the
my, your, etc.
this, that,
these, those
Uncountable
or
countable noun
Examples
1. I bought half a kilo
of apples yesterday.
the apples .
(of) my money .
no article
can be used with plural nouns but must be followed by ' of '
:
Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals:
Each child received a present.
Each of the children received a
present.
of members:
jogging.
week.
of them
is
In linguistics, intonation is variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words;
instead it is used for a range of functions
the speaker,
of the
spoken message and also helping to regulate conversational interaction. It contrasts with tone,
in which pitch variation in some
grammatically.
Functions of Intonation:
All vocal languages use pitch pragmatically in intonation - for instance for emphasis, to
convey surprise or irony, or to pose a question. Tonal languages such as Chinese and Hausa
use intonation in
attitudes)
structure)
known)
discourse function (to show how clauses and
discourse)
psychological function (to organize speech into units that are easy to perceive, memorize
and perform)
indexical function (to act as a marker of personal
or social identity)
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human
speech, or-in the case of sign languages-the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with
the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological
production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and
neurophysiological status.
Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization
of systems of sounds or signs. The field of phonetics is a multiple layered subject of
linguistics that focuses on speech.
In the case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:
Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech
and vocal tract by the speaker
speech sounds by
the listener
Phonetic symbols
This is the standard set of phonemic symbols for English (RP and
Symbols
Consonants
p
pleasure, vision
similar accents).
(glottal stop)
department, football
Vowels
?
trap, bad
?
n? suddenly, cotton
l? middle, metal
'
(stress mark)
certain syllables and words, but we must also de-stress other syllables and words.
De-
de-
stressed)
Photograph -> [PHO d? graf] (1st syllable is
connected speech
we say sentences.Remember,
speaking with correct rhythm (musicality) is essential to being understood when you speak!
Rhythm comes from the
verb contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, the
second syllable is stressed.
Examples:apply, attract, complete, arrive, resist With
syllable contains a short vowel
stressed.
Examples:enter, open, equal, borrow, profit There are
that usually carry stress. Words with these endings usually carry stress on the last syllable:
Examples
-ain
entertain
-ee refugee
-eer
mountaineer
-ese
Portuguese
-ette
-esque
picturesque
syllable)
The main or primary stress usually falls on the syllable before these endings:
Examples
-ion
decision, application
-ious / -eous
contentious, courageous
-ity simplicity
-ive
extensive
-graphy
photography, biography
-meter
biology
-logy
again some general patterns. If the first part of the word is broadly
then the first element will normally carry more
speaking a noun,
stress:
learner
A good way to approach an essay is to envision it as a Five Part project. An essay is made
up of the Introduction, Three main points
this:
1. Introduction
2. Point One
3. Point Two
4. Point Three
5. Conclusion
paper easier.
Introduction
An Introduction should answer three questions
1. What
you let the reader know what the subject of the paper
is. For example, if your paper were about a particular book, your answer to this question
would give the title, author, and any other necessary information.
2. How am I going to talk about it?
This
is where you let the reader know how your paper is organized. Here
you very briefly introduce your main points or the evidence that will
in the first paragraph and it clearly states the argument or point you are making in your
paper.
Body
The Body consists of everything between your intro and conclusion and it is where you
discuss your three main points. A good
separate paragraph
you:
Introduce your point
Explain your
point
your thesis
questions 1, 2,
OR
POINT ONE leads to
THESIS is true!
So, when planning your essay consider this format:
I. Introduction
Subject
Main Points
Thesis
II. Point One
Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
III. Point Two
A. Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
IV. Point Three
Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
V. Conclusion
Restate subject
Summarize Main Points
Restate Thesis
(B and C can be combined into the proof)
Organization in a paper is important not only because it makes the paper easier to write,
it also guides the reader through the paper. A clearly organized paper will better hold the
reader's interest and convince them that your thesis is valid!
'nineteenth century'.
and accessible.
they're used.
Take note of sources so they can be provided in footnotes and the bibliography.
Trainstorm ideas in response to the question
Jot down any relevant points.
Make note of any relevant evidence or quotes that
come to mind.
question.
Avoid a thesis that's too simplistic - show
complexities behind the
question.
needs to be referred to several times in the essay before restating it and demonstrating
how it has been proven in the conclusion.
Write a plan for the response
Order ideas in a logical sequence.
on the jetty".
addressed.
relevant.
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a oneword sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with
any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the
idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all
convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of
"being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject
and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us
what a subject does or is; they describe:
action (Ram plays football.)
state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural
forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example, the verb to work has five forms:
to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have thirty
or more forms for a single verb.In this lesson we look at the ways in which we classify verbs,
followed by a quiz to test your understanding:
Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
1)Main verbs
2)Helping verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
I teach.
People eat.
The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you?
Probably yes!
Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on
their own. They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.In the
following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs.
Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping
verb.
Examples
helping verb
main verb
John
likes
coffee.
You
lied
to me.
They
are
happy.
The children
are
We must
go
now.
do not
want
any.
playing.
I
Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the following
pages.
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Infinitive,
I want to work
He has to sing.
This exercise is easy to do.
Let him have one.
To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
Work well!
Make this.
Have a nice day.
Be quiet!
We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.
I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago.
Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.
I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.
We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.
Let's start off with the easy part. ' I wish to' can mean the same as 'I want to' but it is
much, much more formal and much, much less common.
I wish to make a complaint.
I wish to see the manager.
You can also use 'wish' with a noun to 'offer good wishes'.
I wish you all the best in your new job.
We wish you a merry Christmas.
Notice that when you want to offer good wishes using a verb, you must use 'hope ' and
not 'wish'.
We don't use 'Shall' very frequently in modern English, particularly in American English.
It is used to make offers and suggestions and to ask for advice.
What time shall we meet?
Shall we vote on it now?
What dress shall I wear?
At the office party, everybody let their hair down and we had fun.
Don't let it get you down means to stay cheerful although something bad has happened.
Everybody makes mistakes. Don't let it get you down.
let you off'/let you off the hook means that you are excused, even though you did
something wrong or had something bad to do.
I made a mess but the boss let me off.
I was supposed to tidy up after the party but I was let off the hook as Sandra did it.
Letting off steam means to get rid of excess energy or frustration.
After work I go to the gym and let off steam on the treadmill.
We need to go out after the exams and let off steam.
Let me see and let me think are expressions used to give you time to think.
You want a raise? Let me think. Can we discuss this later?
A good place for lunch? Let me see. How about the Italian restaurant?
Let's say and let's suppose are used to talk about hypothetical situations.
Let's say that you were boss. What would you do?
Let's suppose that we don't get the contract. What do we do?
Let's hope is used to express a hope.
Let's hope he gets the job.
Yes, let's hope so.
A question tag is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a miniquestion. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a
"question tag".
We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English.They are not really
questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so keep the
conversation open.
Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary. If there is no
auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and with a
negative sentence, make a positive tag..
The basic structure is:
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
Statement Question Tag
+ Positive statement,
Snow is white,
- negative tag?
isn't it?
- Negative statement,
+ positive tag?
There are five ways in which we normally use question tags and they are easily explained
here.
1. Positive/negative
If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative.
Example: Hes a doctor, isnt he?
Example: You work in a bank, dont you? ( Note that if there is not an auxiliary use do,
does, or didnt at the end of the sentence)
If the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.
Example: You havent met him, have you?
Example: She isnt coming, is she?
2. With auxiliary verbs
The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary
verb (have, be) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.
Example: Theyve gone away for a few days, havent they?
Example: They werent here, were they?
Example: He had met him before, hadnt he?
Quantifiers form a sub-class under determiners. They are adjectives or phrases that serve
to answer two possible questions:
1.
How many?
2.
For example: a few, a little, much, many, most, some, any, enough, etc., are quantifiers.
Quantifiers that describe quantity
Words and phrases that describe quantity include a little, none, a few, etc. Some of these
are used only with:
Countable nouns - These are the nouns that answer the question How many? For
example: a few, a number of, several, etc.
Uncountable nouns - These are the nouns that answer the question How much? For
example: a little, a bit of, etc.)
Some of them are also used with both. These are the ones that answer both questions. For
example: such as no/none, some, a lot of, etc.
Quantifiers that express attitude
The words few, little and the phrases - a few and a little serve to describe the speaker's
attitude to the quantity being described. The first two carry negative suggestions, whereas the
last two carry positive suggestions. For e.g.:
The phrase I have little time means that the speaker hardly has time, whereas the phrase
I have a little time means that while the speaker may not have all the time in the world, but
s/he has enough for the purpose at hand.
'Enough'
Enough is used to indicate the necessary amount or quantity; it is placed before nouns.
For e.g.: There is enough time, You have enough money, Is there enough food?, etc.
Comparative quantifiers
There are ten comparative or grade quantifiers: much, many, more, most, few, fewer,
fewest, little, less, and least.
Much, many, more and most describe (in ascending order) increase; much is used only
with uncountable nouns, many only with plural countable nouns, and more and most with
both.
I have much time. < I have more time. < I have the most time.
I have many apples. < I have more apples. < I have the most apples.
Few, fewer, fewest, little, less and least chart decrease. The first three (in descending
order) are used only with countable plural nouns. The last three (in descending order) are
used only with uncountable nouns.
He has few friends. > He has fewer friends. > He has the fewest friends.
He has little time. > He has less time. > He has the least time.
Figure of Speech is departure from the ordinary form of expression, or the ordinary
course of ideas in order to produce a greater effect.
Figure-of-Speech may be classified as under:
1. Those based on resemblance
* Simile
* Metaphor
* Personification
* Apostrophe
2. Those based on Contrast:
* Antithesis
* Epigram
3. Those based on Association:
* Metonymy
* Synecdoche
4. Thos depending on Construction:
* Climax
* Anticlimax
In Personification, inanimate objects and abstract notions are spoken of as having life and
intelligence.
Examples:
* Death lays its icy hands on King.
* Pride goes forth on horseback, grand and gay.
* Laughter is holding her both sides.
In Simile, a comparison is made between two object of different kinds which have at least
one point in common.
The Simile is introduced by the word 'asas'.
Examples:
* As active as quicksilver
* As afraid as a grasshopper * As afraid as a grasshopper
* As ageless as the sun
* As agile as a cat
* As agile as a monkey
* As alert as a bird
* As alike as two peas
* As alone as a leper
* As alone as Crusoe
* As ambitious as the devil
This Figure-of-Speech is widely used by us in our writings.
NOTE:
A comparison of two things of same kind is not a Simile.
In Antithesis, a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments is made in the same
sentence.It is employed to secure emphasis.
Examples:
* Man proposes, but God disposes.
* Not that I loved Caesar less, but I loved Rome more.
* Speech is silver, but Silence is Gold.
* Many are called, but few are chosen.
* To err is human, but to forgive on divine.
An Apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a personified object or
idea. This figure is a special form of Personification.
Examples:
* Milton! You should not be living at this hour.
* Friend! I know not which way I must look for comfort.
* Roll on! Thou deep and dark blue ocean , roll.
* Death! Where is thy sting? O Grave! Where is thy victory?
An Epigram is a brief pointed saying frequently introducing antithetical ideas which
excite surprise and arrest attention.
Examples:
* The child is the father of the man.
* Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
* In the midst of life, we are in death.
* Art lies in concealing art.
* He makes no friend who never made a foe.
* A man can not be too careful in the choice of his enemies.
* The proper study of mankind is man.
Noun that distinguishes between male and female s called
There are three genders properly so called:
distinction of male
Gender.
Gender.
Masculine Gender
Example:
boy,drake,drone,brother
Feminine Gender
A noun that denotes a
Example:
girl,duck,bee,sister
Neuter Gender
A noun that denotes a
The Sun,Summer,Winter,Time,Death
The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable
beauty,gentleness, and gracefulness.
Example:
The Moon,the earth,Spring,Autumn,Nature,Liberty
People
Masculine Faminine
actor
author
bachelor
boy
Boy Scout
brave
bridegroom
brother
conductor
count
czar
dad
daddy
for
duke
emperor
father
father-in-law
fiance
gentleman
giant
god
governor
grandfather
headmaster
heir
hero
host
hunter
husband
king
lad
landlord
lord
man
manager
manservant
master
mayor
milkman
millionaire
monitor
monk
Mr.
murderer
Negro
nephew
papa
poet
postman
postmaster
priest
prince
prophet
proprietor
protector
shepherd
sir
son
son-in-law
step-father
step-son
steward
sultan
tailor
uncle
waiter
washerman
widower
wizard
actress
authoress
spinster
girl
Girl Guide
Squaw
bride
sister
comductress
countess
czarina
mum
mummy
duchess
empress
mother
mother-in-law
fiancee
lady
giantess
goddess
matron
grandmother
headmistress
heiress
heroine
hostess
huntress
wife
queen
lass
landlady
lady
woman
manageress
maidservant
mistress
mayoress
milkmaid
millionairess
monitress
nun
Mrs.
murderess
Negress
niece
mama
poetess
postwoman
postmistress
prietess
princess
prophetess
proprietress
protectress
shepherdess
madam
daughter
daughter-in-law
step-mother
step-daughter
stewardess
sultana
tailoress
aunt
waitress
washerwoman
widow
witch
Creatures
Masculine
Faminine
billy-goat
boar
buck (deer, hare)
buck-rabbit
bull
bull-elephant
bull-seal
bullock
bull-whale
cob (swan)
cock
cockerel
cock-pigeon
colt (young horse)
dog
drake
drone
fox
gander
hawk
he-bear
he-goat
he-wolf
jack-ass
leopard
lion
peacock
ram (sheep)
stag
stallion
tiger
tom-cat
turkey-cock
nanny-goat
sow
doe
doe-rabbit
cow
cow-elephant
cow-seal
heifer
cow-whale
pen
hen
pullet
hen-pigeon
filly
bitch
duck
bee
vixen
goose
bowess
she-bear
she-goat
she-wolf
jenny-ass, she-ass
leopardess
lioness
peahen
ewe
hind
mare
tigress
tabby-cat
turkey-hen
girl
Brother -- sister
Buck -- doe
Bull
Bullock -- heifer
Cock -- hen
Colt -- filly
Dog -- bitch
Drake -- duck
Drone -- bee
Earl -- countess
Father -- mother
Gander -- goose
Gentleman -- lady
Hart -- roe
Horse -- mare
Husband -- wife
King -- queen
Lord -- lady
Man -- woman
Monk (or friar) -- nun
Nephew -- niece
Papa -- mamma
Ram -- ewe
Sir -- madam
Son -- daughter
Stag -- hind
Uncle -- aunt
Wizard -- witch
By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc) as,
Masculine -- Feminine
Author -- authoress
Baron -- baroness
Count -- countess
Giant -- giantess
Heir -- heiress
Host -- hostess
Jew -- Jewess
Lion -- lioness
Manager -- manageress
Mayor -- mayoress
Patron -- patroness
Peer -- peeress
Poet -- poetess
Priest -- priestess
Prophet -- prophetess
Shepherd --
shepherdess
Steward -- stewardess
Viscount -- viscountess
[Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine
ending]
Masculine -- Feminine
Actor -- actress
Benefactor --
benefactress
Conductor -- conductress
Enchanter --
enchantress
Founder -- foundress
Hunter -- huntress
Instructor -- instructress
Negro -- negress
Abbot --
abbess
Duke -- duchess
Emperor -- empress
Preceptor -- preceptress
Prince -- princess
Songster -- songstress
Tempter -- temptress
Seamster -- seamstress
Tiger -- tigress
Traitor -- traitress
Waiter --
waitress
Master -- mistress
Murderer -- murderess
Sorcerer -- sorceress
Note:- The suffix -ess is the
the Masculine, and
is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
Masculine -- Feminine
Hero -- heroine
Testator -- testatrix
Czar -- czarina
Sultan -- sultana
Signor -- signora
Fox -- vixen
By placing a word before or after; as,
Masculine -- Feminine
Grandfather -- grandmother
Greatuncle -- greataunt
Manservant -- maidservant
Landlord --
landlady
milkman -- milkwoman
peacock -- peahen
salesman -- saleswoman
The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive.
Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in
meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause.
Example:
I prefer to live in an apartment.
I prefer living in an apartment.
intend*
like
love
neglect
omit
permit
prefer*
recommend*
start
Notes:
1. Allow is used in these two patterns:
a. Allow + object + to-infinitive:
Her parents allowed her to go to the party.
b. Allow + gerund:
Her parents don't allow smoking in the house.
2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or
where there is a passive meaning:
Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.
These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed).
3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is
general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must
always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.
Compare:
I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.
I hate looking after elderly relatives!
I love dancing .
I would love to dance with you.
Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning :
+ present participle ,
at the sea
people is wrong.
after prepositions:
Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
She is good at painting
after certain verbs,
e.g. like
in compound nouns,
e.g. a driving
, train- spotting.
This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and for this reason it is now common
to call both forms 'the -ing form' . However it is useful to understand the difference between
the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so
it can be used:
as the subject of the sentence:
Eating people is wrong.
Hunting tigers is dangerous.
Flying makes me nervous.
as the complement of the verb 'to be' :
One of his duties is attending meetings.
The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.
One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.
after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition:
Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
She is good at painting .
They're keen on windsurfing .
She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.
We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.
This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there's no
point in..:
There's no point in waiting .
In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.
after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb
Example:
to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on:
I look forward to hearing from you soon. ( at the end of a letter)
When are you going to give up smoking ?
She always puts off goi ng to the dentist.
He kept on asking for money.
NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word 'to' as a
preposition, not as part of a to-infinitive : - to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to,
to be used to. It is important to recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases, as it must be
followed by a gerund:
We are looking forward to seeing you.
I am used to waiting for buses.
She didn't really take to studying English.
It is possible to check whether 'to? is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive : if you can
put a noun or the pronoun 'it' after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a
gerund:
This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go' , as in these common
expressions :
Examples
to go shopping
to go ski-ing
to go fishing
to go surfing
to go walking
to go swimming
to go running
to go dancing
after verbs of perception in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle
Example
I heard someone singing .
He saw his friend walking along the road.
I can smell something burning !
NOTE : There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive
rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, but the participle refers to
an incomplete action, or part of an action.
Compare:
I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on
afterwards)
I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance )
as an adjective
Examples
amazing, worrying, exciting, boring.
When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we
can express the first action with a present participle:
He put on his coat and left the house. Putting on his coat, he left the house.
She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in
the air.
The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because , and it
explains the cause or reason for an action:
Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.
(= because he felt hungry...)
Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.
Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.
The gerund is used after certain verbs.
Example: miss : I miss living in England.
The most important of these verbs are shown below.
Those
Example
Verb
Gerund
She admitted...
breaking the window
That-Clause
She admitted...
that she had broken the window.
Note:
gerund
Be Careful .
Glastonbury
may be omitted):
Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think' , in the expression 'I dread to
think':
I dread to think what she'll do next.
Prevent
is followed
Either by a possessive
adjective + gerund:
news.
There is no one 'future tense' in English. There are 4 future forms. The one which is used
most often in spoken English is 'going to', not 'will'.
We use 'going to' when we want to talk about a plan for the future.
I'm going to see him later today.
They're going to launch it next month.
We're going to have lunch first.
When we give advice about specific situations, it is also possible to use "should".
You shouldn't say anything.
I should get back to work.
We should meet early.
However, when we use "had better" there is a suggestion that if the advice is not
followed, that something bad will happen.
You'd better do what I say or else you will get into trouble.
I'd better get back to work or my boss will be angry with me.
We'd better get to the airport by five or else we may miss the flight.
Homonyms generally include two categories of word types: homophones and
homographs.
Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings.
Homophones are words that sound the same when you pronounce them, but have
different meanings.
This list contains both homophones and homographs.
ade - drink type, as in lemonade
aid - to help or assist
aide - assistant
affect - change
effect - result or consequence
air - atmosphere (the stuff we breathe)
err - to make a mistake
aisle - walkway
I'll - I will
isle - island
allowed - permitted
aloud - out loud
ant - picnic pest
aunt - relative, as in your mom's sister
arc - curve
ark - Noah's boat
ate - chewed up and swallowed
eight - number after seven
bare - uncovered
bear - grizzly animal
berry - fruit from a bush
bury - to put underground
base - bottom part
bass - deep or low
be - to exist
bee - buzzing insect
beach - sandy shore
beech - type of tree
beat - to pound
beet - type of edible plant
berth - tie up
birth - to be born
bite - nibble
byte - 8 bits (computer data)
blew - past of blow
blue - color of ocean
boar - pig
bore - not interesting bore - to drill
borough - area or district
burrow - dig through
burro - small donkey
bough - branch
bow - bend or curtsy
buoy - floater
boy - young man
brake - stop pedal
break - smash
bread - bakery food
bred - form of breed
broach - mention
brooch - pin
brows - eyebrows
browse - look around
buy - purchase
by - beside
by - originating from,BR. bye - short for goodbye
cell - compartment
sell - vend
cent - penny coin
sent - did send
cereal - breakfast food
serial - sequential
Chile - country in South America
chili - bean stew
chilly - frosty
chord - musical tone
cord - rope
cite - quote
site - location
sight - view
close - opposite of open
clothes - clothing
complement - enhance; go together
compliment - praise
council - committee
counsel - guidance
creak - squeak
creek - stream of water
crews - gangs
night - evening
knot - tied rope
not - negative
know - have knowledge
no - opposite of yes
lead - metal
led - was the leader
lessen - make smaller
lesson - class
loan - lend
lone - solitary
made - did make
maid - servant
mail - postage
male - opposite of female
marry - to wed
merry - very happy
meat - animal protein
meet - encounter
none - not any
nun - woman who takes special vows
oar - boat paddle
or - otherwise
ore - mineral
oh - expression of surprise or awe
owe - be obligated
one - single
won - did win
overdo - do too much
overdue - past due date
pail - bucket
pale - not bright
pain - hurt
pane - window glass
peace - calm
piece - segment
peak - highest point
peek - glance
plain - ordinary
plane - flight machine plane - flat surface
pole - post
poll - survey
poor - not rich
pour - make flow
pray - implore God
prey - quarry
wail - howl
whale - huge swimming mammal
waist - area below ribs
waste - squander
wait - kill time
weight - measurable load
war - battle
wore - did wear
warn - caution
worn - used
way - path
weigh - measure mass
we - us
wee - tiny
weak - not strong
week - period of seven days
weather - climate
whether - if
which - that
witch - sorcerer
your - belonging to you
you're - you are
Et tu, Brutus?
Meaning: Apparently the last words of
Julius Caesar.
things.
symptoms.
* Blessing in disguise
Something good
* A dime a dozen
Something that is available in plenty and commonly.
Eg.Such bags are available dime a dozen on Fashion Street.
* A leopard can't change his spots
You
can't change his spots, but he sure can change his strategy.
* Cry wolf
To intentionally give a false
alarm.
Eg."Stop crying wolf, or else no one will come to your help in case of need."
* Devil's advocate
Someone who takes a
well
sentences. For e.g. 'Ram left to buy supplies' is an independent clause, and if you end it with
a full stop, it becomes a sentence.
Dependent clauses, on the other hand, do not express
cannot function as sentences. For e.g. 'When Ram left to buy supplies' cannot be a sentence
because it is an
Here,
words which,
as if, because, before, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever,
whether, and while.
a complete
An infinitive is a verb combined with the word to. Most often, an infinitive acts as a noun
in the sentence. Less frequently, it acts as an adjective or an adverb.
I want to go home early today.
I hope to be chosen as a member.
I prefer to go there earlier.
You need to consider various rules in writing sentences.
You have to explain your reasoning in detail.
You might wish to act as a teacher.
To leave for a vacation is my only wish at this time.
A common mistake in a relationship is not to trust the other person.
Help me to save the trees!
To be mentally healthy, you must read books.
Do you want me to fill out this form?
Here is our to-do list.
It was nice to meet you.
It is time to move on.
I am young enough to change my habits.
Don't forget not to make grammar mistakes.
You are required to leave all your belongings here.
I came to see a doctor today.
You have to work harder to succeed.
I need to take three more classes to finish my graduate study.
I got closer to the speaker to listen clearly.
Be sure to check if you have tickets.
I am going to buy the new computer.
Generally, it is not common to split to and the verb except for when you want to
emphasize the verb.
I want you to immediately stop doing that.
You have to seriously work hard to succeed.
infinitive" It
It is time to do math.
It is common to think that way.
It is appropriate to keep a low profile.
It was nice to see you.
It was my pleasure to meet you.
It was my honor to have dinner with you.
It is good to see you.
It was great to go on a trip with them.
Both gerunds and infinitive phrases can function as
Gerunds and infinitives can follow certain verbs but not others. You need to
which verbs can be followed by only a gerund or only an
remember
infinitive.
s:
hate
the movie.)
sentence,
interjection is sometimes
thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when
you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
interjection
meaning
example
ah expressing pleasure
expressing realization
expressing surprise
alas
dear
expressing pity
expressing resignation
"Ah! I've won!"
expressing surprise
"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." expressing enquiry
"Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement
expressing hesitation
hello, hullo
expressing greeting
expressing surprise
calling attention
hi expressing greeting
hmm
oh, o
expressing surprise
expressing pain
expressing pleading
ouch
expressing pain
uh
expressing hesitation
expressing hesitation
expressing surprise
"Well I never!"
well
We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a logical
deduction based upon some clear evidence or reason.
There's no heating on. You must be freezing.
You must be worried that she is so late coming home.
I can't remember what I did with it. I must be getting old.
It must be nice to live in Florida.
We also use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually means
that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the speaker almost
certainly agrees with the obligation.)
I must go to bed earlier.
They must do something about it.
You must come and see us some time.
I must say, I don't think you were very nice to him.
We can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this
usually means that some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary.
I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict.
We have to give him our answer today or lose out on the contract.
You have to pass your exams or the university will not accept you.
I have to send a report to Head Office every week.
In British English, we often use 'have got to' to mean the same as 'have to'.
I've got to take this book back to the library or I'll get a fine.
We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room.
We can also use ' will have to' to talk about strong obligations. Like 'must' this usually
means that that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary. (Remember that
'will' is often used to show 'willingness'.)
I'll have to speak to him.
We'll have to have lunch and catch up on all the gossip.
They'll have to do something about it.
I'll have to get back to you on that.
As you can see, the differences between the present forms are sometimes very small and
very subtle. However, there is a huge difference in the negative forms.
We use 'mustn't' to express strong obligations NOT to do something.
We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential.
I mustn't eat chocolate. It's bad for me.
You mustn't phone me at work. We aren't allowed personal calls.
They mustn't see us talking or they'll suspect something.
We use 'don't have to' (or 'haven't got to' in British English) to state that there is NO
obligation or necessity.
We don't have to get there on time. The boss is away today.
I don't have to listen to this. I'm leaving.
You don't have to come if you don't want to.
He doesn't have to sign anything if he doesn't want to at this stage.
It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things"
"actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something
(noun) is something you
being (noun)
school, book
Types
Countable Nouns, Uncountable Nouns
dog/dogs, rice,
hair(s)
"february" or
"February"?
Shirley, Mr Jeckyll,
Possessive 's
Adding 's or ' to show possession.
John's car, my
parents' house
Noun as Adjective
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the
first noun is
In English grammar, words that refer to people, places, or things are called nouns. They
can be classified in many
ways.
understand:
what countable and uncountable nouns are
how to use them correctly in a sentence
Countable (or count) nouns are words which
form and a plural form. They usually refer to things. Most countable nouns become plural by
adding an s at the end of the word.
Example
Singular
Plural
chair
chairs
bottle
bottles
student
students
(such as confidence or
Example
Singular
money
furniture
information
Nouns name people, places, and things. Every noun can further be
common or proper. A proper noun has two distinctive
specific [usually a one-of-a-kind] item,
matter where it occurs in a sentence.
classified as
Proper Noun
writer
Herman Melville
teacher
Mrs. Hacket
beagle
Snoopy
cookie
Oreo
cityOrlando
Orlando
common and
proper nouns.
Tina offered Antonio one of her mother's homemade oatmeal cookies
Taco Palace,
where no one dips into the hot sauce until the drinks have arrived at the table.
Restaurant = common noun; Tito's Taco Palace = proper noun.
room ). The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is
( police, boy, water, dining, bed ):
man
boy
friend
water
tank
dining
table
bedroom
The two parts may be written in a number of ways :
1. as one word.
Example: policeman
, boyfriend
tank .
Examples:
bedroom
water tank
motorcycle
printer cartridge
noun + verb
rainfall
haircut
train-spotting
noun + adverb
hanger-on
passer-by
verb + noun
washing machine
driving licence
swimming pool
verb + adverb*
lookout
take-off
drawback
adjective + noun greenhouse
software
redhead
adjective + verb
dry-cleaning
public speaking
adverb + noun
onlooker
bystander
adverb + verb*
output
overthrow
upturn
input
Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the
two separate
words.
Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun (e.g.
greenhouse
house ).
(compound noun)
Noun-Cases is another topic which comes under NOUN. The CASE of a noun tells us
about the position of that noun in a sentence. In English there are FIVE CASES .
They are:
* Nominative case
* Objective case (or Accusative case)
* Dative case
* Possessive case (or Genitive case)
* Vocative case
All these five Cases have been explained in detail below.
Are you going as you wish in the process of learning Grammar ?
Take a breath.
This section of Noun-Cases will simplify your process.
1. Nominative case:
A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the
person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence)
Examples:
* Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy.
Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case.
* The painter paints the portraits.
The painter is a common noun in Nominative case.
* I am buying vegetables for my family.
2. We_______us_____our
3. You______ You_____your
4. He______ him_____his
5. She_____her______her
6. It______it_______its
Phrase:- A group of words, which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase.
It is a group of related words without a Subject and a Verb.A Phrase consists of two or more
words lacking a complete sense and a complete verb. It may consist of one or more
incomplete verbs - the Infinitives or the Participles standing on their own.
Words/group of words in italics are phrases in examples below:
1).The sun rises in the east.
2). Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
3). She wore a hat with blue trimming.
4). The accident on the bridge was not serious.
5). The girl with red hair is an artist.
6). Sasha took a long leave.
7). Holding the toy, the child slept.Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is either a single noun or pronoun or a group of words containing a noun or
a pronoun that function together as a noun or pronoun, as the subject or object of a verb.
Examples:
Allthe kids were sleeping.
Theboy in the blue jeans says he'll do it.
He bought her a beautiful red dress.
Mom baked tastychocolate cookies.
Julia was thinking about her friends back home.
Verb Phrase
In simple words, a verb of more than one word is called a verb phrase. It is a phrase
consisting of a verb, its auxiliaries (helping verbs), its complements, and other modifiers.
Auxiliary verbs always come before the main verb.A verb phrase is a syntactic unit that
corresponds to the predicate. There are two types of auxiliary verbs. Inflected auxiliary verbs
e.g. be, have, do and Modal auxiliary verbs e.g. will, should, must etc.
Examples:
She kept working like a machine.
Absolute Phrase
An absolute phrase modifies an entire sentence instead of a single word in the
sentence.An absolute phrase combines a noun and a participle with any accompanying
modifiers or objects.
Examples:
Legs quivering
Her arms folded across her chest
Our fingers scraping the leftover frosting off the plates
Pluralisation in English can be a bit of a tricky game, and as with any language the key to
mastering this aspect lies in practicing through reading and conversing until the variations
that appear unpredictable in the beginning become second nature, a matter of habit. Having
said that, there are certain principles that are generally applicable that make the task easier by
giving us a broad idea of how common words are pluralised. Let us take a look at these.
For most nouns, add an 's' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Car
Cars
Desk
Desks
Tree
Trees
Ball
Balls
Hand
Hands
For nouns that end with 's', 'x', 'z', 'ch', or 'sh', add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Boss
Bosses
Box
Boxes
Topaz
Topazes
Leech
Leeches
Dish
Dishes
For some words that end with 'o', add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Potato
Potatoes
Echo
Echoes
Hero
Heroes
For some words that end with 'o', add 's' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Photo
Photos
Piano
Pianos
Logo
Logos
Radio
Radios
For some words ending with 'f', replace the 'f' with a 'v' and add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Thief
Thieves
Loaf
Loaves
Half
Halves
Calf
Calves
Leaf
Leaves
For some words ending with 'f', add an 's' at the end of the word.
Examples
Sigular
Plural
Reefs
Reefs
Roof
Roofs
Chef
Chefs
For some words ending with 'ife', replace the 'f' with a 'v' and add an 's' at the end of the
word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Wife
Wives
Knife
Knives
Life
Lives
For common nouns ending with a consonant followed by 'y', replace the 'y' with an 'i' and
add 'es' at the end of the word.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Nappy
Nappies
Poppy
Poppies
Fly
Flies
Penny
Pennies
Sty
Sties
Some nouns are the same in both forms.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Fish
Fish
Sheep
Sheep
Deer
Deer
Tuna
Tuna
Trout
Trout
For some nouns, other letters must be replaced or added, sometimes changing the words
completely.
Examples
Singular
Plural
Person
People
Ox
Oxen
Child
Children
Goose
Geese
Man
Men
Foot
Feet
A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and
expressing a relation to another word or element,as in:
3. above
4. across
5. after
7. along
8. amid
11. around
12. as
13. at
15. behind
16. below
6. against
14. before
17. beneath
18. beside
19. besides
20. between
26. despite
27. down
28. during
34. from
37. into
38. like
39. minus
41. of
45. opposite
46. outside
40. near
47. over
48. past
49. per
50. plus
53. save
54. since
55. than
56. through
57. to
58. toward
59. towards
60. under
61. underneath
65. upon
62. unlike
66. versus
63. until
...
64. up
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no
exceptions.
Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
noun (dog, money, love)
proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
pronoun (you, him, us)
noun group (my first job)
gerund (swimming)
A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb,
we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.In the following
sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be impossible, according to the above
rule:
I would like to go now.
She used to smoke. Here are some examples:
Examples
Subject + verb
preposition
The food is
on
She lives in
Japan.
Tara is looking
for
The letter is
Pascal is used
to
English people.
to
working.
I ate
"noun"
the table.
you.
before coming.
Answer to Quick Quiz: In these sentences, "to" is not a preposition. It is part of the
infinitive
("to go", "to smoke").
Prepositions of Place:
at, in, on
In general, we use:
at for a POINT
on (Surface)
at the corner
in London
on the ceiling
on the door
in a box
at the entrance
in my wallet
on the cover
on the carpet
in a caron a page
on
at home
in a caron a bus
at work
in a taxi
on a train
in a boat
on a ship
on a bicycle, on a motorbike
on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom
in the sky
in Oxford Street
on the way
on (Days and
Dates)
at 3 o'clock
in May on Sunday
at 10.30amin summer
at noon
on Tuesdays
at dinnertime
in 1990
on Christmas Day
on 25 Dec. 2010
on Independence Day
at the moment
in the past/future
ExpressionExample
at night
at the weekend
at Christmas/Easter
on Tuesday morning
in the mornings
on Saturday mornings
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a
noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have
pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:
Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.
Personal Pronouns
I, you, he, me, your, his...
This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for convenience and
comparison.
Examples
number
person gender*
pronouns
possessive
subject
object possessive
reflexive
singular
1st
m/f
me
2nd
m/f
you
you
yours yourself
3rd me
he
him
his
himself
she
her
hers
herself her
it
it
its
itself
its
plural
1st
m/f
we
us
2nd
m/f
you
you
yours yourselves
adjectives
mine
myself my
your
his
ours
ourselves
our
your
their
Examples
pronoun
object
Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their function in the
sentence.
Their function can be:
subjective (they act as the subject)
objective (they act as the object)
possessive (they show possession of something else)
The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case.
Examples
Subjective case
1st
me
its
2nd
you
you
3rd he
she
it
him
her
it
his
her, hers
plural
1st
we
us
our, ours
2nd
you
you
your, yours
3rd they
your, yours
relative/interrogative pronouns
whoever
my, mine
who
whom whose
whomever
which/that/what
which/that/what
indefinite pronouns
everybody
everybody
everybody's