COMPARATIVE

GRAMMAR

THE

OF

DRAVIDIAN

SOUTH-INDIAN

FAULT

OF

LANGUAGES.

BY

Rev.

The
H18BI0NAHY

OF

THE

BOOI"TY

FOR

BDEYENKOODY,

R.
TBE

OF

PROPAGATION

TIBHBVELLY,

QOSPSL

IN

FOREIOH

IHDIA.

PALL

59,
185

THB

SOtJlHEBS

LONDON

HARRISON,

B.A.,

CALDWELL,

6.

MALL,

PARTS,

AT

SONS,
HARBISON
PRINTED

AND

BY

martin's

lane.

ST.

PREFACE.

It

is

might

be

many
thrown

sister

idioms;

found,
but

that

and

also, that

the

thoroughly
the

that

convinced

the

of

Tamil

Telugu,

the

Canarese,

understood

make

to

still

the

by

than

light

South-Indian

and

by

other
I

comparison,

verified

more

light

language,

this

was

the

result,
receives,

it

languages
without

appreciated

or

much

the

supposition

imparts

that

of

proceeding
my

none

felt

grammar

of

on

Tamil

be

can

of

study

some

others.

Probably
have

been

leisure,
wake

and

they
and

up

moral

to

clamour

of

comparative
lain

of

the

Tamil
and

level

But

the

labours,

almost

of

or

the

Mr.

C.

has

find

that

P.

for

of

those

or

of

of its many

in

'

of

doing it, this

peculiarly

whether

educational

world

begun

material

Anglo-Indians,
or

the

literary

no

centuries, has

have

they

work

to

department
has

promising,

uncultivated.
towards

done

languages

Brown's

of

languages
mission

little

government,

strength

Telugu.

of

supply

majority

the

as

of

sleep

the

of

been

ordinary

the

study

the

work

entirely

South-Indip,n
and

South-Indian
but

philology, though

it is true,
the

the

the

time

the

admits

for
the

as

in

little

and

some

after

and

do,

Much,

which

East,

Missionary

hitherto

one

old

and

of

conclusion;

the

wants,

but

students

same

is

engaged

are

Tamil,

the

to

India

as

"

other

many

led
in

English

to

that

and

only

not

the

on

it with

comparing

since

years

Grammar

of

the

viewed

as

the

of
rise

Grammar,

Telugu

languages,

elucidation

of

separately, especially

taken

Beschi's

Grammars

the

Indian
a

whole

far

Shenabove

vernaculars:
the
"

interr

PREFACE.

IV

when

only

scientific and
The

progressive.

first to

Madras

vocables

The

the

Dr.

languages of

Asiatic

of
identity

have

in

Southern

establish that

point; but

ristic features

of DrS, vidian

of too

not

was

character

attention

when

desirous

than

made

before of

satisfaction of

II

learned papers
have
as

long

been

misnomer.

their

the

of

everything

subject.
Stevenson's

or

department of

acquaintance, I
be

for
the

though

my

study; and
felt

I had

discoverer

less

no

lost the
of

new

be certain that the greater part of

to
*

Mr.

Brian

Tamulian

Those

valuable
are

Hodgson's numerous

and

languages of India,though I
them, because I regard them

'

acquaintedwith

which
dialects,

permanent

only uncolonized,but unexplored.

referred
on

though his

of much

of Ellis's

going forward,

appearedto

the field stilllay not

not

to

supposingmyself to

field,yet it now
have

this

'

unity

when
comparativephilology,

directed

was

length

at

existence

and

advance

this

publishedon

Dr"vidian

to

the essential

on

to be

decidedlyin

of the

aware

contributions
own

in the

the characte-

on

correct;
perfectly

were

value,they were
philological
been

and

Grammar,

sketchya

hitherto

of his remarks

many

dialects

of the Dr"vidian

had

the
establishing

is contained

which

element

venson
Dr. Ste-

and vocabularyof
vernaculars,with the grammar
idioms.
He
failed,as it appeared to me, to

North-Indian

which

of

that

view, was

the Journal

objectwhich

main

Society. The

the Un-Sanscrit

were

interesting
papers

some

Dekhan, which appearedin

the

by

direction,was

in this

made

was

Stevenson, of Bombay, in

appeared to

papers

of the

some

duction
in his Intro-

dialects,is contained

attempt that

of the Bombay

the

com-

Campbell'sTelugu Grammar,

next

the Rev.

brief

very

grammaticalforins,but only of

of the

guage
lan-

Tamil

in the

but
interesting

whose

Ellis, a

Mr.

was

profoundlyversed

was

of three Providian
to

field

the

in

ground

and
literature,

not
parisou,

on

break

Civilian,who
and

is

it becomes

that
comparative,

philologybecomes

it

infancy; and

its

grammars-^isstillin

of their

comparison

papers

styled

'

treat

Tamulian

'

of the Sub-Himalayan

by

Mr.

Hodgson,

PREFACE.

which

but

might

or
properly,
improperly,have been styled
and though they throw much
by any other foreignname;
light
the languages,
the physiology,
and the inter-relationship
of
on
the aborigines
of the north-eastern
frontier of India, they leave

the Dravidian

as

Tamilian

or

languages,
properlyso called,wholly

untouched.

From

the

of my

commencement

also in another

Tamil

studies

that of the ulterior

question
"

rested
I felt inte-

relationship

of the Dravidian

aware
familyof languages;and before I was
opinionwhich ProfessprRask, of Copenhagen,was the
been adopted,
I arrived
express, and which has generally

of the
first to

by

somewhat

that

the

similar

DrS,vidian

Indo-European,but

and

that

allied
closely
General

is the Finnish

Prichard

Prichard's

and
impressions,
I

forms

'

prepare
with
our

not

was

till I had
it

the

were

knowledge

Bunsen's
That

'

the

been

definitively

careful inter- comparison

grammatical
Dravidian

of working
necessity

out

work, and commenced

'

the

to

acquainted

present state of

which
languages,'

of the Philosophyof

treatise is the most

been

ancient

most

treatise, On

Miiller's

Outlines

have

could be

the press, that I became

of the Turanian

of
investigation
and

never

finished this

through

Max

Professor

the Providian

have

essential characteristics of the

most

to carry

to be most

they appear

Researches,' and

that it

I found myself under

languages,
the entire subjectfor myself.
It

tongues,

on

convinced

was

the

and

which

with

grammatical illustrations,
occupy

few

works

dialects,what

of

of

Scythian group

ascertaining,
by
previously

solved without

not
affiliated,

ComparativePhilology;but as
did not feel satisfied with generalstatements,
the problem
and wished
to see
probabilites,

himself

as

be

to

of
Scythian relationship

valuable

recent

more

solved,and

the

conclusion,viz.,

same

Ugrian.

or

of the

with
languages,

place in
repeatedin

with

Scythianfamilyto

statements

the

languages are

the

the

at

process,

Universal

is included in

History.'

lucid,and scholarly
comprehensive,

generalquestionwhich I have yet read;

of the
to find not only that many
gratified

the

VI

PREFACE.

conclusions at which
that

many

with

my

of his

arrived,but

of that treatise has

the author

identical

illustrations also, are

proofsand

own.

generalagreement with respect to the

with respect to
grammatical system, and especially

Notwithstandingour
Dr^vidian
its

I have
Ugrian affinities,
the Professor's.

by
His

is

admirable

an

professto
in

cultivate

found

the

His

work

is

thoroughly any

pulverisingand analysingthe soil,and

to

but

though his

that

conclusions

dealingwith

in

for which,
principle
that

'

it is

features

most

of the

he

as

and

and

syntactic
arrangement

mistaken, there is much

uses,

and

understood

details;
evident

illustration

observes, Boehtlingkstands

languages

on

Whilst

knowledge.'
whilst

of too

are

in the

their

of which

the

do not

we

the

viz.,

principal
tongues

grammatical principles

peculiara

phonicsystem
and

of the

up,

Drsividian

nature

of these

to

be

languages,

their declensional

in
especially

the

which
particles,

specialstudy.
philologyhas recentlyattracted

Eastern

valuable papers

That

writer's

happy;

the sub-soil

is too

of their formative

most

very

ground,

always correct, it

writer.Dr. Logan, whose

ethnology of

are

fallow

nature,
be

cannot

without

Dr^vidian
another

the

in
interchangesand displacements,

changes

field,or
himself

into

an

not

occupy

enters

forms,
conjugational

and

does

not

turning up

of
Scythianrelationship

in their dialectic

the

furnishes

write

accurate

strongly marked,

are

are

details he

dangerous to

the

possess

portionof

is true, he

light. Occasionally,it

the

he

does

He

specific.

field;but

stones, breaking up

the

clearingaway

one

stalled
fore-

followingwork

generic,mine

of the entire

it for cultivation.

to prepare

even

survey

not

elaborate

Asia, and of the

in the Journal

ethnologicallearningand

great, and
but he is too

some

of his

fond of

the

Archipelago.

acuteness
philological

conjecturesare

and
speculation,

languages,are

of

to the

form
islands,

Indian

and speculations
respectingthe
generalisations
of the Dr^vidian

attention

contributions

eastern

of the

the

not

remarkably
a

forms

far a-head

few
and

of his

nology
pho-

of his facts.

Notwithstanding, therefore,the intrinsic general value

of

vii

PEKFACE.

the researches
work

of Drs.

Stevenson, Max

Miiller,and

Logan,

like the

still appears to be required. The Dr^following

to he compared and their relationship
languagesstillrequire

vidian

to other

languagesinvestigated
by some
them
his special
study for an adequate space
Though I trust that the followingwork
this

desideratum, yet

towards

the

laboured

to be

the

without

endeavours

of
that

this is the

subjectwhich

has

subjecterrors

are

view.

I have

of this kind

labour

; but

conscious

am

only systematic treatise

unavoidable

first work

and

on

at all events

for those

hereafter

the
disposedto investigate

deeply.
During the period of

be

new

be

that, whatever

work, it has

may

of

this

on

the defects of this

who

withstanding
not-

trust,however, it will be

yet appeared ; that in

almost

contribution

work

immense

help to supply

be

be accurate, I

to

defects.

many

will

objectin
and in

"

be attained

existence

remembered

throughout

accurate

my

of the

has made

of time.

only professesto

accomplishment

cannot

accuracy

it

who

one

smoothed

the way
ject
sub-

more

which

engaged

was

nature

to allow

It

necessary

was

few

in

notes

which

I had

shape;
this work

trust

and

result is
to

work

in

book-making.

working
this

in

important

jottingdown

to

out

sionally
occa-

sions
conclu-

country for

now

supply a
be

found

knowledge

them

moulding

in
published,
want

which

must, I conceived,have
it will

the

opportunityof putting together the

collected,and
the

time

with

return

scientific studyof each

afccurate

more

the

of my

content

my

India
of too

and
illustrations,

Since

help

which

enlarged and
to

and

will

myself,and
others.

and

taken

much

to be

me

mind.

I have

season,

for

in

Missionarywas

spend

to

me

notes

my

as

residence

my

to

into
the

of the Dravidian

of their structure

long

felt

contribute

and

matic
syste-

hope that

I had

been

to

by
a

felt

many
more

languages,
vital

spirit,,

phical
higherestimate of their phonic beauty,their philosoand their unequalled
regularity.
organization,
ment
During the period which has elapsedsince the commenceof this work, a periodof a year and ten months, it has
to

VIU

PKEFACE.

been

lot

my

various
and
It

the

the

to

for

the

view

duties

of

of

the

shall

have

of

afi'orded

in

hundred

and

degree,

to

publication

for

Bombay

and

the

79,

Pall

manner,

any

be

of
a

of

this

work

Directors

hundred

of

the

copies,
in

Governments,

the

by

East
and

Mall,

moted
pro-

the

Propagation

London,

June

2nd,

of

the

1856.

which
ness
kindIndia
of

subscribing

twelve.

Society for

use

expression,

facilities

the

R.

Office of

those

by

small,

however

acknowledge

Court

subscribing

Ceylon,

Madras,

the

Honourable

the

Company,

for

any

had

make

of
in

should

people

facilitating

who

vehicles

as

of

have

languages

Civilians

or

which

"

Providian

scope

reward.

thankfully

leave

been

in

my

"

beg

thought

Dravidian

or

the

much

if in

accomplished

tion
addi-

in

adjuncts

usual

object

ulterior

Company's

of

indirectly,
I

of

left

not

the

ration
prepa-

nature,

have

form

be

India

instruments

as

however

have

if the

study

East

laborious

so

which

rest

measure

any

and

of

deputation,'

'

and

in

welfare

work

;' nevertheless,

Missionaries

the

of

and

composition

the

that

Missions.

Indian

and

India

on

hundred

three

about

in

parishes

diflfereut

fifty

deliver

to

addresses

comprehensive

them

and

concluded

press

should

more

of

be

relaxation

furlough

and

therefore

and

hundred

two

England,

fifty lectures
may

in

of

parts

for

'

visit

to

Caldwell.

Gospel,

the

for

DEAVIDIAN

COMPAEATIVE

GEAMMAE.

INTRODUCTION.

It
the

is

grammatical
in

guages,

their

this

the

family

which

dialect

will

studied

in

Orissa
the

peninsular

of

prosecution

the

oldest,
in

"

his

light

for

the

and

degree,
with
the

upon

seventeen

years

labours,

highly

most

respects

many

less

or

missionary

and

richest,

into

groups

acquaintance

has

he

which

language

throw

to

this

and

organized,
guage
lan-

representative

family.

the

majority

the

which

or

greater

off

divided.

writer's

aim

constant

relation

Dravidian

in
the

to

language

languages,

which

Dravidian,'

'

and

been

each

illustrated

and
a

"

used

and

have

of

the

pursuing

families

principal

lan-i

knowledge

In

ascertain

compare

Dravidian

thorough

more

Asia

and

various

character.

structure

special

the

to

and

importance

Tamil

the

idioms

The

river

his

Dravidian
of

which

its

undoubtedly

is

the

term

be

and

which

of

investigated

to

examine

to

of

the

to

Europe

be

to

forms

endeavour

bears

of

work

distinctive

writer's

grammatical

of

structure

the

the

will

and

and

languages

proportion

it, it

of

be

languages

Whilst

following

contributing

structure

of

the

the

of

hope

it will

of

principles

primitive

object,

in

object

the

of

the

and

Gujarathi
portion

Nerbudda

of

inhabitants

of

and

Marathi

(Narmada)

from
to

the

Cape

under

speech

India

Western

of

India,

work

India.

Southern

districts

the

this

vernacular

the

constitute

those

in

included

are

are

Comorin,

of

With
and

the
the

the

spoken,

Vindhya

the

the

great

exception
in

Dekhan
whole

mountains

is

general

peopled,

of

and
and

the
the

from

INTRODUCTION.

the earliest

periodappears

of

the

and

one

'

mountain

the

scattered off-shoots from

still farther north

different branches

speaking different dialects of one and the

Dravidian' is here
language to which the term

"

applied;and

by
peopled,

been

race,

same

lanj^uagethe

same

to have

far

as

as

the

same

stem

and
Rajmahal hills,

may

even

as

be

traced

far

as

the

fastnesses of Beluchistan.

GujarHthi,the IVIarathi (withits off-shoot the Konkani), and

derived in the
are
the Uriya, or language of Orissa, idioms which
the vernacular
main
from
the decompositionof the Sanscrit, form
limits : besides
speech of the Hindu populationwithin their respective
The

which,

and

besides

languages,various idioms which

vernacular are
spoken or occasionally

Dravidian

the

be termed

indigenousor
used by particular
classes resident
was
Sanscrit,though it never

cannot

in Peninsular India.

in the South, is in every

district of country
understood by the
extent
of

vidians

colonists of

Brahraanical

those

indebted

are

majorityof

for the

language of

vernacular

the

the

district read

Brahmans,

early times

higherarts

"

to

of life and

and

to

any

some

the descendants
whom

the

Dra-

the first elements

not
as
only retain the
literaryculture. Such of the Brahmans
and devote
but also dischargethe functions of the priesthood,
name,
in
themselves to professional
studies,are generallyable to converse
though the vernacular languageof the district in which they
Sanscrit,
reside is that which
they use in their families and with which they
with reference to the language
familiar. They are styled,
most
are
of their adopted district,
Dravida
Brahmans, Kerala Brahmans,
Karnataka Brahmans, "o.; and the Brahmans of the several languageall
districts have
distinct castes ; but they are
virtuallybecome
stock ; and Sanscpit,
undoubtedlydescended from one and the same
regarded only as an accomplishmentor as a professional
though now
is properlytheir ancestral tongue.
acquirement,
is the distinctive,
Hindustani
hereditary
languageof the Mahommedan
and the southern
portion of the populationin the Dekhan
of those
warlike Mahommedans
from
peninsula, the descendants
India by whom
the Peninsula was
northern
centuries
overrun
some
It may be regarded as the vernacular
language in some
ago.
parts
but
of the Hyderabad country;
generallythroughoutSouthern India,

of

"

the

middle

and

lower

make
majority,
which they reside
the

now

unable

as

put

much

use

Mahommedans,

of the

language

who

constitute

of the

district in

of their ancestral tongue, and many

of them
in Hindustani.
singlesentence together
the small but

are

dent
interesting
colonyof Jews resii
n
the
Cochin and the neighbourhood,
and for the
same
manner

Hebrew
in

to

as

classes of the

is used

by

same

purposes

Maratlii

as

SOUTH-INDIAN

VERNACULAKS.

Sanscrit is used

by

spoken by

the Brahmans.

the

Gujarathiand
the Parsi shopkeepers

Gujarathi bankers and

who
reside in the principal
towns
in the Peninsula : the
mixed
of
race
country-born Portuguese are
rapidlyforgetting
in
the
of
Goa
t
he
(except
territory
itself) corrupt Portuguesewhich
their fathers and mothers
accustomed
to speak, and
were
learning
English instead whilst French stillretains its placeas the language
are

'

'

"

of the

French

employesand

their descendants

Karikal,and Make,
Pondicherry,

which

in the settlements of

stillbelongto France.

Throughout the territoriesof the East India Company, Englishis

not only the languageof the governing race
and of its East-Indian'
Indo-British off-shoot,
or
but is also used to a considerable extent
and in
by the natives "f the country in the administration of justice
and the principal
of Madras
commerce
towns,
; and in the presidency
it is dailywinning its way to the position
which was
pied
formerlyoccuof
all
the
vehicle
higherlearning.
by Sanscrit,as
Neither
the English,
however, nor any other foreigntongue,has
the slightest
chance of becoming the vernacular speechof any portion
of the inhabitants of Southern
The indigenousDravidian
India.
which
their ground for more
than two
have maintained
languages,
thousand years againstSanscrit,
the languageof a numerous,
powerful,
and
venerated sacerdotal race, may be expected successfully
to resist
the encroachments of every other tongue.*
'

'

'

I admit

with

the Royal Asiatic

should

be

India ; and

Sir Erskine

employed
I

am

Perry (see his

valuable

paper in the Journal

of
of the governing race,

that English,the language

Society),
as

certain

the

language

that this end

of

publicbusiness

could

be attained

in every
in

part of Britiah

very short time by

employment, from the highest
The natives would everywhere
a

simply requiringevery eandidate for government

in English.
to the lowest,to pass an examination
to this arrangement, not only without
adapt themselves
reluctance,but with
and pleasure; and English schools and other facilities
for the acquisition
alacrity
of Englishwould multiplyapace, as soon
found that the new
rule eould
as it was
I do not think, however, that English can
become
the
not be evaded.
ever
that
it
is
vernacular
of
class
of
the
to
nor
even
Hindus,
likely be
language
any
used to any considerable
extent as a linguafranca beyond the circle of government
the employment of English
employes. Before we can reasonablyanticipate
as
a conventional
language,like Latin in the middle ages, or French in the more
modem
of the English resident in India should bear a much
period,the number
That proportionis at present
the
of the inhabitants.
mass
largerproportionto
of
the
two
small
the
CoUectorates,or provinces,
population
infinitesimally : e. g,
I am
best acquainted Tinnevellyand Madura,
in Southern India with which
of Englishmen (and
numbers
in round
amounts
to three millions ; the number
and
is considerablyunder a hundred
resident in those two provinces
Americans)
includes the judgesand magistrateswho administer justice
t and that number
fifty
in those provinces,the ofl5cerg of a singleregiment of sepoys, the men
belonging
cotton plantersand merchants,and
to a small detachment
of foot artillery,
a few
and
the missionaries belonging to three missionarysocieties i Including women
of English
is about three hundred, with which handful
children,the number
people we have to contrast three millions of Hindus !
"

INTRODUCTION.

Enumeration

Dravidian/ are nine in numbef,

designateas
the Rajmahal,the Uraon, and the Brahui.
They are as

The idioms
exclusive of
follows

Languages.

Dravidian

op

which

'

"

Tamil,by the earlier Europeans erroneouslytermed 'the

is Tamir;' but through
The proper spelling
of the name
Malabar.'*
the dialectic changes of r into 1, it is commonly pronounced Tamil,
and
Tamul'
is often erroneouslywritten
by Europeans. This
language being the earliest cultivated of all the Dravidian idioms,
the most copious,
and that which
contains the largest
portionand the
richest varietyof indubitably
ancient forms, it is deservedlyplacedat
1. The

'

'

the

head

of the list.

the
or
colloquial,
'

'

Shen-Tamil

and

It includes

and

ancient
the

'

the classical and

dialects,

two

the

the
modern, called respectively

widelythat they might almost be regarded as

The
Tamil
language is spoken throughout the

Carnatic,or

from

rin, and

country below the Ghauts,

from
the Ghauts, or
central

mountain

India,to

the

of

of the Travancore

Cape Comorin
northern

to

and

whence

country
the

neighbourhoodof
parts

settlements

of

thrust
they have gradually

vast
to

range
in the

side of the

Trivandrum;

to

languages.
plain of the
Cape Comoof Southern

southern

part

Ghauts,

from

and

in

Tamilians

Ceylon,where

prioreven

the other

different

Pulicat

spoken

the western

on

north-western

to form

It is also

Bengal.

from

differ one

Kodun-Tamil,' which

so

Bay

the

the Christian era, and

the
menced
com-

from

Singhalese.All throughout
Tamilians ; the
Ceylon the coolies in the coffee plantationsare
majorityof the money-making classes even in Colombo are Tamilians ;
and ere
long the Tamilians will have excluded the Singhalesefrom
office of profitand
almost
trust in their own
island.
The
every
of
of
the
domestic
servants
and
of
the campEuropeans
majority
followers

in every

people,Tamil

Canarese

at

Cannanore

country,at

abad, where
*

is the

of

the

presidencyof

Madras

all

being Tamil

cantonments
military

be the vernacular

languageof the district.

in the Malayala country, at Bangalore iu the
Bellaryin the Telugu country,and at Secunder-

Hindustani

be

may

able and
so
Malabar to be
have been
would

It is singularthat

supposed the

the

prevailinglanguagein

India,whatever

in Southern

Hence,

part

out

considered

accurate
different

scholar

as

as

the

Dr.

vernacular,the
Max

Muller

should

language
: nor
did
natural enough, with the MalayMam, for he
he confound it,as
in his 'list of pronouns') to each
gives a distinct place (especially
of the
Di'Slvldiaa dialects which actuallyexist,includingthe Malay"lam, and thereto he
of some
adds the Malabar, on the authority,I presume,
of the last
grammar
century, in which the Tamil was called by that name.
have

from

the Tamil

ENUMERATION

languagewhich

OF

DRAVIDIAN

meets
frequently

most

LANGUAGES.

the

in the bazaars

ear

is the

Tamil.
The

in

of
majority

the

found
or Hindus, who
Klings ('Kalingas'),
are
and other placesin the further east, are
Pegu, Penang, Singapore,

Tamilians

the coolies who

Mauritius and

have

the West

emigrated in

Indian colonies

such numbers

to

the

mostly Tamilians : in
short,wherever money is to be made, wherever a more
apatheticor a
is
aristocratic people
more
waiting to be pushed aside,there swarm
the Tamilians,
the Greeks
Scotch of the east,the least scrupulous
or
and the most
and superstitious,
and persevering
of
race
enterprising
to

are

Hindus.

Including Tamilians
colonies,and

Tamilian

in

militarystations

inhabitants

of

South

and

distant

Travancore, and

Ceylon,and

Northern

also Brahmans
Tamil

the

resident

and

country, and

excludingnot only Mahommedans, "c., but

people of Telugu originwho are resident in the
form

who

the people who

population,
at about

ten

at

least ten

speak

the Tamil

per

cent,

of the whole

language may

be

mated
esti-

millions.

of culture and glossarial

Telugu, in respect of antiquity
ranks next to the Tamil in the listof Drdvidian
copiousness,
idioms;
it claims to occupy the first place.
but in pointof euphonicsweetness
from Telugu),
The Telugu,called also the Telingu,
or Telungu (nasalised
mentioned
of Sanscrit writers,a name
is the Andhra'
by the Greek
of a nation dwellingon or near
the Ganges.
geographersas the name
sometimes
called by the Europeans of the last
This language was
generationthe Gentoo,' from the Portugueseword for heathens,or
Gentiles.' The Telugu is spoken all along the eastern coast of the
the
where it supersedes
Peninsula,from the neighbourhoodof Pulicat,
where
it beginsto yieldto the Uriya j and inland
Tamil,to Chicacole,
it prevails
far as the eastern boundary of the Maifatha country and
as
its range
the
Ceded
districts and
the Mysore; includingwithin
2. The

'

'

'

'

'

of

Kurnool, the greater part

the territories of

the

Nizam,

or

the

Nagpore country and Gondwana.

Formerly Telugu appears to have been spoken as iar north as
of the Ganges. This appears both from the geographical
the mouths
of the Andhras,
limits which are assigned
by the Greeks to the territory
of placesmentioned
or northern
Telugus,and from many of the names
by Ptolemy as far as the mouths of the Ganges being found to be
or
Telugu. The Telugu people,though not the most enterprising

Hyderabad country,and

portionof

the
are
undoubtedly
migratory,
race.

Includingthe Naiks

Telugu

tribes settled in

or

most

numerous

branch of the Dravidian

Roddies,and other
('NHyakas'),
Tamil
are
chieflythe
country, who

Naidoos

the

the

INTEODtrcTlON.

descendantsof those soldiers

Chola

kingdomswere

of

fortune

subverted,and

by

whom

number

who

the

P^ndiya and

much

not

less ihan

includingalso the Telugu settlers in Mysore

and
and the indigenousTelugu inhabitants
of the Nizam's
territory
other native states,the peoplewho speak the Telugu languagemay be
estimated as amounting to at least fourteen millions.
3. The
next
place is occupied by the Canarese,properly the
Kannadi, or Karn^taka,* which is spoken throughout the plateauof
Mysore and in some of the western districts of the Niaam's territory,
with the Malayilam,
Beder : it is spoken,also,(together
as far north as
than any of them)
the Tuluva, and the Konkani, but more
extensively
a

million of souls; and

in

district of Canara,

the

constituted
originally

on

the

the Tuluva

Malabar

country, but

for centuries to the rule of Canarese

which

and
princes,
Under

present known.

it is at

by which

name

district which

coast, a

subjected

was

hence

acquiredthe

the denomination

of

Canarese many include the Coorg or Kodaga, an idiom which is spoken

of Coorg on the Western
by the inhabitants of the small principality

generallybeen considered rather as an ancient

and uncultivated dialect of the Canarese,modified by the Tuln, than
Rev. Mr. Mogling,a German
as
a distinct language. The
missionary,
who
has recentlysettled amongst the Coorgs,and who
is our
only
reliable authorityon
the subjectof their language,now
states that
is
a
llied
and Malayala than to the
to the Tamil
Coorg more
closely
Canarese.
The speech of the Badagars ('peoplefrom the north'),
Ghauts, and

"

which

'

Kam3,taka

has

is not

a
IM.vidian,but a Sanscrit word, and is properly3
It is defined to mean
Telugu and Canarese.
primarily a
music,'or
comedy :' it is used secondarilyin Telugu as an
speciesof dramatic
Karn"taka
adjectiveto signify'native,''aboriginal,'
mfilam,'Tel. 'native
e.g.
the common
music ;' it then became
designationof the Telugu and Canarese,or
'native'
restricted still further,and
was
the
languages: and, finally,
became
of the Canarese alone.
distinctive appellation
for
I should not have used the word
KarnS,taka' has now
finally,'
got into
who hare given it a new
the hands of foreigners,
and more
erroneous
application.
arrived in southern
the Mahommedans
When
India,they found that part of it
first acquainted the countryabove the Ghauts,
with which they become
including
of
and
t)art Telinga,ua"called the Kamtoka
of time,
Mysore
country.' In course
of terms, they applied the same
the Karn"tak,'or
by a misapplication
name,
Camatic,'to designatethe country below the Ghauts, as well as that which was
The English have carried the misapplication
above.
and restricted
a step further
the Ghauts, which
to the country below
the name
has no
right to it whatever.
the Mysore country, which is properlythe Camatic, is no longer called by
Hence
that name
by the English,and what is now geographicallytermed
the Carnatic
the country below the Ghauts, on
the Coromandel
is exclusively
coast,including
the whole of the Tamil country and the district of Nellore in the 'Telugu
country.
further
Karnfttalra was
The word
corrupted by the Canarese people
or
themselves into 'Kannada'
'Kannara;' from which the language is styled
Kannadi,' and by the English,Canarese.' A province on the Malabar coast is
called
Canara,'properly Kannadiyam,' in consequence of having long been
to the government of KarnMaka
princes.
subjected
'

genericname

for both

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ENUMERATION

OF

DRAVIDIAN

LANGUAGES.

class of peopleinhabiting
commonly called Burghers,the most numerous
the Nilgherryhills,
is undoubtedly
dialect. The
ancient Canarese
an
like the Tamil,two cultivated
Canarese,properlyso called,
includes,

the
dialects,

the latter,not

"

as

those

of Sanscrit derivatives,
but

with

differs from

Telugu and Malay"lam differ from the

languages by containinga largerinfusion
tions.
by the use of different inflexional termina"

dialect called 'Ancient

the character which

in many

the former

classical

dialects of
colloquial

The

; of which

and the modern

ancient

Canarese'

is denoted

is not

that name,

by

to be confounded

which is found

and

in the Maratha
inscriptions
country as well as in
in the
Hala
Mysore. The languageof all reallyancient inscriptions
is Sanscrit,
not Canarese.
Kannada,' or Ancient Canarese character,
The
people that speak the Canarese
language,includingthe
Coorgs,"c., may be estimated at five millions : but,in the case of both
of
and the Telugu,the absence of a trustworthycensus
the Canarese
the inhabitants of native states,requiresall such estimates to be considered
In
the
Nizam's
mere
as
territoryfour
approximations.
languages the Canarese,the Mara^hi, the Telugu,and the Hindustani
but it is
are
spoken by different classes or in different districts;
prevalenceof each with any
impossibleto ascertain the proportionate
degreeof certainty.
4. The Malayalam, or
Malayirma,' ranks next in order. This
language is spoken along the Malabar coast, on the western side of the
of ManGhauts, or
Malaya range of mountains, from the vicinity
the Canarese
and the Tulu, to Trivandrum,
it supersedes
where
galore,
The peopleby whom
where it beginsto be supersededby the Tamil.
very ancient

'

"

"

"

'

'

'

this

languageis spoken in

and in the East India

be estimated at two

Tamil

is

for many

Company'sdistricts of

and

half millions.

rapidlygainingupon
ages

more

and

the native states of Travancore

the

and

Malabar

Canara, may
Malabar

All

along the
Malayalam. Though

than
frequentedby foreigners

Cochin,
coast

that coast

any

other

was

part of

and Arabs,
Greeks,Jews, Syrian christians,
India; though Phoenicians,

various ports along the coast j and though

formed
by the three last classes ; yet the
permanent settlements were
Malaysiapeople continue to be of all DrAvidiaus the most exclusive
traded in succession

and

to the

and
superstitious,

foreigners. Hence

shrink

'the

most

lines and

from
sensitively
centres

been seized,and the greaterpart of the

of the Malabar
more

adroit

Malayalam,or
and the

states

has been

Tamilians, whose

of

communication'
and

commerce

by the
monopolized,
language

bids

contact

have

publicbusiness

and
less scrupulous

fair to

supersedethe

at least to confine itwithin the limits of the

jungles.

with

hill-country

INTROBUCTIOS.
or
tongues is the Tnlu,

Last in the listof cultivated DrUvidian

5.

the Canarese
holding a positionmidway between
This
and the Malayalam,but more
nearlyresembling the Canarese.
but
languagewas once generallyprevalentin the district of Canara,
of
is now
spoken only in a small tract of country in the vicinity
and fifty
hundred
a
or
than a hundred
Mangalore,by not more
other languages,
thousand souls. It has been broken in upon by many

Tuluva;

and

idiom

an

is

likelysoon to disappear.
The four languageswhich follow differ from those that have been
destitute of written
mentioned
uncultivated,
in that they are
entirely

and comparativelylittle known.

characters,
6. The Toda, properlythe Tuda, or Tudava
; the language of the
tribe inhabitingthe
interesting
Tudavars, a primitiveand peculiarly
and commonly believed
rites,
quasi-Druidical
hills,
practising
Nilgherry
eould
of those hills. Their number
inhabitants
to be the aboriginal
not

at

any

time

exceeded

have

periodof female
than

from

; and

thousands

and
polyandria,

through opium-eatingand
amongst them at a former
is estimated,number more

few

at

present,

the

prevalence
infanticide,
they do not, it
through

three to five hundred

souls.

language of the Kotars, a small tribe of Helot

craftsmen
inhabitingthe Nilgherry hills,and numbering about a
genous
thousand
souls. The Tuda language may be considered as the indispeech of the Nilgherries;the Kota as a very old and very
carried thither by a persecuted
rude dialect of the Canarese,which was
low-caste tribe at some
period. Besides those two, two
very remote
the Nilgherryhills;viz.,
other languagesare vernacular
the dialect
on
which
is spoken by the Burghersor Badagars,an ancient but organized
7. The

Kota

dialect of the

Kurumbar,'

by

upon

smoke
gorges
8.

Canarese,and

{'people of

Irulars
'

'

nomade

adventurous

of whose

the

the rude

darkness

Tamil

') and

which

Curbs

is

spoken by the
Curnbars
(Tam.

or

shepherds'),who are occasionally

stumbled
in
the
denser,deeperjungles,and the
sportsmen

firesmay

be
occasionally

seen

from
rising

the lower

of the hills.
The

G6nd

of the northern

Gondwana,
of the

; the

and

the

western

of the northern

Saugor and
The

Goand;

or

the

indigenousinhabitants

parts of the extensive

portionof Nagpore

Nerbudda

Khond, Kund,

languageof

and

hill

country of

of the greater part

territories.

properlythe Kn ; the languageof

the peoplewho are commonly called Khonds, but who call themselves
are
Kus
race, who
supposed to be allied to the Gonds
a
primitive
who inhabit the eastern parts of Gondwana, Goomsur, and the hilly
and who have acquireda bad notoriety
throughtheir
ranges of Orissa ;
9.

"

or

more

"

10

INTRODUCTION.

In the above
idioms

of certain rude

'

I refer to

Tamulian.'

languagesI
India

tribes of Central

have sometimes

which
frontier,
term

listof Dravidian

of late been
the

have

included the

not

north-eastern

the

and

included under

the

general

Kdls

and

Suras,

languagesof

the

towards
the north,which
neighboursof the Gonds and Kunds
might naturallybe supposedto be allied to the Gond or the Ku, and
of Dravidian
origin; but which, though they contain a
consequently
different familyof languages.
few Dravidian words,belongto a totally
in grammatical structure, the
of similarity
the evidence
Without
discoveryof a few similar words proves only local proximity,or the
earlier or later period, not the
existence of mutual intercourse at an
either of races
or of languages.
original
relationship
I leave also out of account
the languages of the north-eastern
frontier of India,which are spoken by the Bodos, Dhimals, and other
and forests between
Kumaon
tribes inhabitingthe mountains
and
These
Assam.
are
styled Tamulian
by Mr. Hodgson, of Nepaul,
the supposition
that all the aborigines
of India,as distinguished
on
from the Aryans, or Sanscrit-speaking
and its offshoots,
race
belongto
and the same
one
stock;and that of this aboriginal
race, the Tamilians
of Southern
India are
to be considered as
the best representatives.
But as the relationship
of those north-eastern
idioms to the languages
of the Dravidian familyis a supposition
which is unsupportedby the
evidence
either of similarity
in grammatical structure
of a similar
or
vocabulary,and is founded only on such generalgrammatical analogies
the
whole
to
of
as
are
the Scythian group of
common
range
it
to me
as
languages, seems
improper to designatethose dialects
be to designate them
Tamulian,' or
Dravidian,'as it would
Turkish' or
Tungusian.' Possiblythey form a link of connection
between
the Indo-Chinese,
Tibetan familyof tongues,and the K61;
or
the

"

'

'

'

'

'

but

'

this is at present

hazardous

assumption.Prof. Max Miiller

proposes to call all the Non-Aryan languagesof India,includingthe
Sub-Himalayan, the K61 and the Tamilian families, Nishada-languages,'the ancient aboriginesbeing often termed
Nishadas
in the
Vedaic writings. Philologically
I think
the use
of this common
is
to be deprecated,
term
inasmuch as the Dravidian languages are
differentfrom the others,as the Professor himself
radically
appears to
have perceived. For the present I have no doubt that the safest
common
appellationis the negative one,
UnNon-Aryan,' or
even

'

'

'

'

'

Sanscritic'
The

Central

brief

vocabularyof

India, contained

fuller list of words

the tribe

the Rajmahal hills in

inhabiting

in the Asiatic

belongingto

the

vol.
Besearches,

languageof

the

v., and

same

the

people,

DBA

VIDIAN

IDIOMS

contained in Mr.
is in the main

NOT

MERELY

PROVINCIAL

Hodgson'scollections,
prove

Dravidian.

The

proofof

11

DIALECTS.

that tbe

Rajmahal idiom

this fact will be exhibited in

the

sequel. This languageis not to be confounded with its neighbour,

the speech of the SS,ntals,
branch of the extensive K61
a
familythe Bhangalporerange
inhabiting
different stock.
a totally

of

whose language belongsto

hills,

The

in the khanship of
Brahui,the language of the mountaineers
Kelat in Beluchistan,
Dravidian words, but
contains,not only some
considerable
a
infusion of unquestionably
Dravidian forms and idioms ;
in consequence

of which

this

languagehas

much

better claim

to

be

regardedas Dr"vidian or Tamulian than any of the languagesof the

which
had been styled'Tamulian'
Nipal and Bhutan frontier,
by
Mr. Hodgson. I have not included,however, the Brahui, or the
Rajmahal and Uraon, in the list of Drividian languages which are
to be subjectedto systematiccomparison (thoughI shall give some
of them

account

in the

because
illustration),
bears but

sequel,and
the

shall refer to them

Dravidian

small

for
occasionally

element contained

proportionto the

in those

rest of their

guages
lan-

component

elements.
The

Dravidian

Idioms

I have

op

the

Language.

SAME

Though

Dialects

Provincial

merely

not

described the nine vernacular

idioms

mentioned

in

vidian
foregoing list as dialects of one and the same
originalDrato consider them
'dialects'
as
language,it would be erroneous
of the term,
in the popularsense
viz.,as provincialpeculiarities
or
varieties of speech. Of all those idioms no two are so nearlyrelated
stood.
to each other that persons who
speak them can be mutuallyunderthe

"

The
and

nearlyrelated

most

are

yet it is only the simplestand

languagethat
Involved

or
inflections,

Tamil, the
former

"

the

of witten

it ; but

Telugu

be

in the

one

the Canarese, have

"

to
peculiar

from that of the

the

Canarese

than

it does

itself. The

the

unconnected
character is totally

by

Canarese

each

of the three
has

system

character

has

from
Telugu,and differs bnt slightly

language differs
from

found

The
unintelligible.

independent literaryculture ; and each

Tamil, the Malayilam, and the Telugu

characters

been borrowed

MalayS.lam
;

will be

reasons,

language to

speak
Malay"lam, the Telugu, and

distinct and

the

direct sentences

most

in conditions and

only the other

those who

and

who
to those
intelligible
speak only the other.
in either language, abounding in verbal
and

are

sentences

nominal

the Tamil

Tamil

even

; and

more

the

widely from

the

ancient Canarese

with the character of the

Telugu.

12

INTRODUCTION.

The

Malayalam being,as

ancient offshoot of the

conceive,an

tions
chiefly
by the disuse of the personalterminaof the verbs,*it might, perhaps,be regardedrather
as
a
very
ancient dialect of the Tamil than as a distinct language. Its separation
took
from
Tamil
at
a
evidently
place
very earlyperiod,before
cultivated and refined.
the Tamil was
Through the predominanceof
Brahraanical
influence in the Malayala country, the Malayalam has
from
Tamil,differing

been

not

cultivated

it

ab intra to any

considerable

extent

; and

the infusion

of Sanscrit words is almost the only

largeproportion
which it has received.
The
refinement
proportionof Sanscrit words
which
has been
adopted by the Dravidian
languages is least in
in Malayalam ; and
the modern
Tamil, most
MalayMa character
into it of

has

been

the

character

and

which

borrowed
in

with
which

but

little alteration from

Sanscrit

is written

in

the

the

Grantham

Tamil

"

country,

India.
In
correspondsto the Deva-nagari of Northern
of these things,the difference between
the Tamil
and
consequence
the Malayalam,though originally
has progressively
increased ;
slight,
and hence the claim of the Malay"lam to be considered,not merely as
dialect of the Tamil, but as a sister language,or at least as a
a
very
ancient and much
altered offshoot,
be called in question.
cannot
now
The Tulu has been representedby Mr. Ellis as a dialect of the
Malay^am ; but althoughMalayalacharacters are ordinarily
employed
in writingTulu, in consequence
of the prevalence of Malayalam in
the vicinity,
and the literary
of the Tulus, it appears to me
inferiority
of
the
clearest
capable
proof that the relation of the Tulu to the

Canarese
*

The

is

than

nearer

derivation

its relation

of the

to

the

Malayalam.

It differs

Malayalam from the Tamil is well illustrated by the

signify East.' It is 'Kirakka,' meaning 'beneath,'
or
downwards," which is properlya Tamil word, and corresponds to that which
is used to denote
'West,' viz.,'MeKku,' 'above' or 'upwards;' both of which
words necessarily
originatedin the Tamil country, or the country on the eastern
side of the Ghauts ; where a loftyrange
of mountains
rises everywhere to the
westward, and where, consequently to go westward
is to go 'upwards;' whilst
the country slopes 'downwards'
to the eastward
to the sea.
The
configuration
of the Malaysia country is directly
and strikingly
the reverse
of this,"the mountain
range being to the eastward,and the sea to the westward.
Notwithstanding
this,the Malaysia word for 'East' is 'Kirakka, "downwards,' identical with
the Tamil
word
Eirakku,'" a clear proof that the Malayalam is an ofishoot from
the Tamil, and that the people by whom
it is spoken were
a colony of
originally
Tamilians.
It is evident
that they entered
the Malaysia country through the
Paul ghaut Gap, and from thence spread themselves
along the coast, northward
to Mangalore, and
southward
to Trivandrum.
Throughout the Malay"la grammar
I have noticed only two forms which are not contained
either in the colloquial
in the high dialect of the Tamil:
or
those two forms are a dative in 'a'
which
is used in some
instances after
n,'instead of the more
usual sign of the
dative,'kka;' and a pluralsufSx of the second person of the imperative"viz.
'in;'which is peculiarto this language,"except, indeed,it is derived from the
high Tamil 'min.'
word

which

is caed

by

it to

'

'

"

'

'

KUDEK

DRAVIDIAN

13

TONGUES.

from the Tamil j and hence the tradition which is

widelyand essentially
mentioned by Mr. Taylor,
that the ancient Kurumbars,' or
nomadic
in the neighbourhood
of Madras were
shepherds,'
expelledand their
lands seized upon by Vellalars from Tulnva, appears to be highly
Tamil of the neighbourhoodof Madras
improbable. The colloqjiial
is
characterized by an infusion of the peculiarities,
not of the Tulu, but
of the Telngu.
'

Of the five cultivated Dravidlan

'

above

dialects mentioned

the

"

Tamil,the

the Malaysia,the Tulu," the farthest

Telugu,the Canarese,
each other are the Tamil
and the Telugu. The great
of the roots in both languagesare, it is true, identical; but
majority
in composition
of inflexion
theyare often so disguised
by peculiarities
and dialecticchanges,
that not one
entire sentence
in the one language
is intelligible
The
to those who are acquaintedonly with the other.
various Uravidian idioms,though sprung from a common
origin,are
to be considered not as mere
dialects of the same
therefore,
provincial
speech,but as distinct though affiliated languages. They are as
distinct one from the other as the Spanish from the Portuguese,
the
removed

from

Irish from
the

the Welsh, the Hebrew

Bengali.

from

from

If the cultivated Dravidian

the Aramaic, the Hindi

idioms differ

each

idioms

"

be supposed that
other,it will naturally
the Tuda, the Kota, the Gond, and the Ku

"

so

from

materially

uncultivated

the
must

differ still

widely both from one another and from the cultivated languages.
and great are
This supposition
is in accordance with facts. So many
the differences and peculiarities
which are observable amongst these
that it has seemed to me
rude dialects,
to be necessary to prove, not
their differences,
but that they belong,notwithstanding
that they differ,
more

to the same

have

an

Evidence

stock

as

the

more

equalrightto be termed

that

the

Tuda,

cultivated tongues,and that

'
Dravidian.'

Kota, Gond,

DrAvidian
It is unnecessary

to state in this

and

Ku,

are

they

really

Tongues.
the particulars
generalintroduction,

the cultivated Dravidian idioms agree with one another,

in minor matters and
and the evidences of their essential unity even
in which

origin: but the Tuda, Kota, Gond, and Ku being

and littleknown, it appears to be desirable
rude uncultivated dialects,
at the outset to furnish the reader with proofsof the assertion that
Dravidian stock as the Tamil and
those languagesbelongto the same
the Telngu. Their Drividian character and connections will appear
which I have ascertained
of particulars,
statement
from the following
concerningeach of them respectively.
of their

common

14

INTRODUCTION.

(1.)TuDA.
language of

"

It is

favourite opinion with

many

persona

in

India

that

the

at least that it is unconnected

the Tudara

is altogether
sui generis,
or
of the neighbouringplains. In
of
the
DrS,yidian
races
languages
any
the
conclusion
that
the
Tuda
adopting
language belongs to the Drftvidian stock,
and justlyclaims to be regarded as a Drividian dialect,
the evidence
which
on
I place most
reliance is that of a list of words and
short sentences
which
was
communicated
German
the
Mr.
Rev.
to
me
Metz,
kindly
by
missionaryat Kaity,
the Nilgherryhills. Mr. Metz's acquaintance with the language of the Tudars,
on
is believed to be more
accurate than that which has been acquired by any other
and
defective in the department
though his knowledge is confessedly
European ;
of verbal modifications
and
syntax, his list of vocables may be fullydepended
his
and
inasmuch
of the Tuda
has been
as
:
knowledge
acquired through
upon
the medium
of the language of the Badagars,a language with which
he is intimately
acquainted,it cannot be supposed in his case (as was supposed by some
with respect to the Eev. Dr. Schmid's inquiries),
that he may
have
persons
words
for
acceptedBadaga
Tuda, through ignoranceof the dialectic peculiarities
of the old Canarese idiom which is spoken by the Badagars.
The
be called by
as
followingwords
'prerogativeinstances,'
they would
Abel Eemnsat
language.
prove the Dj^vidian character of the Tuda
with

of the

"

"

In the Tuda

langxiagei is pronounced broad like

ato

in "fawn."

RUDER

The

Tuda

DRA

VIDIAN

15

TONGUES.

words

given above scarcelyat all differ from their Tamil, Canarese,

Telngu equivalents. In many cases, however, the word, though undoubtedly
Dra,vidian,can
scarcely be recognised in its Tuda shape. The followingare
examples of this :

and

"

Tamil, "c.

Tuda.

pal
puli,pili
veyil

parsh
pirah

tooth

tiger
or

Bun,

sunlight

finger

birsh

viral

bolh

belly

vayaru

bir

fruit

param

vom

In the above

examples the regularchange

of I into rsh is

especially
deserving

of notice.
In

Tamil,

some

the

cases

Tuda

words

correspond

Tamil.
tree

maram

fire

nernppu

Sometimes
the

to

the

Telugu rather

than

the

g.

e.

Telugu

Tblugh
m^nu

correspondswith
Tamil, e. g.

the

Tamil.

maena

nebbu

nippu

the Tuda

or

Tuda.

the Canarese, rather than

Telugu.

Canarese.

with

either

Tuda.

small

s'inna

chinna

kinna

kin

ear

s'evi

chevi

kevi

kevi

generallyagrees more
exactlywith the Tamil than with the Telugu,
idiom.
In many
close is this
the Canarese,or any other Dr^vidian
so
particulars
Tuda
considered
be
that
the
of the
as
a
might
patois
merely corrupt
agreement
of instances it differs,
not onlyfrom
Tamil, were it not that in a still largernumber
the Tamil, but also from every other Dr^vidian
of its own
dialect,
pursuing a course
its
of
it
of
in
be
which
must
with a vocabulary
own
regarded as a
consequence
;
of the Tuda
words
contained
of the family. On an examination
distinct member
and
numerals
in the lists in my possession,exclusive of pronouns
(which are
The

Tuda

throughout Dr^vidian),fortyper cent, are found to be allied to Dr^vidian words

belonging to the language^ of the adjacentplains,whilst sixtyper cent, appear
so
to be either independent of those languages or to be
greatlycorrupted and
cannot now
disguisedthat their relationship
of
the forms
The followingcomparison

the substantive verb

inflexions

Canarese

is

'

In Tuda

ir.'

am

thou

art

he is
we

are

ye

are

they

are

with

in Tuda

language.

of this

The

the

be ascertained.
of the

present and

those of the Tamil

root

of the

root
corresponding

is

'

tenses

of

illustrate the verbal

will

substantive

future

verb
'

in Tamil

and

'

esh.'

or
erg,' etara,'

in

16

INTRODUCTION.

It is evident

the third

that

of the Tuda

pluralof each

singularand

person

This is in accordance in part with

personalterminations.
with that of the Telugu.
the usage of the Canarese,and stillmore
The
Tuda
language contains exceedingly few words of Sanscrit origin,and
those few have
evidentlybeen derived from the intercourse of the Tudars with
Canarese
the
from
their neighbours the Badagars, colonists
country, e. g.,
Sanscrit
and
the
Canarese
from
the
'dfiva;' and 'budi,'
'd6var,'
'der,'God,
adopted in the Canarese.
wisdom, from
buddhi,'the Sanscrit word for wisdom
with the other Dr^vidian
The substantial agreement of the Tuda
languages in
ita pronouns,
second persons of its verbal inflections,
its numerals, the first and
and
in fortyper cent, of its stock of ordinaryvocables,proves beyond all doubt
the proprietyof consideringit as a Drslvidian
dialect ; and it seems
scarcelyless
of

is destitute

tenses

"

'

that of all the Dr9,vidian

certain

nearly allied.
with
are

Sixty

cent,

per
of the other

the vocabularies
from

remote

the most

the

idioms

the

of its words

Tamil
appear,

dialects ; but

dailybusiness

of

and
life,

is that

to which

indeed,

to

words

those
which

are

be

are

it is most

unconnected

chieflysuch

therefore

as

of all words

barbarous,isolated tribe. It is also to be

remembered
that each of the cultivated DrSlvidian
able
languages contains a considernumber
of roots of this secondary,fleeting
found
in any
w
hich
not
are
class,
other dialect of the family. Such words
do not necessarily
belong to an ExtraDr9,vidian source
for
of
whatever
no
is in possessionof
one
language
;
any family
all the roots which
Each
dialect of the
originally
belonged to the parent stem.
and of the Germanic
families of tongues is found to have
Sanscrit, of the Classical,
apt

retained
become

to become

certain

corruptedby

number

of roots

which

the

other

dialects

have

suflered to

obso'.ete.

(2.)K6ta.
regarded

Whilst

the

of the Tudars
have always
language and customs
peculiarinterest,the K6tars (a tribe of craftsmen, residing
unknown
from an
antiquityon the Nilgherryhills),
being exceedinglyfilthyin
addicted
their habits,and
all
other
low
caste tribes to the eating of
beyond
carrion,have generallybeen shunned
by Europeans ; and, in consequence,
their
than
that of the Tudars.
language is less known
Notwithstandingthis,the
and
of the present tense of its verb,
followingparadigm of the K6ta pronouns
been

which

was

language

with

furnished
of this

me

I go
thou

the

kae

goest

he goes
"we

by

Eev. Mr.

Biihler,of Eaity, will show that the

degraded tribe is essentially

Dr8,vidiaa

go

ye go

they go

"

KoTA.

Ancient

hdgabe

"n

Canabbsb.

pflgdap6u
pfigdapi
pfigdapam

h6gabi
awana
h6gako

ntn

n^me hdgabemme
niye hflgabirri
awane
hdgako

fi,m p6gdap6vu

nl

avam

ntm
avar

pdgdapir
p6gdapar

18

INTKODUCTION.

nattur,'blood, from
'ractam.'
Sanscrit,

from

corrupt derivative

Telugu, netturu,'a
'

the

"

the

again the G6nd agrees remarkably with the Canarese ; e. g.,

ille.' In Telugu and Tamil the infinitive is
the G6nd ^infinitive
is in Sllle/
or
has a verbal noun
in a : the Tamil
ending in al/ of which the dative
invariably
but the Canarese
is used as a supine; and the High Tamil
ordinarily
occasionally,
In

instances

some

'

'

'

'

'

'al'

this very form

uses

as

an

infinitive.

also like the Canarese

G6nd

The

and

times
some-

g., the ear, is

the Tamel

's;' e.
prefers'k' where the Telugu has 'ch'
Tamil, 's'evi;' Telugu, 'chevi;'Canarese, 'kevi;'in G8nd also,'kaiivi.' To
do, is in Tamil, 's'ejf;'
Telugu, 'chSy ;' Canarese,'g6y' (g hard); G6nd, 'ki.'
in
Such agreements of the G6nd
with the Canarese are rare ; but the particulars
which the Gflnd agrees with the Tamil, though the Telugu country lies between
and important.
it and the countryin which the Tamil is spoken,are very numerous
in

The followingare

specimens of this agreement.

the
substantive,
(1.)The Telugu has but one form for the plural of nouns
suflSx lu ;' the Tamil
has two,
and
ar
kal/ the former epicene,the latter
'

neuter

'

'

the Gflnd

(2.)The
the Gflnd

also has two, 'ar

instrumental

like the Tamil

(3.)The

Gflnd

'

'

uses

and

'k.'

Telugu

of the

case

'

is formed

by

the addition of

'

ch6ta;'

al.'

with the Tamil in retaining

obliquecases.
Thus, from 'adi,'
Telugu,i",comes
'dSni,'of it; Tamil, 'adin,'of it; Gflnd, 'adena.'
(4.)The Telugu negative particlesare 'ledu,'there is not, a^i 'kMu,' it is
in Tamil
'illei' and
not; the corresponding
are
particles
'alia;'in Gflnd,'hille'
unaltered

and

diflTersfrom

the initial vowel

the

Telugu, and

of its pronouns

'halle.'
uses
(6.)The Telugu systematically

Gflnd retains
Tamil
'

accords

in the

'r'

'ara." Gflnd

flru ' and

A

the

Gflhd

'

'ara.'

Tamil;
So

e.

vocalic

g., 'fldu'

number

the Tamil

of Gflnd
rather

roots

than

the

Tamil.

Gfliro.

one

okati

oudru

und

mftdu

mflndru

mund

hand

chfly

kei

tree

m3,nu

maram

marri

great

pedda

pern, paru

paror

to come

vachcha

largenumber

the other Drftvidian

on

weep;
Tamil

denoting objectsof primary importance

Telugu ; e. g.

three

This will appear

'r;' the

or
'adaln,'Telugu, to
'fldu,'
Telugu, seven, with

also compare

TELtiGu.

In

'd' instead of the Tamil

flro.'

considerable

correspondwith

of the

of instances

(vatssa)vara
the

modifies
dialects,

comparing

the

kai

wara

Gflnd,though retainingthe
those roots after

Tamil
following

and

same

roots

as

fashion peculiarto itself.

Gflnd words.

RUDER

DRAVIDIAN

19

TONGCES.
GdND.
nto

(a'
village)

pini (cold)
urreha
the
Notwithstanding

dialects which

have

affinitiesbetween

the

G6nd

and

the other Diividian

mentioned

and
the 66nd
illustrated,
possesses
elsewhere,and exhibits peculiarities
of grammatical structure of such a nature as amply to justify
our
regarding it as
a distinct dialect.
The difference existingbetween
the Tamil
and the Telugn
sinks into insignificance
when
compared with the difference between the G"nd
and every other dialect of the DrSividian family. In the list of G6nd words given
by Mr. Driberg,I have been a^le to identifyonly thirty-four
per cent, as words
contained
in or allied to those that are
found in the other dialects,
which is a
smaller proportionthan that which is contained even
in the Tuda.
The principalparticulars
in which the grammatical structure of the G6nd
a

largenumber

been

now

of roots which

are

found

not

differsfrom that of the other dialects

are

as

follows

"

found
India,the Gdnd evinces a tendencyto conthe dative with the accusative,
in
o
f
both
forms.
though
possession
of those Northern
(2.)It has a passivevoice formed,as in some
idioms,by
the pastparticiple
of the active voice to the substantiveverb.
prefixing
('ille,' hie,')which in
(3.)The remote and proximate demonstratives
Tamil are
avar,' ivar ;'in Telugu TS,ru,'vlru ;' are in Goud corruptedinto
'wor'
and 'yer.'
in all the other dialects is yS,;'
(4.)The base of the interrogativ^e
pronouns
bo.'
in this it is bS,,'
or
Instead
of
the
the
regularlyformed negativevoice of the other dialects,
(5.)
Gond
forms its negativeverbs by simply prefixing
the negativeparticleshille,'
For example, ihou art not, or thou becomesi
not
to the verb.
or
'halle,'
(in
'halle
aivi,'
A
Tamil
in
is
in
G6nd
similar
use
'tgk^,'
Telugu, 'kS,vu'),
is found
in the Kota language. The only thing in the
of the negative particle
other dialects which
at all corresponds to this,is the occasional formation in
Tamil
of
a negativeverb
poetical
by the insertion of the negativeparticleal
between the root of the verb and the pronominal suffix; e. g., p6s-al-Sn,'
/ spejoJe

(1.)Like

the idioms

of Northern

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

not, for 'pte-6n.'

difference,
however,in pointof granlmaticalstructure between
consists in its peculiarly
elaborate
and the other Drfividian
the G6nd
dialects,
the
t
he
The
and complete conjugational
MalaySllam, Canarese,and;
Tamil,
system.
and
indefinite past,
a future tense, the future
the Tnlu possess only a present,
an
less aoristic. The Telugu,in addition to these tensesjhas a regularly
or
more
formed aoiist. The indicative and the imperativeare the only moods which these
All'
so called.
dialects possess, and they are destitute of a passivevoice properly
either of auxiliary
verbs or
modifications of mood and tense are formed by means
cultivated DrAvidian idioms are so simple
of suffixed particles.Whilst the more
Gdnds boasts in a system of verbal
in structure,
the speechof the rude Mahadeo

(6.)The

chief

"

modifications and

inflexions almost

as

elaborate

as

that of the Turkish.

It has

moods, it possesses
passivevoiee: in addition to the indicative and the imperative
a

: in
potential

has
and

has only three tenses,it

indicative mood, wtere the Tamil
indefinite
a conditional,
an
past,a perfect,
imperfectdefinite,

the

present,an

each of which
future,
causal verb,but it stands
a

regularlyinflected : like the other idioms,it has a

alone in having also an inceptive. In these particulars
is

INTRODUCTION.

20
the G6nd

haa

grammar

*"
acquireda developmentpecnliar

^''^"Tthe'
The

Ku

of the

ihfluence

degree through the

"""^

to

highly inflected S^ntM,

Kond, Khond,

been
idiom',
has generally

/t^^"'
Pf''^P^J"
neighbour
iia KM

considered

as

Dra,vidian
language,undoubtedly a

Ku

or

It

the G6nd.

identical with

stated

was

authority
on
Researches,vol. vu
distinct
races
:
are
totally
and Khunds
that the Gdnds
of a native Jaghiredar,
which
account of their langaages in
notwithstandingthis,I have not met with any
in the Asiatic

by CaptainBlunt

long

ago

they

have

the

with

the Gdnd

the
particulars

essential. In many

and

numerous

For
thingsless so.
G6nd
The
(1.)

Tamil, the Telugu

example :"

Telu"4
the Tamil, and
'va,'
'a,'s'ometimes

'

its infinitive in

forms

Dr^vidian

differences

are

closelythan

more

tongues;
the

some

*i,

,,

lUe ; ,

'

alle,'or

like

Ku,

the

its infinitive by suffijung

Canarese, forms

modem

the

accords

Ku

the other

and

their

truth

different,though in

regarded as

been

the

in Telugu,
become, is in Gdnd 'aiffie;'
'pa.' Thus,
'^va.'
in
in Tamil, 'a,ga,-' Ku,
or
'9,ga;'
'ka,;'in Canarese, 'Slgal,'
^stem of the other
the
simplicityof the conjugational
(2.)The Ku retains
to

or

(3 )

of the G8nd.

dialects,in contradistinctionto the elaborateness

Drdvidian

forms

G6hd

The

its

the

negativesby prefixingto

aorist the

indicative

differe
In this point the Ku
"halle."
separatenegative particles"hiUe," or
G6nd
is
in
/
do
not,
Thus,
the Gdnd, and agrees with the other dialects.
from
'g^yenu,'
'seyydn;'in Telugu 'chSyanu;' in Canarese
"hille kion;' in Tamil

gignu.'
closelywith the Tamil and
followinginstances the Ku accords more
neighbour the
Canarese, though locallyvery remote, than with its nearer
Telugu.
in some
(1.)The Telugu forms its pluralsby the use of 'lu' alone, except
like
the
Tamil,
The Ku,
of the obliqueforms of the 'rational' demonstratives.
rational
denote
beings,
which
of
the
nouns
difference between
plurals
makes
a
'

in Ku

In

the

those of

and

pluralsis
'

'

"ru

or

ar,'of the second

'

The

of the inferior class.

nouns

k^.'
ru,'and
forms
Telugu

class

'

kal :' the

Tamil

correspondingsuffixes

and

the Canarese

Tamil

its masculine

by

'

anu'' and

singularby
'

an.'

The

of the

means

Ku

by

means

'v^du,' Telugu, he, with

'S,flju' '9,nyu.'Thus, compare
Ku
avftfiju.'
Canarese
avanu,'
or

(3.) The
to the
:

are

the

suffix
of the

Tamil

'

du :'

suffix

'avan,'

'

'

view

Ku

in

'

'

(2.)The

than

first class of

of the

sufBx

Ku

pronouns

bear

Telugu and Gflnd, as

closer

to the Tamil

resemblance

will appear

from

the

and

Canarese

followingcomparative

"

Telugu.

G6i"rD.

n6nu

an^

^e

mdmu

amflt

thou

nlvu
mlru

ye

he, remote
he,proximate

Tamil.

Canakese.

Ku.
S.nu

ydu (ancient
y"m
(do.)

"n

ima

nt

ntnu

Inu

imat

iiir

nlvu

Iru

v9,du

wor

avan

avanu

vldu

yer

ivan

ivanu

avafiju
ivflflju

(ancient)

Sim

(do.)

amu

of this language prepared by Lingam

lucidlyarranged grammar
Translator
to
the
Ganjam
Agency, and published in Uriya
Deputy
Letchmajee,
I have
Ohristian Observer for May and June, 1853.
characters in the Calcutta
scientific
in
work
o
f
this
valuable
tion
contribunotice
or
periodical
not seen
any
any
to our knowledge of the Indian languages.
*

See

EUDEK

(d.)In

the DrS; vidian

particleto

Telugu

verbal

any

'gni'

DRAVIDIAN

21

TONGUES.

is expressedby the addition

languages contingency

tense, person

number.

or

This

of

suffix is
suljjunctive

in

'ilgyu.' One of the suffixes

employed in the Tamil is kkW,' which in the speech of the vulgar becomes
kka ;'and
is the
this very particle kkS.,'
added, as in Tamil, to the preterite,
suffix by which
the Ku also forms
conditional or contingentverbs : e.g., If I do,
is in Telugu
n6nu
n3.uu gfiyidare
;'in colloquial
chfeyudunfeni
;'in Canarese
Tamil
this is 'n^a. cheyd^kkftj'
in Eu also,(from the root 'gi,'to do),it is '^nu
gitekkl,.'
On the other hand, in the following
the G6nd agrees more
closely
particulars
or

'

Canarese

;' in

'

or
're,' rtl,'

'

'

'

'

with

'

the Telugu than

(1.)It

with the Tamil

Canarese.

or

singular.
of the first and
"inflexions"
of the pronouns
or
oblique cases
second persons, singularand plural,
identical with those of the Telugu.
are
The
terminations of the Ku are nearlyin accordance with those of the
case
(3.)
Telugu.
(4.)The pronominal signssuffixed to the Ku verbs accord on the whole better
with the Telugu than with any other dialect : e.g., in Tamil
the second and third
the one
tx ;'in Telugu they end
Ir,'the other
persons pluralend diflerently,
alike both generallyin 'aru;'in Ku also both these persons end alike in 'eru.'
(5.)In Canarese all relative participles,
includingthat of the negativeverb,end
uses

the neuter

singularto denote

the feminine

(2.)The

'

'

"

with the exceptionof that of the future,

participles,
have the same
ending : in Telugu the relative participleof the indefinite or
ends in
aoristic tense
eti ;'and in the Ku also the relative past paredi,'or
ticiple
exhibits this ending. Thus, '8,na,'
Tamil, that became; in Canarese,'S,da;'
in Telugu (indefinite
the same
form is 'dti.'
inKu
tense),'ayyfiti;'
The various particulars
and illustrations which have now
been mentioned
prove
the Ku to be totally
distinct from the G6nd ; and though it is allied to it,it is
in

'

;'in

Tamil

all relative

'

allied only in the

same

'

manner

as

to the

languages. In some
the family; for example,
si,'
or
suffixes 'du,''i,'

other

Providian

pointsthis language differs from all the other dialects of

it forms its pastverbal participles
of the
not by means
the only suffixes known
in the other dialects,
to the root 'a,'
but by suffixing
'sh' or 'jS.,'
sometimes
after the manner
of some
of the languagesof Northern
India.
In the other dialects of this family the negative verb possesses only one
tense, an aorist;the Ku, in addition to this negative aorist,has also a negative
preterite,a decided advantage over the other dialects. The Ku suffixes of the
also different from those which are found in the other
are
present verbal participles
'

"

"

I)r4vidlan dialects.

Telugu
The
Kn
as

"

'chu'

or

The

formative

is in
present verbal participle
'i'
or
'pi.'
'te;'in the Ku it is

suffix of the

'tu;'in the Canarese

'ta'

or

four dialects referred to aboye

are
though rude and uncultivated,

"

the

Tuda, Kota,

to
undoubtedly

Gond

be

regarded

and essentially
Dravidian dialects,
equallywith
distinctively

Tamil

and

Telugu.

In

addition

to

idioms of Central India,the Urion

these,there
and

the

are

two

and

the

uncultivated

Rajmahal,which

contain

they may claim

family,though
admixture
of
contain
also
and
forms
roots
a
large
belongingthey
Uraon
Mr.
is
consfdered
to the K61 dialects. The
by
Hodgson as a
many Dravidian roots of primary importancethat
members
of the same
to be considered as
originally

so

22

INTKODUCTION.

Connectinglink between
hal as a connecting
link
The

or

spoken, are
of the

seats

and

Dravidian

K61

In the list of
are

roots form

roots is fourteen

The
follows

"

the

the

Rajmahal ;
and

Eijmahal

The

race.

or

than

remote

K61s

the Male

the

and

the Tamulian
than

Rajmahal or Male

; but whilst

the

range

Rajma-

families.

Uraon, though

by

whom

it is

the Uraons

from

the present

intervene

between

the Males

is

Dravidian
a
substantially

different family.
totally

giren by Mr. Hodgson, sixteen per cent,

list,
given in the Asiatic Besearches,the Dr^
list the proportionof Dravidian
cent. In the Ur^on

Male

words

; in the older

only ten

per

per cent.

principaland
:

the K61

belongsto

purely Dr9.Tidian

vidian

between

of
aborigines
locallymore

the Dr^vidians

tongue,the

and

Dravidian
distinctively

Rajmahalis more

the Males

the K61

most

essential

analogieswhich

have

noticed

are

as

THE

the
Unfortunately

23'

BEAHUI.

inflexions of the

BSjmahal

and Uraon

nouns

and verbs

are

given in any of the lists,

so
that,with the
the grammatical construction
of these

not

exceptionof a few incidental particulars,

In
languages remains unknown.
the particulars
that follow they accord
with the Dr^vidian
grammatical rules.
The Eajmahal expresses the prepositions
to, in, on, "c.,by suffixes. Its dative
suffix is 'ku:'
'm'
is the sign of the pluralnumber
of the pronouns
of the
first and second
persons, replacing n.' the correspondingsign of the singular;
ar' is the sign of the pluralof epicenepronouns
of the third person.
The sign
of the possessive
is
ki,'or in the Ur^iOu ghi,'correspondingappapronouns
rently
to the 'k4,''kl/ of the Hindi,and more
remotely to the 'yoka' of the
'

'

'

'

Telugu.
The

existence of

Dravidian element
distinctively
Central India beingestablished,
the

dialects of

be traced

ginal
in these abori-

Dravidian

race

Grans;es
; and the
deduced from other considerations)
that this
supposition
(which was
diffused at an earlyperiodthroughoutIndia is confirmed.
race
was
The Brahui, the languageof the Beluchi mountaineers
in the khanship
can

now

of Kelat

enables

the southern
as

far North

as

to

us

the banks

as

the Dravidian

trace

confines of Central

Asia.

whole, is derived from

the

of the

beyondthe

race

Brahui

Tbe
same

source

as

Indus

to

sidered
language,conthe Panjabiand

Sindhi ; but it unquestionably

contains a Dravidian elerrient,
ment
elean
has
derived
from
of
the
which
ancient
a remnant
probablybeen
Dravidian

with the Brahuis.

The discovery
of this
incorporated
Dravidian element in a languagespoken beyond the Indus proves that
and the Turcothe Dravidians,like the Aryans, the Graeco-Scythians
entered India by the north-western route.
Mongolians,
The

race

outline of the

followingis an

be allied to the DrS;Vidian

(1.)In

Brahui, as

the Brahui is found

to

tongues.

in the Dravidian

post-positions.
(2.)The gender of

in which
particulars

expressednot by

is

nouns

the
dialects,

of

cases

their

nouns

are

denoted

by

but by prefixed
inflexions,

separatewords.

(3.)The
of

number

of

such
pluralisation,

as

denoted by
ordinarily
When
"c.
a
several,

is

nouns

many,

the

use

noun

of separate particles
stands

alone without

and it is then
is considered to be indefinite,
the
the
of the verb
number
or
to
according
context,
singular plural
regarded
in
accordance
with
This rule is remarkably
the Tamil.
with which it agrees.
and
destitute
of
superlatives.
a
re
comparatives
(4.)Adjectives
'na'
form
their genitivesin
or
'a;' e.g., 'kana,'of me;
(5.)Pronouns
its number
such sign of plurality,

any

as

'nana,'of
'na'

or

iie.

Compare

Tamilian

'nama,' of

us, and

the

G6nd

genitivesuffix

'a.'

or

(6.)The
'",'Tamil

(7.)The
the same

Brahui

dative-accusative is in 'e.' Compare the

Malaysia accusative

'ei.'

as

Brahui

pronoun

of the second person

viz.,'num,' you,

singularis 'nt,'thou,precisely

tongues. The analogy of the pluralof this noun,

pro'numa,' of you, is also wonderfullyin accordance with

in all the Dravidian

24

JNTKODUCTION.

classical Dra vidian

is "num-a/
the

(the

initial

of the

'nim'

plural of

the Dravidian

in

person

plural of

"which

the

Whilst
second

'

in

of the

the

in

the

of

'

Bopp

numerals

are

and

in

three,

totallyunconnected

two

erad-u,'

two

'

'

m,'

Brahui

is

narily
ordi-

second

'um,'

or

in

reappears

the

pronominal sign

they are

arer,'

'

the

'im'

in

is the
'

form

in consequence

idioms

not

are,

is the

form

with

are.

Canarese

ar,'in

and

Brahui

numeral
the

and

'

find in

the
's'

mus,'

numerals

of this

as

the
In

This

'

mfir-u

languages is

languages

this

ten.'
could

be introduced

never

is illustrated
From

aware.

by

cumstance
cir-

four upwards,

twenty-one and twenty-two, the

the separate numerals
one, two,

Brahui,

is

two

two

irat

double.

or

;'Telugu,

'

'

of them

In

mM-u.'

Brahui

The

tical
iden-

are

Canarese,

;' compare

three

Dravidian

is

bases

three; and

the DrS-vidian
with

languages (e.g.,
ir,' the base
compare
'iradu,' the abstract neuter "o.qxs.-d.two): consequently

Brahui

'

with

of this

the

Dravidian

If

we

the

numerals,

remember

Canarese

interchange,as

the Dravidian

to connect

numeral

the

and
of

both

in the

interchangeable

'm"ir,'three,and

I think

we

may

base, or,'one,
'

connection,however, is doubtful,whereas

respectingtwo
(12.)In the class

doubt

'

Sanscrit family,and

irat-(tu),'
twofold

instance

an

DrS, vidian

remark

been

numerals

formative, is complete.
and
'r,' and if we regard

also venture
'as.'

lowest
truth

Indo-European, but
with

of the

agreement

of

relation

also

adjective two,

in

Brahui

compound

'

the

if we
notice the terminations
'mft,'
(1, 'asit;' 2, 'irat;' 3, 'musit;')it is obvious that the
of these words, 'it,'or 'at' is merely a neuter
formative,

each

we

The

In

-.'in the

'ir,'two,

are

numerals

syllableof

tan

the Dravidian

the Brah"ii and

Indo-European origin (c.g., char,'four, 'panj,'five,

Canarese

numerals

like that which

the

in

scarcelyhave

numerals.

Tamil,

;' compare

of these

are

DrS/vidian

with

Brahui

um'

'

the

one

may

'

or

could

for

we

'

of

are

Brahui

'

areri,'ye

verb

that the three

words

base

'

g.,

self,'se.'

pronoun

t3,n

remarks

'shash,' six); and

and

e.

in

'

and

peculiarity

same

ends

substantive

reflexive

of which

second

nlr

Telugu;
ends,

mood

The

in

classical

most

'

peiBOn,

'

mlru

the

as

they
ini(tt)lri,'
ye are, 'iru(tt)",re,'

'

country by foreigners.

Brahui

of the

'

indicative

the

analogy between

universally

(11.)Bopp
into any

musit

is

plural of the

of the

nearly all the DrSlvidian

r,' in

verb

Canarese

the

remarkable

is

pronoun

'

and
'

ir.'

apparent

"

'

the separate pronoun

root

(10.)A

the

verb

person

compare

(9.)The
Tamil

in

'Ir,' 'eru,' '^ru,' Mri,' "c.

in

of the

of the second

pronoun

separate shape in Tamil,

plural termination

Brahui.

considered

is to be

'nflm'

or

of this

but

possessive
'num'),

or

colloquialTamil

in

termination

the

is also

'nfim'

in

of this pronoun

oblique cases

the old Tamil

n!m,' you;

imperative.

person

used

'

is

obsolete nominative

an

being lost),which

'n'

(8.)Whilst
of the

Canarese

!yoM"- (derived from

ordinary base

second

The

forjns.

there

the

safelydo,
with

cannot

the

be any

three.

auxiliarywords

Brahui, 'monl,' opposite, with

(prepositions,
conjunctions,"c.) compare

the

Tamil, 'munnS,' before; and also the

with
the
conjunction
'ft,'
and,
copulative
corresponding Canarese 'A.'
In the limited vocabulary of the Brahui
language,which is given in the Journal
Asiatic
the
I
notice
Bengal
of
Dravidian roots. In the following
a few
Society,
list I include

also

few Dravidian

Afghan dialect,containing an

words, which

element

are

found

allied to the Brahui.

in

the

Laghmani,

an

26

It

Brahui

to

unneceaaary

seema

does to

give

certain extent

of instances

larger number

forma

Dr"yidian

contain

and

; for whilst

words,the

the

Bodo

and

the other dialects of the north-eastern

Dhimal, and to them may be added
forests,
present no specialanalogieswhateyer; and contain only a few vague
but
atruotural affinitiea,
which they have in common
not only with the Dra.vidian,
with the Tibetan,and with every other language and family of languages of the
Scythiangroup.

Use

Common

Term

'

all the languages

now
designated

I have

by a

the

of

term,

common

'

DrAvidian.'

subjectedto comparison
of the essential and

because
Dravidian,'

tive
distinc-

grammatical characteristics which they all possess in common,

and in virtue of which, joinedto the possession
in common
of a large
number
of roots of primary importance,they justlyclaim to be considered
and as forminga distinct
as
springingfrom a common
origin,
familyof tongues.
This family which I style'Dravidian' has been styled Tamuwriters ; but though the Tamil is the oldest and
lian' by some
recent
of the family,
most
and that which contains
highlycultivated member
of
the
the largest
proportion
familyproperty of forms and roots,yet as
'

it is but

dialect out

one

speechfrom
desirable

of many, and does not claim to be the original

the other dialects have been derived ; as it is also

which

to

the

reserve

terms

Tamil'

'

and

'

Tamilian

'

(or as

it is

generallybut erroneouslywritten Tamulian ') to denote the Tamil

languageitself and the peopleby whom it is spoken,I have preferred
this entire familyby a term
to designate
which
is capable of a wider
application.The word which I have chosen is Dravidian,'
word
a
'

'

which has
of

alreadybeen

tonguesby

'Dr"vida'
and

Tamil

'Dravida'

used

the

of this family
genericappellation
Sanscrit geographers. Properly
the term
speaking,

the

denotes

the Tamil

Brahmans
the

means

as

country alone (including

Malay^lam),

usually styled Dravida

'countryof the DrSvidas ;'and
'

are

defined in the Sanscrit lexicons

descended

appliedby

from

the

to

be

"

man

degraded Kshatriya." This

BrahmanioaL

of

an

name

inhabitants of Northern

Brahmans.'
a

Dravida

outcast
was

is

tribe,

doubtless

India to the

USE

of
aborigines
them

OF

the extreme

of Brahmanical
in which

which

they were

itself as

South

the further and

the

Maha-Bharata,

in

from the Ch61as,or Tanjore

distinguished
is stillfurther restricted to the Pandiyaa of
of the advanced
account
civilisationand early

Pandiyakingdom.

from

In

held.
originally

restricted as that of

beingremoter'

27

DRAVIDIAN.

are

Tamilians,the term
Madura, doubtless on
the

'

TERM

priorto the introduction amongst

and is an evidence of the low estimation
civilisation,

the Dravidas

of
celebrity

COMMON

THE

'

The

but
Tamilian,'

ordinaryusage,

and

'

term

Dravidian'

it has the

somewhat

is thus in

advantageof

more

and

vague,

specialadvantage of being the term already

of languages.
adopted"bySanscrit writers to designatethe sou ttern -family
of this more
Consequently,
by the adoption
genericterm, the
word

"

more

Tamilian'' has been left to

that
signify

which

is

distinctively

Tamil.
The
Pandits

languagesof
colloquial
into

denominated

two

India

are

divided

by

the

Sanscrit

each containingfive dialects. These

classes,

'the
respectively

five Gauras'

and

are

'the five Draviras.'

the
bhashaa,' or
By the Gauda or Gaura languages are meant
of Northern India,at the head of which stands the
popular dialects,
Some of the 'bhftshas' or Pracrits anciently
Bengali,the Gaura proper.
enumerated have ceased to be spoken. At present the Bengali,
with its daughterthe Hindustani, the Panjabi,
the Uriya,the Hindi
'

the Siudhi,the
may
the

and
Gujarathi,

the

Marathi

are

the

which
languages

regardedas forming the Gaura class ; to which I would add

in this class
Cashmirian and the languageof Nipal,thus reckoning
be

instead of five.

nine idioms

to the Pandits,are
the
Draviras,according
and the Dravira,"
Telinga,the Karnataka,the Maratha, the Gurjara,
The Maratha and Gurjaraare erroneously
Tamil proper.
included
or

The five Dravidas

in

It is true

this enumeration.

admixture

"

or

of Dravidian

roots

to the
its local proximity

and

that the

Marathi

contains

small

idioms, as might be expectedfrom

Telugu and the Canarese

; and

both

it and

or Gujarathi,
(furjara,
possess certain features of resemblance to the
of the South,which are possibly
derived from the same
or
a
languages
the
of
few
existence
similar source ; but, notwithstanding
a
analogies
d
ifierfrom
those
two
Dravidian
the
of this nature,
languages
familyso
and
the
northern
widelyand radically, are so closelyallied to
group,
them to that class.
be any hesitation in transferring
that there cannot

the

'

The

three

languagesthat remain

in the classificationof Dravidian

lists,
viz.,the
tongues which is contained in the Sanscrit geographical
Karnataka, Kannada
the Dravida

proper

or
or

Canarese,the Telinga,
Telungu or Telugu,and
of
the principal
members
Tamil, are certainly

28

INTRODUCTION.

southern

the

the Tnlu

Malayalamand
The

considered

first was

as

to be a

observed

that the

contained in the Sanscrit enumeration.

dialect of the

Tamil, and

was

included

of the Dravida

Tuda, Kota, Gond, and

the

not

are

be

It will

probably
proper ; the second was
The uncultivated dialects"
dialect of the Canarese.

in the denomination
considered

family

Dravidian

or

Ku

"

appear

to have

been

to the

unknown

they been known, probablythey would not

have been deemed
worthy of notice.
No term
belongingto the Dravidian languagesthemselves has ever
of this family,nor are the
been used to designateall the members
native Tamil or Telugu grammarians,though deeply skilled in the
with comparative
of their own
acquainted
tongues,sufficiently
grammar
Pandits

; and

to have

grammar

had

even

arrived

at the conclusion

that all these idioms

have

Some
term.
by a common
originand requireto be designated
European scholars who have confined their attention to the studyof
of the others,
have fallen into
Dravidian
idiom to the neglect
some
one
the same
of
of supposing these languages independentone
error
another.
of grammatical
The Sanscrit Pandits had a clearer perception
affinitiesand diflierences
than the Dravidian grammarians
; and,though
their generalisation
not perfectly
was
correct,it has furnished us with
the only common
terms
which
we
possess for denotingthe northern
and southern families of languagesrespectively.
common

The
It

DbAvidian

Languages

independent

op

the

Sanscrit.

supposed by the Sanscrit Pandits (by whom

everything
with which they were
referred
was
to a Brahmanical
acquainted
origin),
and too hastily
taken for grantedby the earlierEuropean scholars,
that
the Dravidian
in many
from
languages,though diflfering
particulars
the North-Indian
idioms,were
equallywith them derived from the
Sanscrit.
They could not but see that each of the Dravidian
languages to which their attention had been drawn, contained a
certain proportionof Sanscrit
of which
words, some
were
quite
unchanged,though some
much
were
altered as to be recognized
so
with
and
observed
difficulty; thoughthey
clearly
enough that each language
was

contained
observe

also

that

language,or
resided.

that it was

in them

Consequently
they

Un-Sanscrit
element

Un-Sanscrit words and forms, they did

many
those words and forms constituted the bulk of
that the

of
livingspirit

contented themselves

with

the

not
'

the

language

the
ascribing

portionof these

of unknown

languagesto an admixture of a foreign

origin. Accordingto this view there was
no

essential difference between

'the Dravidas'

and

'the Gaudas

;'for

VIDIAN

TONGUES

Bengaliand

the other

DEA

the

INDEPENDENT

OF

29

SANSCRIT.

languagesof the Gaura

group contain also a

forms,whilst in the main

small

proportionof Un-Sanscrit words and

of the Sanscrit. This representation
fellfar short
theyare corruptions
of the real state of the case, and the supposition
of the derivation of
the Dravidian languagesfrom the Sanscrit,though entertained in the
past generationby a Colebrooke,a Carey,and a Wilkins, is now
known
destitute of foundation. The orientalists referred
to be entirely
to, though deeplylearned in Sansotit and well acquaintedwith the
idioms of Northern
India,were
unacquainted,or but very slightly
with the Dravidian languages. No person who has any
acquainted,
of comparativephilologyand who
acquaintancewith the principles
studied the grammars
and vocabularies of the Dravidian
has carefully
and compared them with those of the Sanscrit,
can
languages,
suppose
and
inflexional
of
those languages
that the grammaticalstructure
forms
and the greaternumber
of their more
importantroots are capableof
whatsoever.
beingderived from the Sanscrit by any process of corruption
The

between

hypothesisof

the

existence

of

original
affinity

remote

or
languagesand the Sanscrit,

the Dravidian

rather

between

Indo-Europeanfamilyof tongues,inclusive of
to give the Dravidian
to allow us
the Sanscrit,of such a nature
as
different
languagesa placein the Indo-Europeangroup, is altogether
from the notion of the direct derivation of those languagesfrom the
is favoured by
of a remote
Sanscrit. The hypothesis
original
affinity
and in the vocabulary,
both in the grammar
some
analogies
interesting
of those analogies
best
are
which will be noticed in their place. Some
of the retention by the Dravidian
accounted for by the supposition

those

languagesand

family,as by

the

the

and

Finnish

the

Turkish, of

certain

number

of

belongingto the Pre-Sanscrit period,the periodwhich

of the Indo-European group of tongues
preceded the final separation
from the Scythian. I think I shall also be able to prove, with respect
another portionof the analogiesreferred to, that instead of the
to
both
or
Dravidian languageshaving borrowed them from the Sanscrit,
roots

and forms

having derived

them

from

disdained to borrow, them

probabilities
may

from

be in favour

common

source,

its Dravidian

of the

the Sanscrit has

not

neighbours. Whatever

now
hypothesis

mentioned, the

of the direct derivation of the Drfividian languages

supposition
and
the Hindi, the Bengali,
in the same
as
manner
from the Sanscrit,
derived from it,was
dialects are directly
certainly
the other Gaura
older

erroneous.

portionof

(1.)It overlooked the circumstance that the Un-Sanscrit

of
nearlyas much in excess
the DrS.vidian languageswas

in the North-Indian
the Sanscrit,
as

idioms

the Sanscrit

was

in

excess

30

INTRODUCTION.

of the barbarian

or

languages,their verbal and

Dravidian

syntacticarrangement of their
constitutes the livingspiritof
different from
radically
the

opinionof

Sanscrit relied

the

words

derivation
the

mainly on

Orientalists who

held

languagesfrom

Dravidian

the

all dictionaries of

that

circumstance

originallyand

were

(3.)The

of the

the

in short, which
everything,

"

"

the Sanscrit.

of the

and
inflexions,

nominal

language

the still

numerals

and

that the pronouns

material circumstance

more

overlooked

(2.)It

Un-Sanscrit element.

of Sanscrit words
large number
which, though much
at all altered,and a stilllargernumber
scarcely
not,
altered,were
unquestionablySanscrit derivatives. They were
that such words are never
regardedby native scholars
however, aware
and acknowledged to be derived
of Dravidian
but are known
as
origin,
from the Sanscrit,
and that they are arrangedin classes,
accordingto
with reference to
the degree in which they have been corrupted,
or
also
the medium
They were
throughwhich they have been derived.
that true Dravidian
unaware
words, which form the great majorityvof
the words in the southern vocabularies,
are
placed by native grammarians

languages contained

Dravidian

in
the
'

different class from

Sanscrit,and
words.'

pure

honoured

The

Sanscrit derivatives
doubtless

are

themselves

the above-mentioned

derivatives from

epithets national words' and

Telugu grammarians specifyeven the time when
first introduced
into Telugu; by which
were
we

to understand

with

the

the time

'

when

the

in the

Brahmans

established

The adherents of
Telugu country. They say,
King Andhra-riya,who then resided on the banks of the Godavery,
of which
words in course
of time
spoke Sanscrit derivatives,
many
became
of nouns,
corrupted. That other class of words consisting
"

"

verbals,and verbs,which

created

by the god Brahma before the

The date of the
king,are oalled 'pure (Telugu)words.'
or
reignof this King Andhra-raya,
King of the Andhras (a division of
who is now
the ancient Telugus);
worshippedat Chicacole as a deity,
is unknown, but was
probably several centuries anterior to the
time

of this

Christian
In
from
which

were

era.

is felt in distinguishing
Sanscrit derivatives
generalno difficulty
the ancient
it may

be

Dravidian
doubtful

roots.

There

are

few

cases

only

in

whether

words
particular
Sanscrit or
are
Dravidian, e.g., 'nir,'water, and 'min,' fish,are claimed as component
parts of both languages;though I believe that both are of
Dravidian origin.
(4.)The Orientalists who supposedthe Dr".vidian languages
to be

derived from

the Sanscrit

were

not

aware

of the existence of uncultivated

in which Sanscrit words

languagesof the Dravidian family,

are

DKA

not

at

that

VIDIAN

TONGUES

of the Dravidian

are
derivatives,

able to

derivatives

than
finery

as

languageswhich

dispensewith

being considered

It is true

necessaries.

of all for the

the Sanscrit

so

as

make

also not

luxuries
now

more

for the

aware

of Sanscrit

use

it would
so

31

SANSCRIT.

those derivatives

rather

Telugu to dispensewith its Sanscrit :

most

OF

all,or butveryrarely,
employed;and theywere

some

such

INDEPENDENT

or

altogether
articles of

be diflScultfor the
Canarese ; and

Malay^lam: those languages

havingborrowed
and being so habituated to look up to
largely,
"

from
it for

to assert their
help,that it would be scarcely
possiblefor them now
independence. The Tamil, however, the most highlycultivated ah
intra of all Dravidian
idioms,can dispensewith its Sanscrit altogether,
if need be, and not only stand alone but flourish without its aid.
The ancient or classical dialect of the Tamil
language,called the
Shen-Tamil,' or correct Tamil, in which nearly all the literature
has been written, contains exceedingly
little Sanscrit;and differs
from the colloquial
in the
the language of prose, chiefly
or
dialect,
sedulous and jealous
the use of Sanscrit
with which it has rejected
care
derivatives and characters,
and restricted itself to pure Dravidian
So completelyhas this jealousyof Sanscrit
sounds,forms,and roots.
pervaded the minds of the educated classes amongst the Tamilians,
that a Tamil
compositionis regardedas refined,in accordance with
not iu proportion
good taste, and worthy of being called classical,
of Sanscrit which it.con tains,
in
would be the case
to the amount
as
from
other dialects,
but in proportionto its freedom
Sanscrit !
some
The
speech of the very lowest classes of the people in the retired
*

country districts

accords

to

considerable

extent

with

the

classical

dispensingwith Sanscrit derivatives. In every countryit is

in the poetry and in the speech of the peasantry that the ancient
It is in Tamil prose comcondition of the languageis best studied.
positions
and in the ordinaryspeech of the Brahmans
and the more
learned Tamilians that the largest
infusion of Sanscrit is contained ;
dialect in

and the words

those which

that have been

express

togetherwith

from the Sanscrit

borrowed

abstract ideas of

the technical terms

of

are

chiefly

and religion,
science,
philosophy,
the more
elegantarts. Even in

of
in which
on
a
religious
subjects,
largeramount
compositions
the
of literature,
Sanscrit is employed than in any other departinent

prose

proportionof Sanscrit which

greater than the
in

which

English. Let

of Latin

found

its way

contained in

us, for example,compare

iscontained in the Tamil

Book
(Prayer-

the

amount

has

with
version)

Englishversion of the

is not

compositions
corresponding
the amount

translation of the Ten

the amount

same

into Tamil

of Latin which

of Sanscrit

Commandments
is contained in

formula^and which has-found

its way

32

INTRODUCTION,

through
from EcclesiasticalLatin,or indirectly,
it,either directly,
and
nouns
tives
adjecmedium of the Norman-French.
Of forty-three

into
the

are
Anglo-Saxon,fourteen
English version twenty-nine
in the Tamil (thedifference
Latin : of fifty-three
and adjectives
nouns
in idiom causes
Dravidian,
are
this differencein the number)thirty-two
twenty-one Sanscrit. Of twenty verbs in the English,thirteen are

in the

seven
Anglo-Saxon,

Latin

of

verbs
thirty-four

in the

Tamil, twenty-

the five numerals

Sanscrit. Of
only seven
their
which are
found in the English,either in their cardinal or
ordinal shape,all are Anglo-Saxon : of the six numerals found in
the Tamil,five are Dravidian,one
('thousand')is probablySanscrit.
for the purpose of ascertaining
Putting all these numbers
together,
seven

and
Dravidian,

are

the percentage,I find that in the

verbs,the

amount

viz.,as nearlyas
all the pronouns,

inflexional forms

department of

numerals

nouns,

and

foreignelement is in both instances the same,

In both instances,
also,
possible
forty-five
per cent.
and
adverbs,and conjunctions, all the
prepositions,
the property of the
and connectingparticles
are
of the

native tongue.

the character of the contributions

expressions
respecting
which our mother-English
has received from Anglo-Saxon and from
Latin respectively,
are
exactlyapplicableto the relation and proportion
Trench's

which

the native

Dravidian

element

bears

to

the

Sanscrit

and

its

tained
con-

in the Tamil.

ligaments,
the greatbody of articles,
rals,
numeprepositions,
conjunctions,
pronouns,
to knit together,
verbs,all smaller words which serve
auxiliary
and bind the largerinto sentences,these,not to speak of the grammatical
structure of the language,are
exclusively
Anglo-Saxon (Dravidian).
its
tale
of
The Latin (Sanscrit)
bricks,yea of
may contribute
building,but the
goodly and polishedhewn stones, to the spiritual
mortar, with all that holds and binds these together,and constitutes
them into a house is Anglo-Saxon(Dravidian)
throughout.''
of Sanscrit which we
find to be contained
Though the proportion
in the Tamil version of the Ten Commandments
happens to correspond
of Latin which is contained in the English
to the proportion
so exactly
"

All its joints,

its sinews
its whole articulation,

to conclude
version, it would be an error
as
deeplyindebted to the Sanscrit as the

The

Tamil

can

dispensewith
readily

that the Tamil

languageis

Englishis to the Latin.

the greater part

or

the whole

and
of its Sanscrit,

with it rises to a
by dispensing
purer and more
the Englishcannot abandon
its Latin witliout
refined style
; whereas
Such is the povertyof the Anglo-Saxon
that
abandoningperspicuity.
it has

no

synonymes

of its

own

for many

of the words

which

it has

INTRODUCTION.

34
The

tator.

Parimilaragaron tlie KuBal of Tiruacknowledged and deified princeof Tamil

of

commentary

(a Pariar ! but the

which
classical production
is the most
authors)
valluvar

Tamil

by

been written in

Brahman.

spoken languagesof the South

and but parimitation and rivalryof the Sanscrit,
tially
observes that the

Wilson

Professor

cultivated in

were

has

sitions
compoindependentliterature ; that the principal
in Tamil, Telugu,Canarese, and Malayalam are translations or
the
borrow
from Sanscrit works ; and that they largely
paraphrases
is not perfectly
This representation
phraseologyof their originals.
that
correct, in so far as the Tamil is concerned ; for the compositions
in the language,
admitted to be the ablest and finest,
are
universally
independentof the
viz.,the CuRal and the Chintamani, are perfectly
in designas well as in execution ; and though
and original
Sanscrit,
to
aspired

it is true

an

say translated
similar works, they boast that

imitated

that Tamil writers have

I cannot

"

Ramiyana, the Maha-bh^rata, and

Kamban
the Tamil
Ramayana of their own
of Valmiki.
Sanscrit original

the

of

all evidences

(5.)Of

is

"

greatlysuperiorto the

identityor diversityof languages the

by a comparisonof their
of
grammaticalstructure ; and by such a comparisonthe independence
and conclusively
the Dravidian
languagesof the Sanscrit will satisfactorily
pating
be established. By the same
comparison(atthe risk of anticiwill be discussed more
a questionwhich
fullyin the body of
of placingthese languages in the Scythian
the work), the propriety
will be indicated.
group, rather than in the Indo-European,
The most prominentand essential differencesin pointof grammatical
between
Dravidian
the
and
the Sanscrit,
structure
are
languages

most

as

conclusive

follows

(i.)In

the

of male
tinctrpn
; in the

Dravidian

languagesall nouns
denotinginanimate
irrational beingsare of the neuter gender. The disfemale appears

and

onlyin tbe pronouns of the third

adjectives
appellative
(properly
nouns) which denote

and
rational beings,
and

formed

are

in the third person

the

same

two

in

furnished

are

"

substances and

person

those which

are

of

the pronominalterminations;
by suffixing
the verb,which, being formed by suffixing

has three forms in the singular

and
pronominalterminations,
the
to distinguish several genders,
the plural,
and in accordance

In all other cases

with the pronouns of the third person.
where it is
requiredto mark the distinction of gender,separate words signifying
'male' and

'female'

are

prefixed;but, even

denoted be the male

the object
denotes it does not

cease

or

female of

to be considered

an

in such

cases,

animal,the

neuter, and

noun

neuter

though
which
forms

of

DRAVIDIAN

the pronoun

TONGUKS

and

verb

INDEPENDENT

OF

THE

SANSCRIT.

35

requiredto be conjoinedwith it. This rule

presents
contrast
to the rules respecting
gender which we
find in the vivid and
and in the other
highlyimaginative
Sanscrit,
a

are

marked

Indo-European
but
languages,
\

it accords with

the usage

of all the

of the Scythian
languages
group.
Dravidian nouns
(ii.)
not by means
are
of case-terminations,
inflected,
but by means
of suffixed postjjositions
and separable
particles,
in
the Scythian
as
The
difference
the
between
declension
tongues.
only
of the

is that the inflexional signsare

pluraland that of the singular,
annexed
in the singular
to the base, in the pluralto the sign of
plurality,
exactlyas in the Scythian
languages. After the plnralising
has
been
added
to
all
particle
the base,
of number
nouns, irrespective
and gender,are declined in the same
manner
as in the singular.
The
(iii.) Dravidian dative 'ku,''ki,'or *ge,'bears no analogy
to any

dative case-termination which

of the

Indo-European
languages;

but

is found in the Sanscrit

in any
it perfectly
to the
corresponds
or

dative of the Oriental

Turkish,to that of the languageof the Scythian

tablets of Behistun,and to that of several of the languagesof the
Finnish

family.
(iv.)Wherever

guages,
used in the Indo-Europeanlanare
prepositions
the Dravidian languages,
with those of the Scythiangroup,
do not constitute a
use
instead,which post-positions
post-positions
of relation or quality,
separatepart of speech,but are real nouns
the gerundsI
or
adoptedas auxiliaries. All adverbs are either nouns
"

or

infinitivesof verbs.

'

are
(v.) In Sanscrit and all the Indo-Europeantongues,adjectives
declined like substantives,
and agree with the substantives to which
In the Dravidian
they are conjoinedin gender,number; and case.
as in the Scythian,
are
incapableof declension.
languages,
adjectives

When

used

as
separately

abstract

nouns

which is the
quality,,
theyare subject
adjectives,
of

and natural character of Dravidian

original
to all the affectionsof substantives;
but when
ally,
they are used adjectivto qualify
other substantives,
i.e.,
they do not admit of any
which they
inflexional change,but are simplyprefixed
to the nouns
qualify.
as of the Mongolian,
(vi.)It is also a characteristicof these languages,
distinction
the Manchu, and several other ScytEian
languages,in contrato the languages of the Indo-European family,that,
the relativeparticiples
wherever it is practicable,
they use as adjectives
of quality,
of verbs,
in preference
to nouns
so
or
adjectives
properly
of
called ; and that in consequence of this tendency,when
nouns
are
used,the formative termination of the relative participle
quality
D

36
is

INTRODUCTION.

suffix tliey
partakeof the

suffixed to them, throughwhich

generally

character

both of

nouns

of verbs.

and

one
plural,
of which includes,
the other excludes the party addressed,is a peculiarity
of the Scythianlanguages;
of many
of the Dravidian
as
dialects,
the languages of the Indobut is unknown
to the Sanscrit and

The
(vii.)

existence of two

pronouns

of the first person

European family.
The situation of the governingword is characteristicof each
(viii.)
of these families of languages. In Sanscrit and the Indo-European
familyit usuallyprecedesthe word governed: in the Dravidian and
in all the Scythianlanguages,
it is invariably
sequence
placedafter it; in conthe last placein
of which the principal
verb alwaysoccupies
the sentence.
The
adjectiveprecedesthe substantive: the adverb
precedesthe verb : the substantive which is governed by a verb,
with every word that depends upon it or qualifies
it,precedes
together
the verb by which it is governed: the relative participle
precedesthe
which it depends:the negativebranch of a sentence
noun
on
precedes
the affirmative: the noun
in the genitivecase
precedesthat which
and. becomes
changesplaceswith the noun
governs it: the jore-position
a
postpositionin virtue of its governing a case : and finallythe
is concluded
sentence
finite verb.
In each
by the one, all-governing,
of these importantand highlycharacteristicpeculiarities
of syntax the
Dravidian
languagesand the Scythianare thoroughly
agreed.
The
Dravidian
(ix.)
languageslike the Scythian,but unlike the
Indo-European,
to conjuncpreferthe use of continuative participles
tions.
(x.) The
in the

existence of

negativeas well as an affirmative voice

verbal system of these languages,
constitutes another essential
a

them and the languagesof the Indopoint of difierence between

European family: it equallyconstitutes a pointof agreement between
them and the Scythiantongues.
of these languages as of the
(xi.)It is a marked
peculiarity
and
the Manchu, and in a modified degreeof
Mongolian
other
many
that they make use of relative participles
Scythianlanguages,
instead
of relative pronouns.
There is not a trace of the existence of a relative
in any Dravidian language. The place of such
is
pronoun
pronouns
supplied,as in the Scythian tongues mentioned
relative
which
participles,

are

of the verb
participles

suffix is in

Thus,

by

from

iperaon

who
;

came,

'vand'

above,by
the present,preterite,
and

the addition of

generalidentical

the person

who-came

formed

with

the

is in

Tamil

the

formative

sign
'

of the

vand-a

future

suffix; which

possessivecase.
the
al,'literally,

preteriteverbal participle
signifying

UN-SANSCRIT

ELEMENT

IN

NORTHERN

having come, beingconverted into

the-who-came,
by the addition of
suffix

'

37

VERNACULARS.

relative participle,
equivalentto

and adjectival
possessive

the old

a.'
other differences in

grammaticalstructure will be pointed

in the course
out hereafter,
of the grammaticalanalysis
: but in the
which
mentioned
are
importantparticulars
above, the Dr"vidian
from the languagesof the
differ so considerably
languages
evidently
from the Sanscrit (notwithand in particular
standing
Indo-European
family,
the predominancefor so many ages of the social and religious
influence of the Sanscrit-speaking
that it cannot be doubted that
race),
differentfamilyof tongues. They are neither
theybelongto a totally
derived from the Sanscrit,
are
nor
capableof being affiliatedwith it:
and it cannot
have escapedthe notice of the student of comparative
that in every one
in which the gramof those particulars
philology,
matical
structure of the Dravidian languagesdiffersfrom the Sanscrit,
it agrees with the structure of the Scythian
or the languages
languages,

Many

of Central and

Is

Uw-Sanscrit

THE

Languages
The
from

the

forms

of
hypothesis

Element

from

an

India

DrAvidian

the

admixture

of

tongues
and

some
beingnow no longerentertained,
attributed
and
have adopted an opposite
hypothesis,
of the
of the Drividian languagesthat corruption

source,

the

been

supposed by
of Nipaul,and
Mr. Hodgson,
has

Vernacular

of words
proportion

Sanscrit out of which the vernaculars of Northern

It

the

the direct derivation of the Dravidian

unknown

the influence

in

contained

Northern

op

with
Sanscrit,

oriental scholars
to

Asia.

Northern

some

Rev.

Dr.

India have

Stevenson, of

arisen.

Bombay,

other orientalists,
(1) that the North-

not so much
Sanscrit,
and disintegration,
as throughthe
by the natural process of corruption
re-mouldingpower of the Un-Sanscrit element which
over-mastering,
is contained in them ; and (2)that this Un-Sanscrit element is identical
which they suppose to have been the speech
with the Dravidian speech,
of India.
of the ancient Nishadas,and other aborigines

Indian vernaculars have been derived from

the

dation
The firstpart of this hypothesis
appears to rest upon a better founthan the second: but even the firstpart appears to me to be too
and to require considerable modificationj for in some
expressed,
strongly
of the Sanscrit into the Hindi,the
the corruption
importantparticulars
"c. has been shown to have arisen from that natural process
Bengali,
of the
in Europe,in the corruption
of changewhich we see exemplified
Nevertheless, on comparing
Latin into the Italian and the French.
the

structure
grammatical

and

with
essentialcharacter of the Sanscrit,

that of the vernaculars of Northern

that those
India,I feelpersuaded

38

INTRODUCTION.

vernaculars

have

to

corruptedin a Scythian
of Scythianinfluences.
operation
of the North-Indian languages
the grammar

considerable extent been

and throughthe
direction,
The modifications which

have received,
of
beinggenerally
and the

one

same

it
direction,

and

one

the

same

and
character,

is obvious that there must

have been

in
a

modifyingcause ; and as the barbarian or Un-Sanscrit portion

of those languages,
which
Professor Wilson
styles a portionof a
and scantyspeech,
the relicsof a periodpriorto
primitive,
unpolished,
is generallycalculated to amount
to one-tenth of the
civilization,'
common

'

whole, and
from

was

Marathi,to

in

it
fifth,

element

that extraneous

It is admitted

reasonable to infer that it

seems

that

the

modifyinginfluences proceeded.

that before the arrival of the

Aryans,or Sanscritand Vaisyas,the greater

speakingcolonyof Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
called
peopledby rnde aboriginal
tribes,
part of Northern India was
by Sanscrit writers,Mlfechchaa,
Dasyus,Nishadas,"o. ; and it is the
received opinionthat those aboriginal
tribes were
of Scythian,
or at
least of Non- Aryan origin. On the irruption
of the Aryans,it would
Sanscrit of the connaturally
happen that the copiousand expressive
quering
race

would

Scythiantongue which

almost

overwhelm

spoken by

the

of
vocabulary

the

rude

the

theless,
tribes. Neveraboriginal
structure of the Scythiantongues
as the grammatical
possesses
and persistency
peculiarstability
who
; and as the Pre- Aryan tribes,
were
than the Aryans,
probablymore numerous
not annihilated,
were
but only reduced to a dependent position,
and eventually,
in most
in the Aryan community, the largeSanscrit
instances,incorporated
addition which the Scythian
vernaculars received,
would not necessarily
alter their essential structure,
them of the power of influencing
or deprive
and assimilating
the speechof the conquering
race.
Accordingto this
theory,the grammaticalstructure of the spoken idioms of Northern
India was
from the first,
and alwayscontinued to
be,in the main,
Scythian; and the change which took placewhen Sanscrit acquired
the predominance,
the Aryans gradually
as
extended their conquests
and their colonies,
rather a changeof
was
than of grammar,
vocabulary
"a
change not so much in arrangement and vital spirit
in the
as
materiel of the language.
This hypothesis
to have the merit of
seems
better than
according
other
with
existing
phenomena. Seeingthat the northern vernaany
culars
was

possess, with the words of the Sanscrit,

a grammatical structure
which in the main appears to be Scythian,
it
seems

represent those

more

correct

to

languagesas havinga Scythianbasis,

with a large
and
almost overwhelming
Sanscrit addition,
than as havinga Sanscritbasis,
with

small admixture of

element.
Scythian

TJN-SANSCRIT

ELEMENT

IN

NORTHERN

39

VERNACULARS.

Whichever

be adopted,there is not much room

ference
for difproposition
the /acfothat are involved in the dispute;
opinionrespecting
the existence of a Scythian element in the colloquial
dialects of
Northern India having been poi"tedout
many
years ago by Sir W.
Jones,and never since called in question.
The
second part of the hypothesisof Dr. Stevenson, viz.,
the
of the Un-Sanscrit or Scythian element which is contained
identity
in those languages
with the languages
of the Dravidian family,rests
different foundation,
a
on
and appears to me to be less defensible.
the Scythianor Dravidian
in question,
Accordingto the supposition
of

element

is

one
substantially

languagesof India,whether

the

northern

in those districtsof Northern

amount

by

and

the

Aryans; greaterin

in

same

southern,but

or

India which

Mysore ; and greatest of all in the

extremityof the peninsula^to which

southern

Brahmanical

had

race

extended

not

Kamayana.
This hypothesis
is certainly
in
in the ancient

events

pointof

blood

and

may

but

whatever

in

first conquered

Dekhan, Telin-

the

and

current

the

of

in
relationship,

subsisted

have
originally

northern

is smallest

of Manu

with

accordance
:

vernacular

Tamil country,at the

the aggressions
of the

in the age

historyof India

race,

were

districtsof the

the remoter

and

gana,

all the

between

the

and the southern

whatever
evidences
aborigines
ethnological
of their identity
may be supposedto exist; when we view the question
and with reference to the evidence
which is furuishe
philologically,
of their identitydoes not
by their languages alone, the hypothesis
"

"

to

appear

me

to have

been established.

It may

in point of grammatical structure

analogies

Un-Sanscrit
with

element

which

is contained

true

appear

in the

to

that

various
the

connect

North-Indian

idioms

Scythianor Tartar tongues. This connection,however,

to the entire group of Scythian
relationship
only to a general

the

amounts

languages; and

no

of

Scythianfamily,has yet

been

Scythiansubstratum

number

of

or

any

idioms accords with that

idioms

which

of the Dravidian

the New

Persian

has

langufiges.

of the Northgrammar
of the Dravidian languagesare aa

in which
particulars
principal

The

Dravidian

presentsa greater
the Oriental Turkish,or with that

familyof tongues by

than with
modified,

Indian

of the North-Indian

pointsof agreementwith

Scythiantongue
been

in
languages,
the Turkish, the Finnish,or any other
provedto exist. Indeed I conceive that

to the
special
relationship

contrordistinclionto those

the

be

the

of separatepost-fixed
by means
(1),the inflexion of nouns
by annexing to the unvarying
(2),the inflexion of the plural
particles;
sufiixesof case as those by which thethe same
sign of plurality
follows

:
"

40

INTRODUCTION.

singularis inflected; (3),the use of a dative or dative-accusative in

ko' or 'ku :'(4),the use in several of the northern idioms of two pronouns
the other excluding
the one including,
of the first person plural,
instead of preposithe party addressed ; (5),the use of post-positions,
tions
of
of
verbal
tenses by means
participles
; (6),the formation
;
the
word governed. In
(7),the situation of the governingword after
the particulars
the grammar
of the North-Indian
above-mentioned
idioms undoubtedlyresembles that of the Dravidian family: but the
argument founded upon this general agreement is to a considerable
'

neutralised

extent

by

the circumstance that those idioms accord in the

and to the very same

particulars,
extent, with
very same
and several other families of the Scythian
Not
group.
in
particulars
the

which

the Dr"vidian

Mongolian(and there

languagesdiffer from

the Turkish
one

of those

the Turkish

has
pointsof difference)
been
discovered
in
idioms.
For instance,
as
the North-Indian
yet
those idioms contain no trace of the relative participle
which is used
in all the Dravidian
tongues instead of a relative pronoun ; they are
destitute of the regularly
inflected negativeverb of the Dravidian
languages; and theycontain not one of the Dravidian pronouns or
or

numerals

not

"

even

Behistun,and which
and

had

which

we

stillsurvive

even

vocabularies

been

such

many

If the Un-Sanscrit

Lapps.

vernaculars

those

are

find

Scytbictablets of
languagesof the Ostiaks

in the

contained

element

Drividianwe

in the

in the

might also expect to

few

northern

find in their

such as the words for

primary Dravidian roots
'head,''hand,''foot,''eye,''ear,'"fec.; but I have not been able
reliable analogyin words
to discover any
belongingto this class.
The only resemblances which have been pointedout are
those which
a

Dr.

Stevenson

and

on

has traced

which, in
in

"

in

few

the absence of

words

remote

from

ordinaryuse,

analogyin primaryroots, and

cially
espe-

grammatical structure,it is impossibleto placeany dependence.*

The

difference between

the Dravidian

vocabularyand that
respect to primary roots

India with
languagesof Northern
togetherwith the essential agreement of all the Dravidian vocabularies
of the

with

one

another,will

appear

from the

following
comparativeview

In many

of

instances Dr. Stevenson's lexical analogiesare illusory,

and disappear
altogetheron a little investigation.
Thus, he supposes the North Indian
'pet,'the belly,the vjomb, to be allied to the first word in the Tamil compound
child.
That
own
word should
'petta pillei,'
have been
written 'pettra' in
English,to accord with the pronunciationof the Tamil word : the Tamil spelling
of it,however, is 'pcKBa.' It is the preteriterelative
participleof 'peE-u' to
borne.
bear, to obtain,signifyingthat was
PeE-u,' to obtain,has no connexion
with
word which
signifiestlie womb, and its derivative noun
any
a thing obtained,
a
p6B-u,'means
birth,a favour. The aflSnitiesof this root
'

'

will be

inquiredinto

in the

ComparativeVocabulary.

42

INTEODUCTION.

the substitution for it of the

and
singular,

but in

no

connexion,in

inflexion do

we

forms

and

case, in

or

roots

but

vernaculars

their existence

'man:'

no

after all,
further
family.Possibly,
in the northern

'or

'men

compound or verbal
peculiar
personalpronouns of

the least trace of the

see

the Dravidian
the existence

number

no

Turkish

of

does not

research may

disclose

Dravidian
distinctively
appear

to me

as

yet to

take too wide a range,

proved; for most of Dr. Stevenson's analogies
and where they are supposedto be distinctively
riably
Dravidian,they invaI conclude,therefore,
that the
disappearon examination.
Un-Sanscrit
portionof the northern languagescannot safelybe placed
be

in the
both

same

category with

the

beingScythianrather

With

Group

what

op

than

idioms

BE

of

sense

are

the

DrAvidian

Idioms

affiliated?

of Northern

India

objectof

out

of consideration for the

our
work, and restricting
attention to the Dravidian languages,
and the questionof their affiliation,
the supposition
of their Scythianrelationship
to
appears to me
be that which is most fullyborne out by grammaticalanalysis
and the
comparisonof vocabularies.
In usingthe word
I use it in the wide generalsense
Scythian,'
in which
it was
used by Professor Rask, who
first employedit to
designatethat group ef tongues which comprises the Finnish,the
guages
Turkish,the Mongolian, and the Tungusian families. All these lanformed on one
and the same
are
grammatical system, and in
with the same
accordance
general laws. Their formation of cases,
of successive,
moods, and tenses,by the simpleagglutination
unchangeable

present,as

extraneous

to the

the

Indo-European.

Languages
TO

Leavingthe

southern,except perhapsin

this

'

determine
suffixes,

them

to

be

distinct class of

languages"
the Semitic,
which inflects dissyllabic
a class distinct from
roots by the
variations of internal vowels,and als6 from the Indo-European
idioms,
which
make
of technical case-signs
so extensive a use
and other inflexions,
of euphonicmodiflcation,
and of composition.
These languages
have been termed by some
the Tatar or Tartar familyof tongues, by
others the Finnish,the Ural-Altaic,the Mongolian,or the Turanian
;
but as these terms have often been appropriatedto
one
designate
or
two

to
families,

the exclusion

and too liable to

of
designations

been

used

in

of the rest, they seem

to be too

misapprehensionto bo safely
employed as

the entire group.

the

Classics in

The
a

term

vague,

the barbarous tribes of unknown

generally

'

narrow

common

Spythian'
havingalready

undefined sense,

to

denote

originthat inhabited

the

AFFILIATION

northern
and

partsof Asia

convenient word

the first by whom

OF

and

DRAVIDIAN

Europe,it seems

which

this word

43

LANGUAGES.

to be the most

appropriate
Professor Bask, vcho was
employedas a common
genericdesignation,

is available.
was

also the firstto suggest that the Dravidian

was

languageswere

probablyScythian. He

has

or

Tamilian
of

the merit

having
leftboth by him,

this relationship;
but the evidence of itwas
suggested
and by succeeding
in a very defective state.
In the grammawriters,
tical
a
nd
of
the
DrS
vidian
analysis
comparison
languageson which
about to enter
I hope to help forward the solution of a
we
are
problem which has often been stated,and which has been ingeniously
elucidated

up

to

certain

point,but

which

has

yet been

never

thoroughlyinvestigated.
The various particulars
which were
recentlyadduced to prove that
the Dravidian familyis essentially
different from and independent
of
the Sanscrit (eachof which will be more
considered in the sequel,
fully
under its appropriate
head) may also be regarded as proving that
those languagesare intimately
related to the Scythiangroup.
In this

introductory
part of

the work, I shall content

myselfwith

the evidence which

adducingin proof of their Scythianrelationship
was
recentlyfurnished by the translation of the Behistun tablets.
record the political
discovered at Behistun
autobiography
inscriptions
in the Babylonian,
of Darius Hystaspesin the Old Persian,
and also in the language of the Scythians of the Medo-Persian
empire; and the translation of the Scythianportionof those inscriptions
of giving the Dravidian
has thrown
new
light on the propriety
languagesa placein the Scythiangroup. The languageof the Scj^hic
in Mr. Norris's
at first supposedto be Median, has been shown
tablets,
valuable paper (inthe Journal
Vol. XV.)
of the Royal Asiatic Society,
enabled to
to be distinctively
Scythian. Consequently we are now
the Dravidian idioms with a fully
copiouslanguage
developed,
compare
the
fifth
in
of the Scythian
B.C. : and whilst
as
spoken
family,
century,
to belong generally
to the
the language of the tablets has been shown
to a
Scythiangroup, it has been found to bear a specialrelationship
the Ugro-Finnish that very
familyincluded in that group
particular
familyto which the Dravidian dialects have long appeared to me to
be most nearlyallied. The principal
pointsof resemblance between
the language of the tablets are
dialects and
as
the Dravidian

The

"

follows

"

:"

(1.)The languageof the

tablets appears to accord with the Dravidian

class,t,'4"'^"*^
but I have long been
sounds exist also in the Sanscrit,
n,' These
Drathat the Sanscrit borrowed them from the indigenous
persuaded
tongue

'

in the

use

of consonants

of the cerebral

'

'

INTRODUCTION.

44

1 find that

and
languages(videthe section on "Sounds");
Norris has expressedthe same
opinion.

vidian
Mr.

the

in

as

(See in

doubled.

surd when

as
as

the section

rule.)

illustrations of the Tamil

"

Sounds

"

and

and
single,

when

sonant

beginningof a word, and

pronouncingthe same consonant

surd in the

as

middle,

in the

sonant

on

consonant

same

ing
regard-

in

the Tamil

the tablets agrees with

(2.)The languageof

is
(3.)The genitivecase of the languageof the tablets formed by
inna.' The analogousforms
the syllablesna,' ni-na,'or
suffixing
a,'in
of the Dravidian
ni,'in the Telugu, na,' or
languagesare
'

'

'

Brahui, and

and

the Gond

(4.)The

the Tamil.

'ni,'in

dative of the

tablets is 'ikki'

this both

the

analogiesto

in
which

families ; but the form

and

in
perfectly

is most

There

'ikka.'

or

Tartar-Turkish

dative

is that of the Dravidian

'

'

'

in the

are

Ugriau

accordance with it

'ku,''ki,''ka,'"c., preceded,

suffix

generallyis in Tamil and Malayalam,by an euphonic'u'

or
i,'and a consequent doublingof the k.' Compare ni-ikka,'to
thee,in the language of the tablets,with the correspondingTelugu
and the Malayala nan-i-kka.'
ni-ku,'
sative
(5.) The pronouns of the language of the tablets form their accuby suffixingun,' in,'or n.' Compare the Telugu accusative
inflexion 'nu' or 'ni,'and the Canarese 'am,' ann-u,'"c.
(6.)The only numeral which is written in letters in the Scythian
as

the suffix

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

tablets is

'

kir,'one,

with

which

to be

appears

connected the numeral

irra.' In Telugu,one is oka,'

indefinitearticle,ra
or
or
adjective,
and in Tamil, or.' From
a
comparisonof all the shapeswhich this
'

'

'

'

'

has assumed

numeral

I had
and

long ago

the Tamil

form,

okor

'

forms

'

or

'

'

tablets.
Tamil
In

Tamil

1'he Ku

were

can

numeral

the

to

come

now

regardedas

but more
to the
orn,'
closely
the languageof the tablets all
'

am,' in Samoyede

(7.)The

in

'

'

ra

or

in

Telugn

the

and

common

pounds,
com-

older

identical with the Sam-

the

'

kir

'

of the

to the
'ra,'corresponding
'

of
irra,'

ordinal numbers

the tablets.

end in

'

im,' in

im.'

of the second

pronoun

is

one
adjective
'

it also with

compare

'

in

that both

conclusion

probablyderived from

kor,' which

oyede okur,' one.

DrS,vidian dialects and

in the various

person

is

exactlythe

same

in the

in the Dr"vidian
as
language of the inscriptions
languagesand the
Brahui : in all it is ni.' Unfortunatelythe pluralof this pronoun
is not contained in the tablet, the singular
having been used instead
of the pluralin addressinginferiors.
like the Dr"vidian languages,
(8.)The language of the tablets,
'

"

makes

use

of

A relative pronoun
relative participle.

is used in addi^

AFFILIATION

tion to the relative

pronoun

OF

DEAVIDIAN

participle
; but

Mr.

Norris supposes

to be

owing to the imitation of the

which
is used in the tablets
particle
differsfrom that which
; but

is

45

LANGUAGES.

the

use

of this

Persian

The paroriginal.
ticular
in formingthe relative participle

used
generally

in the Dravidian

guages
lan-

the

and force of this particle,

in
and the mannei:
position
which the participle
formed by it is employed,are in perfect
harmony
with Dravidian usage.
the
of
this
is
relative participle
use
Perhaps
the most

and

remarkable

distinctive characteristic of the grammar

of

unaltered dialect of the

Scythianfamily.
of the tablets
or
(9.)The negativeimperative,
prohibitive
particle
is inni,'
in Gond, minni.'
(10.)The only verbal roots which appear to be analogousare the
following:

every

'

'

"

Language
to gay,
to make

the

Tablets.

DbAvidian.

nan

known,

an

uri

pori

to go,
a

or

king,

ko

(thevowel considered
uncertain)

urei,
p6,

to

k6

k6n

or

or

en

explain; aai,to know,

The

conjugational
system of the language of the tablets accords
with that of the Magyar, the Mordwin, and other languagesof the
but differsconsiderably
from the Dravidian
Ugrian family,
languages,
which form their tenses in a simplermanner,
by the addition of particles
of time

to

the root, and which

form

the persons

of their verbs

the addition of the

pronominalterminations
ordinary
this discrepancy
in the
Notwithstanding

of time.

verbs,the resemblances
tablets and the Dravidian

shown

to subsist between

of which

the

to

by
the particles

inflexions of the

languageof

the

in

of
particulars
fullyestablish the existence of a radical,
though
primary importance,
the discovery
of these analogies,
From
we
are
remote, connection.
enabled to conclude that the Dravidian race, though resident in India
of history,
from a periodlong priorto the commencement
originated
the seed plotof nations ; and that from
in the central tracts of Asia
with the rest of the Ugro-Turanian
thence, after partingcompany
theyentered India by way
horde,and leavinga colonyin Beluchistan,

idioms,most

are

"

of the Indus.
Whilst

regardthe grammaticalstructure

of the Dravidian

idioms

Scythian,I

and

teristics
characprevailing

claim for them

position
of its other members,
in the Spythiangroup which is independent
distinct familyor genus, or at least as a distinct sub-genusof
a
as
or to the Ugrian,or
tongues. They belongnot to the Turkish family,
as

46
to

INTKODUCTION.

the

Tungusian(eachof which families differs

blance),
genericpointsof resemothers,notwithstanding

Mongolian,or
the

from
materially
but

to

the group

to

the

class in which

or

all these families

are

prised.
com-

languagesmay be regardedas
most
nearly allied to the Finnish or Ugrian family,with special
which I
it appears, to the Ostiak j and this supposition,
as
affinities,
and vocahad been led to entertain from the comparisonof grammars
bularies
fact
confirmation
from
the
broughtto light
alone,derives some
by the Behistun tablets that the ancient Soythicrace, by which the
of the
greater part of Central Asia was peopledpriorto the irruption
Medo-Persians,
belongednot to the Turkish,or to the Mongolian,but
to the Ugrian stock.
ness
Taking for granted,at present,the conclusiveOn

of the evidence
we

arrive is

Dra vidian

whole, the

the

which

on

of the most

one

this

rests,the result at which

hypothesis
remarkable
that the studyof comparative

philologyhas yet realized.

How

remarkable

speechof

that the closestand most

the Dravidians

distinctaffinitiesto the

India should be those that

inter-tropical
discovered in the languages of the Finns and Lapps of Northern
are
Europe,and of the Ostiaks and other Ugriansof 'Siberia!and,consequently,
that

the

their

of

Pre-Aryaninhabitants

languagealone,in the silence of

provedby
to be
ordinaryprobabilities,
have overspread
Europe before the

of all

and

that

statement

dwell upon

'

God

hath

made

the face of the whole

Dekhan

should

appear

arrival of the Goths and the

of

What

to

Pelasgi,

confirmation of the

blood all nations of men,

one

be

in the absence
history,

allied to the tribes that

before the arrival of the Celts !

even

of the

to

'

earth !

In

which
weighingthe reasons
the
may be adduced for affiliating
Dravidian
with
the
languages
Scythiangroup, it should be borne in
mind that whilst the genericcharacteristicsof the
Scythianlanguages
marked
and
are
incapableof being mistaken,in a vast
very strongly
of
minor
and
in their vocabularies,
particulars, especially
variety
the
languageswhich are comprisedin this familydiffer from one another
more
widely than the various idioms of the Indo-European
family
mutuallydiffer. The Ugrian and the Turkish families can be proved
to be cognate almost as certainly
the Gothic and the Sanscrit,
as
or
the Zend

and

the Greek ; yet,apart from

and

and
vital spirit,

any

one

the evidence

of structure

lookingonly
and the gramvocabulary,
matical
t
he
of
materiel, agreement
of the Ugrian dialectswith
any one
of the Turkish is found to be
to the
very far inferior even
at

agreementof the Sanscrit and

members
most widelydiffering
whilst in

nearlyall the

the

the

the longest
Celtic,^
separatedand
"

Indo-European
family.^
Thus"
Indo-European
the numerals are not
languages
of the

AFFILIATION

similar

only

Gaelic

word

but

OF

the same,

for five

DEAVIDIAN

(the Sanscrit

"

the

47

LANGUAGES.

word

for

and

one

the

exceptionsto the rule of

not onlydo the numerals
of every Scythianfamily
generalidentity),
differ so widelyfrom those of every other as to present few pointsof
but even
the numerals of any two
dialects of the same
connection,
are

only

real

"

found to differ very widely. Whilst the Sanscrit and the

agree in eightnumerals out of ten, and differ in two
only

familyare
Gaelic

[one

and

allied in
have

five); the Magyar and the Finnish, though as closely

pointof grammaticalstructure as the Gaelic and the Welsh,

only the

now

coincide

in two

first four

numerals

numerals

in

and

common,

perfectly

is
four
the diversity
existing
amongst the Scythiantongues, that,whilst the
Indo-Europeanidioms form but one family,the Scythiantongues are
not so
much
a
familyas a group of families. The Indo-European
languagesmay be regardedas formingbut a singlegenus, of which
each language"(Sanscrit,Zend
or
Persian,Greek, Latin, Gothic,
Lithuanian,Slavonic,Armenian, Celtic) forms a species
j whilst the
in differences,
languagesof the Scythiangroup, more
comprise
prolific

only,

So great indeed

and

one

"

at

least five

six authenticated genera, each of which includes as

contained in the solitary
are
Indo-Europeangeniis
;

or

speciesas

many

besides twenty

or

isolated languages,
which
thirty

have

up to this time

them.
This
resisted every effort to classify
remarkable
difference
stock
between the Indo-Europeanlanguagesand those of the Scythian
to have

seems

arisen

partlyfrom

with
capacityfor civilisation,
to have

been

endowed

from

which

higher mental giftsand higher

the Indo-Europeantribes appear

the

culture of their
earlier literary
in consequence,

the

from the
and still more
beginning,
and the better preservation,
languages,

of their forms and

roots

but, from whatever

cause

this differencemay have arisen,it is obvious that in weighingevidences

this circumstance must be taken into account; and that
of relationship
so

minute

^tock

an

is not

sister dialects of
agreement of longseparated
to

be

expected as

in

the

Scythian

amongst the

cases
parallel

Indor

European dialects.
Of late yearS'
of
relationship
consequence

of

some

the

have
inquirers

Dravidian

comparing them

languages to
with

the
question
either in
Scythian,

been inclined to
the

the Tartar

or

Turkish

languages

or in
nearlyallied Ugrianfamily,
alone,to the exclusion of the more
certain Indoof observingin the Dravidian languages'
consequence
European affinitieswhich seemed inconsistent with the Scythian
so much
was
theory. A friend of mine, who is a good Tamil scholar,
that he was
led to adopt the
struck with the latter class of analogies

of
supposition

the

of
Indo-European relationship

the

Pravidian

48

INTRODUCTION.

I observed those
inquiries
affinitieswhich are
analogiesmyself; and, rejecting
Indo-European
unreal and which disappear
on
investigation(suchas the connection

tongues. At

the

of my

outset

very

own

"

of the Tamil

'ondru'

numerals

'anju,'/i/e/ettu,'
'

'onnu,' one;

or

with
ashta,' a connection which
un-us,' pancha,'and
eiglil
;
looks very plausible,
but is illusory
(seesection on 'Numerals'), I
think it capable of satisfactory
proof that a small number of the
considerable
and a more
grammaticalforms of the Dravidian languages,
of their roots, are
number
to be regardedas of cognate originwith
withstanding
forms and roots in the Indo-Europeanlanguages. Notcorresponding
the
of this character,
the existence of a few analogies
and vocabularyof the Dravidian
most
essential parts of the grammar
idioms are undoubtedly
Scythian,and therefore I have no doubt of
of placingthose idioms in the Scythiangroup.
the propriety
Though,
be
allied to the
the majorityof Hebrew
roots have been proved to
to be regardedas
Sanscrit,
language does not cease
yet the Hebrew
than
Semitic rather
Indo-European; so, notwithstandingsome
with the Sanscrit,
the Greek,the Gothic, and the
analogies
interesting
'

'

'

"

"

Persian,which

modern

be discovered

may

on

careful examination

of

the Dravidian

tongues,and which will be pointedout in each of the

the essential characteristics of those tongues are
succeedingsections,

requireus to regardthem as in the main Scythian.

that the Dr"vidian
In stating
languagescontain certain roots and
forms allied to the Sanscrit,and to the Indo-European languages
it is necessary to precludemisapprehension.During the
generally,
longperiodof the residence of the Dravidian and Aryan races in the
such

same

as

to

country,the

the Sanscrit.
to

which

Dravidian

vocabularies have

It is necessary,

I refer

are

not

borrowed

to premisethat
therefore,

founded

but
tongues of Sanscrit derivatives,

on

from
largely
the analogies

the existence in the Dravidian

are

such

as

discoverable in the

are

and

structure
primitive
Whilst
original
vocabularyof those languages.
the Dravidian languageshave confessedly
borrowed much
from their
the Sanscrit,
in some
more
has not diswealthyneighbours,
dained
instances,

borrow

to

from

the

Dr"vidian:

and
in distinguishing
difficulty

borrowed

from

relates not

to

but to

the other ; and

but in

what
eliminating
the

statement

which may
or words
derivatives,

generalthere
the

which
be

which
radical,
deep-seated
analogies

one

ia

no

languagehas

I have

now

supposedto be

made
vatives,
deri-

be

explained
distant
or
partial
In
any
relationship.
most instances the words and forms in which analogies
are
discoverable
the
Sanscrit
not
to
the
to
allied
but
entire
alone,
are
Indo-European
on

but
supposition

family; in

not

that of

few instances

cannot

discoverablein
are
analogies

the Greek

INTRODUCTION.

50

Scythiantongues those which

analogiesto the
ancient, and interesting
present the most numerous,
Indo-European languages. The positionwhich this family occupies,
the two groups, is on that side of the Scythian
if not mid-way between
them

I consider
Scythian,

main

group

it,and

the

which

on

of all

Indo-European appears

the

which

on

as

distinct traces

most

If this view

the families still remain.

be

to have

of the
correct

been severed from

of
originalidentity
(as I think it will

be),the Indo-Europeanismswhich are discoverable in the

Dravidian
languages carry us back to a period beyond all history,
beyond all mythology, not only priorto the separationof the western
of the Indo-European race
from the eastern, but prioralso to
branches
of the yet undivided Indo-Europeansfrom the Scythian
the separation
be shewn

to

stock.
It is

remarkable

Dravidian

in
languages,especially

analogiesmay
roots

also

found

are

in

though the Hebrew

example, though
'ava,'of

which

verbal

be discovered.

find in

we

words
a

allied to the Hebrew

desire.

In

several

not

am

language of
of such

maR-u

the

vocabulary of the
Tamil, a few Semitic

some

instances

the

lost verb

in

sponding
meaning; yet the corre'aval' (signifying
also desire),

stillmore

'av-u,'to desire,seem

'avah,'to dfsire,and
to

such

the verbal

of the

generalanalogiesas pervade

languages and

existence

directly
'avvah,'

noun

tongues, includingthe Dravidian, there

aware

Sanscrit,

subordinate

discoverable both in the Dravidian

which

of the

desire,and
'"iva,'

addition,however,

families of

In

the

Latin, 'ave-o,'to desire,and

desire is

from

noun

that

in

analogous
the Indo-European family,as well as in Hebrew,
form of the root is more
closelyanalogous. For

to

Tamil
a

circumstance, that

of any

in the

Hebrew,

resemblance

Indo-Europeanfamily. The following

are

roots

are

to

in any

illustrations

specialanalogies:
"

change,or exchange,to sell; Hebrew

exchange; Syriac'mor,'to buy.

to

...

iuvar
....

^"r

iev-(vei)
.

al,il,la,M

'mur,'to

woM;

sharppoint; Hebrew, 'kur,'to lore,to piercf.

Hebrew, 'shiir,'
a u/ai^.

equal, level,
right; Chaldee, 'shev-a,'
to
level,
"o.; Hebrew, 'shav-"h,'
the same.

be

equal,

Hebrew, 'al,''16,'
not; Chaldee,'Ik,'
not.
Compare also Chaldee 'leth,'
it is not, with
Telugu
there is not.
Ifidu,'

no, not;

'

AFFILIATION

The

Semitic

OF

THE

DKA

VIDIAN

analogiesobservable in the Tamil

importantas the Indo-European,
nor

nor

with them

so

such

with that

neither

are

numerous

51

FAMILY.

do

so

they carry

convincingevidence j but taking them in connexion

and importantclassof analogous
numerous
roots which

more

found in the

are

well as in the Hebrew,

Indo-Europeanlanguages,
as
the Hebrew
form is more
allied to the DrS-vidian
closely
Glossarial Affinities),
these analogies,
such as theyare, constitute

but of which

(seethe

additional element of interest in the

an

and

Connections
pre-historical

of the Dravidian

problem of the origin

I do not adduce

race.

these
of

for the purpose of endeavouring

analogies
to prove
between
the Dravidian languageand
any relationship

similar to that which

subsists between

European languages. Aware

proving too much, I content
without

and

Hebrew,
the

Indo-

danger of provingnothing by
myself with merelystatingthose analogies,

attemptingto deduce
vital

the

of the

Indo-Europeananalogies
are
and

the Dravidian

the existence

any

inference from

connected
intimately

so

of the

The

them.

with

the

viduality
indi-

Dravidian

languages,that it seems
to suppose them to be merely the result of earlyassociation,
impossible
however intimate. It is only on the supposition
of the existence of a
remote
that they appear
or
to be capableof being
partial
relationship
the supposition
fullyexplained. In the case of the Semitic analogies,
of a relationship
between the two families of tongues does not appear
to be
that exist can be accounted for on
necessary. All the analogies
the hypothesis a
that the primitive
very easy and natural one
Dravidian
nomades were
at some
earlyperiodbefore their arrival in
India,associated with a peoplespeakinga Semitic language.
It seems
proper here to notice the remarkable generalresemblance
essence

"

"

which

between

exists

tribes
aboriginal

the

Dravidian

of Southern

and

and
pronouns
Western Australia.

those

of

the

In whatever

explainedor accounted for,the existence of a general

to be
first pointedout by Mr. Norris),
resemblance (which was
seems
way

it may

be

but
unquestionable;

it has not hitherto been observed

pronouns of the first person, are more

This will appear
than to the Dravidian.
of the first person

view of the pronoun

n^n, nil,fin

nga,

nearlyallied to the Tibetan

from the following
comparative

singular.
Tibetan.

AnsTBALiAN

DeAvidian.

lian
that the Austra-

ngaii,ngatsa,

nga, nge,

Chinese.

nged

ngo

nganya

allied to the
to be closely
the base of this pronoun
seems
correspondingpronoun in Tibetan,and in the Indo-Chinese family
Whilst

the
generally,

manner

in which

it is

in the Australian diapluralised

E

52

INTRODUCTION.

lects bears

marked

the

The

Telugu.
singular;the

Telugu

frontier of India
Dhimal

g., compare

e.

pluralsby suffixing lu' to the

by a similar addition of lu,''li,'
'

its

dialects

In this

'

Eastem

forms

to
Dravidian, and epecially

the

to

'

Australian

dlu,' dli,'"c.

'

resemblance

'

of the dialects of the North-

some
particular

also

exhibit

agreement with the Telugu

In the Australian
nyel,'
you.

an

na,'thou,with

'

followingpluralsand duals of the pronoun of the

"c.
first person
two, ngalu,' ngadlu,' ngadli,'ngalata,'
we, or we
in which
the Telugu forms its plural
Compare this with the manner
;
and
with
.the
Tamil
even
colloquial
he; vadlu,'they;
e.g. 'vad'-u,'
of
the
first
pluralof the pronoun
e.g., 'nan,'// 'nanggal,'
person;
dialects I find the

'

'

'

'

"

'

we.

the Australian

between

resemblance

The

of the second

pronouns

and those of the Dravidian

singularand plural,
languages
is more
distinct and special
; and is apparent, not only in the suffixes,
forms of these pronouns
but in the pronominal base itself. The normal
in the Dravidian
The
singular, nin,'plural, nim.'
languages are
resides in the crude root
in
ni,'thou ; which is the same
personality
both numbers, with the addition of a singular
formative 'n' (e.
g. ni-n,'
formative 'm'
thou),and a pluralising
(e.g.,'ni-m,' thous,or you).
In some
the pluralising
and
cases
particle m' has been displaced,
r,'
I regardas properlythe sign of the epicenepluralof the third
which
you (inTelugu *mir-u').
person, has been substituted for it j e. g., 'nir,'
both

person,

'

'

"

'

'

'

This
and

abnormal
more

form

regular

imperativeof

'

'

nir'

nim'

the verb.

found

in the

'

is most

used in

retains

its

Whilst

'

i' is the

in the

singularof the
plural, i' often gives place to

numa,'

your,

that the modern

the

Brahui

Canarese

has

'

separate form

place in compounds,

'

and

'

num,'

softened

vowel

pronoun
'

u,' as

of the
in the
It is to

you.
'

which

nim'

into

'

the older

and

in the

is almost
second

variably
in-

person,

classical Tamil
be

nlvu

noticed
'

or

'

also

niwu,'

in the nominative.
It is
each

and

resemble

in whatever
it may be accounted for,that in
singular,
way
all of the particulars
mentioned the Australian dialects
now
the

the Australian

Dravidian.
head

the
substantially

See

the

followingcomparate view.
Under
class the dual togetherwith the plural,
as
being

same.

DbAviman.

thou, nln, nin

nim, nim, ntr,num,
you,

'

Australian.

nlwu

ninna, nginne,ngintoa, ningte

aimedoo, nura, niwa, ngurle

Compare also the accusative of the first person singularin Tamil,

ennei,'me, with the Australian accusative emmo,'
'

THE

The

EEPKESENTATIVE

grammatical structure

53

DIALECT.

of the

Australian

dialects exhibits

In the
generalagreement
Scythiangroup.
of
instead of prepositions
use
post-positions
; in the use of two forms of
the first person plural,
inclusive of the party addressed,
the other
one
and reflective verbs
exclusive ; in the formation of inceptive,
causative,
in the
to the root ; and,generally,
by the addition of certain syllables
of words and in the position
of words in a
structure
agglutinative
with

the

languagesof the

resemble the Dravidian

sentence, the dialects of Australia

as

"

also the

same

Mongolian, and other Scythianlanguages: and in the

two
with one
or
exceptions,they differ essentially
particulars,

from

the dialects which

Turkish,

the

are

Polynesian.

of the Australian

brief vocabularies

The

called

dialects which

have

been

blances
compiled do not appear to give additional confirmation to the resemblances
pointed out above : but it.is difiicultto suppose those resemit is obvious that the
to be unreal,or merely accidental ; and
Australian dialects demand
(and probablywill reward) further exami-

nation.
What

Dialect

represents

best

the

enteringupon

Before

earliest characteristics.

Tamil, or high dialect of

of the
representative

best

dial^t

one

grammaticalcomparisonof

desirable to ascertain where

it seems
dialects,

of

should

we

the Dravidian
look for their

opinionthat the Shenthe Tamil language,is to be regardedas the

estimating
Dravidian speech. Without underprimitive

Many

the

great value

can

be

comparisonof

Condition

Tongues

DbIvidian

THE

Primitive

the

been

have

of the

of

Shen-Tamil, I

received
implicitly

as

mirror

am

convinced

of Dravidian

all the dialects that exist will be

found

our

that

antiquity.
best and

knowledge of the primitivetongue from which

existingdialects have diverged;and not only the Shen-Tamil,
safest guide to

no

the
but

its
existingdialect,even the rudest,will be found to contribute
The Tamil pronouns of the first and
quota of help towards this end.
of the Ancient
second person cannot be understood without a knowledge
every

Canarese

and the Ku,

reduced to

which

was

which

throws

Dravidian
that the

lighton

one

writingonly a

few

the masculine

and

the

of

dialect
years ago, is the only
feminine terminations of- the

Still it is unquestionable
of the third person.
the primitive
of assistance towards ascertaining
amount

pronouns

largest

condition of the Dravidian

and in

and the grammar

of the rudest dialects,

be

aflfbrded by the Tamil,

the Shen-Tamil ; and this naturallyfollows from

the
that of all the Dravidian idioms the Tamil was

by
particular

circumstance

languages will

earliest cultivated.

54

INTEODUCTIOir.

Peiority

Cultivation

Literary

the

op

op

Tamil.

the

high antiquityof the literarycultivation of the

relatively
of its
of interest considered in itself,
irrespective
Tamil being a matter
importantbearingson the questionof Dravidian comparativegrammar,
The

adduce

I shall here

evidences

of the

few

which

on

this conclusion

rests.

Shen-Tamil, which

The

1
.

which

which

and
inscriptions,

ancient

the Tamil

languageof the poetry and of the

only contains all the refinements

is the
not

received,but also exhibits

has

to

great extent

the

from
the colloquial
primitivecondition of the language,differs more
idiom differs
Tamil than the poeticaldialect of any other Dravidian
Tamil so confrom its ordinarydialect. It differsfrom the colloquial
siderably
that it might almost
distinct
be considered as a
language:
for not only is classical Tamil poetry as unintelligible
to the unlearned
Tamilian
the jEneid of Virgilto a modern
Italian peasant,but even
as
prose compositionswritten, in the classical dialect might be read for
hours in the hearing of a person acquainted
quial
only with the collostanding
Notwithidiom, without his understanding
a singlesentence.
this,High Tamil contains less Sanscrit,not more, than the
dialect. It affects purism and national independence; and
colloquial

its refinements

are

Tamil

have

cannot

periodhave

been

all ab intra.

been

As the words

invented

and

forms of the Shen-

by the poets, but must at some

Tamil
degreein which the colloquial

in actual use, the

has

the slowness
divergedfrom the poeticaldialect,notwithstanding
with which language,like every thing else,changes in the East, is a
cultivation of the Tamil.
proofof the high antiquityof the literary
2. Another

the Tamil
forms

school

lexicon

missionaries

be necessary
scholar

more,

than
dialects,
with
words
as

on

the

those of the Tamil.

which

they are
as

may
used

the

Tamil

to add

be

the

of
extraordinary
copiousness

and

varietyof the grammatical

Shen-Tamil

is

grammar

crowded

cast-off

Jaffna,contains

at

in order
provincialisms,
Tamil

The

forms,

of the

in

the number

Shen-Tamil.

of obsolete

would

consists

vocabulary,and

of the

museum

evidence

and curious anomalies.

inflexions,
language,publishedby the American
no

less than

58,500

words;

several thousands of technical

to render

the listcomplete.

and

it

terms,besides

Nothing strikes

examining the dictionaries of the other Dravidian

paucityof their listsof synonyms
The

in

comparison

Tamil

regardedas

contains not only those

vocabulary
to the language,
appropriate
inasmuch

by the Tamil alone,but also those which may be considered

propertyof the Telugu,the Canarese,
"c.
Thus, the

ANTIQUITY

word

used

for home

in

OF

THE

ordinaryTamil

55

TAMIL.

is

'

vidu ;' but the

contains also,and

often uses, the word appropriate

to the
and
(Telugu,'illu'), the distinctive Canarese word, 'manei'

'

mana)

vocabulary-

Telugu, 'il'
(Canarese,

; besides another

'
kudi/ which it has in common
synonym,
the whole of the Finnish languages. The
and vocabulary
grammar
of the Tamil are
thus to a considerable extent
the common

with

of
repository

Dravidian

vocabularies

of the

which

are

forms

and

peculiarto themselves,
we

now

idioms,and priorto

ancient

Dravidians
Another

3.

into

dates

only the

and

grammars

words

and forms

conclude that the literary

may

from

the

as

periodpriorto that of the

final breakingup of the language of the

the

lialects.

evidence

of the

consists in the agreement

of the

antiquityand purityof the Tamil

Ancient Canarese,the Malayalam,the

Tulu, and also th" Tuda, Gond, and

the particulars
in which
the modern
from

and

other dialects contain

cultivation of the Tamil

other

roots

Ku, with

the

Canarese

and

Tamil, in many of
the Telugu difier

it.
The

4.

in

and inflexions have

roots

the

fact that

Tamil, is

Tamilian

forms.

phoneticsystem

of these

we

find in the

bases

The

Tamil

corruptedfrom

the
the

Telugu
forms of

of the

higher antiquityof
given in the section on

the
the

to adduce, as
languages. It will sufiice now
is meant, the transposition
of vowels which

'a,'remote,

are

the forms of

of this will be

Telugu demonstrative

suffixed the formatives

hiatus.

confirmation

Instances

illustration of what

instances

evidentlybeen

strong

an

demonstrative

many

of the

and

are

Dravidian

true

'i,'proximate; to

genders,with

demonstratives

The

pronouns.

'

'

'

which

are

euphonic,to prevent

avan,'ille,and

'

ivan,'hie.

an,'is du,'
Telugu masculine formative answering to the Tamil
adn / and hence the demonstratives in Telugu,answering to the
or
Tamil
'avan,' ivan,'might be expectedto be 'avadu' and 'ivadu
find
instead of which
we
vJdn,'hie. Here the
vadu,' ille,and
and
demonstrative bases a
i,'have shifted from their natural position
of the word to the middle ; whilst by coalescing
at the beginning
for its loss,
their
with the vowel of the formative,
or
as
a compensation
The

'

'

'

'

'

'

quantityhas

been

'

'

'

increased.

The

altered,abnormal

form

of

the

Telugu is evidentlythe later one ; but as even the high dialect of the
Telugu contains no other form, the periodwhen the Telugu grammar
positions,
rendered permanent by written rules and the aid of written comwas
have been Subsequentto the origin of the corruption
must
cultivation ^'fthe
in question,
and therefore subsequentto the literary
Tamil.
5.

Another

evidence

of

antiquityconsists

in

the

great

cor-

56

INTEODUCTIOK.

ruptionof

of the Sanscrit derivatives that

many

fonnd

are

in

the

Tamil.
The

be divided into three

contained in Tamil may

Sanscrit

portions

by three different parties.

introduced by the school of
(1.)The most recent portion was
Sankara Acharya, the apostleof Advaita, or Vedantic Saivism,and by
its chief rival,the school of Sri Vaishnava, founded by Ramanuja
Acharya. The periodof the greatestactivityand influence of those
of different dates,introduced

and

the

Sanscrit

the tenth

about

from

sects extended

century, a.d.,

to

the

fifteenth

by the adherents of
pointswherein change was

introduced

derivatives

systems (with the exceptionof

few

;*

these
avoidable)
un-

unchanged Sanscrit.
(2.) The school of writers,partlyprecedingthe above and partly
the largestportion of the
contemporaneous with them, by which
that
Sanscrit derivatives that are found in Tamil were
was
introduced,
of the Jainas,which
flourished from about the eighthcentury,a.d., to
the twelfth
thirteenth. The period of the predominance of the
or
Jainas (a predominance in intellect and learning rarelya predominance
in political
power) was the Augustan age of Tamil literature,
the periodwhen
the Madura
association,
College,a celebrated literary
and when
the CuHal, the Chintamani,and the classical vocaflourished,
bularies
and grammars
written.
were
Through the intense Tamilic
are

pure,

"

nationalism

of

Brahmanical

the

adherents

the
influence,

this

of

Sanscrit

school, and

derivatives which

their
are

jealousyof
employed in

their

writingsare very considerably

altered,so as to accord with Tamil
euphonic rules. Thus 'loka,'Sanscrit,the world, is changed into
a
'ulagu;''raja,'
Tdng,into 'arasu;'and 'ra,'night (an abbreviation
of ratri '),into 'iravu.'
Nearly the whole of the Sanscrit derivatives that are found in
Telngu, Canarese,and Malayalam belong to the periodsnow
tioned,
menat least they accord on
the whole with
or
the derivatives
'

Sankara

eighth or
not

to

which

Acharya, is supposed by Professor Wilson

ninth

century, a.d.

Sankara

to have lived in the

which I have here made
relates
to the school of theologyand
philosophy

the

statement

but
Acharya personally,
This school
by him.

did not

till the tenth

century, when

founded

was

in the Camatic
the great

but

temples of

or

the Camatic

eleventh
were

erected.

reach

the acme
of its influence
it appears
probable that

Those

temples,the

most stupendous
to the enthusiasm
and
zeal of the adherents of the system of Sankara
Acharya. I have not yet been
able to ascertain the exa-jt date when
celebrated temples was
any of the more
erected,;but from inscriptions
in my
possessionrecording donations and endowments
made
to them, I am
able to state that the
number
of
Saiva

works

of the

kind

in the

East,owe

their

existence

greater

temples were
in the tenth.

the South

in existence
I have

before

in the twelfth

not

the twelfth

ascertained

century.

century,many

in the

the

and
eleventh,

the existence of any Vaishnava

temple

few
in

58

INTRODUCTION.

(c.)Several

of the

names

from

named

are
solar-siderial,

though now

months

Tamil

early corruptionsof Sanscrit.

illustrations of

the

of the

names

asterisms,and stillmore

of which

the

the

The

supply ub
Tamil

with

months,

asterisms

old lunar

of the months

names

the asterism 'p"rvagreatlycorrupted.S.cf.,

ashadam,' is changed into puradam ;' ashadam,'also is changed into
of the mouth
the Tamil name
July
adam,' from which is formed
adi,'
been
has
of the asterism 'aswini
corruptedinto
August. The name

borrowed

from

them, are

'

'

'

'

'

"

which
"eippasi,'
The change of

is the Tamil

of the month

name

purva bhadra-pada,'the
'
is still more
the asterisms,into ' purattasi

bhadra-pada' was

'

first changed into

asterism

in Tamil

; and

the first

October "November.

Sanscrit

of

name

one

of

extraordinary. Purvaof the corthe name

responding
'purattadi,'
this,again,by the shorteningof
became
di
into si,'
piirattasi,'
'

'

and the change of

syllable
the Tamil month September "October.
in Telugu,
The
of the asterisms and months
correspondingnames
Canarese,"c., are pure, unchanged Sanscrit ; and hence the greater
antiquityof the introduction of those words into Tamil, or at least the
safely
greater antiquityof their use in Tamil written compositions,
may
'

'

'

be concluded.

cultivation of the Tamil

higher antiquityof the literary
Tamil
also be inferred from
inscriptions.In Carnataka and
may
of an earlydate,and
the majorityeven
Telingana,every inscription
in Sanscrit.
written
Even
of modern
when
the
are
inscriptions,
characters employed are the Ancient Canarese or the Telugu (characters
been
have
which
arranged to express the peculiarsounds of the
found that Sanscrit is the language in which
it is invariably
Sanscrit),
is written,if it is one
of any antiquity.In the Tamil
the inscription
belongingto an earlyperiod
country,on the contrary,all inscriptions
6.

The

in Tamil

written

are

; and

I have

not

met

with, or heard of,a single

in the Tamil country which

to be older
inscription
appears
than the fourteenth century, a.d., though I have obtained facsimiles
that I could hear of in Tinnevelly
of all the inscriptions
and South
Travancore
integral
portionsof the ancient Pandiyan kingdom. The
that I have obtained is about a hundred and fifty.
number of inscriptions
They were found on the walls and floors of temples,and on rocks and
pillars.The latest are written in Grantham, or the character in which
Brahmans
Sanscrit is written by the Dravida
; those of an earlier age

Sanscrit

"

in

an

old form of the

Tamil
exisling

character ;* and

the earliest in

future periodto make public the items of historical informaI hope at some
tion
which are contained in those inscriptions
is included in
; not one of which

ANTIQUITY

stillolder

which
character,

and the ancient

ancient

OF

appears

pointsof resemblance

written.

are

to the

modern

also to the character in which

Islands

is the character in which

This

and of the

the

Syrian

character presents some

and
Telugu-Canareaecharacter,
in Ceyinscriptions
undeciphered
lon

some

are

to the Tamil

common

of the Jews at Cochin

possession

Christians in Travancore

the Eastern

59

TAMIL.

to have been

Malayalacountries,and

Sasanas in the

and

THE

written.

The

ancient of these inscriptions

is Tamil ;
languageof all the more
and the stylein which they are written is that of the classicaldialect,
without any of those double plurals{e.g.,ninggal,'
yous, instead of
novelties by which modern Tamil
'nir,'
you),and other unauthorized
is disfigured
and involutions
] but it is free also from the affected brevity
of the poetical
style.
As no
of any antiquity
in Telinganaor Carnataca is
inscription
'

found

to be written in the Canarese

Telugu language,whatever be
of Tamil literary
employed, the priority
culture,
national independence to a considerable extent, may
the

or

the character that is

as

well

its

as

be
fairly

concluded.

'
I may here remark
that the Cochin and Travancore
sasanas
or
tablets which are referred to above,and which have been translated by
'

the

Rev.

Tamil

to

Gundert,

Dr.

not
conclusively,
only the priorityof
but also the derivation of the Malayala
Malayalaliterature,

idiom from the Tamil.

known,

but

earlier than

is

prove

The

probablynot

the

seventh

date of those documents

later

than

for the

the

ninth

is not

certainly

century, a.d.,

technical terms

nor

of solar-siderial

from the Surya-Siddhanta

of Arya-bhatta)which
chronology(derived
introduced till
not generally
were
are
employed in these inscriptions
the seventh

century. The

'

'

sasanas

written at

were

time when

the

collection of MSS.
I may, however,
to the Mackenzie
following interestingitems.
(1.) The generally fictitious
character of the long lists of kings of Madura, each with a high-soundingSanscrit
in the local 'purinas'
and
other legends,and which
which are contained
name,
have been published by Professor Wilson
in his Historial Sketch of the Pandiyan
(2.)The veracity
Kingdom, and by Mr. Taylorin his Oriental Historical MSS.
the
and
of
of
the
and
references
Ch"la dynasties
to
most
PS^diya
accuracy
and other historical records and compilawhich are contained in the Mah^wanso
tions
of the SinghaleseBuddhists.
(3.)The fact,or proof of the fact,of the
conquest of the whole of the P^ndiya country, including South Travancore,by
the Ch61as in the eleventh century. (4.) The probable identification of Sundara
the Jainas (sometimes erroneously termed
Buddhists)were
P^ndiyan,by whom
Professor Wilson
has placed in the
finallyexpelled from Madura, and whom
Sender Bandi,'who is said by Marco Polo
eighth or ninth century a.d. with the
in
the
southern
been
to have
reigning
part of the peninsula during his visit to
The same
Sundara
of the thirteenth century.
India
in the middle
P^ndiyan is
millions
Christian
of
before
the
Hindu
authorities
native
some
years
placed by
the

belonging
inscriptions

mention

here

the

"

'

era

60

INTRODUCTION.

ChSra

or

Kerala

dynastywas

the Malabar

stillpredominanton

coast :*

though words and forms which are peculiar to the modern

Malaysialanguagemay be detected in them, the generalstyleof the
languagein which they are written is Tamil ; the inflexions of the
and verbs are Tamil, and the idiom is mostly Tamil ; and we
are
nouns
the languageat
therefore left to inferthat at that period Tamil was
but

least of the

and of the educated

court

classes in the
if it then

Malayalacountry,
existed

at all,
was
Malayalam,
current
than a rustic patoisthat was
probablynothingmore
amongst
The fact that
the inhabitants of the hills and junglesin the interior.
the 'sasauas' which
were
given by the ancient Malayalakingsto the
in the Tamil language,instead of the
Jews and Syrian Christians,
are

and

that what

is

called

now

Malayalam, cannot

accounted

be

for from

the

circumstance

of the

temporary conquest of any part of the Malayala country by the

ancient kings of Madura
Kerala,not
; for the kings in questionwere
and insignia;
and it is evident
titles,
Paudiya,kings,with KSrala names,
alone we
from
the Greek
geographersthemselves,from whom
know anything of this conquest,that it was
only a few isolated places,
the Malabar
on
or
near
coast, that were
reallyunder the rule of the
Pandiyas. The only part of the Malayala country which at that
periodcould be regardedas belonging bond fide to the Pandiyas,was
the southern part of
South Travancore,a districtwhich
Paralia,'
i.e..
inhabited chiefly
has always been
by Pandiyas,and where to the
present day the language of the entire people is Tamil, not Malayalam.
'

the various

mentioned
above it appears certain
particulars
that the Tamil language was
of all the Dravidian idioms the earliest
cultivated : it also appears highlyprobable,that in the endeavour
to
the
characteristics
of
the
ascertain
primitiveDravidian
speech,from
dialects have been derived,most assistance
which
the various existing
The amount
will be furnished by the Tamil.
and value of this assistance
will appear in almost every portionof the grammaticalcomparisonon
about to enter.
which we
It must, however, be borne in mind, as
are
has already been intimated,that neither
the Tamil
nor
any other
From

(ine of them is dated

in the seventh
year of King Eavi Vanna, opposite
year.' By this vexed
expression, 'opposite the second year,'
Mr. Whish
supposed that a reference was made to the second cycleof a thousand
the
from
building of Quilon,"a calculation accordingto which the present
years
be the thirty-first
of the third cycle; but the same
year, 1856, would
expression
in the ancient Tamil
is exceedinglycommon
inscriptions
(e.g. the seventh year
of King KulasSkhara,oppositethe fifteenth year ');and it denotes,I
conceive,the
the cycle of sixty (which was
year of
formerly the prevailingcalculation all
India and the East)to which the year of the king's reign stands
over
opposite,'
'

"

the

second

'

'

'

'

'

or

answers.

EARLIEST

TRACES

ancient
singledialect,

OF

THE

DEA

VIDIAN

61

LANGUAGES.

modem, can be impUcitlr/

adopted as a faithful
of the primitiveDravidian
representative
parison
tongue. A careful comof the peculiarities
all
of
the dialects will carry us up still
further,
probablyup to the periodof their mutual divergeuce,a period
long anterior to that of grammars
and vocabularies;
and it is upon the
result of such

Earliest

comparison that

Written

extant

The

or

Dravidian

words

Relics
which

of

few

that

the

A.D.,

they

Dravidian
the

Sanscrit

no

attributed.

which
The

in the

upon

the

the

placed.

Languages.

Ramayana,

of undoubted

poems

lightwhatever
to

to be

DrIvidian

the

contained

languages,prior to

earliest date

safelybe

can

throw

op

are

Maha-bharata,and other Sanscrit

so

dependence is

most

the

are
antiquity,

ancient

condition

ninth

centuries

eighth or
Tamil

compositions
'Pandiya' being probably of
extant

any
name

the
origin,

which
contained
in the
only Dr"vidian
names
are
referred to, are
'S6ra'
'Chola,'corrupted from the Tamilic
poems
of the Tamilians
the collective name
(commonly pronounced 'Chola'),
of Tanjore,and
of a mountain
Malaya,'the name
range, the Western
Ghauts, which is probably derived from the Dravidian
'mala,' a
'

hill.
It is

Dravidian

remarkable

words

circumstance,that

which

is contained

of ancient

times

Dravidian

languages,as

which

the

"

contained

the

in any

earliest extant

of

largeststock

authentic
of the

traces

from
distinguished

the

written

primitive
document

existence

Sanscrit

"

are

of the

those

in the notices of the Greek

geographers,Ptolemy,
Strabo,and the author of the PeriplusMaris Erythraei;includingalso
the Natural
and placesand tribes
Historyof Pliny. Many of the names
which are recorded by those geographers,
not
ment
long after the commenceare

of the Christian era,

which
cannot

are
now

in

now

are

with the
letter for letter,
identical,

Several of those

use.

be identified : but the

names

have

become

names

obsolete,
or

of the compound words

signification

they consist cannot be mistaken ; and in several of them we

dialectic peculiarity
detect the operation of some
can
or
interesting
of
these
I
languages. subjoin
euphonic rule which is still characteristic
words of this class which
recorded
few examples of Dravidian
are
a
of which

by

the Greeks.

is probablya word of
'Pandiya,'
(1.) 'o TlavSiwi/'' oi nai/^ioVes,'
which
is given by the
but the masculine termination
Sanscrit origin,
The Tamilic sign of the masculine
Greeks is unmistakeably Tamil.
singularis 'an ;' consequently'o IlavScwv' (and stillbetter the plural
'

"

62

INTRODUCTION.

which
of the word, 'navSiove^,'

form

is

the

appliedto

nominative

Tamil

Pandiya monarchy), faithfully

represents the
'Pandiyau.'

of
subjects

the
gular
sin-

singularin Ancient Canarese which

correspondsto the Tamil 'an,'is 'am:' in Telugu it is 'udu,' so that
to 'Pandiyau'in Tamil.
Consequently,
'Pandiyudu' in Telugu,answers
The

form

learn

we

masculine

of the

from
tlcally
the masculine

then

singularwas

the

same

Tamil

it is

as

differed dialecof

that its mode

idioms, and

Dravidian

the other

the

the Christian era,

that,as earlyas

forming

'P"ndiya'was

now.

of the dynastyof
king,but the titular name
Madura
were
P"ndis,'
or
TiavSiovis).The race
(MoSovpa fiaaiXetov
the
the
the
or
'Pandiyan'(oTlavScwv),
'P4ndiyas'(TravSwve?);
king,
social position
which
It is a proof of the advanced
'PandiyaDeva.'
the

not

of

name

one

any

'

of the
occupied by the Pandiyas, that after the termination
the Greeks
of Alexander's
relations which
subsisted between
political
the only
time, and the princesof the Punjaub, the Pandiyas were
Indian princeswho perceivedthe advantages of an European alliance.
Two embassies
sent by the Pandiyan king to Augustus : the first
were
in the Eusebian
received
(which is mentioned
fragments) was
by
second
is
mentioned
Augustus at Tarragonaj the
by Strabo. The
was

of
friendship
o

the Romans

the King
Kr/pofidSpos,

and

probablya

was

of Ch^ra

sought by only one

who
(or Kerala),

other Hindu
also

was

prince,
Drividian,

Tamilian.

of a placein the country of the

(2.) KoTTwpo.' This is the name
with South
'Aii,'or 'Paralia' (identical
Travancore),which is called
'Kottiara
Metropolis'by Ptolemy, 'Cottora' by Pliny. Undoubtedly
'

the

referred

is

'Kottaaa,'or,

Europeans,'Kotaur,'the

principaltown

as

town

in the

time

of the

name

to

of the

it is

as

in South

for
Greeks,distinguished

place is derived from

MalayMam,
compound, the
word

become

rule

Greeks

same

It is also

syllableof
Tamil

has
of

the

word

be doubled

surds.

its

'

It is
Kod'

a,

The

commerce.

line

of circumvaland

is the first member

for the purpose

is another

now,

rule in the Tamil

of

rule that

Consequentlythe compound

of

givingthe

sonants

when

'k6d'-aRa' becomes

It is

to perceivethat in the time of the

interesting
peculiarphoneticrules existed which are now in operation.
worth noticingthat the Greek writers
the
last
represent

name

of the

town,

'aRu,'the Malay"lam
the

like

adjective
: it

an

'kott-aRa.'
the

final 'd' must

the force of

doubled

by

that when

Travancore, and

'K6d-u,' Tarn.,a

lation,a foHifimUon, and 'aRii,'

a river.
the

ordinarilyspelledby

not

'"Ha.'

as

'aRu,' but

At

Kotaur,the dialectic peculiarities

Malayala language begin

to

as

'aRa.'

supersede those of

The

the

EAELIESr

TRACES

OF

THE

DRA-VIDIAN

Tamil ; and this appears to have been the

Greeks.

63

LANGUAGES.

case

in the time of the

even

The placereferred to by this name

(3.) ''ApKaTov/Saff/Xetov.'
was
which would
supposed by one of the editors of Ptolemy to be Bijnagar;
accord well enough, it is true,with the position
which Ptolemy givesit,
between

midway

resemblance
the

of the

name

'

were

several

but the

Arcot in the Carnatic

in the ancient Sora

that
uniform tradition,
distinct,

part of the Carnatic

Gondwana

that
Arcot, and the circumstance
capitalof 'the nomadic Soras' (Siu/sai),

the

Arcot included

but there is

and

to that of

it with
of identifying
propriety

only was

Arcot,

of the Caveri

sources

placeis representedas

indicate the
not

the

which liesbetween

Kurumbars,'

or

centuries after the

and the

"

nomades

"

for

this identification is

If

era.

of that

Ghauts,including

wandering shepherds

Christian

for

Kingdom,

inhabitants

the

Madras

Ch61a

or

antiquityof the existing

of the name
dialectic peculiarities
of the Tamil ; for the second syllable
Arcot, (properly'aRu-kadu,' the jungle on the river),
viz.,'kad-u,'
word
used in
a
jungle,is peculiarto the Tamil," the corresponding
Telugu being 'atavi'or 'adavi.'
of the peopleof the neighbouringcountry
Ptolemy givesthe name
more
accuratelythan the Sanscrit writers. They are called in Tamil
Ch61a8 in Sanscrit;but S6rae, and also S6rigi,or Sorigeti
'Soras;'*'
have

correct, we

another

doubtful whether

am

instance of the

the eastern

coast

'

of India

derived from

this word

name
styledby Europeans.
coast,by
in supposing it to be derived
was
Undoubtedly Fra Paolo " St. Bartolomaeo
wrong
but maize;
from
ch61a-maiidalam,'the millet country. 'Ch6}am' is not millet,
words
and Sanscrit
like
ch61am
of indigenous Dr^vidian
and compound3
maudalam
are
words like
ordinarilyinadmissible ; and this compound in
unknown.
is
S6rarma"ndalam,'the country of the Sdras, who
quite'
particular
P^udiis a compound which is in actual use, like
in Sanscrit,
called Chdlas
are
S^ra-mandalam,'the country of the
mandalam,' the country of the PAndiyaa,and
Siras, or KSrala : and doubtless this is the word with which Paolo's informants
of the word
This derivation
had
Coromandel,' viz. from
supplied him.
but
there
is this serious objection
has
been
accepted;
generally
S6rarmandalam,'
from
Cuddalore to Madras
that
of
the
of
eastern
coast"
that
the
name
to it,
part
not
is
first
became
Tonda-mandalam,'
with
which
acquainted,
Europeans
;' in addition to which, these terms are rarelyiisedby the natives
S6ra-mandalam
themselves':their use is restricted to classical compositions,and it is extremely
We
and factors ever
heard of them.
unlikely that the first European mariners
the
of
and
natural derivation
more
to seek for some
trite,
easy,
have, therefore,
b
lcKh
find
Karu-manal
I
think
in
this
we
(literally
Coromandel
word
;'and
the eastern coast near
Pnlicat (the first
of a small villageon
sand), the name
Dutch
settlement),which is invariablyup to the present day pronounced and
of
Coromandel
written
by the Europeans who are resident in Madras ; some
hot land
the
'Coromandel
'Karumanal
in
or
take
during
whom
refuge
annually
is sightedby shipsfrom Europe
is often the first pointwhich
Coromandel
winds.
which
own
ing
the
on
and
bound to Madras
objects
my
eyes first rested on approach;
and the
the cocoa-nut
trees of Coromandel
the coast in January, 1838, were

of the 'Coromandel

('S6ra ')the

which

it is

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

distant

'

'

'

Nagari hills.

'

64

INTRODUCTION.

The
by tlie Greeks.
Ptolemy to the Soras
through the country of

last

two

have

must

names

applied by

been

flowed
Tanjore
the emporium at the
and 'Xa/3^pos,'
the Sorigi,
moutt of the Cavfiri (whichhe calls 'Xa^ijpi^,'),
belonged to them. The
S6ras are
sometimes
in poeticalTamil called 'S6ragas' or 'Soriyas,'
added to many roots
and their country 'S6ragam,' 'g'beingoptionally
sound,
as an
euphonic. The 'r' of the Tamil word 'S6ra,'is a peculiar
delta ; for the

of the

Caveri

"

not

contained

in any

of the

other

dialects ; in which

Dravidian

it is

by '1' or 'd;' in Sanscrit and in the Pali of the

generallyrepresented
accurate
Maha-wanso'
spellingof this word given
by '1.' The more
by the Greeks shews that then, as now, the use of this peculiarvocalic
'

'r'

was

dialectic characteristic of the Tamil.

(4.)Modogalingum. Pliny observes, Insula in Gange est

The same
island,country, or city (forthe
Modogalingum nomine."
is called by Ptolemy,Triglyphum
of it is somewhat
obscure)
description
the
on
or
Trilingum. Though the placereferred to is said to be
to the south : for the Godavery
Ganges,"it may have been considerably
of the Ganges, or
has always been considered by Hindus
as
a branch
most
as
mythologicallyidentical with it ; and the Greeks would
probablybe taughtto regardit in the same light. At all events, from
and Calingas(thetwo ancient divisions
that the Andhras
the circumstance
of the Telugu people)are represented
by the Greeks as Gangetic
nations,and as livingin or near Triglyphum, it may be considered as
identical
certain that Triglyphum, Trilingum,or Modogalingum, was
with
Telingana,or Trilingam, 'the country of the three lingas;'
which
from
word, indeed, the modern term
Telinga'is ordinarily
derived
derivation of
by native grammarians. The
Telugu,"
i
s
f
rom
Mr.
C. P.
Trilinga' repudiatedby
Telungu,'or Telinga',
also
that
the
Brown
who
states
is
contained
in
name
Trilinga' not
;
any
lists
of
countries.
of the ancient Sanscrit
is probably
This statement
the ancient use of the appellation Trilingam,'
correct
: nevertheless,
of the names
and the identity
Trilingamand Modogalingum, are proved
if they had
as
by the evidence of Ptolemy and Pliny,as conclusively
This being the case, the Telugu
"been mentioned by Sanscrit writers.
fixed near
and language are
the mouths
of the Ganges, or at
name
leastbetween the Ganges and the Godavery,about the commencement
of the Christian era ; and not onlyso, but the existence of the dialectic
of the Telugu, as earlyas the time of the Greek
peculiarities
phers,
geograbe
inferred
inasmuch
the
word
as
used
safely
modoga,'
;
may
ing
by Pliny,is the ancient word for three ('moda,' or modoga'),answerto the Canarese
munru
muru,' the Tamil
(pronounced munmodern
mudu."
and
the
The
word
used
Telugu
dru),
by Plinybeing
"

...

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

66

INTRODUCTION.

'kalli,'
is identical with the Tamil
KaXXi'^iicov
called.
by which the placeis now
cactus,the firstpart of the name
(8.)Amongst many words of less importanceof which the Tamil
the following
:
I subjoin
UaXovpd
be easily
recognised,
can
signification
from
ur,'a town),a place in the Bay of
pal,'milk, and
(obviously

of the Greek

name

"

'

'

Bengal, possiblyat

the

river

'Palar,'Milk-river,a

the

Bay of Bengal a

flows into the

which

of

mouth

of Madras

little to the south

Tevvdr^opa(from the Tamil 'ten,' south,and the Sanscrit 'nagara,'

in the Sora country : also the word
opv^a,rice,which
a
a town
city),
rice deprivedof the hwk;
is obviouslyderived from the Tamil
arisi,'
this beingthe state in which rice was
then, as now, bought up in India
for exportation
to Europe.*
the
(9.)During the periodin which the Greeks traded with India,
various circumstances
of places and tribes recorded by them, and
names
'

that

they have related,prove

which

in the

established themselves

Carnatic,and

the Brahmana

given

had
to

names

then
of

some

fying
principalplaces. MoSovpa (Madura) is a Sanscrit word, signithe yellow
of the Caveri, "^a^ripli^
the sweet city
; the name
river, is claimed by the Sanscrit,though possiblyTamil ; and
'

'

the

'

'

thuki
in the Book
of Kings,
is
word
for pea-fowl,which
The Hebrew
The
is certainlyDra,vidian.
pea-fowlis an Indian bird.
thftki in Chronicles,
'

'

"

coast of India that the pea^fowlwas

probably on the Malabar or Western
of the fowl
and
the old classical name
Solomon's
servants ;
procuredby (or for)
In
modem
Tamil
tfikei
in Tamil is t5kei,'
tdgei.'
dialecticalljpronounced
tail-feathers
but
in
similar
tlie
or
peacock's
tail,
only
generallysignifies
;
any
also the peacock itself. If this identification is
it signifies
old classical Tamil
referred to is the oldest specimen of the Dr^vidian
word
correct, the Hebrew
The
Arabic word
for the
languages which is extant in any written document.
taus,'are probably derived from the same
peacock, tawas,'and the Armenian
raoig,'with which, by the insertion of the dtgamma,
source
; as also the Greek
Latin
the
the Tamil
connect
connect
as Max
some
pavo.' I cannot
t8g-ei,'
sikhin ;'for it is regarded by Dr^vidian
graphers
lexicoMiiller does,with the Sans.
word
Tamilian
and
the
Tamil
of
sikhin
is
as
a
corruption
;
pure
is a recognisedSans, derivative, 'tdg-ei'
is not in Canarese
a peacock,which
sigi,'
or
Telngu.
African tree,of
an
Huge old specimens of the Baobab, or Adansonia Digitata,
It

was

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

which

the

various

Hindus

do

not

know

even

the

name,

may

still be

seen

in

or

near

sites of

in the extreme
south of the Indian
:
foreigncommerce
peninsula
in
Tutocorin
in Tiunevelly possibly
K6tt"r, near Cape Comorin, and near
e. g.,
the site of the ancient Kolkhi.
those
on
By what race of foreignmerchants
were
called
trees planted% The
to grow
great age to which they are known
are
(they
of the oldest specimens of organic life on the globe ')will
some
by Humboldt
admit of the suppositionthat they were
of the Eed Sea
brought from the mouth
of
the servants
navigators,or even
by the Grecian
by the Phenicians and
"

'

'

Solomon'

themselves.

May it not have been by the same

people that the Hebrew word
eak,'a
in
sack (in Tamil
's^kk-u,' Malayyam 'cMkka'), was introduced into Southern
India I This word, though so long naturalised that it is considered by native
scholars to be indigenous,is unknown
to the Telugu and Canarese,
to
as well as
It is found only where the Baobab
the Sanscrit.
is found,and where the Hebrew
for the peacockhad its origin.
name
'

EARLIEST

TRACES

OF

THE

DRAVIDIAN

67

LANGUAGES.

derived from the Sanscrit

Kofidpia
(Cape Comorin) is certainly
uKpov
kumari. a virgin,
of the goddessDurga. This word is coma name
monly
in
Tamil
and
kumari
in
of
the vulgardialect
the
pronounced
;
in
people residing the neighbourhood of the CapCj a virginis not
It is
'kumari,'or 'kumari/ but 'kumar,' pronounced 'komar.'
of the Sanscrit is identical with
remarkable that this vulgarcorruption
the name
which is given to Cape Comorin by the author of the Feriplus.
He says,
After this,there is another placecalled Kofmp,'where
there is a fort and harbour,where also people come
to bathe and
for it is related that a goddesswas
once
purifythemselves :
accustomed
to bathe there monthly.' This monthly bathingin honour
of the goddess Durga or Parvati,
is stillcontinued at Cape Comorin,
in ancient times.
but is not practisedto the same
extent
as
Cape
Comorin formerlyranked as one of the five renowned sacred bathing
of the
which
accords with the statement
places'(a representation
is
author of the Peripltis),
but the number
of visitors to it now
extremelysmall.
have not given us any information
Though the Greek geographers
respectingthe languagesof India,beyond what is furnished by the

'

'

'

'

'

'

of

names

placescontained

in their

works,

the

earliestextant

from those lists is exceedingly

interesting.The

an

which

we

hare

those
are
possess reliable authority,
been furnished by the ancient Greeks ; and from
to
they have recorded,we seem
the
Dravidian
not onlythat
conclusion,

of the words

examination

traces

languageswhich

of the Drdvidian
with

information derived

which

in drawing the
justified
languageshave remained almost unaltered

be

thousand

for the last two

dialectsthat now
prevailhad a separate
years, but also that the principal
of the Christian era, and prevailed
existence at the commencement
at that

periodin the very

same

districts of

country in

which

:we

now

writinghad probably been introduced,the

and some
of the Dravidian languages had been arranged,
grammar
several centuries before the
progress made in the art of composition,
arrival of the Greek
merchants;* and the fixitywith which those
languagesappear to have been characterised ever since that period is
in perfect
accordance with the historyof all other Asiatic languages,
The

find them.

from

art

of

the date of the commencement

cultivation.
of their literary

temporaneous
arrival in ladia of those Grecian merchants,appears to have been conThe earliest Roman
with the conquest of Egypt by the Romans.
coins found in India are those of the reign of Augustus. A very largenumber
coast;upwards
latelyfound on the Malabar
of Roman
imperial 'aurei' were
of thirtytypes of which, commencing with the earlier coins of Augustus, and
*

The

including many
Trivandrum

of

Nero,

in 1851 by the

were

described by

Eajah of

me

in

Travancore,to whom

pamphlet published at
the coins
F

belonged.
2

68

INTRODUCTION.

If the Dravidian
the

be, to

'I

than

know

of

With
group.
words
no
belonging to
tablets,
traced up to the Christian
in the

nothing written

the fifteenthcentury,and of the other

nothing above fiftyor

'the

poem,

been

as

era.

other

any

Norris

Mr.

Magyar language earlier

Ugrian languageswe have
The

Finnish

great

heroic

be of any age, but as it appears to have

only by word of mouth, it has naturally

us

guage.'
poetry,with the varying forms of the lanThe
Uigurs,or Oriental Turks, acquiredthe art of writing
Nestorian
the Mongoliansfrom the Uigurs; so
Christians,

varied,like
from

to

old

sixty years

Kalevala,'may

brought down

be considered

to

the exceptionof the

of the

languageof the Behistun

Scythianlanguagecan be
says,

justlyclaim

it may
Scytliian
families,

of the oldest members

one

I believe it to

is allied,
as
familyof langliages

the

all traditional

literarycultivation of neither of those languages is to be

Amongst
compared in pointof antiqnitywith that of the Dravidian.
the earliest records of Scythian tongues that have been discovered,is
brief list of words which are recorded by the Chinese as peculiar
a
to
the old Turks of the Altai ; and of eightwords contained in this list,
all of which are found in the modern
dialects of the Turkish,probably
Those
three,certainlytwo, are Dravidian.
words, as given by the
that

the

"

Chinese,are
TuitKiSH

OP

"

black,

Modeen

Altai.

THE

koro
kori

old,
chieftain,kto

I
'

am

ko,'to

stronglyinclined
be identical with

Turkish.

quaiS
gori

kar-u

kha,n

k6n

to consider

the

Tamil.

klra

the

last Tamil

word,

'

or

kd

kon'

or

kan,' khan,'or 'khagan of the Turcohas 'khonj'

Ostiak,an Ugrian dialect,

'

'

'

Mongolian languages. The

and the word signifying
king,which is found in the Scythicversion of
and which certainly
the Behistun tablets,
with 'k,'or 'kh,'
commences
written
Mr.
is conjecturally
Norris
'ko.'
In the old Tamil inby
scriptions
I have invariably
found
ko
or
scrit
'k6n,' instead of the SanRaja :' but the word has become obsolete in modern
Tamil,
in
and
in
the
honorific
title
compounds,
w
hich
is
except
assumed
'kon,'
This
of
shepherds.
conjunction
by
meanings {kingand shepherd)is
and
reminds
of
the Homeric description
one
interesting,
of kings
very
'

'

'

as

TTOifieve^ Xaaij/.

The

Tamil

literature now

the historyof the

the Dravidian

enables

extant

language,
only to

words

handed

down

the

to

us

us

to

eighthor

by

ascend,in studying
ninth

the Greeks

century, a.d.:
carry

us

up,

as

RELATION

OF

DKAViDIANS

have seen, to the Christian

we

TO

69

NORTH-INDIANS.

Beyond

that

period,the comparison
dialects is our only available guideto a knowledge of
existing
the primitive
condition of the Dravidian language. The civilizationof
the Tamil people^togetherwith the
guage,
cultivation of their lanliterary
commenced
probablyabout the sixth or seventh century,B.C.,
but the separationof the primitiveDravidian
speech into dialects
must
have taken place shortly
after the arrival of the Dravidians in
the districts which
they at present inhabit an event of unknown,
but certainly
of very great antiquity.
The Irish and the Welsh
dialects of the Celtic,
the Old High and
the Old Low
dialects of the Teutonic,and the Finnish and Magyar
dialects of the Ugrian, had probably become -separate and distinct
idioms before the tribes by which those dialects are spoken settled in
era.

of

"

their
are

present habitations

spoken

now

appear

; but

the various

have

to

Dravidian

acquireda separate existence

the settlement of the Dravidians

to

dialects which
quently
subse-

in the localities in which

find them.

Supposing that their final settlement in their

present abodes ia Southern India took placeshortlylafter the Aryan
irruption
(thoughI think it probablethat it took placebefore),
every
form
and
which
the
various
dialects
root
grammatical
possess in
quent
common,
may be regardedas at least coeval with the century subsethe
of
the
form
to
arrival
and root
which
Aryans. Every
we

now

the Brahui

possesses

regardedas many

in

with

common

centuries

the Dravidian

older still. The

tongues

may

be

Brahuic

enable
analogies
to ascend
to a periodanterior to the arrival in India of the Aryans
us
(which cannot safelybe placedlater than 1600, b.c); and theyfurnish
of ascertaining,
with the means
in some
us
degree,the condition of the
abandoned their
Dravidian languagebefore the Dravidians had finally

abodes
original

in the central tracts of Asia.

Political

Social

THE

and

Aryan

Relation

of

Inhabitants

Pre-Aryan

and

in India

The arrival of the Dravidians

to

the arrival of the

the

whether

whom

the

to whom

Dravidians

Aryans found

the vernacular

their Un-Sanscrit
ancient

race.

Aryans

was

'

there is
identical

were

Northern

of

to

India.

undoubtedlyanterior

was

some

in determining
difliculty

with

the

Scythianaborigines
and
provinces,

of the northern
possession

in

languageso

element, or

The

identical with the

of the

Aryans, but

DrXvidians

Pbimitive

the

whether

questionmay
Dasyus and
'

India

Northern

they were

be put thus

;"

are

indebted for

distinct and

Were

the

more

Dravidians

Mlechchas,'by whom the progress

subdued and incorand who were
finally
disputed,
'

70

INTRODUCTION.

dents?
Aryan race as their Sudras,'or serfs and depento the Aryans of the first age,
or
were
they a race unknown
India,and driven
and which had alreadyheen expelledfrom Northern
southwards
towards the extremityof the Peninsula before the Aryans
arrived 1 This questionof the relation of the Dravidians to the primitive
India
is
of
Northern
confessedly
Sudras, or AryanisedMlfechchas,
and can
be settled only by a more
involved
in obscurity,
thorough
porated with

'

the

than any that has yet been made of the relation of the
investigation
Dravidian
languages to the Un-Sanscrit element contained in the
vidians
We
northern vernaculars.
regard the Dramay, indeed,confidently
as

the

earliest inhabitants of India, or

that entered from

at least

as

the earliest

Indus; but it is
the people whom
not
the
so
they were
easy to determine whether
bad
or whether
they
alreadybeen expelled
Aryans found in possession,
from the northern provinces
of another
by the pre-bistoric
irruption
bold the identity
of the Dravidians
Some recent inquirers
Pythian race.
with the primitive
Sudras ; and much
may be said in support
of this hypothesis.I am
not competent to pronounce
a decided
opinion
lies so far beyond my own
but
the
rences
diffeon
a pointwhich
province,
which appear to exist between the Dravidian
languagesand the
induce
to
Scythian under-stratura of the northern vernaculars
me
incline to the sapposition
that the Dravidian
idioms belongto an older
periodof the Scythian speech the periodof the predominance of the
Ugro-Finnishlanguagesin Central and Higher Asia, anterior to the
westward
migrationof the Turks and Mongolians, If this supposition
race

the

North-West,

or

crossed the

"

is correct,it

seems

of the Sudras

the

mixed
have

Dravidians,and
from

their

and

follow that the

provincesmust

western
to

to

the

snbdued

of the Scythianporprogenitors
tion
classes now
t
he
northern
and
inhabiting
made

also that

greaterpart

their way

they

must

of Northern

into

have

India

subsequently

vidians
thrust out the Dra-

India,before they were

in

race
by new
the
By whomsoever
from
Northern
were
expelled
India, and through what
soever
causes
they were induced to migratesouthward,I feel persuaded
that it was
not by the Aryans that they were
expelled. Neither the
subjugationof the Cholas, Pandiyas,and other Dravidians by the
Aryans,nor the expulsionfrom Northern India of the races who afterwards
became
celebrated in the South,as Pindiyas,
Ch61as, Keralas,
is
Andhras, "c., recognised
Calingas,
by any Sanscrit authority,
or any
Dravidian
tradition. Looking at the questionfrom a
purelyDravidian
I
of
point view, am convinced that the Dravidians never
had any relations
with the primitiveAryans but those of a peaceableand
friendly

turn

of invaders.

Dravidians

character ; and that if

they were

expelledfrom Northern

India,and

RELATION

OP

DRA

VIDIANS

TO

71

NORTH-INDIANS.

forced to take

and Danda-KS.ranya,
the great
refuge in Gondwana
Dravidian forest,
the tribes that
priorto the dawn of their civilisation,

subdued

and thrust them

Those

southwards

by
Pre-Aryan Scythians,

have been Pre-

must

whom

I have

Aryans.

been

supposing the
Dravidians to have been expelledfrom the northern provinces,
not
are
to be confounded
with
the Koles, Sontals,Bhilla,Doms, and other
tribes of the North.
aboriginal
Possiblythese tribes had fled into the
forests from the Dravidians priorto the Pre-Aryaninvasion,
justas the
British had taken refuge in Wales
before the Norman
conquest. It
is also possible
that the tribes referred to had never
crossed the Indus
at all,or occupiedNorthern
India,but had entered it,like the Bhutan
tribes,
by the North-East,and had passedfrom the junglesand swamps
of Lower
Bengal to their presentabodes, takingcare always to keep
At all events, we
the outside of the boundary line of civilisation.
on
of those forest tribes
cannot
throughan irruption
suppose that it was
"

that the Dravidians

element

degree with

tribes of Northern

The

in

is contained

which

accord in any

driven southwards

were

whom

northern

the

does the Un-Sanscrlt

nor

vernaculars

structure
peculiar

the

India

the

appear

of the Kole

to

languages.

Aryansgraduallyincorporated

community, as Sudras,whosoever they were, must have been an

probably identical with
They were
organizedand formidable race.
from
the East,'who, accordingto Herodotus, were
the
.(Ethiopians

in their

'

brigadedwith

other Indians

in the army

of

Xerxes, and

who

diflGered

^Ethiopiansin being straight-haired.'

in supposingthat the Dravidians,
I admit that there is a difficulty
superiorto the AryanisedSudras
who have proved themselves greatly
and patriotic
feeling,
of Northern India in mental power, independence,
from their original
possessions
by an irruption
should have been expelled
'

other

from

however,
the

It is to be

very Sudras.
have
that the lapseof time may
of those

of the ancestors

warlike,hungry, Scythianhordes
settlements. It is also

Dravidian

eflfecteda great change in

that rushed down
upon the first
that the

be remembered

to

remembered,

of

dependent
Scythians

this secondary race

to which
position
distant Dravidians
was
early reduced by the Aryans,whilst the more
altered
freedom and independence,
may have materially
were
enjoying
it might
as
It is not therefore so improbable
character.
their original
and almost

servile

at first sightappear, that

after the Dravidians

by

tlieVindhyas into the Dekhan

race,

in
conquered

soon
position,

its turn

sank

whilst

the

beneath

by

the

the

newer

had been driven

of

race

theywere

to a

tribes which

Dravidians,retainingtheir

southern forestsinto which

this new
Scythians,

Aryans and reduced

level of the

across

dependent
it had

in
independence

pelled;
ex-

the

and submitting
eventually
driven,

72

INTRODUCTION.

the

Aryans not as
in the
rose
gradually

to

and instructors,
conquerors, but as colonists
and states
social scale,and formed communities

those of the Aryans in the north.*

Dekhan, rivalling
Mr. Curzon
{Joui-nalof Royal Asiatic Society,vol. 16) recently

in the

which I have stated by supposingthat

difficulty
Northern
of Arya-vartta,
the Tamilians were
in possession
or
never
connected with the Malay race, and
India,at all ; but that they were
coast of the Bay of
to Southern India by sea, from the opposite
came
Bengal,or from Ceylon. This theoryseems, however, perfectlygratuitous

attemptedto

meet

the

proved that the languagesof the Gonds and

itself ; that the Rajmahal
Kus are Dravidian,equallywith the Tamil
Dravidian
that the Brahui
is also substantially
partakesso
; and
of
the
character
(not to speak
language of the
largelyof the same
Scythictablets of Behistun),as to establish a connection between the
; for it has been

and

Dravidians
shewn

of

that in the time

been

ago

the ancient

settled and

races

we^t

of the Indus.

It has also heeu

Ptolemy,when

every part of India had long

the Dravidians
in quietpossession,
were
civilised,

only of the south-eastern coast, but of the whole of the Peninsula,

of the Ganges.
up nearlyto the mouths
that immigrationsfrom
It is undeniable
Ceylon to the southern
districts of India have occasionally
taken place. The Teers (properly
Tivar,'islanders)and the Ilavars, Singhalese,'
(from 'Ilara,'
Geylmt,
which
has been
a word
corruptedfrom the Sanscrit
or
Sijrehalam,'
the Pali 'Sihalam,'by the omission of the initial 's'),
rather from
both of them Travancore
castes,are certainly
immigrantsfc-om Ceylon;
but these and similar immigrants are not to be considered
as
lese,
Singhanot

'

'

'

of the term, but as offshoots from the Tamilian

in the proper sense
the partial
populationof the northern part of the island. They were

reflux of the

Ceylon

with

'Pandis,'and
'Dekhan'

tide which

peopled the northern and western parts of

Bands
of marauding Tamilians
('Sollies,'

Tamilians.
other

ia

'Damilos,'

i. e,

Cholas, Pandiyas,and

other

corruptionof the Sanscrit dakshina/the south,literally

the
right{'dexter'), appellationwhich took Its rise from'the circumstance that the
Brahman
in determining the positionof objects,
looked towards
the East, which
the oppositeregion,when
he called 'pftrva,'
whatever lay to the southward was to
the right. The
South, as the region of freedom, safety,and peace, was
to the
primitive Dravidian what the East was to the Brahman.
He called It ten,'
of
which
one
meaning in Tamil is opposite,another, sioeet : whence also 'tennei'
of the cocoa-nut, literally
is the Tamil
name
the sweet nut ; whilst the North
vada'
north-wind
which is prohahly connected
(the
was
vadei),
with
vad-u,'to
wither," iha north wind being regarded by Tamilians with as much dread'as the
the car
of K^ma, the Indian
south wind (mythologically
Cupid)was associated
with the idea of everything that was
agreeable. Eeferringto the physical
of the Camatic, the Dravidians called the East
configuration
downward:
ths
yrest,the region of the Ghauts, upward.
*

'

an

'

'

'

'

74

INTRODUCTION.

for the fact that nine-tenths of the

account

northern

vernaculars

Sanscrit.

are

suppositionof the

The

also

Sudras,seems

most

component materials of the

Aryan originof

old

the very

with

in accordance

of the

largenumber

mythological

originof the Sudras from Brahma's feet; for though

are
and Vaisyas,the twice-born classes,
the Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
as
represented
springingfrom more honourable partsof Brahma's body,
from the same
divinity,
to have sprung
yet the Sudras are represented
barbarian
though from an ignoblepart; whereas the Nishadas, or
not
are
representedto have sprung from Brahma at all,
aborigines,
'fifth class,'
but formed
a
totallyunconnected with the others. It
tradition that the Sudras were
supposed
appears from this mythological
in the first ages to difi"erfrom the 'twice born' Aryas in rank only,
of the

statement

not

in blood.

regardas confirmatoryof

the

this view

of

statement

Dasyus, whether they

speak the language of the Mlechclias or that of Aryas :' for in the
of the Aryas,as their
all who
same
enjoyed the protection
manner,
tion,
appelladependentsand servants, would naturallyreceive a common
they spoke 'the
probablythat of Sudras, whether,as aborigine's,
language of Mlechohas,' the Scythian vernacular, or whether, as
they spoke 'the languageof Aryas,'
Aryas of an inferior rank in life,
that

Manu

'

all who

become

outcasts

called

are

"

dialect
colloquial

Miiller says, that

of the

the

It is true,

Sanscrit.

three twice-born

alone

castes

Professor

as

called

are

Max

Aryas

by the Satapatha-Brahmanaof the Rigveda : but as 'the four castes,'

includingthe Sudras, but excluding the Dasyus and Nishadas, are
referred to in the most
ancient hymns ; as ontcaste Aryas
distinctly
are
styledDasyus by Manu ; and as the higherclasses of the Tamilians
in this very manner,
and pretendthat
monopolizethe national name
the

lower

classes of their

may safelyattribute the

Even
the
twice-born.'
Sudras and
Brahmans
The

statement

Tamilians, I

not

in

Vratyas, who

that

think

Maha-bharata,

we

from

Mlechchas

is referred to

find the Mlechchas

Upper India itselfwith

fifthking of the Solar

the heterodox

into

Sudras,by

'

in the
and
the

historic

the
the

Aryas.

aborigines
on
residing

or

but

in the

legends of

Sagara, the

near

been

degrees.
the appellation

Dasyus disputingthe

dynasty,is related to have

the

slow

they retained their independenceand

in Bengal,Orissa,and the Dekhan;

period which
of

we

questionto the pride of

are
distinguishedfrom

regardedas an inferior class,did not difler from

in language,and must, therefore,
have been Aryas.
to have
aboriginal
Scythianinhabitants of India seem

In the age of Manu,

of Mlechchas

subdue

are

are

subdued,and transformed

earlier

race

the

session
pos-

thirty-

laboured in vain to
his frontier ; and

USE

OF

THE

TEKM

'

SUDKA.'

75

in the

reignprecedinghis,in conjunction
with certain tribes connected
the Lunar line,
those aborigines
had succeeded in overrunninghis

with

territories.*
The

introduction of the Dravidians

within

the

pale of Hinduism,

the consequent change of their

and

from Mlechchas to that

appellation
of Sudras
not in conquest, but in the
appears to have originated,
peaceableprocess of colonisation and progressivecivilisation. There
is no tradition extant of a warlike irruption
of the Aryas into Southern
of the Dravidians; though if such
India,or of the forcible subjugation
took place,it must
event
have
been subsequentto the era
an
ever
of Manu
would

and

the

Ramayana, and

probablyhave

survived.

therefore

some

remembrance

of it

All

and the names

existingtraditions,
in Tamil, viz.,'Eiyar,'
by which the Brahmanical race is distinguished
and 'Parppar,'
of
instructors,
fathers,
overseers, (probablythe ewiaKowot
tend to show that the Brahmans
Arrian),
acquiredtheir ascendency
by
their intelligence
and their administrative skill.
The most
adventurous
India to the
immigrationsfrom Northern
Dekhan
those of the oiFshoots of the Lunar
were
dynasty,a dynasty
which
from the Solar, and whose
chief citywas
originated
Ayodhya,
the
traditional
of
of
their
most
Oude,
startingpoint
immigrations.
The
of
Madura
have
to
were
feigned
Pandiya kings
sprung from the
is supposed to be derived from the
Lunar line. The title 'Pandiya,'
*

finding himself unable to extirpate or enslave those heterodox

S9,gara,
tribes,entered into a compromise with them, by imposing upon them various
their obstinate
distinguishingmarks ; by which, I think, we may understand
tomed.
persistencein the use of the distinguishingmarks to which they had been accusOne of those marks
is worthy of notice in an inquiryinto the relations
of the early Dravidians.
The
their hair long
Piradas,'it is recorded, wore
Professor Wilson observes,
in obedience
with reference to this
to his commands.'
their
statement
(in his notes on the Vishnu Purana), What Oriental people wore
hair long,except at the back of the head, is questionable
be
; and the usage would
'

'

'

characteristic

rather

of the

Teutonic

and

Gothic nations.'

The

usage

referred

to

that the Ptodas

Dravidians,and it is even possible
have been
tribe.
Drlridian
ing
a
Up to the present day the custom of wearmay
teristic
the hair long,and twisted into a knot
at the back of the head, is characof all the inferior castes in the southern
provincesof the Tamil country,
In ancient times this mode
of wearing
and also of the shepherds and Maravars.
in use
the hair was
soldiers;and sculptured represenamongst all Drdvidian
tations
the general Dr^vidian
custom.
prove that at a still earlier period it was
their hair in the same
The Tudas
The K6tas of the Nilgherry Hills wear
manner.
their hair long,but without confining it in a knot. Probably it was from the
wear
settlers in Ceylon that the Singhaleseadopted the same
Dr^vidian
usage ; for as
Greek
third
a
geographer,describing
early as the
century a.d., Agathemerus,
Ceylon,says, the natives cherish their hair as women
among
us, and twist it round
The wearing of the hair long appears to have been regarded by the
their heads."
earlyDril vidians as a distinctive signof national independence : whilst the shaving
of the hair of the head, with the exception of the
kudumi,' or lock at the back
considered
to the tail of the Chinese,was
as a sign of
of the head, corresponding
to Aryan customB,and admiesion within the palo of
submisBion
or
Aryanisation,
is

equallycharacteristic of

the

'

'

Aryanprotection.

76

INTRODUCTION.

in the

India,the celebrated combatants

of Northern

of the 'Pandavas'

name

of the Maha-bharata,

great war

to

Cyclopean work
tion
Probably this deriva-

whom

every

ascribed.
antiquityis traditionally
ever
whatof 'Pandiyas'ia correct; but there is no reason
of the name
this name
was
that the kings of Madura, by whom
to suppose
India.
of Northern
assumed, sprang from any of the royal dynasties
The Aryanimmigrantsto the South appear to have been Brahmanical
and instructors,not Kshatriya soldiers;and the kings of the
priests
of unknown

Pandiyas,Cholas,Calingas,and other Dravidians,appear to have been

whom
their Brahmanical
chieftains,or 'Poligars,'
simply Dravidian
and
With Aryan titles,
directors dignified
preceptors and spiritual
taughtto imitate and emulate the grandeur and cultivated tastes of
times we
of kings.* In our
own
the Solar,Lunar, and Ajjni-kula
racej
of

the progress

see

may

where

similar process in Gondwana,

learned

chieftains have

Gond

from

barbarous

preceptors,not only

their Brahman

I find that a similar opinion respectingthe relation that subsisted between

Aryansaad the earlyDravidians, has been expressedby Professor Max Miiller
'
(Beport of British Association for 1847). He says, Wholly different from the
"

tlie

the
the Brahmanical
the north of India,was
in which
people overcame
of
of
and
in
the
of
south
taking
possession
settling
adopted
eoantry
they
way
with the destroying
the Vindhya.
They did not enter there in crushing masses
under the
force of arms, but in the more
peacefulway of extensive colonisation,
of the powerfulempires in the north.
protectionand countenance
with
their neighbouring tribes,these
engaged in wars
Though sometimes
offensive but only a defensive part; and it
colonies generallyhave not taken
an
Brahmanical
laws,and religion,
institutions,
appears that,after having introduced
especiallyalong the two coasts of the sea, they did not pretend to impose their
inhabitants
more
numerous
of the Dekhan, but that
language upon the much
they followed the wiser policy of adopting themselves the language of the
their knowledge and
aboriginalpeople,and of conveying through its medium
of uncivjpsed tribes.
instruction to the minds
In this way they refined the rude
language of the earlier inhabitants,and brought it to a perfectionwhich rivals
the Sanscrit.
By these mutual
favourable
lation
assimia much
even
more
concessions,
the Arian and aboriginalrace
took place between
India
and
of
the
south
;
afterwards the last refuge of Brahmanical
became
banished
when
it
was
science,
It is interesting
from the north by the intolerant Mahommedans.
and important
to observe how the beneficial influence of a higher civilisation may
be effectually
exercised,without forciug the people to give up their own langTiageand to adopt
result by which, if successful,
that of their foreign conquerors,
a
evei-y vital
of
and
natural
an
independent
principle
developmentis necessarilydestroyed.'
manner

'

I cannot

see

how

this statement

identification of the old Dravidians

recent

more

Tripura,and
of Nishada
before

the

centre, and
were

notice

thus

Sesulta

the

by

races

devouring of the Kir^tas,as

Aryans; and represents the

traditions
same

Aryas to the south of the Vindhyas, broken

violentlypressed together even
in the south.
dealt

of this

with
in

had

the

Kalingas, Pandiyas,
kings are

Turanian

of

the Garuda's

of the Professor can

be reconciled
with his
the Nishftdas of Northern
India.
In his
Researches,he interpretsSiva's triumph over
with

been

I think
DrSlvidians,

in
Mahft-bhSlrata,

and

other

which

the

we

of the conquest

NishWas
and

as

retirirg

scattered

in the
If the Nishidas who
should
find some
distinct

peaceable,polished Ch61as,
guished
carefullydistin-

DrSlvidians of the South, are

from
the Nishildas of various races, whom
the old
aa subduingin Northern India.
represented

Solar and

Lunar

PRE-AYEIAN

77'

CIVILISATION.

the sacred thread of

to assume
stylethemselves Rajahs,but even
the 'twice-born' Kshatriyas.
The onlyDravidiau kingswho are commonly believed to have been
to say),
reallyKshatriyas(thoughwith what truth it is now impossible
the kings of the Kerala dynastyon
the Malabar
were
coast; from
whom
the modern
Rajahs of Cochin claim to be descended.
It is proper to notice here that the title'Sudra' conveys a higher
meaning in Southern than in Northern India. The primitive'Sudras'

to

India

of Northern

slaves to the

were

littlesuperiorto that of slaves.

and

no

condition

property of

no

India,on

their own,

it was
contrary,

the

but

upon

that the title of

higher classes of the Dravidians
Sudra
was
imposed ; and the classes that appeared to be analogous
not called
to the servile Sudras of Northern
Sudras,'but
India,were
which they stillretain. The application
Pallas,' Parias,'"c., names

the

middle

had

They

Southern

civil rights. In

in

Aryans, or

and

'

'

'

'

'

of the term

'

Sudra,'to

the ancient

and
soldiers,
chieftains,

Dravidian

cultivators may prove that the Brahmans, whilst pretending

to do them
an
honour, treated them with contempt ; but it does not prove that

they had

been reduced

ever

by

the Brahmans

to a

dependentposition,

Sudras, to any class

they ever were
and obtained the
of Aryans. The Brahmans, who came
in 'peaceably,
kingdom by flatteries,'
probablyhave persuadedthe Dravidians,
may
them Sudras, they were
that in calling
conferring
upon them a title of
If so, their policy was
successful ; for the titleof
honour.
perfectly
in this light:
has invariablybeen regarded by Dravidians
Sudra
or

'

and

slaves,like the Northern

that

'

in Northern

hence, whilst

India

the

Sudra

is

low

caste

man,

in

placewhich he
not only to that
occupiesin the social scale is immeasurably superior,
of the Pariars, or agricultural
slaves,but also to that of the un-

Southern

India

enslaved low

next

castes, such

and

cocoa-nut

he ranks

as

to the

Brahman, and

the fishermen,and

the

the cultivators of the

palmyra palms.

Pre-Aryan

Civilisation

op

the

Dravidians.

and unacquainted
destitute of letters,
Though the Dravidians were
with the higher arts of life,
priorto the arrival of the Brahmans, they
do not appear to have been so barbarous and degraded a peopleas the
mans
Puranic legendsrepresent. They are
representedto us by the Brahor
uncouth
rakshasas,'
giants; as monkeys (by an interesting
as
anticipationof the theory of the author of the Vestigesof the
Natural
History of the Creation, who regardsthe monkeys of the
'

Dekhan

as

the

of
progenitors

the human

race); or

as

vile sinners,
who

78

INTKODUCTION.

ate

and human

meat

raw

and
flesh,

disturbed

the

contemplationsof

holyRishis. Even Hanuman, their king, and Bama's

is half-praised,
as
a monkey-god.
half-ridiculed,
ally,
picturemay in
the condition
represented
This

some

few

of the barbarous

Vindyha forests;but

inhabited the

have
particulars

useful

correctly
enough

Kole, or

it cannot

most

G6nd

be doubted

tribes who

that the Dra-

vidians,properly so called,had acquired,at least,the elements of

civilisationpriorto the arrival amongst them of the Brahmans.
If we eliminate from the Tamil languagethe whole of its Sanscrit
the primitive
Dravidian words that remain will furnish us
derivatives,
with a faithful picture
of the simple,yet not savage, life of the Unholds that there is nothingin the
Mr. Curzon
Aryanised Dravidians.
shape of a record of the Tamil mind which can recall to us anything
independentof an obvious Sanscrit origin; and that if the contrary
were
tenable,we ought to find the remains of a literature
supposition
record
of a
religiondifferent from Hinduism.
embodying some
dians,
Unequivocaltraces of the existence amongst the Un-Aryanised Dravidifferent from Hinduism,
both ancient and modern, of a religion
will be pointedout in the Appendix. At present I will merely adduce
those records of the primitiveTamil
and
mind, manners,
religion
which
the ancient vocabularies of the language,when
from
the
freed
will be found
-admixture of Sanscrit,
From

tbe

Tamilians,we

evidence

of

learn

followingitems

the

the

furnish.

to

words

in

use

amongst

of information.

the

early
They had

who dwelt in 'fortified houses,^and ruled over

small 'districts
'kings,'
of country :' they were
without
books,'and probablyignorantof
written alphabetical
but they had
who recited
characters,
minstrels,'
without
and
'songs'at 'festivals :' they were
hereditary'priests'
and appear to have had no idea of
heaven
of the
idols,'
or
hell,'
soul' or
sin ;'but they acknowledged the existence of God, whom
to
they styled ko,' or hing a realistic title which is unknown
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

orthodox

Hinduism.

They

erected

to

his honour

'

temple,'which

find any trace of the

they called K6-il,'GocTs-hotise; but I cannot
The
worship which they offered to him.
chief,if not the only
actual worship which
that of
they appear to have practisedwas
which they worshipped systematically
'devils,'
by 'giving to the
'

'

'

devil,'i.e. offering
and
bloody sacrifices,
frantic

'

metals, with
which

were

'Mercury'
some

by the performance of
acquaintedwith all the ordinary

devil dances.'
the

They were
exception of tin
'

of them

to

and

zinc

;' with

the

planets
exceptionof
'Saturn.' They had numerals
up to a 'hundred,'
thousand ;'but were
a
ignorantof the higherdeno-

known
ordinarily
and

'

'

to

the

'

with
ancients,

the

DATE

minations,a
medical

'

'

OF

'

lakh

DRAVIDIAN

and

and
science,'

'

a
'

no

crore.'

They

and
'cities;'
'canoes,'boats,'

; and

'

but
medicines,'

and

no

towns,' but

'

no

'ships'(small decked' coasting

/ no acquaintancewith any people

even

but no foreigncommerce
vessels),
beyond sea, except in Ceylon, which
water

'

'

'

low

had

doctors ;' ' hamlets

'

79

CIVILISATION.

then

was

accessible on

foot

at

word

expressiveof the geographicalidea of

'island' or 'continent.' They were
well acquainted with 'agriculture,'
and delighted
in war.'
All the ordinaryor necessary arts of
existed amongst them,
life,
including cotton weaving and
dyeing,'
but none
the
of
arts of the higherclass. They had no acquaintance
with
architecture ;' with
or
painting,'sculpture,'
or
astronomy,'
even
;' and were
astrology
ignorant,not only of every branch of
but even
of grammar.' Their uncultivated intellectual
philosophy,'
no

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

condition

is

especially
apparent in

of the mind.
'

'

Their

words

for the

only words

of the

that relate to the

'

mind'

the

were

'

operations
diaphragm'

interior.'
(the ^prjv
earlyGreeks),and
or
had
word
for
a
They
thought;'but no word distinct from this for
and no word for
will.' To
memory,' 'judgment,'or
conscience,'
express 'the will' they wonld have been obligedto describe it as, 'that
which in the inner parts says, I am
going to do so and so.'
This brief illustration,
from the primitiveTamil vocabulary,
of the
social condition of the Dravidians,priorto the arrival of the Brahwill suffice to prove
that the elements of civilisationalready
mans,
existed amongst them.
than the
They had not acquiredmuch more
elements
in many
centuries behind the Brahmans
thingswere
; and
whom
and obeyed as
:' but if
overseers
they revered as instructors,'
they had been left altogetherto themselves,it is open to dispute
whether
at least in
they would not now be in a much better condition,
pointof morals,than theyare.
The mental culture and the highercivilisationwhich they derived
'

the inner parts

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

from
the

the

Brahmans, have, I fear,been

caste rules,the
fossilising

the cumbersome

amongst them by

Thk

'

Probable

the

by
and
unpractical,
pantheistic
philosophy,

of inane

routine

guidesof

Date

op

appear,

the earliest Dravidian

from

ceremonies,which

their

the

DrI

It would

than counterbalanced

more

introduced

were

social state,

new

Aryan

Civilisation

of

the

VIDIANS.

the unanimous

civilisation was

voice of ancient
that

legends,that

of the Tamilians

of the

Pandiya kingdom, near the southern extremityof the Peninsula. This

and with much show of reason, attributed
civilisationis traditionally,

80

INTRODUCTION.

to the influence

who

probablyattracted

were

to

the South

by

Upper India,

from

of successive colonies of Brahmans

lity
report of the fertiby the Ckver'i,and

the

watered
plainsthat were
other Peninsular
rivers ; or as the legendsrelate,by the fame of Ramaof Siva,
of the emblem
and the sacred celebrity
chandra's exploits,
discovered and worshipped at Ramisseram, or Ram-iswhich
Rama
of the rich alluvial

and

the island of

holy place in

varam,

Ceylon.

said
traditionally
in Northern
the South

India
with

leader of the

The

been

to have
as

or
first,

influential colony,is

most

who

Agastya,a personage

or
hermit,but
holy 'rishi,'

greaterreason

who

is celebrated

is venerated

of science and

the first teacher

as

the mainland

between

Paumben,

in

ture
litera-

primitiveDravidian tribes. It is very doubtful whether

such a person)was
were
reallythe leader of
Agastya (ifthere ever
the Brahman
probablyhe is to be considered as its
immigration: more
The
Vindhya mountains,' it is said,
mythologicalembodiment.
I understand
that
themselves
before Agastya;' by which
'prostrated
they presentedno obstacle to his resolute,southward
progress; for he
far south as Cape Comorin.
He is called
ie said to have penetrated
as
brated
by way of eminence the Tamir muni,' or Tamilian sage; and is celehe acquiredat the 'court' of Kulafor the influence which
sekhara, accordingto tradition the first Pandiyan king,and for the
numerous
elementarytreatises which he composed for the enlightenment
of his royaldisciple
which
his arrangement of the
; amongst
of the language has naturally
grammatical principles
acquiredmost
He is mythologically
renown.
representedas identical with the star
star in the extreme
southern sky in India,and
Canopus,the brightest
is worshippednear
Cape Comorin as Agast-isvara.By the majorityof
Hindus
he is believed to be still alive,
orthodox
though invisible to
the fine conical mountain,
on
ordinaryeyes, and to reside somewhere
from which the 'Porunei' or 'Tamracommonly called 'Agastya'shill,'
the sacred river of Tinnevelly,
takes its rise.
parni,'
The
the date of the commencement
of the
age of Agastya,and
the

to

'

'

Brahmanical

certainly
priorto the

was

to have

appears

been

kings had become

subsequentto the era
of

The

proper

name

the great common

that

and

Tamilians

certainty
; but data exist for

with
It

civilisation of the

it ia
on

making

Christian

era

known
of the

even

in

of this mountain

is

and

'

the whole

the

Manu

Podeiyam

-which has received

or

for then

Europe. It

Ramayana

the Pdndiya
Travancore aide.

this
or

be determined

now

approximateestimate.

an

alreadyBrahmanised,and

mountain,
equally conspicuous on

the ChSra

cannot

name

'

or

country

Pandiya dynasty
as
was
certainly
for then the whole

'

from

Podeiya-marmalei,"
the circnmatance

Tinnevellyaide

of the

Ghauts,

82

INTRODUCTION.

of the Sanscrit.
is

'

Dravidian
The

it is

Indeed

suitable

to

oue

whether the word

questionable
the literature of
respecting

use

'

quity
anti-

any

of the

been

languages.

earliest writer

is said to have

Telugu grammar

on

sage

Andhra-raya,the king in
Kanva/
whose
first introduced into the Telugu country,
reign Sanscrit was
accordingto the tradition which was formerlymentioned.
historical groundwork, the
For this tradition there is proba.bly
a
introduction of Sanscrit derivatives being necessarily
contemporaneous
called

with

who

'

the

lived at the

immigrationof

the

first attempt to reduce the

writingproceededfrom a
prince,is a very reasonable
Kanva's

work,

if it

of

court

; and

Brahmana

the

statement

that

the

of the languageto
grammatical principles
Brahman
residingat the cofir"aia, Telugu
one.

existed,is now

ever

lost ; and

the oldest extant

Telugu grammar (which is composed,like all Telugu grammars,

in Sanscrit)
written by a Brahman, called Nanniah
Bhatta, or
was
Nannappa, who was also the author of the greaterpart of the Telugu
version of the Maha-bharata, which
is the oldest extant
of
composition
any extent in Telugu. Nannappa lived in the reignof Vtshnu Vardhana, a king of the Calingabranch of the Chalukya family,who
reignedat Rajamnndry. The reign of this king is placedby Mr. A,
the commencement
D. Campbell about
of the Christian
era
; but
Mr. C. P. Brown, in his Cyclictables,
in
placesit,on better authority,
the beginningof the 1 2th century,a.d.
With
the exceptionof a few other works, which were
composed
work

on

towards the end of the 12th century,nearlyall the Telugu works

are

extant

now

written

were

after the establishment

and

of them

many

in the fourteenth and

centuries,
subsequent
kingdom
Bijnagar,or Vijaya-nagara;
written in comparatively
recent
times.

of the

were

that

of

boast of
Though the Telugu literature which is now
cannot
extant
the
a high antiquity,
languagemust have been cultivated and polished,
and many
that are now
lost must have been written in it,prior
poems
to

the

twelfth

Maha-bharata:

century"
for

the

date of

Nannappa's translation

of the

this translation is considered 'the great standard

it cannot
of Telugu poetry,'
be supposed to have
sprung into existence
all at once,

Tamil

as

without

of
preparation

culture.
previousliterary
undoubtedlyolder than Telugu, though the
is ascribed to some
portionsof it by the Tamilian

literaticannot
sage

be admitted.

Agastya occupiesin

Tamil

greatereminence and importancethan

Not

literature is

which
high antiquity

The

the

only is

the formation

of the

literature

that of
Tamil

Kanva

in

place of still

Telugu.

alphabet attributed

to

OP

ANTIQUITY

Agastya,and

DRAVIDIAN

the firsttreatise upon

83

LITEEATUKE.

Tamil

togetherwith the
settlement of the grammaticalprinciples
of the language;but
original
he is also said to have taught the Tamilians the first principles
of
of
medicine, chymistryor alchymy, of architecture,
astronomy, and
law ; and

of the most

some

sciences,
as

well

is admitted

by

they suppose
treatises

as

many

Though
commenced,

ancient and admired

modern

the

other sciences which

cultivation
literary
the Tamilians

believe,in the

however, that it is undecided

whether

he

pen.

It

the extant

of
name.

languagemay

age of

was

all these

exist ; but

now

bear his

of the Tamil

on

to his

attributed

are

that his grammar

does not
to have
been the author of most

him

as

ones,

treatises

Tamilians

medicine and

on

grammar,

have

Agastya(premising

real personage,

or

is

of a class or
only to be regarded as the mythologicalrepresentative
I feel quite certain that none
of the works which are commonly
period),
ascribed to Agastya,were
written at so earlyan age. Probably
there is not
Of

of them

one

any
the works

which

are

older than the tenth century,a.d.

attributed to him, those which advocate

the system of the 'Siddhas'

the 'Siddhantam,'
or
(Tamulice'Sittar'),
a
mysticalcompound of alchymy and quietism,with a tinge of
written after the arrival of Europeans in
were
Christianity,
certainly
India : and Agastya's
name
appears to have been used by the writers,
successions of authors before,for the purhad been done by many
as
pose
of the people for whose
the books were
of gainingthe ear
use
composed.
of the followingstanza,
doubt that the substance
We
cannot
which is contained in the
Njana nuRU,' or centum of wisdom,a small
'

poem

attributed

Agastya,has

to

been

borrowed

from

statements

of

is not directly
named
notwithstandingthat Christianity
Christianity,
in

it,or

in any

'

other work

Worship
Who

made

thou

the

of this class

Light

the world in

"

of the Universe
a

moment,

and

; who

is One

placedgood

;
in it ;

men

Guru;
austerities;
Who, without wife or family,
to succeed him.
Who
lovingsages (siddhas)
appointing
Departedagain into heaven : worship Him.'

Who

afterwards himself dawned

as

upon the earth as a

hermit performed

"

It is a

illustrationof
striking

the uncritical structure

of the Hindu

to have been
even
by Tamil literati,
mind, that this stanza is supposed,
thousands of years ago.
Heathens
written by Agastyahimself many
Christians regard
endeavour to give it a heathen meaning,and Hindu
it as a kind of prophecy.
Though there is not a singlearchaism in it; though it is written
G

84

INTKOOUCTION.

but in a vulgar,colloquial
idiom,
only In the modern dialect,
abounding in solecisms; neither party entertains any doubt of its
antiquity.
various isolated stanzas, of high but
Leaving out of account
unknown
which are quotedas examples in the grammatical
antiquity,
not

and

rhetorical

works,

the

works

Tamil

oldest

claimed

extant

now

are

those

been

have

written,by the
Jainas, or which date from the era of the literary
activityof the
Jaina sect. The Jainas of the old Pandiya country were
animated by
a national and anti-Brahmanical
feelingof peculiarstrength; and it is
that Tamil is indebted for its high culture and its comtu them
parative
chiefly
independenceof the Sanscrit. The Saiva and Vaishnava
writers of a later period,especially
of the
the Saivas,imbibed much
enthusiasm
for Tamilic purityand literary
independence,by which the
of which, though Tamil
Jainas
: in consequence
were
distinguished
bear a comparison with Sanscrit literature,
as
a whole, will not
literature,
literature in India which
as
a whole, it is the only vernacular
has not been contented with imitating
the Sanscrit,
but has honourably
attempted to emulate and outshine it. In one department,at least,
that of ethical epigrams,it is generally
maintained,and I think must
be admitted,that the Sanscrit has been outdone by the Tamil.
Jaina
The
period extended probably from the eighth or ninth
century, a.d., to the twelfth or thirteenth. In the reignof Sundara
Pandiya, which appears to synchronizewith Marco Polo's visit to
India,the adherents of the religious
system of the Jainas,were
finally
expelledfrom the Pandiyacountry : consequently,all Tamil works
which

which
the

advocate

middle

or

of the
of Jaina

decadence
It

written,or

were

seems

avow

are

that system

thirteenth

to

must

century,a.d.,

have

been

and

written before

probably before

the

influence in the twelfth.

reasonable

conclude

to

that the

period in

which

Jaina

flourished was
that which preceded the enthusiastic
chiefly
of
propagation the Vedantic doctrines of Sankara Aoharya.
If this
literature

conclusion is correct, the

celebrated poem

most

avowedly Jaina author

epic,containing15,000 lines
an

"

"

the

'

which

Chintamani,'a
be

cannot

written

was

by

brilliant romantic

placed later

than

the

tenth

century.
The
the
must

'

Nan-nul,' a High

Tamil

which
poeticalvocabularies,
be placeda littlelater than

the Chola

conquest
eleventh century.
The

'

of the

or
Tol-kappiyam,'

grammar
were

the

of

and
great excellence,

all written

but yet
'Chintamani;'

Pandiya country,which
ancient

by Jaina scholars,
took

anterior to

placein the

the oldest
composition,

extant

ANTIQUITY

OF

DRAVIDIAN

85

LITERATURE.

Tamil

is probablyto be placedat the very commencement

of
grammar,
the Jaina period. Though written by a Saiva,its Saivism is not that
of the

mysticalschool of Sankara ; and in the chapterswhich are

of it has been lost),
extant (formuch
native grammarians have noticed
the existence of various grammaticalforms which are considered to be
archaic. It is traditionally
asserted that the author of this treatise,
who is styledtechnically Tolkappiyan"r,'
of Agastya
was
a disciple
himself,and that he embodied in his work the substance of Agastya's
grammatical elements. This tradition is on a par with that which
'

ascribes

so

relics of poems
to be

are

in

of the

of

first age

if any
Agastya : nevertheless,
Tamil
literature stillsurvive,they

which are contained

amongst the poeticalquotations
similar works, and
in commentaries
which
have been
them.

upon

Some

of those

stylethat
specimensof the poetical
The

'

KuRal'

which

extent

I think

The
as

should

we

to have

if not

or
distichs,

1330

connected with morals and

every subject
is regarded by all Tamilians
(andhaps
per-

best but

the

Tamil

the oldest Tamil

can

work

boast,
of any

not

warranted

be

in

placingthe date

of the

century,a.d.

induce

me

to

assignto

it

so

high an

antiquity

"

(1.) The KuRal

Sankara Acharya.

contains

no

trace

It teaches the old

and

additions

Sankara's

extant.

now

compositionof which

the ninth

which

reasons

are

in existence.

is now

follows

which

only the

not

later than

KuRal

are

be

to

almost

the finest

justly)as

are
quotations
probablythe oldest

of
Tiruvalluvar,
a work
consisting

of

poetical
aphorisms,on
and
political
economy,
appears

to

found

this and

written

works

anonymous

many

of the distinctive doctrines of

but ignores
Sankhya philosophy,

developments; and

would

before the school of Sankara

been written
before Sankara

himself,who

lived not

therefore appear
had risen to notice,

later than

the ninth

century.

(2.) There

is no

trace

in the KuKal

of the

mysticismof

the modem

enthusiastic faith in any one

Puranic system ; of Bhakti,or exclusive,
to any of the
deityof the Hindu Pantheon ; of exclusive attachment
has been divided since the era of Sankara ;
sects into which Hinduism
or

even

of

appears to have
had been transformed
work

Pnranas,

as

theology;

existence of any such sects.

The
written before Saivism and Vaishnavism

with
acquaintance

they
and

now

been

rival schools into rival sects ; before the

the text books of Hindu
stand, had become

from

theosophyof the early Vedanta and

Maha-bh^rata
comprisedthe entire creed of

whilst the

mythology of the
majorityof Hindus.

the

the
the

86

INTRODUCTION.

(3.)The author of

the KuBal

by Saivas,Vaishnavas, and
the Jainas appear to me
to the Jaina tone that

scrupulousabstinence
to

is claimed
On

Jainas.

with

the

nearlyequal reason
the arguments of

whole

that which appeals

especially
preponderate,
pervades the ethical part of the work ".-^e.g,,
to

the destruction of life is frequently

declared

from

be the chiefest excellence of the true ascetic. Nevertheless,from the

indistinctness and

undeveloped character of the Jaina element which

is contained in it,it seems
probablethat in Tiruvalluvar's age Jainism
rather an esoteric ethical school,than an independentobjective
was
and was
only in the process of development out of
system of religion,
This

the older Hinduism.

the

would

eighthor ninth century.

(4.) It is the concurrent

carry

voice

back

the date of the KuRal

of various

traditions that

valluvar lived before the dissolution of the Madura

board
or
collegeof literati,
asserted

that

the KuRal

Sangam

to

Tiru-

i. e., the

of

It is
examiners, at Madura.
literary
the very last work
which was
presented

was

for the

approvalof that body ; and that it was in consequence of their

of the Kusal
(on account of the low caste of its author)that
rejection
the college
ceased to exist. If any weight is to be attached to this
which
has the appearance
of verisimilitude,
the Kusal must
tradition,
be the oldest Tamil composition
of any extent that is now
extant
: for
which
is
attributed (with any show
of reason)to
every composition
the literati who
constituted that college,
who
in any
were
way
connected
with it,or who
lived prior to the abolition of it (some
of whom

the

were

perished.
(5.)The KuRal

ago

which

these

fathers of Tamil

is referred to and

probablywritten

were

For

traditional

quoted in grammars

in the tenth

I think

has long
literature),

the KuRal

and

prosodies

century.

should be

placedin the eighth

or
admitted,however,as in almost every
similar inquirypertainingto Indian literature,
that the reasons
for
rather
this conclusion are
negativethan positive.
Certain poeticalcompositionsare attributed to
Auveiyar,'the
a reputedsister of Tiruvalluvar,
Mairm;
of which
do
some, at least,
not belong to so earlya period.
ninth

It is

reasons

century at least.

remarkable

to have
represented

been

have
His

real

of the

the

name

circumstance

been

of
offspring
is unknown.

and
Pariars,

the sacred
remarkable

It is

Pariar.

Brahman

The

the author

that the

is

legend represents him to

father by a Pariar mother.

Valluvars

or

of the KuKal

later

of the KuEal

Vallman,

circumstance

that the author

Pariar

are

the

division
priestly

is known

only as

priest. It is

'

still

poetical
which
compositions

are

valluvar,'
Tirumore
now

ANTIQUITY

referred to

OF

(smallworks of universal

country,and

of considerable

vallnvar,a Pariar woman

brother,is unknown,
The
Tamil

87

LIXEEATUEE.

and

use

merit) are

the Tamil

in
popularity

ascribed

to

sister of Tiru-

Auveyar'sreal name, like that of her

a mother,a
Auvei,'or
Auveiyar,'
signifying
!

'

"

venerable

DKAVIDIAN

'

matron.

brief verses

(eachcommencing with

consecutive letter of the

which are ascribed to Auveiyar,appear to be of considerable

alphabet)
but
the
Advaita work which is called 'Auveiyar's
:
antiquity
written subsequently
to the arrival of the Mahommedans
was

KuRal'

in Southern

India ; and

the collectionof moral

epigrams(most of them
possessedof real poeticmerit) which is called the Mudurei,'or proverbial
of
written
after
the
arrival
was
wisdom,
Europeans,perhaps
after tbe arrival even
of the English.
The proof of the modern
originof the Mudurei is contained in the
'

followingsimile

'As

"

the

turkey that

had

the forest peacock

seen

dance,fancied himself also to be a peacock,and spreadhis ugly wings

and strutted,
is recited by a conceited dunce.'
so is the poetry which
As it is certain that the turkeyis an American
bird,which was
brought to Europe from America, and introduced into India from
Europe, there cannot be any doubt of the late originof the Mudurei,
if this stanza
was
always an integral
portionof it,as it is represented
to have

and
scholars,
word

Tamil

When

been.

have
for

'

have

called

thfs anachronism

mentioned

their attention

turkey (likethe

to

to native

the circumstance

words

that the

denoting tobacco,' potato,"

compound, signifying
"c.), is not an originalroot, but a descriptive
the heavenlyfowl,'i. e., the great fowl,'they have courageously
maintained that the turkeywas
always found in India.
'

'

'

'

'

The

date which

rather the Tamil

or

popularwork,

very

is commonly attributed

to the Tamil

of the
imitation,
is

Eamayana, a
too high. In
considerably

translation,

highlyfinished and
which

stanza

is

to the work, and which is always believed to have been written

prefixed
it is related that it was
finished in the year of
by the author himself,

the

acceptedas
scholars who
it

to A. D. 733.
corresponding
genuine,not only by natives,but by

Salivahana

were

era

have turned their attention

genuine, the Tamil

oldest Tamil
the internal

This

those few

to matters

version of the

"

European

of this kind.

Eamayana

extant
which is now
composition
evidence of styleis opposed ; and

date has been

would

If

be the

to which
supposition

the

author, Kamban

Kamba
nadu,'a district in the Tanjore country, to
(bo called from
would claim to be regardedas the father of Tamil
which he belonged),
'

poetry.
This

date,though it is the only

one

with

which

am

acquainted

88

INTRODUCTIOW.

tion
addisurreptitious
admiring
by some
than
it
can
justly
higherantiquity
is I fear

a
range of Tamil literature,
was
prefixedto it
to Kamban's
poem, which

in the whole

editor,for

the purpose of

givingit a

elaim.
in the

finished his poem

reign
certain poeticalriddles,
purportingto
of Kulotunga Chola ; and
as
down
have been given him
by Kulotunga Ch61a to solve,have come
to doubt the propriety
reason
to be no
to the presenttime, there seems
of placinghim in the reignof that king. Mr. Taylor,in his analysis
of the MacKenzie
presented
MSS., mentions a tradition that Kamban
the
was
his poem to RajendraCh61a. As Rajendra,Kulotnnga'sfather,
celebrated
Augustus of the Ch61a line,it may be supposedthat the more
Mr. Taylor
name
crept into the story,instead of the less celebrated.
represents Rajendra as Knlotunga'sfather,not his son : but in an
in my
possessionprocured from Kottar, in South Trainscription
of
written duringthe periodof the occopation
and which was
vancore,
the Pandiya country by the Cholas, it is stated that the temple on
erected by Kulotunga Chola to the
which
is cut was
the inscription
i.e., to Rajendra
honour
of the divinityof Rajendra Chol-isvara,'
It is

stated
generally

that Kamban

'

or
Chola, deified,'
'

therefore

conclude

It makes

father.

considered

identified with Siva,after his death.

Kulotunga

was

Rajendra'sson,

little difference,however, whether

he

were

not

his

father

and
supposed to have lived in both reigns,
a
singlereignis of no importanceto my present argument. The other
premissof my argument is founded upon the evidence of an inscription
which is found on the walls of an old temple at Cape Comorin.
That
is dated
in the reignof Rajendra Chola, and celebrates a
inscription
victorygained by Rajendra over Ahava Malla (a Jaina king,of the
Chalukya race),on the banks of the Tunga-bhadra. The date of the
is in the two hundredth
inscription
year of the Qnilon era (a popular
local era),
Mr. Walter Elliot's inscriptions,
answering to 3 025, A. u.
found
in the old Chalukya country, place Ahava
Malla's battle with
RajendraChola a little later than this,but in the same
century; and
they also claim the victorynot for the Chola, ,but for the Chalukya
however, is not of any importance: for it is
king. This discrepancy,
that Rajendra Ch61a lived about
clear,from both sets of inscriptions,
the beginningof the eleventh century,and Kul6tungaChola about the
middle of it ; and, in consequence,
it appears to be certain that the
or

son

for Kamban

that

as

of
publication
A.D.

733, has

hundred

may

be

Kamban's

Ramayana, which professesto have been in

and mendaciouslybeen ante-dated three
intentionally

years.

This ia not the proper

place for attempting to furnish the reader

90

INTKODUCTION.

of this class,
by European missionaries. At the head of compositions
of
stands the
and high in the list of Tamil
T6m-ba-vani,'
classics,
Father Beschi.
This long and highly elaborated scriptural
epic
of
command
merit,and exhibits an astonishing
possesses greatpoetical
it is tingedwith the
the resources
of the language: but unfortunately
'

fault of too

close

adherence

an

the

to

styleof

and

manner

'the

of endeavourmarred by the error

seriously
and even
to Hinduize
the facts and narratives of Holy Scripture,
geography,for the purpose of pleasingthe Hindu taste.
Scripture
and
ancients,'

is stillmore

that native

Now

real progress,

to make

education has commenced

and
advantagesof European knowledge,European civilisation,
of
and felt by so many
are
becoming known
European Christianity
the Hindus
themselves,it may be expected that the Dravidian mind
and stimulated to enter upon
will ere long be roused from its lethargy,
and brighter
a new
career.
stirred to so great a degreea
If the national mind and heart were
centuries
thousand years ago by the diffusion of Jainism,and some
it is
later by the dissemination of the Saiva and Vaishnava doctrines,
reasonable to expect stillmore
importantresults from the propagation
and from the
truths of Christianity,
of the grand and soul-stirring
of the youth with the ever-progressive
literature
contact of the minds
and

the

and

science of the Christian nations of the West.

It is

education

advantageof
great and peculiar
which

missionaries
all who

and

so

many

Hindus

are

Government

from

of the lower

now

that
teachers,

wish to receive it,without

the education

Englishand vernacular
from European
receiving

the

it is communicated

distinctionof caste.
and

classes

In former

to

ages

either

or
prohibited
female education was
regardedas
generally
of both sexes,
youth of the lower classes,

castes

was

and
seduouslydiscouraged,
the
disgraceful
j but now
educational advantagesas those
are
generallyadmitted to the same
that are
enjoyed by the higher castes. The hitherto uncultivated

minds

of the lower

and

far most

classes of the

numerous

Hindu

for the first time in history

community,are now
broughtwithin the
influences. A virginsoil is now
range of humanisingand elevating
for the first time being ploughed,turned up to the air and light,
and

with the seed of life; and in process of time we

may reasonably
rich
of
intellectual
and moral results.
expect to reap a
crop
sown

In the

Appendix I

the Pariahs and

remarks

have endeavoured

the Tudas

'on the Dravidian

ancient Dravidian tribes.'

Dravidians V

to

answer

I have

and
physical
type,'

the
also

'on the

question,are
'

some
subjoined
of
religion the

COMPAEATIVE
GMMMAE.

NOTE.

AH

foreign words,

represented iu

belong, are
double

whatever

to

of

purpose

work

this

preventing

of

family
in

the

unnecessary

languages

they

may

character, for the

Roman

expense

and

trouble, and

thus,

'a:'

of

facilitatingcomparison.

vowels

Long
is

accent

placed

marked

invariably

are

over

when

such

no

it should

that

it is intended

vowel,

"

be

nounced
pro-

short.

vowels

All

The

't, d,

'

Tndian

languages

dental

The

in the

these

are

middle

of
and

which

In

pronounced,

as

this

usage

manner,

or

other

'v,'

and

requires.

This

1:'

r,
'

the
'm:'

or

'j'

like

has

been

'ch,' when

and
'

dz

'

vowels, like

two

and

and

one

made

'

lowed
fol-

ts :' but

as

is

consonant

in the

characters

represented.
'y' euphonic is generally written,

'i'

and

'e;' and

similar

dialects, all such

it will

is the

always pronounced, but

South-

r.'

'

between

or

colloquialcorruption, and

with

'

e.g.,

capital

Telugu,

change

no

are

before

merely

comparison
'y'

in

'I,' of the

surd

corresponding 't,'in Malayalam,

word,

dot, e.g.,

italicized, e.g., 'm,

is

pronounced

are

another,

sounds

those

as

the

for

colloquial Telugu,

is

the

subscribed

merely peculiaritiesof pronunciation,

exchanged

not

similar

'm,'

or

the

r,' is represented by

'

vowels,

by certain

by

'n,'

English 'th,' mthan;

the

in

denoted

manner.

by

r,' and

'

'd,' in Tamil, and

pronounced

are

denoted

are

vocalic

nasal

hard, rough

the

and

are

inorganic

obscure,

consonants

peculiar

;' the

'

cerebral

Continental

in the

pronounced

are

never

be

left

rule

to

in

the

'

will

reader

Tamil,

written,

which

one

words

v'

'

to

be

tends
written

pronounce

in which

yevan.'

before

as

well

'o

:' but

to

hinder
without
them

'evan,'wAo!

as

is

SECTION

I.

SOUNDS.
,

It will be my endeavour
in this section
sound
by which the Dravidian languagesare
contribute
notice

to

will

be

determine
taken

different dialects which

elucidate the laws

and
characterized,

of

which

the

question of their affiliation. Special

of those regularinterchangesof sound
in the
enable us to identify
words
under the various

shapes that they assume, and to which

to allude in the subsequent sections of
Dravidian

to

Alphabets.

Before

"

it will

be
frequently

necessary

this work.

entering on

the examination

of

the Dravidian

vations
sounds,it is desirable to make some
preliminaryobserthe alphabetsof the Dravidian languages.
on
three different Dravidian
There
at present in use,
are
alphabets'
viz., the Tamil, the Malayalam, and the Telugu-Canarese. I class
characters
the Telugu and the Canarese
but
together,as constituting
one
alphabet; for though there are differences between them, those
Tulu is ordinarily
differences are few and unimportant. The
written
in the

is written

use,

much

the Ku

Malayala character:
less

in the characters of the

than
appropriate

those

The
expressingthe Ku sounds.
family have hitherto been content

three

"

characters

Telugu would

other uncultivated
to

have

have

which

made
are

been, for

dialects of this

their sounds

expressed in

their older but

now

Sanscrit

which

alphabetswhich have been mentioned above,

Malayalam,and the Telugu-Canarese,
togetherwith

Dravidian

viz.,the Tamil,the
in

of the

Uriya

I have

character.

the Roman
The

of which

grammar

shapes,and

obsolete
is written

in

the

the

Tamil

'Grantham,'or character
country, have

all been

early Deva-nagari,or from the still

characters
earlier characters that are contained in the cave
inscriptions
have
been
altered and
disguisedby natural and local inwhich
derived,

conceive, from

the

"

94

SOUNDS.

and especially
fluences,
by the custom, universal in the Dekhan, of
writingon the leaf of the palmyrapalm with an iron stylus.
It was
supposed by Mr. Ellis,and the suppositionhas gained
into the Tamil
currency, that before the immigrationof the Brahmans
the

country,

Tamilians

ancient

writing;that
they found in

Brahmans

the

the

acquaintedwith

were

Tamil

the

recombined

of

art

which

characters

adding a few which were

sion
necessary for the expresthis amalgamaof sounds peculiar
to the Sanscrit;and that from
tion,
which
they called 'Grantham,' or the hook, the existingTamil

characters

use,

have

derivation of the
characters

Tamil

There

character

evidentlyidentical

are

stillin use;

derived.

been

others with

from
with

ancient

more

be

cannot

Grantham

the

Tamil

character

very
which

the

'

of Tamil

characters

of

but the

Tamil

tradition extant

older than those which

are

developed,is

there is a native
no

some

Pre-Sanscrit

itselfwas

Grantham

doubtful;and though it is true that

signifiesa letter ;' yet there is

eixstence

for

forms of the Grantham:

part of the hypothesis,viz.,the existence

of which

of the

letters which

Grantham

other

out

doubt

any

word
of

the

the first Brahman

The Indian characters referred to by

immigrants introduced.
lambulus, as quoted by Prinsep,evidentlydiffered widelyfrom the

Tamil, and

been identical with, or allied to, 'the cave

the character called Hala Kannada, or Old Canarese,

character;'and
and

the various
old

in

to have

appear

characters

system

Tamil

plainlyfounded

are
inscriptions,

which

in which

was

on

is found
the

originallyintended

basis
for

be written

to

the

of

an

use

betical
alphaof

the

Sanscrit.
from the modern
Telugu-Canaresediffersconsiderably
Tamil, and departsmore
widely than the Tamil from the Deva-nagari
The

modern

there

but

type;

is

marked

resemblance

between

of the
many
the corresponding
characters that are

Telugu-Canaresecharacters and
found in early Tamil
such
the 'Sasanas,'or royal
as
inscriptions,
of Cochin.*
The
modem
grants, in the possessionof the Jews
character
is
d
erived
from the Tamilian Grantham.
manifestly
Malayala
Thus,

there is

which
*

used

are

The

to conclude

reason

known

or

that all the

in Southern

characters
alphabetical

India have

common

origin,*

Cochin

inacriptionahave been published and interpreted by the

Journal
of the Madras
Literary Society. They are
in the Tamil
written
language,though in an idiom which is tinged with the
of the Malayalam.
The character in which
peeuliaritiea
they are written,was
once
aupposed to be peculiarto the MalayMa country : but I have in my posaeafac aimilea of inacriptiona
aion many
in the same
which were
character,
obtained
in variouB districts of the Southern Tamil country, or PSlndiyan
kingdom ; and it
Eev.

would

Dr.

Gundert,

appear

in the

to have

early periodall over

been
the character which
the South.

waa

most

generallyused

at an

DRAVIDIAN

and

that their

of Northern

The

by
the

to

character
after the

be

with

and

the northern.
in

the

southern

cultivation
literary

that

Sanscrit

had become

The

alphabets

of the southern

southern

earlyperiod

the northern vernaculars

character

cave

the

cultivated

used

was

system

existingalphabets

of characters in which

the northern

of
antiquity

as
languages,
compared

commenced

that of all the

as

the ancient Brahmans.

difference between

arises from

by

same

India,namely, the

written

was

originis the

95

ALPHABETS.

not

were

languages

when

the

cave

cultivated till

and had been superseded

obsolete,

the later

Deva-nagari.
The Telugu and the Canarese alphabetscorrespondto the
nagariin power and arrangement. The only difference is that
'e' and

'o,' and

contained

hard

'r' which

is unknown

in those

the

to

surd

Devaa

short

Sanscrit,are

is not
alphabets,togetherwith a
but is found in the Sanscrit of the Vedas,
Sanscrit,
well
in the Dravidian languages.
as
as
In other respectsthe characters of those alphabetsare convertible
equivalentsof the Deva-nagari, The Malayala alphabetgenerally
them in having the
: it differs from
agrees with the Telugu-Canarese
which
'1,'

used in the modern

vocalic

of the Tamil, in addition

'r,'

5^bove;and

to the other

characters

mentioned

having only one character for long and short 'e,'and

another
for long and short 'o.' The
aspiratedletters and sibilants
which all those alphabetshave borrowed from the Sanscrit,
seldom
are
used except in pronouncingand writingSanscrit derivatives.
Those letters are not really
requiredfor native Dravidian purposes;
though, through the prevalence of Sanscrit influences,they have
acquireda placein the pronunciationof a few words which are not
in

derived from the Sanscrit.

The

are
'j,'
pronounced in Telugu in

letters 'ch' and

'ts' and

'dj:'but

no

additional characters

certain situations

employed to

are

representthose sounds.
The Tamil

widelythan

alphabetdiffersmore
the

Telugn-Canarese,from

arrangement of

of the Tamil

the

Malaya]am,

or

the

the

Deva-nagari. The
considerable degree,
been

languagehaving,to a
and
and refined independently of Sanscrit influences,
systematised
to Tamilians,
Sanscrit modes of pronunciation
being almost unknown
and
has secured for itself,
the phonetic
system of the Tamil demanded,,
in the Tamil alphabet. The
materials of that
faithful expression
a
grammar

alphabetare
made

of those

The
In

wholly,or

main. Old Sanscrit

; but

the

use

which

is

materials is Tamilian.

followingare
common

in the

with

the
the

of the
peculiarities
principal

Telugu

and

Canarese

Tamil

alphabet,

alphabets,the

Tamil

96

SOUNDS.

for

alphabetpossesses separatecharacters
long and short 'o.' Formerly it had
and

by

vowels; and

the short sounds of those

which

the

introduced

long

by

are

The

character

one

Tamil

has

no

'e,'and for
for the long

it is believed that the marks

from
distinguished

now

Beschi.

but

short

long and

the

characters

short

were

first

correspondingto

liquidsemi-vowels 'ri' and 'li/which are classed amongst vowels

by Sanscrit grammarians; and it has not adopted the 'anusvara,'or
the

obscure nasal of the Sanscrit.

but those nasals

amongst

are

consonants

Much

use

is made

firm, decided sounds, not

by

native

of nasals in Tamil

and
'echoes,'

grammarians, 'm'

classed

are

is the natural

sound

uniformlyretained at the end of

'm' is changed
Words and before labials : when followed by a guttural,
into 'ng,'
the nasal of the guttural
of consonants; and it is changed
row
into 'iij,'
'n,'or 'n,'accordingas it is followed by
in.asimilar manner
The Tamil alphabethas nothingto
or
a palatal,
a cerebral,
a dental.
correspondwith the 'half anuswara' of the Telugu a character and
the tendency
sound which
is peculiar
to that language: nevertheless,
and combining nasals,from
to euphonizehard consonants
by prefixing
which
the 'half anuswara'
has arisen,is in full operation
in Tamil.
The
Tamil
makes
whatever
of aspirates,
and has not
no
use
of the Sanscrit,
the
borrowed any of the aspirated
consonants
nor
even
'h.'
isolated aspirate
In arrangingthe consonants, the Tamil
alphabetfollows the Devain respectof the
vargas,'or rows, in which the Sanscrit consonants
nag.'.ri
classified and
are
arranged. It adopts,however, only the
of each row, omittingaltogether
first and the last consonant
the intermediate
the Tamil alphabet
letters. In the first or gutturalrow,
adopts 'k,'and its correspondingnasal 'ng,'omitting'kh,' 'g,'and
it adopts'eh,'and its corresponding
'gh :' in the second or palatalrow
and 'jh:'in the third or cerebral row
nasal 'nj,'
it
omitting'chh,''j,'
adopts't,'and its nasal 'n,'omitting'th,''d,'and 'dh:' in the fourth
it adopts't,'
and itsnasal 'n,'omitting th,''d,'
and 'dh :'
or dental row
it adopts 'p,'and its nasal 'm,'omitting
in the fifth or labial row
of the Tamil

nasal,and

this sound

is

"

'

'

'ph,''b,'and

'bh.'

the

Tamil

alphabet omits not onlyall the aspiratedconsonants

but also all its soft or sonant
of the Deva-nagari,
letters. The
sounds which are represented
by the sonants of the Deva-nagari,
are
used
in
Tamil
in
but
Sanscrit
in
as
as
accordance with a
:
commonly
sound
of
law
be
which requiresthe
(to
explainedhereafter)
peculiar
letter
be
to
same
and as a sonant
pronounced as a surd in one position
Thus,

in

another,the

Tamil

uses

one

and the

both sounds; and the character which

same

character for

has been

representing

adoptedfor

this pur-

98

SOUNDS.

Consonants.

Semi-vowels,Sans.
Tamil
Ditto,
Sibilants and

this

r,

1,
1,

v;

s,

1,

r,

"

"

Sounds.

op

We

"

and

familyof languages;

into
proceedto inquire

now

of

the laws

and
letters,

the sounds of the Dravidian

system, of

y,

s', sh,

Tamil

System

r,

aspirate.
Sans.

DrAvidian

y,

in

sound, or phonetic

doing so,

it will be found

advantageousto adhere to the order and arrangement of the Devanunciation

nagari alphabet. It is not my objectto explain in detail the pro'

'

will be made

of each letter : but such observations

and

vowel

in succession

consonant

likelyto

seem

as

throw

each

on

lighton

and distinctive character of the Dravidian system of

principles
phor,
Tamil
sounds.
grammarians designatevowels by a beautiful metaas
as
mey,' or the
uyir,'or the lifeof a word ; consonants
uyirmey/ or
body ; and the junctionof a vowel and consonant as
animated
an
body.
the

'

'

'

I.

Vowels.^

'

(1.) S,
'

"

and

'

a.'

The

of these vowels in the

sound

to their sound in Sanscrit. In Tamil,

languagescorresponds
S
is the heaviest of all the simple vowels, and therefore the most
In the other dialects
liable to change,especially
at the end of words.
it maintains its placemore
in them
it is ordinarily
firmly; but even
strengthenedat the end of words by the addition of the euphonic
of the enunciative vowel 'u,'and the euphonic
'vu,'consisting
syllable
has almost entirely
"
formative 'v.'
disappearedfrom the end of

Dravidian
'

'

'

'

in

nouns

Tamil, and

holds universallywith
visited
'

ura

been

:' it has

Tamil,

now
'

it

succeeded

respect to

a town,
India,'uru,'

but remains
in

has

become

in

'

to have been

Telugu

'

or

'

ei.' This rule

the Greeks

singular. When

nouns

appears

by

and

Tamil

pronounced
invariably
either

'

'

uru,'or

ura,'in Malayalam. Where final a changesinto

generallychanges into e,'in Canarese,or else
'

'

'

'

ur,'
ei,'

it is

in
propped up by the addition of 'vu.' In Telugu, and especially
Malayalam, this vowel is less subjectto change. Neuter pluralsof
and pronouns, which originally
ended
in
in all the
appellatives
a
and
still
end
in
which
in 'a,' Malayalam,now
dialects,
end in most
instances in
ei,'in colloquial
Tamil,in i,'in Telugu,and in u,'in
Canarese.
has become 'avei,'
in Tamil;
Thus, 'ava,'those (things),
avi,'in Telugu ; avu,'in Canarese : in MalayMam alone,it is still
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ava.'
In

the

same

manner,

the

long

final 'S'

of Sanscrit feminine

VOWELS.

becomes
abstracts,

in Tamil

'

99

ei,'"e.g.,
'asa,'Sans.,
desire,
Tamil,

'asei;''Chitra,'
Saub.,
April" May, Tamil Sittirei.' The same
'a'
becomes 'e,'in Canarese,
e.ff.,'Ganga,'the Ganges,is in Canarese
'

Gange

'

or

Gange-yu.'The diphthonginto

weakened

which final

in

diphthong ai,'which

is

'

to

'

and

'

'

to
ai,'might lead
equivalent
'

'

'

of

'

'

has

'e,'and
'

and

e
'

or

is the

disappeared.It
i :' it accords

ey,'in

'

'

us

ei.' It is curious,
of the sound

trace

in Grantham
represented
by a double
Telugu-Canarese by a character which is compounded of

in
'

'

'

regardthe Tamil diphthongas ai,'rather than

from
however,that though it originated
a,'every

'

'

'

'

the Sanscrit

'

'

ei than as
Tamil,is represented
more
as
properly
ai.' The origination
of the Tamil
ei from
a/ and the analogyof

are
'

'

is

in sound

also very

nearlywith

the sound

TurTcey, It is also to be observed that the Tamil

equivalentof the

of

'ei,'

and is the
e,'of the Malayalaaccusative,
of the final e,'of Canarese substantives and
ordinary
representative
verbal nouns.
I conclude,therefore,
that it is best represented
by the
of the Greeks.
which corresponds
to the 'e?
'ei,'
diphthong
'

'

'

'

i.' These vowels call for no remark.

(2.) i and
and also in
(3.) 'u' and 'u.' In the Indo-Europeanlanguages,
the Semitic,the vowels
ii and
u,' are very decided,inflexible
sounds,which admit of little or no interchangewith other vowels,
or
is
euphonic softening. In the Dravidian languages,long u
is of all vowels the weakest and
u
sufficiently
persistent
; but short
and
is largelyused, especially
at the end of words, for
lightest,
euphonicpurposes, or as a helpto enunciation.
In grammatical,written Telugu,every word without
exception
end in a vowel ; and if it has not naturally
vowel
must
a
endingof its
is to be suffixed to the last consonant.
This rule applies
u
own,
to Sanscrit derivatives ; and the neuter abstracts ending in
even
m,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

which

have been borrowed

from the Sanscrit,

must

end

in

'

m-u,' in

this 'u' is alwayswritten,

it is often dropped in nunciation.
proIn modern Canarese
similar rule holds,
with this additional
a

Telugu. Though

development,that
is suffixed
'

sA% few

to

even

words

'u'

(or,with the euphoniccopula v,' vu')

'

that end

and 'pala,'
(things),
many

Can. 'kela-vu' and

addition of

'

'

'pala-vu.'The

to words

in 'a:' e.g., compare

'

the Tamil

with the corresponding

(things),
Tamil
rule,with regard to the

which end in

consonant, accords with the

is,that in words which end

in 'k,''ch,''t,'
or
in any hard or surd consonant, viz.,
't,'
'p,'(each
of
in
the
is
consonant
the leading
a
or
of which
varga'),
hard,rough
the
these
hard
shall be
consonant
to
languages,
R,' which is peculiar
in Hebrew),in consequence
of its
followed by 'u' (as'q,'
by 'sh'va,'
rule of the ancient Canarese.

That

rule

'

'

100

SOUNDS.

those
for Tamilian
being impossible
organs of speech to pronounce
In most instances this
vowel.
letterswithout the help of a succeeding
enunciative u is not merely short,
but so very short that its quantity
is determined by grammarians to be equal only to a fourth of the
a short
quantityof a long rowel. The Malayalam uses invariably
'

'

'

a,'in

those connexions

for which

for those purposes

and

'

'

is used

in the other dialects.

It often

happens(thoughit is not

which

surd,to

enunciative

'u'

rule)that the final

appended,is doubled,

invariable

an

'a' has been

or

apparentlyfor the purpose of furnishinga fulcrum for the support of

in
the appended vowel.
Thus, the Sanscrit 'vak,' speech,becomes
Tamil 'vak(k)-u
;'and so in all similar
j' ap,'water, becomes 'ap(p)-u
The rule is further extended iu Tamil so ^s to apply to the
cases.
'

final consonants

of

syllable,
though in

well
as
syllables,

the middle

syllableis
is

consonant

doubled, and

becomes
in-duality,
thus
In

even

in

'

Tamil

'

in the ancient

Thus,

attuveida.'

'u'

and

be

The

of the hard
of the

ceeding
suc-

it,the final
advaita,'Sans.,

'

by

which

'

d,'

well

nasals,as

as

it is sometimes

every

final

the surds ; and

suffixed to final

the purposes

now

obviouslyquiteforeignto

derived from

of sound.

explainedhereafter.

'

not

If

to

rule

instead of simply 'sol.'

'\,'e.g., 'sol(l)-u,'
spea/c,
The employment of u,' in the manner
and for

mentioned, is

one

is suffixed to almost

classical Tamil

or

assimilated

is afiixed.

Tamil,
colloquial

in

initial consonant

be

't,'will

to the semi-vowels

"

if the

cannot
'

doubled,becomes

modern

consonant,

which

one

word, terminates

above-mentioned,and

consonants

when

of

of words.

those

to

as

the

and
Sanscrit,

It will be termed

the

is
'

It is
Indo-Europeanusages.
directly
opposedto Sanscrit laws

enunciative

u,'and

will

generally

be

separatedoff by a hyphen.
(4.) 'e,' 'e:' 'o,''6.' The Dra vidian languages possess, and
largelyemploy the short sounds of the vowels 'e' and 'o',(epsilon
and

and

omicron),

the

of

purpose

have

difierent characters for those

them
distinguishing

from

the

sounds, for

correspondinglong

vowfils.

Sanskrit is destitute of short

The

of those
to

from

sounds
the

accident ;

system of

'

'

languagewhich

and

'

o.'

attends

so

The

entire absence

scrit
nicelyas the San-

minutest

gradationsof sound, cannot be the result of

and the importantplacewhich they
occupy in the Dravidian
sounds,shows that the Dravidian languagesare independent

of the Sanscrit.
In

few

cases,

instance of the

both in

Teluguand

base
interrogative

'

in

in the
Tamil,particularly

e^'the short vowel

has

sometimes

101

VOWELS.

been

into
(Jorrupted
emphasis; but such

long one,

cases

difference between

vowels,is a difference which

form,biit to

the bases

of

seat

and

rare

of words, and is essential

roots

or

by becoming the
lengthened

and in generalthe
exceptional,
'e' and
'o,'and the corresponding
long
the
inflexional
not
to
or
pertains,
euphony

are

short

or

in the

ence
the differ-

to

and
means
tel,'
signification.
E^g.,in Tamil, tel,'
clear,
scorpion; 'kal,'
stone,and '"kal,'
foot.
(5.) ei.' It has alreadybeen mentioned that 'ei,'unlike the
Sanscrit diphthong ai,'is derived from 'e' and 'i,'
'a' and
not from
i.' The primitiveDravidian
a
changes into e,'and this again
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

into

'

ei.'

'

Thus, the head, is

'

ei

'

singleconsonant
is considered

tala,'in Telugu

and

Malayalam ;

'

tale,'in

in Tamil.
'talei,'

Canarese; and
When

'

in

is succeeded

between

them,

Tamil
the

and
by position,

short

another

ei,'with only a
first ei,'though naturally
long,
is pronounced short accordingly
;

by

'

'

in prosodyas
udeimei.' In such
udeimei,'
property, is regarded
ei is an equivalent
g.'
to its originala
cases
or
(6.) an.' This diphthonghas a placein the Tamil alphabet;but
it is not really
and it has,i
a
languages,
part of any of the Dravidian
been placedin the alphabets
solelyin imitation of the Sanscrit. It is
of Sanscrit derivatives;and when such
used only in the pronunciation
derivatives are used in Tamil, they are
more
commonly pronounced
the diphthongis separated,
without the aid of this diphthong.Ordinarily
and
into its component elements : that is,the simplevowels
a
u,'
with the usual
from which it is derived,are pronounced separately,
the
euphonic v of the Tamil between th"m to prevent hiatus. JS.g.,
is ordinarily
Sanscrit noun
/ieaftA,
pronouncedand written,
saukhyam,'
e.g.,

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in Tamil,

'

savukkiyam.'

of the Tamil system of sounds,as distinguished

peculiarity
that the vowels
from that of the other languagesof the family,
i,' i,'
a
compound,,
'e,' 'e,'and 'u,' acquire before certain consonants
the
from
sound
is
different
which
which
they have
diphthongalsound,
Thus, i before t,' n,' r,' r,' e,' 1,'and 1,'
as simplevowels.
It is

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

nants,
consoacquiressomethingof the sound of e :' i before the same
and
the
first
r
first 1,'takes a
with the exceptionof the
sound resembling u :' 'u' remains always unchanged; but 'u,'not
'

'

'

'

'

'

consonants^ but before all

only before the above-mentioned seven
e,'is prosingleconsonants, when it is not succeeded by i,' u,' or
nounced
'o'
is
in
used
and
in
like
Telugu,
generally
'o;'
nearly
above mentioned,
'e,'before the consonants
writingthose words,
slender
with the exceptionof the semi-vowels,loses its peculiarly
'

'

'

1 02

SOUNDS.

sonant
pronouncednearlyas it would be if the succeedingconwith the same
doubled.
acquiresa sound
exceptions,
fe,'

sound,and

ia

'

were

similar to '6.'
The

which

circumstance

notice,in connection
vowels
e,'
i,' u,'and

is most

worthy

of

'

'

changes,is that each of the short

retains its natural sound,if it is succeeded by another
i,' u,'or e.'
to have,to he,is pronounced oBa,'but
Thus, uRa,'Tamil, infinitive,
'
the imperative uru' is pronouncedas it is written.
with these

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

This rule disclosesa law

in Sanscrit.

discoverable

Scythianlaw

with the

of sound

So far

which

is unlike

anythingthat

is

it goes, it is evidentlyconnected
will be referred
sequences, which

as

of harmonic

to hereafter.

of a word
in the last syllable
ending in
a,'occurring
n,' n,' r,' r,' 1,'or 1,'acquiresa slender sound resemblingthat
is pronounced'aver.'
of e; e.g., 'avar,'Tamil,they,(honorifically,
he')

vowel

The

'

'

This

'

'

'

'

'

weakening of the sound of heavy

of words, which is
the ultimate or penultimatesyllables
observed in the Sanscrit familyof tongues.

change correspondsto

vowels, in
sometimes

the

into
grammarians divide all consonants
three classes:" (1.)
Surds,which theycall vallinam,'
or the hard class,
viz.,'k,' 'ch,''t,''t,''p,''B.' (2.)Nasals,which they call mellinam,' or the softclass,viz., ng,'nj,'/n,' 'n,''m,' with final 'nj'
and (3.)semi-vowels,which theycall ideiyinam,'
or the medial
class,
viz.,'y,''r,''1,''V,''r,''1.'
In this enumeration,as I have alreadyobserved,
the sonant
valents
equithe
of the surd consonants
of
k'
sonant
(viz.,g,'
s,'the
;
sonant
qf ch ;' d,'the sonant of t ;' d,'the sonant of t ;'and b,'
In the other Dravidian dialects the
the sonant of p') are omitted.
II.

Consonants.

"

Tamil

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

surds and

difference between

sonants

is

generally
expressedby

the

use

of different characters for each sound, in imitation of the system of the

Deva-nagari; but in Tamil, and in part in Malayalam,in accordance

law of the convertibility
with the peculiarDravidian
of surds and
sonants,one
between

set of consonants

for both purposes,

and

ence
the differ-

expressedin the pronunciation

alone.
before proceeding
further to enquireinto this law,viz.:

them

It is desirable

serves

is

Convertibility
of ^urds and Sonants. We have seen that the
Tamil alphabetadopts the first and last of each of the Deva-nagari
of consonants, viz.,
the un-aspirated
or rows
surd and the nasal
vargas,'
The

"

'

of each

'

varga

;' we

have

also

seen

characters for surds and sonants,but

that which,

that the Tamil

uses

one

and the

properlyspeaking,
represents the

surd

has not separate

same

character

only" to

express

103

CONSONANTS.

both.
the
in

This rule does not

but is the
language,
the languageitself.
There

are

applymerely to
of a law
expression

distinct traces

Tamil,next

most

of

characters

of sound which is inherent

of the existence of this law

Dravidian dialects ; but it is found

in
developed

the written

and
systematically

in all the

fully

most

apparentin the

in

Malayalam. The law, as

unsystem of sounds, is as follows : 'k,''t,' t,' p,'the first,
of the first,
are
consonants
and fifth vargas,'
aspirated
third,fourth,
always pronounced as tenues or surds {i.e.,
as
'k,' 't,''t,''p,')at
the beginningof words,and whenever
they are doubled. The same
consonants
as
are
g,'
always pronounced as medials or sonants (i.e.,
in
cannot
when
d,' d,' b,')
single, the middle of words. A sonant
commence
a
word, neither is a surd admissible in the middle,except
hered
when
doubled ; and so imperative
is it adis this law,and so strictly
words
to in Tamil, that when
borrowed from languagesin
are
which a differentprinciple
the
as the Sanscrit or the English,
prevails,
Tamil

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

of those words

consonants

accordingto

changefrom

their

sonants

to

surds,or

idee versd,

becomes
: e.g.,
a tooth,
dantam,' Sanscrit,
position
in Tamil, tandam
becomes
,"'bhagyam,'Sanscrit,happiness,
pakThis
also
The
first
rule
the
of
to
case
applies
kiyam.'
compounds.
it stood independent,
of the second word, though it was
consonant
a surd when
is regardedas a sonant
when it becomes a medial letter in
ference
This difference is marked
in Telugu by a difa compounded word.
in the character which is employed ; e.g., anna-dammulu
(for anna-tammulu '),elder and younger brothers ; kotta-badu (for
'kotta padu'),to he beaten ; but in Tamil, and generally
in Malayalam,
the difference appears in the pronunciation
alone.
This rule applies
the words stand in a
to all compounds in Telugu: but in Tamil, when
relation to one
case
another, or when the first is governed by the
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

second,the

'

'

initial surd of the second

word

is not softened,
but doubled

to
hardened,in token of its activity
; e.g.,instead of kotta-badu,'
be beaten,it prefers
In 'dwanda' compounds
to say,
kotta-(p)padu.'
the Tamil agrees with the Telugu.
of ch' (theTamil
A similar rule applies
to the pronunciation
s'),
When
it
the first consonant
of the second
single is provarga.'
nounced
sound
with a
weak sibilant,
sh'
as
a soft,
midway between
is unchanged in the middle of words,
and
ch.' This pronunciation
and in all cases
in which the letter is single
; but when it is doubled
it is pronounced exactlylike ch.' The principle
involved in this

and

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

instance is the

as

in the

cases

mentioned
previously

; but

the

degreedifferent. The differenceconsists

of this consonant in the beginningof a word, as
the pronunciation

of the
operation
in

same

rule is in

some

104

SOUNDS.

By theoryit should be
ch at the beginningof a word, and it is worthy of
pronounced as
at the beginningof a
notice that it always receives this pronunciation
word in vulgarcolloquial
Tamil; and in Telugu it is written as well
with respect
similar rule prevails
A somewhat
as pronounced ch.'
well

in the

as

middle,as

'

as
sonant, i.e.,

s.'

'

'

"

'

the

rough 'r'
and like
single,
to

'

The

as

which

is

doubled.

ttr' when

k' in

consonant
requiresthe same
and as
as
position
g' in another

to
'

'

one

when

'b'

pronouncedas

rule which

Tamilian
'

Tamil,

of the

"

be pronounced

t,''t,''p,'

dialectic
is not a mere
and as
d,' d,' b,'in another
position,
ment
refinethe gradual result of circumstances,or a modern
peculiarity,
inherent in the language,
invented by grammarians; but is essentially
of it from the beginning.
and has been a characteristic principle
in

'

one

"

The
the

'

'

Tamil

characters

languageof

after,the

the

borrowed

were

Tamilians

committed

was

alphabetwas

the Tamil

sound,but

era.

arranged,not

in such

and
Sanscrit,

writingon, or soon
than
Brahmans, probablymore
Yet even
at that earlyperiod

arrival of the first colonyof

six centuries before the Christian

of

from the earlier

to

in accordance

with

Sanscrit laws

peculiarUravidian
of surds and sonants.
law of the convertibility
The Tamil alphabet
passedby the sonants of the Sanscrit,and adoptedthe
systematically
surds alone,considering
character as sufficient for the expression
one
of both classes of sounds.
This circumstance
clearlyproves that ab
initio the Dravidian
in the Tamil,
phoneticsystem, as represented
its most

ancient

manner

as

embody

to

exponent, difi'ered

the

from
essentially

that

of

the

Sanscrit.*
In

none

of the

convertible

sonants

Indo-Europeanlanguagesdo
scholars
; though Hebrew

existence in Hebrew

of

rule which

we

will

is somewhat

find surds

and

remember

the

similar to the Tamilian

respecting'k,' t,''p,'and their equivalents.The Hebrew

consonants
composing the memorial words, begad kephath,'are pronounced
in two difierent ways, according
to their position.
When
of
anv
those consonants
it is to be
beginsa word, or in certain cases a syllable,
pronouncedhard, that is,as a surd or tenuis ; and if it be an aspirated
which it naturally
letter,it is then deprivedof the aspirate
possesses.
To denote this,such consonants
have a point,
called a
inscribed
dagesh,'
'

'

'

in them.

When

those consonants

See also the evidence

existence

places in
Cotlora

which

of this law of the

Southern

the

't.'

is furnished

of
convertibility

India that

where
(Kdttar),

doubled,has become

are

'd'

arc

of

recorded

found in any

in the Introduction
surds

by

and

the

sonants

Greek

the first part

'kfld,'

of

other

position

respectingthe
in

the

names

of

geographers; e.g..
the compound, being

106

SOUNDS.

of this row, is not used in

consonant
j,'the second un-aspirated
Tamil ; but in Telugu it is both written and pronounced: in
correct
The same
vulgar Tamil also 'ch' is sometimes pronouncedlike 'j.'
'

sound

sound of

'njV

Malayalam

'

of

instead of the Tamil

1

languages.
Tamil

the

'

'

except

their

'

ch' is pronouncedas

i,' 1/ e,' e,'and

'

'

'

'

vowels,the ordinarysounds

Telugu of

liarly
pecu-

is

which
aspirates,

vernaculars,and is found only

the northern

in Marathi.

before all vowels

'

'

existence in

'j,'with

of 'ch' and
pronunciation

Telugu^nd

frequentlyused in
/,
n,' e.g. fijan,'

It is
uses

in

pronouncedas

nan.'

'

in Sanscrit and

unknown

of consonants, is

row

here to notice the

It is necessary
soft

in

this

the
ordinarily

; but

'

initial where

an

tives
of those Sanscrit deriva-

use

j is found in Sanscrit
s,'is used instead.

Dravidian

all the
as

'

ch,'or

nasal

the

Sanscrit,in

'

the letter

in which
Tamil

admitted in the

'j'is sometimes

of

of 'ch'

and

ts,'and

j' as

'

these

ei.' Before
'

'

dz,'
cepted
ex-

ther
retained. Whe-

j'are

Telugu borrowed these sounds from the Marathi,or the Marathi

from the Telugu,I will not venture
to express an
opinion; but this is
in which those languagesare found to agree.
not the only particular
the

of the
pronunciation
of the cerebral varga'in the Dravidian languagesdoes not
their pronunciation
in Sanscrit. In expressingthese consonants,

(3.) The cerebral

differ from

'

t,' d,' n.'

'

'

"

The

in Roman
characters in this work, a dot
aspirates,
them from the
t,' d,' and
placedunder each, to distinguish
with

will be

their

'

'

n,' of the dental

Though

'

at the

Its sound

'

row.

is the

surd

and

those few

't' is preceded
in
letter,

of the

consonant

beginningof

is too hard

in
therefore,

When

;'

varga
'

consonants

'

'

word

any

admit

rough to

Sanscrit
Tamil

in

it is not
cerebrals,
like the other

Tamil,
of its

use

derivatives which

by the

vowel

no

'i,'
as

heard

never

In the other Dravidian

in

dialects t' is sometimes

this

helpto enunciation.
and
longeran initial,
'd'

by rule:

Tamil,except when

'

with

proceededby a vowel, it is no
longera surd; and hence it becomes

the sound of 't' is

initial; and

an

commence

't' is thus

therefore

as

nounced
pro-

surds.

so

that

'd' is doubled.

as
pronounced singly,

in Sanscrit.
The

Tamil

'%'with

'n,'and

This

which
sonants

differsfrom

the

changingit into

is founded
peculiarity

is that nasals will not

alone.

other

In consequence

dialects in

'd' when

upon

combine

to
refusing

'n' is combined

generalTamilian
with surds, but

combine

with it.

law

of

sound,

coalesce with

of this peculiar
law,such combinations

107

CONSONANTS.

as

and 'mp,'which
'nt,''nt,'

admissible in

are

inadmissible in

Teluguand Canarese,
are

Tamils in which
nd,' nd,'and
mb,' must be used
instead. This rule applies
also to 'k' and 'ch;'which,when combined
with the nasals corresponding
to them, become
'g' and 'j.' Thus,
mandabam
mantapam,'Sans.,a porch,becomes in Tamil
;' antam,'
Sans.,end, becomes 'andam.' Probablythe difference between the
'

'

'

'

'

Tamil

and

the other Dravidian

circumstance that the Tamil

idioms

from

in
languages

has remained

so

'

this point,
arises from

the

freer than its sister

much

Sanscrit influences. A similar rule

junction
respectingthe conof nasals with sonants
and
alone,is found in the Finnish-;
is possibly
owing to that delicacyof ear which both Finns and Tami-

lians appear
I

to possess.
to

reser\re

the close of this examination

observations

some

the cerebral class are

the Dravidian

on

found

of the Dravidian

the circumstance

in Sanscrit

as

well

sonants,
con-

that the consonants

in the

as

of

languagesof

family.

(4.) The dental varga :' t,' d,' n.' The letters of the dental
sound in the Dravidian languagesas in Sanscrit.
'varga'have the same
The only exceptionconsists in the peculiarly
soft pronunciation
of t,'
it is then pronounced
in Tamil and Malayalam, when used as a sonant:
not as
d,'but with the sound of the soft English th,'in that.' It is
only when it is combined with a nasal (asin the word which was cited
above 'andam,' end,)that the sonant of 't' is pronouncedin Tamil as
natural and
more
'dj' the sound of 'd' being,in such a conjunction,
'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

easy

than

'

that of 'th.'

peculiarsound of th' is found only in Tamil, and in

the Malayalam, a daughterof the Tamil, it is doubtful whether 'th' is
sound
of the sonant equivalent
of t,'
to be considered as the original
further softening
whether
it is to be regarded as a corruption
of
or
or
the more
d.' On the whole the latter supposition
seems
probable:
As

this

'

'

'

and

as

the

'

of the other

th' of the

Tamil

to
corresponds

and
in position
dialects,

power,

the

'

d' of the

I will

Teluguand
alwayswrite it as

when
quoting Tamil words,except where it is used
d,'even
t.'
and is therefore a surd,when it will be written as
initial,
'

as

an

'

of p,'
'p,''b,''m.' The pronunciation
(5.) The labial varga
remark.
With regard to the use
of
no
and its sonant
b,'requires
m' in combination,I have only to observe that thoughit changesinto
a
'n,'or 'n,'when immediatelysucceeded by a guttural,
'ng,''fij,'
dental,it is not to be confounded with the
a
or
a
cerebral,
palatal,
'

-^

'

"

'

'

'anusvara' of the Sanscrit

sound which

alphabet.The

'm' takes in Sanscrit before the

true

'anusvara,

i.e.,the,

the sibilants,
semi-vowels,

108

SOUNDS.

and

the letter

'

h,'is unknown

called by the
the

of

name

'

languages. A

the Dravidian

to

anusvara,'but

of

from

differentpower

racter
cha-

in Telugu and Canarese ; but

is in use
Sanscrit,
it is used merely as the equivalent
of the consonantal 'm,' in euphonic
and even
final. The
a
as
combinations,
Telugu has also a vocalic
which, thoughit is used merelyfor euphony,
nasal,the half anusvara,'
'

anusvara'

of the

'

bears

There

is

to

the

close resemblance

nothingin

use

'

the

true

'

anusvara'

of the

nasal

'

languageswhich corresponds
anuswara' as a final,
in Hindi and in

vernaculars.

and also the

euphonicuse of m' and its modifications,
will be considered
its equivalents,
to prevent hiatus,
'

n' and

Sanscrit.

of the Dravidian

of the obscure

the other northern

The

any

to

of

use

at the

close of this section.

(6.)The

'

varga'of the

In classical Tamil

'r'

neither

'k.'
'y,''r,''1,''v:' 'r,''1,'

semi-vowels:
T

nor

"

commence

can

word:

each

of

them

vowel j 'r' by
to be precededby an
euphonicauxiliary
requires
'i,'and Tby'u.'
Thus, the Sanscrit ra,'night,abbreviated from
is written and pronounced ira;'and this again is softened into
'ratri,'
'iravu.'
In like manner
'lokam,'Sans.,the world, becomes 'ulogam,'
and by a further corruptionulagu.' The same
rule appliesto the
second set of semi-vowels,
'r,'
'r,'which are the exclusive property
'1,'
of the Dravidian
languages,and none of which can be pronounced
without the help of precedingvowels.
Of these distinctively
Dravidian
semi-vowels, r' is found in the
Its sound resembles that of the English r' after a long
Tamil alone.
vowel,as in the word 'farm;'but it is pronouncedfarther back in the
It is sometimes
manner.
mouth, and in a stillmore liquid
expressedin
rzh j'but this is merely a local pronunciaEnglishbooks as zh,'or
tion
which
is peculiarto the northern
of the letter,
district of the
'

'

'

'

'

'

Tamil

country:
and

is

consonant

In the southern

it is at

'

variance

with

its afiinities and

its interchanges,

r' is the only Dravidian

likelyto mislead the learner.
which is pronounced diflferently
in diflerentdistricts.
'

districts of the Tamil

country,it is pronouncedby
same
manner
as
1,'which is

the

the
people,exactlyin the
used instead of r
in Canarese.
Between
letter invariably
Tanjore
it
is
softened
into
and
in
Madras
and Pondicherry,
and
rzh,'or
zh;'
this
has
been
carried to such a
the neighbourhood,
softening
process
in
the
of
the
that
'r'
has
become
silent
speech
vulgar,
a
length,
mass

of the

'

'

'

'

'

letter.

Telugu, which commences

journeynorth of Madras,has lost
The

be

spoken about two days'

this letter altogether.Generally
it
to

109

CONSONANTS.

uses

'

d'

instead,as

Canarese

the

1 ;' but

'

uses

sometimes

it

uses

no

of the vulgar Tamil of Madras.

after the manner
substitute,
Looking
at such
Telagu words as 'kinda,'below, answeringto the Tamil
kirnda,'and
vingu,'to swallow, answering to the Tamil
virungu,'
but suppose, that the Telugu had this letter originally,
like
cannot
we
the Tamil, and that it lost it gradually
throughthe operationof that
Tamil of Madras, converts
softening
process which,in the colloquial
kire,'
below,to kiS.'
'1' is a peculiar
with a mixture of r,'which
is found in
heavy '1,'
the Vedic Sanscrit,
as well as in the Dravidian
languages. It may be
'

'

'

'

'

'

styledthe

cerebral

whatever

'

1 ;'and

probablyderived

from

the

same

sonants
be, from which the cerebral conand
have
'd,'
'n,'
't,'
proceeded.
The
hard rough 'r' of the Dravidian languagesis not found in
Sanscrit,and is not employed in pronouncingSanscrit derivatives.
It is found in Telugu poetry,and the grammarians insist upon using
it ; but in the modern
dialect of the Telugu it has fallen into disuse.
In Canarese also,
the use of this letter is confined to the poets. It is
evident that it was
contained
in all the dialects;
originally
though,
the
influence
of
the
be
used
i
t
has
to
ceased
now
through
Sanscrit,
as
except in the Tamil and Malayalam,in which it has as firm footing
In some
of the older Tamil
ever.
alphabetsI have found this letter
to distinguish
it from
r ;'and
appropriately
expressedby a double
it will be represented
the softer letter,
in this work
by a capital r,'
of its greater strength.
emblematical
of this hard
In the use
r' in Tamil, there are two
peculiarities
which are worthy of notice.
doubled, is pronounced as 'ttf,'
(i.)'R,' when
though written
'bb.'
The H' of this compound sound differsboth from the soft dental
t' of the fourth
varga,'and from the cerebral t,'and corresponds
English interrogative
very nearlyto the emphatic final 't' of our
This sound of 't' is not expressedin writing,
but in pronun'whatf
ciation
and
is
of
those
Dravidian
it is never
it
one
omitted;
peculiar

source,

that

it is

source

may

'

'

'

'

'

'

sounds which

are

not

derived from

Sanscrit,and

the

are

not

found

in it.

(not the dental 'n,' but the final 'n' of the

Tamil),a letterwhich is not found in the Telugu or Canarese,is often
in Tamil to the rough b' for the sake of euphony ; when the
prefixed
the sound of ndr'
of which the Tamil,
a sound
compound 'ub' acquires
fond. In another
like the language of Madagascar, is exceedingly
to b' is radical,
and should be
class of words, the n' which is prefixed
in the preterites
followed by d,'accordingto rule {e.g.,
of verbs whose
letter 'n'

The
(ii.)

'

'

"

'

'

'

110

SOUNDS.

ends in

root

'n');but

suffixed to

'R'is

'd,'in

instead of

'n'

ion-

the sound of 'ndr' is substituted for that of 'nd.'

sequence of which

in'muuRu'
and the 'n' euphonically
prefixed,
radical,
ancient form of the
(mundru),Tam., three,(for'muru/ Can., the more
Tam., one, (for oru.')The 'n' is radical
word),and in onRu,'(ondru),
and the r' is used euphonically
(oran euphonisedform of the radical),
instead of
(endru),having
d,' in the followingexamples; enBU
having gone, for 'sendu,'
spoken,instead of 'endu;' '^enRu' (sendru),
(which iisinstead of the less euphonic Seldu.')In the speechof the
vulgarin the Tamil country, and in the Malayalam,this compound
ndr,'is further altered into nn' or nn.' In Telugu and Canarese
The

'

b' is

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

nd' is alwaysfound instead of

(7.) The

alreadybeen
other

sibilants and

idioms

It has

:
's,''sh,''s,''h.'
aspirate

the

"

that the

mentioned

Dravidian

ndr.'

'

is destitute of sibilants. The

Tamil

the sibilants and

use
freely

aspiratesof

and
in writingand pronouncingSanscrit derivatives,
Sanscrit,
in the
extent, throughthe prevalenceof Sanscrit influences,
Dravidian

of pure

words.

In

Tamil

'

the

the

to some

ciation
pronunof

Siva,'
is represented
in Sanscrit derivatives,
occurring
palatal
by the peculiar
ch' of the Sanscrit,
and the sound of which, when
which answers
to the
resembles that of s.' The other sibilants,
sh,'and s,'
single,
closely
are
altogetherexcluded from pure classical Tamil. In later Tamil
books,and in the speechand lettersof the better educated Tamilians
of the present age, those sibilants are freely
employed in writingand
pronouncingwords which have been borrowed from the Sanscrit;and in
even

'

'

such cases, the characters which

the Grantham.

'

used to express them are taken from

of the people,
however, those letters are
are

By the mass
rarelypronounced aright;and

in the

remoter

substitute for them, in accordance with

the

districts the

genius of the

those letters which

the ancient grammars

and
enjoin,
in
the
Safiscritderivatives that are
is exemplified
Tamil

classics. The

substitutions

sibilant of the Sanscrit is

'

are

as

follows

the

vulgar
language,
of which

use

employed
'

"

representedin generalby

in the

sh,'the cerebral
the cerebral

'

d;'

by the liquid r ;'sometimes even

by the dental t' or d.'
is sometimes represented
's,'the sharpsibilantof the Sanscrit,
by 'tj'
sometimes it is omitted altogether;
sometimes
it is changed into the
Tamil
this sibilant stands at the
ch,'the equivalentof s.' When
o
f
Sanscrit
and when it isdesired in accordance
derivative,
beginning a
sometimes

'

with modern

'

'

'

'

usage, to pronounce

it with the unmodified Sanscrit sound,

preceded(at least in pronunciation)

by the vowel
i,'without
which it cannot be enunciated,
in that connexion,
by Tamil organs.

it is

'

Ill

CONSONANTS.

Thus,

'

Sans.,a
stri,'

written

Tamil

The

is

woman,

always pronounced an4 generally

istiri.'

'

is destitute of the sound

well

as

as

Origin

substitute for

of

consonants,
h,'and of aspirated

of sibilants.

as

used in the
are
Aspirates
plentifully
family; and in Canarese, h is regularly

other dialects of the Dravidian

used

of

p.'

'

Cerebral

the

'

'

Consonants.

In

"

all the

languages

India,whether they belong to the Sanscrit or to the

Dravidian
is made
of a series of consonants
much use
't,'
families,
'" which
and
called by Hindu gramn
are
d,'with their aspirates,
marians
in
far
because they are
back
the
cerebrals,'
pronounced
mouth, with a hard, ringingsound. I have reserved to this placesome
observations on the existence of this peculiarclass of sounds in two

and

dialects of

"

'

'

"

'

'

families of tongues which

the Dravidian
It

the other ; but it remains

and

which

from
Sanscrit,

the

mainlyarisen:

have

been borrowed
On

but

in this
the

to

the

the

have

to

me

which

was

from
question
the

borrower,

vernaculars of Northern

other

borrowed

the cerebral

consonants

those

languages
they have

it is very

manner

difficultto suppose that

from the Sanscrit by the Dravidian

guages.
lan-

contrary,I have long been persuadedthat theywere

languagesby

race
Sanscrit-speaking
this
view
these
are
adopt

the

in India.

arrival of the
lead

the sounds in

decompositionof which

the Dravidian

from

borrowed

as

original
proprietor.

conceived

be

India may

another

one

readilybe admitted,that

determined

to be

Hindi, the Bengali,and

The

from

the

was

borrowed

have

must

it will

and

to suppose,

of those families

one

widelydifferent from

so

and the Sanscrit.

natural

seems

are

after
Sanscrit,

The

reasons

the

which

"

essentia] component elements of

are
(].) The cerebral consonants
of- primitive
Dr" vidian roots,and are
often necessary,
a largenumber
in Tamil, for the discrimination of one
root from another ;
especially
in Sanscrit,
of cerebral consonants
in most
the use
whereas
cases
and especially
the use of the cerebral n,'instead
instead of dentals,
of the dental
n,'is merelyeuphonic.
'

'

of the cerebral consonants

(2.) None

of the primitivelanguageswhich

in any

They

are

not

found

in the

Classical

has
are

not

found in the Cuneiform

been

discovered

related to the Sanscrit.

the Gothic,or
languages,

Celtic,in the Lithuanian, the Slavonian, or

they are

ever

the

modern

the Zend
or
Persian,

"

the

Persian:
those lan-

with which the Sanscrit finally

shook
nuages, or rather sister dialects,
in Arya-vartta.On the 9ther
the Indus and settling
hands on crossing

112

SOUNDS.

band, the Drividian

which claim
languages,

of the Sanscrit,
and which
independent
throughoutIndia prior to the arrival

cerebral sounds

and
question,
always. They are

of them
trace

no

Indus

in

of these sounds
but

and obtain

sooner

no

of the

aught that

found

to

appear

had

have
have

been

Brahmans,
appears,

were

in the Brahui.

even

an

origin
spoken
the

possess

in possession

There

is

Aryan familyof tongues, west of the

the Indus,
member
of that familycross

in the
does

lodgment in the

for

to

ancient seats

of the Dravidians and

other

Scythiansin India,than the cerebral sounds make their appearance in

their language. It is worthy of notice also,that the Pracrit,
local
a
makes
dialect or vernacular of the Sanscrit,
a
brals
largeruse of the cerethan the Sanscrit itself.*

(3.)Those

consonants

within the

periodof

which

the Tamil

has borrowed

from the Sanscrit

have been
the existence of DrS.vidian literature,

greatlymodified to accord with the Tamilian laws of sound and delicacy

of ear.
of Sanscrit derivatives,
even
Thus, the Tamil omits the aspirates
It systematically
and omits or changes all the sibilants.
softens down
sh

all harsh

sounds.

Even

the

Sanscrit cerebral-sibilant

Hence it seems
pronouncedby Tamil organs.
bable
improlike
that a series of harsh,ringingsounds,
the cerebral
t,' d,'
and
n,' should have been borrowed by the Tamil from the Sanscrit
without
not onlyof Sanscrit
change,and used in the pronunciation,
but also of a large number
of the most
essential Draviderivatives,
'

'

be

cannot

'

'

'

dian roots.

(4.)Though
than

the

Telugu has been

than the Tamil, yet largeruse is
in Telugu, a circumstance which

more

exposedto

made

of those sounds

Sanscrit influences
in Tamil

is incompatible
with the sition
suppoof the derivation of those sounds from the Sanscrit.
"

it appears probablethat
Puttingall these considerations together,
instead of the Dravidian languageshaving borrowed the cerebral consonants
from the Sanscrit,
the Sanscrit has borrowed them from the
Dravidian
languages; and it will, I think, be demonstrated in the
Glossarial Affinities,'
that the Sanscrit has not disdained to borrow
from the Dravidian
languageswords as well as sounds.
After
the foregoing observations
were
with
written, I met
Mr.
Norris's pap'er on
the language of the
Scythic tablets of
found
a similar opinion
Behistun,and
the
expressedtherein respecting
'

'

'

The Vfidic Sanscrit possesses a peculiar'1'" the cerebral '1' of the Dr"lvifrom the more
dian languages which has disappeared
modern Sanscrit. This ' 1
distinctive
features of the Dravidian languages,
is one of the most
of
especially
the Canarese and the Tamil; and its origin is probably the same
that of the
as
from the Telugu, apparently
other cerebrals. It has nearly disappeared
through
modern
Sanscrit.
the influence of the more
*

'

"

114
us

SOUINDB.

identify
many

to

wovds

various dialects which

which

inflexional forms

and
at

appear

first

sight to

be

contained

in the

unconnected,but

in

the same.
reality
ceed
Followingas before the order of the Deva-nagarialphabet,I pronant
consoto pointout the dialectic changes to which each Drividian
are

be liable. I omit

to

appears

the

aspiratedconsonants, as

not

reallyDr"vidian.
''k,' g,' ng.'
gutturals."
to be
of 'k,' in the changes now
'g' being merely the sonant
enquiredinto,'k' and 'g'will be regardedas identical.
(i.)'k,' when used as a sonant, that is,as 'g,'changes into v.'
find
Where
have
v,' in Telugn;
we
g,'in Tamil, we sometimes
In
avu,' Tel.
ka,'the infinitiveof this
e.cf., agu,'Tam., to become;
verb in Telugu,which corresponds
to the Tamil
aga,' k (or g ')
'

The

1.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in the middle of words that this consonant

especially
tendency to be changed into v.' This tendency constantly
classes of the Tamil
in the spoken language of the lower
appears
peoplein the southern provinces; and has found a placeeven in the
common
poets ; e.g., nova,' to be pained, instead of the more
noga.'
In Telugu 'v' is often not only pronounced,but written,
instead
of
pavadamu.'
e.g., pagadamu,'coral,corruptedinto
g
into
Compare with this the change of the Sanscrit 'laghu,'light,
the Latin 'levis.' It will be seen
that,per contra, 'v' sometimes
in Telugn.
becomes
g
'k' changes into
ch
L'
As the Tamil
or
k' becomes
(ii.)
and
is
when
ch,'
doubled,
representedin the alphabetby the equivalent
of the Deva-nagari'ch,'the change of
into
k
ch,' is identical
It is

reappears.
eA'inces a

'

'

'

'

'

"/

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

that of

with

'

'

into

'

s.'

the latter in the Tamil.

'k,'into
'

the

The former

Compare

Sanscrit

's;'

the

'

'

change appears
change

e.g., 'SeKa'

and

of the

in the

Greek

Telugu,

and Latin

'decern,'softened

into

dasa,'ten.
The

Canarese
'k'

where

and

retains

'k,'the older pronunciationof this consonant,

is found in the

Canarese,we generallyfind 'ch' in

Tamil; e.g., 'kinna,'Can.,smaZ^ ; chinna,'Tel.;
the ear ; chevi,'
liuna,'Tam.
kevi,'Can
Tel. ;
sevi,'Tam.
Gey,'Can.,to do ; chey,'Tel. ; key,'Tam.
Sometimes the older
is retained by the Tamil
k
well as by the Canarese,and the
as
softening
appears in the Telugu only; e.g., 'kei,'Tamil, the hand;
Can.; 'chey,'Tel.
keiyyi,'
Kedu,' Tam. and Can., to
'kye,'or
chenu.'
spoil
; Tel., ohedu,'or
Telugu,and

'

'

in

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

DIALECTIC

115

INTERCHANGES.

similar

change of 'k' into 'oh,'appears even in Sanscrit;e.g.,

from the crude nominative
vach-as,"
of speech,
vak,'speech.
'kk'
into 'ch.' This change may be
(iii.)
change systematically
of the lower classes of the
regardedas the rule of the pronunciation
Tamil peoplein the southern
districts. Further north,and iu grammatical
Tamil,it is rarelymet with, but in the Telugu country the
rule re-appears ; and in a largeclass of words,especially
in the for'

'

matives

by

'

ch

of verbs, the
'

in

double

'

of the Tamil

is

replaced
regularly

followinginstances of this

The

Telugu.

'

change are
for the
boil,

tained
con-

more
grammatical Tamil : kaychu,'to
and
for
to
regular'kaykku,'
paychu,' irrigate, paykku.'
A single
illustrationwill suffice to illustrate the perfect
conformity
in this pointbetween the vulgarpronunciation
Tamil
in
of
the extreme
'kk'
in Telugu.
south and the regular,
grammatical use of 'ch' for
is pronounced veicha,'by the
veikka,'Tamil, to place (infinitive),
illiteratein the southern Tamil districts ; and in grammaticalTelugu
word is both written and pronounced veicha.'
the same
(iv.) k appears sometimes to haye changed into t.' I cannot
adduce a good instance of this change in the Dravidian languages
; but

in

even

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

I suspect that the

the nominative
(e.g.,
from

the Tamil

the

Malayala
whether

form of the
'

'

'

'

'

of

pluralof the personalpronouns)has been derived

o
k.' Compare also vakili,'
doorway, Telugu,with
'

of the

form

word, 'vatal.'

same

is

word

'

am

ever,
doubtful,how-

dependedupon, because the Tamil

apparentlyfrom
vayil,'
vasal,'classically
be

this illustrationcan

same

in Gond

inflexional terminations

some

'

mouth-house.
vay-il,'
literally
In other families of languages the interchangebetween
t' is not

; e.g., Doric

uncommon

tmi/os,'
he,instead

'

of

'

'k' and

e-Keivos,'

:"' ch' or 's,''j,''nj.'

palatals
those letters
together,
I class the changes of 'ch,''s,'and 'j,'
but one in the Dravidian languages.
beingin reality
j,'is liable is that
The only change to which this letter, s or
of beingsoftened into
y.' On comparing the Tamil with the Canainstances of this process are brought to light
; e. g., hesar,'
rese, many
2.

The

'

'

'

'

'

has been softened in Tamil

Can., a name
(ancientCanarese, pesar'),
borrowed
by the Tamil
into 'peyar,''peyr,'or 'per.' In words
'

used instead of 's,' and very

optionally
Sans,, a king (in Tamil
commonly instead of 'j.' Thus 'r^ja,'
becomes
ray-an.'
rasa,'and with the masculine formative, ris-an'),
from

the Sanscrit,'y* is

'

'

"

In

the southern

into

'y'has

change of 's'
of the lower
characteristicof the pronunciation

provincesof

become

the

Tamil

country

this

1 16

SOUNDS.

classes. In

those

provincesin

"whether Sanscrit

rice,instead
'ariyi,'

say

3.

of

'

The cerebrals :"'i,'' '

cerebral

(i.)The

'

changed

's' is

the

Tamil,

or

in which

all words

this letter occurs,

'y;' e.g., they

into

arisi.'

d,' 'n.'

t,' when

used

as

pronounced

and

sonant

e.g.,
changed into the vocalic 'r' in Tamil:
is
written
and
pronounced in
n4di,'Sans., a measure,
commonly
this is colloquially
Tamil
nari ;' and
pronounced n^li in the
part
southern
districts,
by a further change of r' into 1.' The counterof this change,viz.,
the change of
r' into 'd,' is much
more
in the Dravidian
common
languages. (See r.') In Telugu there
instances of the change of
d' into the hard rough 'r,'e.g.,
are
some
chedu,' to spoil (Tamil and Canarese, kedu'\ should have for its
kedukku
transitive form
;'
cheduchu,' answering to the Tamil

'd,' is

as

sometimes

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

whereas

is used

cheRuchn'

'

'

(ii.)n
'

the dental

of the ancient

n,' as well

'

of the

as

instead.

cerebral nasal is frequently

softened in

This

n,'the nasalof

'

'

The

row.

speechof

the most

Tamil,

cerebrals ; and

'

it

'

'

Sanscrit words

in

both

guna.' Sometimes,
first euphonized into
doubled

becomes

'

entu,'and

then

'

pendu;'and

vinnu,' and

similar mannei:

'

'

'

'

;'e.

in

in the

e.

in Tamil

nd,' and
g.,

'

'

mannu.'

'

g.,

and

then

'

the

uses

Thus,

'

kannu,'

of

u^e

the

Malayalam go beyond the

n.' The Telugu,on the other hand, whilst
to
freelyenough, often prefers n' to 'n.'
Tamil
kan,' eye,
(and old Drividian) words
'

sentative
repre-

much

Tamil and
colloquial
grammaticalTamil in preferring n'

other

the

earth,into

correct

Dr"vidians,makes

the

Telugu into

the

vin,'heaven, man,'
'

It softens

some

even

guna,' quality,instead

in the

converted

'ettu:'

brals
cere-

it softens

other
into

idioms,

'

of

n' is

when

d,' which

"

en,' eight,has first become

Tamil

other

in Canarese

'pen,' a female, has become

word, pedei,'a hen, the n

equivalentTamil

'

'

'

disappearedand left no substitute.

has

4.

The

dentals :"'

'

t,' d,'

'

n.'

(i.) t,'or its sonant equivalent d,' changes into r' in Tamil.
In the interchangeof the cerebral
d
and
r,' r sometimes
pears
apbeen the original
to have
d
the corruption
but
sound, and
;
in the change which
is now
refei'red to, it is d
that is the original
sound,and which is changed into r.' This change may arise from
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the circumstance
very

like

that the

dental,and

'

r' into which

bears

districts of the Tamil

precededand

followed

d' is altered

is

considerable resemblance

the southern

by

'

country the change of

vowel) into

'

pronounced
to

'

d.'

In

d'

(when

r' is exceedingly
common

in

'

DIALECTIC

the

INTERCHANGES.

of the lower classes :

pronunciation

117

but

the

change has

same

in

instances found its way jnto the written language; e.

g., virei,'
instead
of
the more
seed,or to sow,
correct
vide!.' In Canarese
ad,'
some

'

'

the inflexional increment,

or basis of most

singularnouns,
'

changesin

id-ar-a,'
of this,from

'

of the

'mar-ad-

change from

'

'

'r' is not

familyit
has

Bopp
e.

to the North

is often followed

pointedout

twelve.

An

instance

up

by

reh'

'

of the

in the

r,'or

less

'

languages;
change of

r' into

'

have been

change of
and
'

d'

'

in that

r' into

and

compound numbers,

change of

mara,'

equivalent

some

This

so.

'

'

1.'

Bengali;

as

1' is furnished

'

ba-feh,'

by

ther
ano-

s6-leh.'
compound numeral,
d'
into
is
in the instance of the
seen
r,'as
changed
raha,'
ten, which has superseded daha,' a softened form of the

Pracrit also

word

g., compare

tree,from

in the Hindustani

sixteen,which

The

'

of certain

id-ad-a' would

further

j' e.

ar

a,'of

Indian

instances

some

des,'ten, becomes

'

g.,

unknown

'

'

d' to

change,was obviously
requiredby euphony
mar-ar-a' not
intolerably
monotonous, and
into

obliquecases

instances into

some

with
id-u,'
this,

In this instance the

tree.

'

'

'

s6-reh,'but

'

'

'

Sanscrit

is not

'

'

dasa,'and

which

instead of

is used

daha'

'

at

the

end

of

compound numerals.
It

to

seems

me

not

in these cases,

improbablethat

in

and

also in the

t,'as a signof
Bengaliand Marathi of '1' instead of d' or
the preterite
and passiveparticiple,
evidence of the ancient
we
see
an
prevalenceof Dr"vidian influences in Northern India.
It may
be noticed here that the Umbrian
also regularly
changed
use

'd' into

'

'

'r;' e.g., 'sedes'

was

written

'seres.' As

in

Tamil,

ever,
how-

d' came
between two vowels.
change took placeonly when
(ii.)'d' sometimes changes into 's.'
in the optionaluse
of 's' in the
This change appears in Tamil
of
instead
d.'
formatives
of nouns
Thus, vayadu,'age, becomes
that which is large,
is commonly used
or
large,
vayasu ;' and 'perisu,'
In Telugu, d' is still
correct
form.
instead of
peridu,'the more
have
remarkable
stance
into this change. We
a
more
frequentlysubject
of 'd' into
of the softening
s,'of 's' into y,'and finallyof
word
the obliteration of the 'y' itself in the Dravidian
signifying
is
This in Tulu
pudar,'in ancient Canarese
a
name.
pesar,'in
in modern
Tamil
classical Tamil
pir.'
peyar ;' and finally
In
into
this
Tamil
in
'nd' changes
'nj.'
change 'j'must be
(iii.)
s' takes when
i,'being the sound which
considered as identical with
precededby a nasal j and it is always expressedby s in Tamil. In
n' changes into
the dental
n,' which is the dental
this conjunction
takes
The
of the palatalrow.
change of nd' into nj especially
In generalit is heard in the proei
placeafter the vowels 'i' or
this

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

118

SOUNUS.

only ; but in a few instances it Las

has
eindu,'JiA)e,
found its
; e.g.
way into grammaticalcompositions
which is found
a form
and this againinto anju,'
changedinto einju,'
nnnciation

lower

of the

classes

'

'

'

in the Tamil

even

classics.

(iv.)'tt' change into

of the Tamil

form

letters is

be

expressedas

when

tt,'and

dd' into

'

is,'if the

already been

it has

but

regarded;

'i' and 'ei.'

plained
ex-

doubled ; and hence ' dd' must

ch,' this being their pronunciation

'

ss'

as

'

of the double, soft dentals 'tt'

The corruption
juxtaposition.
which
are
easy
by ch,'is peculiarly
represented
palatalsss,'

in

into the
and

'

of

to be one

'

surds when

become

that sonants

after the vowels

ch' in Tamil

I refer appears

change to which

The

'

'

'

This

natural.

'

arises out of

ch' which

characteristicof the

'

of
pronunciation

tt,'though almost
the

of the

mass

versally
uniTamil

is rarelyfound in grammatical
from the literati,
people,as distinguished
after the
compositions,
except in the formatives of derivative nouns,
semi-vowel
sensation,knowledge,vcistea.i.of
unar-chi,'
'r;' e.g.,
with analogy. In Malayalam
which is more
in accordance
unar-tti,'
of the vulgar,but is
this change not only appears in the pronunciation
the rule of the language after the vowels 'i' and 'ej' and 'ch' is
that laughed,
written as well as pronounced : e. g,, compare
siricha/
'

'

'

with

'siritta.'

correspondingTamil

the

varga,'changes or is softened
(v.) n,' the nasal of the dental
stance
have an indubitable ininto
; but we
y.' This change rarelyoccurs
of it in the change of
uu,' the Telugu copulativeconjunction
and, into yu.' yu' has been still further softened in Canarese into
also an
instance of this in the softeningin classical
u.' We
have
relative participles
Tamil of
na,' the termination of certain preterite
that said, instead of the more
into
regular
ya ;' e. g,, soUi-ya,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ioUi-na.'

(vi.) n
'

'

'

miru,'you,

which

lead

answers
us

5.

changes,though still more

rarely,into m :' e.g
have been altered from
in Telugu,must
niru,'the form
to the Tamil
nir,'and which Telugu analogieswould
also

'

'

expect. See the section

to

The

'

labials :"'

on

The

Pronoun.

p,' b,'' m.'

'

(i.) p' changes in Canarese into h.' This remarkable rnle

appliesto the initial p' of nearlyall words in modern Canarese,
whether
words or Sanscrit derivatives ;
they are pure Dravidian
is in Canarese 'hattu.' In like
Tam., ten ('padi,'
Tel.),
pattu,'
e.g.
is in modern
Canarese
pana,'money, a Sanscrit derivative,
manner,
'ha^a.' This change of 'p' into 'h' has taken placein comparatively
recent times ; for in the old Canarese,and in the dialect of the Bada'

'

'

'

'

DIALECTIC

INTERCHANGES.

119

gars of the

Nilgherriea,
'p' maiutains its ground. A change similar
occasionally
apparent in the Marathi, the neighbourof the

to this is

Canarese

the north

on

the Sansc.

been,beingaltered in Marathi

'
participle
bhuta-s,'
one
'hoto j'e.g., hotd-n,'
I was.

who

'

to

"Jso the Prakrit 'h6-Bii,'

/

from

was,

'bhuta-smi.'

change of 'p' into 'h' appears in Armenian; e.g., footis in

'het' (for 'pet'),
a,ni fatfier,
'hayr' (for'payr').

has

pare
Comsimilar

Armenian

(ii.) b,' the sonant of p/ sometimes changes into ' m ;'e.g.,

in
midi
padj,'Tel.,ten, becomes
tom-midi,'nine, a compound
which the analogyof both the Tamil and the Telugu would requireto
be 'tom-badi : 'enb4r,'theywill my, is often in poetical
Tamil 'enmar.'
b' is also euphonically
added to m' in vulgar Tamil.
I do not refer
to such words as
pSmbu,' Tarn.,a snake, as compared with 'pamu,'
in
for
those
ra' itselfis euphonic,and
instances the
bu'
Telugu;
(inCan., vu')is the real formative. Cases in which the m' is radical
and the
b' euphonic occur
in colloquial
Tamil ; e.g.,
plentifully
kodumei,'wheat,commonly pronounced kodumbei.'
(iii.)b' is often softened into v' in Tamil. Most transitive verbs
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in Tamil

'

form their future tense

intransitives we
corresponding

by

'

this

b,'the
'

b' appears

changed into
the Tamil
'

of

sonant

'

'

the

pp

;'and

in the

find the future formed

ends in

in

'

vowel,

The Verb.

nasal consonant,

In

b' is

ordinarily

instances

some

into

'

in

v' but into

previousrule.

(iv.) m' changes into

of neuter

p' or

b' of the future is changed,not

'

nominatives

it ends
on

'

expect to

the root

See the section

poets this

m,' accordingto

where

of

means

should

p.' Where

'

; but

v.'

by

'

n.'

change is often apparent

This

in the

in

Tamil,the natural termination of many

of which is m,' but which optionally
terminate in n :' e.g., pala-n,'
pro"t,a derivative from phala.'Sans., is more
commonly used than
to the Tamil
'pala-m.' In Telugu 'kola-nu,'a tank, answers
mative,
manner
ku}a-m.' In the same
um,' the Tamil aoristic future forhas become
nu' in Telugu ; and
um,' the Tamil copulative
has in Telugu been changed into nu.'
particle,
(v.) m' changes into v ;' e.g., nam,' we, and ' nem,' you, in
nouns

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ancient Canarese
'

'

are

'

softened in the modern

dialect to

'

nav-u' and

niv-u.'

6.

Tfiesemi-vowels :^'

'b.'
j; 'r,''1,''v:' 'r,''1,'
It has

been shown

and
'ch,''I,'
Tamil,
Notwithstandingthis,and in
in
direct opposition
find in the, colloquial
to it,we
Tamil, especially
that of the southern districts,
a tendency also to harden
y* into 's.'
'

(i.)'y' changes into 'L'

j' are softened into y' in

that

'

'

120

SOUNDS.

I' ought to be, it is prowhere

nounced
peculiarperversity,
I ;'
as
y,' and where
y' ought to be, it is pronouncedas
pasi,'hunger,\a mispronouncedby the vulgar 'payi;'whilst
e.g.,
This change of
vayaRu,' the helly,is transformed into vasaRU.'
frequently
y' into s' is not confined to the South,though it is more
is
met
with there.
Even in Madras, payangal,'hoys,
pronounced
but
written
and
'pasangal,'
ayal,'near, is not only pronounced

Throughsome

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Telugu 'y' is invariablyconverted into s,'after the participial

chesi.' When
'y'
'i;'e.g., 'ch"yi,'
having done, becomes
retains its proper
euphonicallyto prevent hiatus, it invariably

'.asal.' In

'

'

is used

sound.

already
This is sometimes met
by a counter-changeof r
Tam., large,becomes in Telugu
per-iya,'
per-u,'or

(ii.) r' changes

'

'

j' e.

g.,

d.'

'

of

change

'

d' into

'

r' has

'

been mentioned.
into

into

'

'

'pedd-a.'

(iii.)r' changesinto

'

'

families of

in many

'

r' and

languages;

of very
;' but in a

interchangeis one
into

1.'

common

found

1' are

'

and

in the

to be

interchangeable
Dravidian family this
Sometimes

occurrence.

'

1' is

rupted
cor-

'

r' appears to be the

largernumber of cases
and
1' the corruption. In the case
of the distinctively
vidian
Draoriginal,
r' and
1,'the change is uniformlyof the latter nature ; and
the change of the ordinarysemi-vowel
r' into the corresponding 1,'
which
one
one
though not uniform, is an exceedinglycommon
; and
be regardedas a characteristic of colloquial
It is espeTamil.
may
cially
that this change occurs, and it takes
at the beginningof words
placeas frequentlyin the case of derivatives from the Sanscrit,as in
the case
of Dravidian
roots ; e. g.,
rakshi,'to save ('raksh-a,'
Sans.),
is pronouncedby the vulgar lakshi,'or
latchi.'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

In

the

of words

middle

nevertheless

where

the

'

'

Tamil

is less

'

'

uses

frequently
changed into

r'

sometimes

we

find

'

'

'

1j'
in

in Tamil, becomes
to appear,
in
Telugu ; e.g., teri,'
teli-yu'
Telugu.
Seeing that a tendency to change r' into 1' still exists and
in Tamil, it may
be
operates in the Dravidian languages,especially
'

the

'

'

'

concluded

that in those ancient

of several families of
to exist between

roots

language,and

r' and

'

'

1,'

r'

which

the

are

in which

an

common

property

interchange
appears

the

and
1' the altered
original,
sound: e.g., if the Dr"vidian 'kar-n,'or 'kS.r,'
black,is connected,
it probablyis,with the Sanscrit kal-a,'
as
black,it may be concluded
'

was

'

'

that the Sanscrit form of the root is less ancient than

the Dravidian j

suppositionis confirmed by the existence of

black,in many of the Scythianlanguages.

this root

and this

'

kar,'

122

SOUNDS.

(viii.)'r' (the peculiarvocalic 'r' of

with

three

it becomes

Sometimes

different consonants.

Tamil) interchanges

the

'

;' e.g.,

'mirugu,'Tamil, to sink,is changed in Telugu to 'munagu;' and

ku"ii.' Ordinarily r is
kuri,'Tam., a hole,becomes in Canarese
changed in Telugu into 'd.' Neither the Telugu nor the Canarese
'n'
possesses the Tamil 'r.' In a very few instances the Telugu uses
without
1 instead : sometimes
it omits the consonant
or
altogether,
r
usinga substitute ; but in a vast majorityof instances it converts
into d.' 'r' is ordinarily
converted in Canarese into '1:' the same
of the mass
of the Tamil people
change characterises the pronunciation
in the Malayalam
in the southern districtsof the country,and prevails
"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

also.
This
form
the

change of 'r'

the constituents

is

"

in

'

of 'r'

previousone

That

law.

importantdialectic

an

which

consonant

same

of

the

'1,'and

into

Tamil, is generallyd
'

into 'd,'

law

is that

in

Telugn,
Tamil;

'

Thus, to caress, is 'tar-u' in

always '1' in Canarese.
is
The
numeral
in Canarese.
seven
tad-u,'in Teluguj and
tal-u,'
In the
in Canarese.
el-n,'
'er-u,'in Tamil; 'ed-u,'in Telugu; and
is
hundred, the Telugu ed-u
elnuru,'seven
compound numeral
found to change,like the Canarese,into el-u.' The word signifying
then and now
(literally
time,which is included in the adverbial nouns
that time and this time),
is in Tamil
poru-du,'in Telugu pud-u,'or
podd-u,'and in Malayalam poL' In this instance the Canarese

and
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

uses

It thus

different word.

intimatelyallied

'

and

'

r.' This is

'

and

'

'

'

are

as

pointof some
importance
d
of
and ' ) is
in the affiliationof languages; for an
interchange
characteristic of the Ugrian family of languages,as well as of the
Dravidian
familyand the North-Indian vernaculars. The same word
d
in the Ostiak,and with
1 in the Magyar
t
is written with
or
as

'

that

appears
a

'

'

'

'

and

'

'

'

'

'

Finnish.

in the
observed even
correspondinginterchangeis occasionally
a
Indo-European languages; e.g., compare
tear, with
SaKpvfui,'
lachrt/ma: but in those languagesit is rarelymet with, whereas it is
a characteristic dialectic signof several families of tongues belonging
A

'

to the

Scythiangroup.

(ix.)It
e.g.,
to

may

be added

that '1'

'kammalan,' Tamil, an

becomes
exercise,

'

from
artificer,

in Canarese

is used
to 'alau,'
equivalent

into 'r;'
changes,though rarely,

'

kam,' work, and 'al,'

suffix
a
kamm"ran-u,' though ali,'
'

'

in Canarese

as

well

as

in Tamil.

of the

Tamil),is frequently
changed
in Tulu into j ;' e.g., muRu
f
orm
of
mundru
(theoriginal
'),Tam.
heoomeB
'muji;''eru,'six,'Sji.'
three,
(x.)

'

(the strong,rough
'

'

'

'

DIALECTIC

This

changeof
of the

converse

'r'

123

INTERCHANGES.

the
'j,'the equivalentof 's,'is directly

into

change of

'

'

into

'

r,'which

is

so

in the

common

Indo-European
tongues.
Having
which

finished the consideration of the dialectic

now

Dravidian

pure

changes which
which

take

they occur

are

undergo,it

consonants

changes
pointout the

remains to

when
place in the Sanscrit sibilants,

borrowed

from the Sanscrit

(].)'sh.'' The hard, cerebral

the classical Tamil.

by

in

words

the Tamil.

sibilant of the Sanscrit is unknown

changed into s,'a change

which ordinarily
takes place at the present day in the pronunciation
of the lower classes in the southern districts: sometimes,though mora
it is changed into
r;' but most commonly it is converted into
rarely,
to

it is

Sometimes

'

'

'

d.'

This

'

'

is sometimes

softened

into the dental

down

'

d.'

Thus,

in classical Tamil
raanushya,'Sans., man, becomes
'manida-n;'
and
this by a further change becomes
'manida-n.'
A very
old
of
the change of the Sanscrit
sh
d in Tamil, can
into
example
The
month
be adduced.
Ashada,'Sans.,July"^A ugust, has become
Adi :' and this change dates probably from the earliest
in Tamil
period of the cultivation of the Tamil language. In 'Teisha,'
sh,' instead of being chang'ed,has
January
February, the hard
of this month, as far back
Tamil name
been discarded altogether
: the
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

as

the literature reaches,has been

'

Tei.'

hissingsibilant of the Sanscrit, answering to our

into
in Tamil converted
d,' the sonant of
English s,'is ordinarily
'
t,'which is pronounced as 'th' in that/ e.g., 'masam,' Sans.,a month,
madam
becomes in classical Tamil
;'and manas,* the mind, becomes
's.' The

2.

'

'

'

'

'

of the Sanscrit

In this conversion

manad-n.'

'

s' into

'

'

in Tamil,

change from the sibilant to the dental,which is exactlythe

of that change from the dental to the semi-sibilant which has
reverse
alreadybeen described. It may be compared with the weakening
find in several of the Indo-European
which we
into h
of
s
there is a

'

'

'

'

languages.
When

'

'

happens

it is sometimes
a

be

omitted

'tanam.'

place, becomes

the first consonant

in Tamil

More

of

Sanscrit derivative,

altogether
j e.g., 'sthanam,'

commonly

in modern

Tamil,

an

'

with the help of the vowel ' i,'

this s
pronounce
is prefixedto it in order to assist enunciation;e.g., 'istiri'

effort is made
which

to

'

to

a woman.
Sans.),
('stri,'

The

Sanscrit sibilant

never

This
changes into r in Tamil.
in languages of the Indo-European
'

'

change, though very common

if ever, appears in the Dravidian.
family,rarely,
to have taken
The only inetanees in which it may be conjectured

124

SOCNDS.

place,are
Brahui

'

the

following. The
be allied to the

ar,'may

the

representedby

Tamil- Canarese

'ir,'to be, in

Indo-Europeansubstantive

Sanscrit 'as:'

identical with the Brahui

root

the

Canarese
the

'

verb,as

mur-u,' three,is

'muj-i:'the Tamil
pluralof rational beings ar,'resembles the Sanscrit epiceneplural
the Tamil
as :'and
iru,'iron,
doubtfully
still,
perhaps,though more
euphonizedinto iru-mbu,'may be compared with the Sanscrit ayas;'
and the Englishword
'iron'
which
is allied to 'ayas,'
through the
change of 's' into 'r.' 'I'he instances,however, which I have now
cited,are not by any means
decisive;for the only reliable affinity
'mus-it,'and

Tulu

'

'

'

'

'

"

them

amongst
'r'

Euphonic

pebmdtation

of

and

'mus-it/
's'

Consonants.

in that

instance

'j' the corruption.

or

The

permutation of
less lighton the
few pointsof considerable

"

for

euphonic reasons, though it throws

includes a
of sound than dialectic interchange,
interest. Dravidian
tion
attengrammarians have bestowed more
and care
on
euphonic permutationthan on any other subject;
of the Tamil
the permutations
which the grammar
requiresor

consonants

and

and

and
letter,
probablythe original

was

laws

is that of 'mur-u'

allows,are

at least

twice

as

and

numerous,

than

more

twice

as

plexing
per-

those of the Sanscrit. On

as
beginners,
examining the
of the Tamil,
prescribedin the grammar
permutationsof consonants
the three principal
the Telugu,and the Canarese
languagesof this
family it is evident that a considerable proportionof them are
founded upon Sanscrit precedents:another class in which
Sanscrit
rules of euphony have been, not imitated,but emulated
and surpassed,
than as grammaticalchanges: but
may be regardedrather as prosodial
to

"

"

after

these

have

been

eliminated,a

permutationsremain,which
and

which

are

proceed from, and

notice

It will suffice to

wide, and

at the

few

certain

number

of

euphonic
altogether
peculiarto these languages,
to
their laws of sound.
help
illustrate,

of those

permutations; for

the

subject

time not

of^suffioient
importance,to allow
of it.
of our
enteringon a minute investigation
which
united
compounds, i.e.,in nouns
are
(1.) In 'dwanda'
but by a common
not by copulativeconjunctions,
together,
sign of
(inthe use of which common
sign the Dravidian languages
plurality
if the second member
resemble,and perhaps imitate,the Sanscrit),
is too

of the

compound

of the five

same

commences

with

the first or surd

'Vargas' {viz.,
'k,' 'ch'

consonant

of

any

k,' t,' t,''p'), the surd

be changed into the correspondingsonant
soft letter. In
must
or
have adhered to the alphabetical
those DrAvidian languageswhich
the Telugu and the Canarese,this converas
systemof the Sanscrit,
or

'

'

'

EUPHONIC

sion of the surd into the sonant

the

employment

of

125

PERMUTATION.

is carried into effect and

expressedby

different

In Tamil, in which
character.
a
the
character
is
used to representboth surds aud sonants, a different
same
character is not employed, but the softeningof the first consonant

of the second

word

is

always apparent in the pronunciation.

This peculiar
rule evidently
proceedsfrom the Dravidian law, that
the same
which
consonant
is a surd at the beginningof a word, should
be regardedas a sonant
in the middle ; for the first consonant
of the
second word, being placedin the middle of a compound, has become a
medial
by position.The existence of this rule in the Telugu and
Canarese,notwithstandingthe Sanscrit influences to which they have
been subjected,
of surds and
proves that the law of the convertibility
sonants

is not

confined

All the Dravidian

second

member

of

in which

'

to

the Tamil.

dialects agree in
dwanda

'

the words

of
substantives,

which

the initial surd of the

softening
pounds
compounds : but with respect to com-

stand

to

another

one

in

relation,

case

the first is used

to qualify
or
adjectivally
the second,or an
infinitiveand its governingverb, the Telugu pursues
different course
rule of the Telugu is
a
from the Tamil.
The
that when
words belongingto the
all infinitives,
druta' class,
including
followed by any word
are
commencing with a surd consonant, such
is to be converted
consonant
(asin dwanda
compounds) into its soft
sonant
or
equivalent. The rule of the Telugu on this pointresembles
that of the Lappish,and stillmore
the rule of the Welsh ; and it has
been
observed
that the Welsh, possiblythrough the pre-historic
influence of the Finnish,is the most Scythicof all the Indo-European
languages.
e.g.,

'

'

'

It is curious

that

in combinations

of words

which

similar to

are

uniformlyafter infinitives in a,'the

doubles and
hardens
the initial surdTamil, instead of softening,
The
Tamil
also invariablydoubles,
of the succeedingword.
sonant
those

and
'

referred

to

above,

and

hardens,the
consequently

'

initial surd

compounds, i.e.,
compounds
tat-purusha'
case-relation to each

other.

In

such

of the

in which

second

member

the words

of

stand in

combinations,the Canarese,

though it is less careful of euphony than either the Tamil or the

of the
Telugu,requiresthat the initial surd of the second member
for instance,that
hull
compound should be softened : it requires,
a tiger's
togalu,'
shin,shall be written and pronounced hull dogalu.'
The Tamil,'
the contrary,requiresthe initialsurd in all such cases
on
and doubled; e.g., the same
to be hardened
compound in Tamil, viz.,
puli
shin, must be written and pronounced,not
pulitol,'a tiger's
and
initial
is
but,'
of
the
T
his
doubling
hardening
dol,'
puli(t)t61.'
'

'

'

'

126

SOUNDS.

tneaut
evidently

first word

that

second; and it will be seen

been very generally
resorted to by the Tamil.
When

to the

the firstword

of the
signification
this expedienthas

transition of the

the
symbolize

to

is used not

as

noun

but
adjective,

or

as

verb

becomes
the initial surd of the second word
a
participle,
in Tamil
sonant
also,as in Telugu; e.g., compare
kay gombn,'a
branch with fruit.
a
witheringbranch,with
k^y-(k)kombu,'
or
euphonically
changing,
(2.) The Tamil system of assimilating,
identical with
almost
concurrent
particulars
consonants, is in many
that of the Sanscrit,
and has probably been arranged in imitation of
it. Nevertheless,
which may be regarded
there are some
exceptions
as
Dr"vidian, and which are founded upon Dr"vidian
distinctively

relative

or

'

'

laws

of

e.g., the

sound;

mutation

of '1' into 'n'

in

various

pected
unex-

Through this tendency to nasalisation,p61-da,'

like,becomes
taken, bought,
'p6n-da,'or rather 'pon-dra;''kol-da,'
has found its
becomes 'kon-da;' and the latter euphonic mutation
which
is 'kon-u,'to buy, instead
itself,
way in Telugu into the root
combinations.

'

'kol.'

of the older Tamil

Tamil

by

even

derived

from

the Tamil
the

appears

'

in

before

an
nal-ku,'

Thus

older

form

'

the

Phalguna.'
change of

house,is softened

of
In

'

1'

'

word

/oMr, is
nan-gu,'
and
Panguni,'
'

March-April,has been altered from

Telugu a corresponding tendency
'

'

before

all these

original;and these proofs of

the suspicion
that the Latin

the

nan-ku,'or

of the

into

'inti.' In

into

'

noticed

instances,has been

few

been

have

to

appear

1,'in

'

'k.'

of the month

name

Sanscrit

not

grammarians,that

into 'n'

converted

It does

the
'

cases

'

'1' is

priorityof

alius

'

'

;'e.g., ilti,'
of

undoubtedly

'1'

to

roborate
'n,'cor-

is older than its Sanscrit

equivalent
'anyas.'
Euphonic

Ncnnation,

or

Nasalization.

"

Much

is made

use

in

in the Tamil
and Telugu,of the
especially
languages,
and
'm'
which
should be added
nasals 'ng,'
n
'n,''n,'
(to
or
'nj,'
'm,'
of the Telugu),for the purpose of euphonisingthe
half anuswara'
the
of each
harder consonants
varga.' All the nasals referred to, with
half anuswara,' which is an inorganic
the exceptionof the
sound,
native
modifications
the
of
as
sound
are
grammarians
regardedby
of each
modification being determined
of 'm;' the nature
by the
which
is
afiected
in
m
lu
manner
by succeedingconsonants.
Tamil,as in Sanscrit,all those modifications are expressedby the
the Drftvidian

'

'

'

'

'

'

nasal consonants

five

which

'

constitute

the

final characters of each

of the

racter,
cha'Vargas.'In Telugu and in Canarese one and the same
which is called 'anuswara,'
but which possessesa greaterrange

EUPHONIC

NTJN

127

NATION.

of power
than the 'anusvira' of the Sanscrit,
is used to represent
the whole of the nasal modifications referred to.
The
pronunciation
of this

character,however, varies

consonant
'

to accord with

as

the

succeeding

in Tamil.

as

The

so

of the Dr"vidian
nunnation,'or nasalization,

languagesis of

three kinds.
1
.

first kind

The

Tamil

than

nasal

before

'

which

will be

The

verbs.

nasalised

formative

verb and

by

when

case-relation

and

constitutes the

the verb

When

becomes

is placed in a
or
adjectival,
and the connasal disappears,
sonant

the

of the formative

prefixed the initialconsonant

"

in accordance

with the nature

of the formative suffix: it becomes

'

'

or

before

'm'

and

noun,

noun.

becomes

noun

nasal is modified

before

express

or

and doubled.

is hardened

nj

in

other noun,

it was

to which

'

the

to some

The
signsof inflexion are annexed.
Tamil
by the intransitive form of the

the

is used

verb

the isolated form of the

and
transitive,

'

in

greaterextent

syllableor suffix,the nature of

in the succeedingsection,
particularly

crude root of the

inflexional theme, to which

consonant

to

formative

explainedmore

to the

The

is used

other dialect. It consists in the insertion of

any
of the formative suffix of many
the initial consonant

and

"

'

nunnation

in

nouns

is added

of

all these

certain other

'

ch

'p*

;'
or

'

'

before

The

'b.'

varieties

'

of

sound

'

'

or

'

'

;'

'

and

before

Teliiguuses
;

before

ng
'

the

the

of the initial

'

half

'

'

k
t

'

or
'

or

'

g ;'

'

'anuswara'

j'

to
'

anuswara

in

cases,

ng,'to emphasizeand euphonize

affords innumerable
suffix 'k-u' or 'g-u,'the Tamil
the formative
will suffice ; e.g., ada-ngu,'
to refrain
examples. One verb and noun
from the root
'ada' by the addition of
to keep in, is formed
oneself,
into ngu :'
the formative,intransitive suffix gu,'which is euphonized
to burn
(inTelugu 'kS/-gu');
heat, is from 'ka' or 'kajr,'
'ka-nggei,'
euphonizedinto 'nggeL'
with the addition of the suffix gei,'
of the nasal of the second
of the euphonic use
Instances
(ii.)
in Telugu than in Tamil,
Thus,
common
varga,' n,' are more
pag-u,'Tamil (changed
Tel, to divide, is derived from
pafich-u,'
and then nasalized into 'panch-u'); and is analogousto
into 'pach-u,'

(i.)Of

the

use

of the first nasal,'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the

Tamil

verbal root

a
share,which
'pang-u,'

noun
:

'

Tel.,to double,is
retti-nchu,

is derived
an

from

example of the

euphonic nasal by verbs of the transitive class j a class

that nasal is not used by any other dialect but the Telugu.

the

The
(iii.)
of

Cerebrals 't' and

verbs,though some

'd'

are

verbal roots end

not

the

used

as

same
use

of

in which

formative suffixes

in those consonants; but

they

128
used
unfrequently
of the Tamil
original

not

are

the
'

SOUNDS.

era-du,' has

been

as

formativee of neuter

numeral

correspondingto

two,

euphonised to

ira-d-u,'-

'

the Canarese

adverbial

Tamil

The

ira-nd-u.'

'

; e.g.,

nouns

where, are derived from

tJiere,i-nd-u,'here, ya-nd-u,'
'a-nd-u,'
'a' and 'i,'
the demonstrative
base,
bases,and 'ya,'the interrogative
with
formative
the addition of the usual neuter
d-u,'euphonisedto
formatives in
nd-u.' In Telugu a largenumber of masculine
d-u
receive in pronunciation
the obscure nasal 'w/ e.g., for vadu-lu
or
vad-lu,'
they, vawd-lu is commonly used. On comparing the Tamil
the Telugu form of the same
'karandi,'a spoon, with 'garite,'
word,
find that sometimes
the nasal is used of one
dialect and rejected
we
by another.
(iv.)We see an example of the euphonicuse of n,'the nasal of
the dental 'varga,'in the intransitive verb
'tiru-nd-u,'Tamil, to
become correct,from
and
the radical base,
du,' the formative,
tiru,'
verb
is
euphonised into 'ndu:' the transitive form of the same
to correct.
We
find the same
tiru-ttu,'
euphonicinsertion in the Tamil
demonstrative
adjectivesanda,' inda,'that,this,which are derived
from the demonstrative
ad-u,'that, id-u,'this,by the
pronouns
addition of the adjectival
relative participiala,' and
tion
the inseror
of the euphonic nasal before
formative.
An
d,' the neuter
of this class is found
example of the nasalisation of a noun
'

nouns

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in

from
maru-ndu,' Tamil, medicine, which is derived
maru,'
fragrant, with the addition of the formative 'du,'euphonised to
'

'

'ndu.'

(v.)Many examples of the euphonic insertion of 'm' before the

suffix in 'b' might be adduced; but
the following will suffice.
of which
the root is unquestiru-mbu,' to turn
(intransitively),
tionably
from
the
tiru,'as appears
correspondingTelugu tiru-gu
'

'

and

Canarese- 'tiru-vu.'

verb

Tamil

The

An
to turn.
'tiru-pp-u,'
euphonic m' before the formative
'

an

'iru-ve.'

ant, when
The

be

nouns

euphonizedsuffixes to

peculiarto
between

second

use

the Tamil.

forms
ordinarily

b' of

the

and

'

of

similar

is

noun,

seen

in

mbu,'

are

with few if any

they will be found

'eRu-mbu,'
word

extremelycommon
whereexceptions,
on

examination

to

the root.
the

euphonicnasal

is

It consists in the insertion of

and

the

'

'

which

put is altogether
an
euphonic n,'

constitutes

largenumber of Tamil verbs. The

the preteritein ancient Canarese, and
very

same

insertion of

equivalentCanarese

; and

to which

the verbal theme

of
preterite

of the transitive of the

example
'

with

'nd-u'

those terminations
appear,

2. The

the

compared

formatives

terminations of Tamil
ever

form

is

Tamil,

'

'

'

the

sign of

same

'

it is not

1 30

SOUNDS.

in the present tense,e.g., ' fiav6-avu}.'

to learn,and
of euphonic nasalisation contained
The principle

Greek, and

to take.
Kafifi-dpic,'

'

in

these

Sanscrit,

identical with the

examples,though not perfectly
Dravidian usage, corresponds
ference
to it in a remarkable
degree. The diftion
consists in this,
that in the Indo-Europeanlanguagesthe inserof 'n' is purelyeuphonic,
whereas in Tamil it contributes to grammatical
is prefixed
to which
n
by neuter
expression.The consonant
verbs,is deprived of the n,' and also hardened and doubled, by
Latin

'

'

'

transitives.

Prevention
in the

'Hiatus.'

op

An

"

of the

examination

employed

means

Dravidian

languagesto prevent hiatus between concurrent

vowels,will bring to lightsome
analogieswith the Indo-European
with the Greek.
languages,
especially
In Sanscrit,
and all other languages
in which negationis effected
when this a is followed by a vowel,
by the use of alphaprivative,'
'

is added

'n'

'

"

to it to

un.'

'

and

'a'

becomes

'

an,''in,'or

this 'n,'which was

used
languages,
has become
at first euphonically,
an
inseparable
part of the privative
in or
un.'
In the greater number
of the Indo-European
particles,
this iaalmpst the onlyconjuncture
of vowels in which hiatus
languages,
is prevented by the insertion of an
euphonic n.' In Sanscrit and
Pali, n is also used for the purpose of preventinghiatus between the
and their case
final base-vowels of nouns
or pronouns
in
terminations,
of
the base may
order that the vowels
and
escape elisionor corruption,
be preservedpure.
In some
instances (aprobablyolder) m' is used
'

In the Latin

prevent hiatus,and
Germanic

'

'

'

'

'

'

for this purpose,

instead

languages,with
vowel of the base and
Zend

and the Old

It is in Greek

of 'n.'

the

This usage is unknown

exceptionof

the termination

the

use

of the

of

'

in the
'

nate
cog-

between

the

genitivepluralin

the

High German.
that the

use

of

'

has been
n,'to prevent hiaius,

most

for whilst in Sanscrit

vowels are combined

fullydeveloped:
contiguous
or
changed,so that hiatus is unknown, in Greek, in which vowels are
'n' is used to prevent hiatus between
more
persistent,
contiguous
vowels,and that not onlywhen theybelongto the same
word,but also,
and stillmore, when they belongto different words.
On
turning our attention to the Dravidian languages,we may

chance at firstsight
to observe
mentioned.

In Tamil

and

nothingwhich resembles the system now

in the Dravidian
Canarese,and generally

hiatus between contiguousvowels

languages,
of V
combined
or
y.' Vowels are never
dian languages,
in Sanscrit,
as
except in the
'

'

is

'

or
case

preventedby the

changedin
of

use

the Drlvi-

compounds which

PREVENTION

'HIATUS.'

OP

131

have been borrowed

vowels

elided in

vowel, with
as

from tlie Sanscrit itselfj nor

final
directly
are
these languages
before words commencing with a

the

exceptionof

short

some

which
finals,

considered

are

vocalisations.

mere

In

Teluguand Canarese,a few other unimportantvowels are occasionally

elided. Ordinarily,
however, for the sake of ease of pronunciation,
and

in order to the retention of the

structure
agglutinative
which is natural to these languages,
all vowels are preservedpure and
but as
hiatus
is dreaded with peculiar
pronounced separately
:
'

'

the awkwardness
of concurrent
intensity,
vowels
of 'v' or 'y,'between the final vowel
interposition

the initialvowel of the

in most

is avoided

of

word

one

The rule of the

one.
succeeding

by

the
and

Tamil,which

is the rule of the Canarese

particulars

'

is that v is used
also,
after the vowels
'a,''u,'and 'o,'with their longvowels,and
au,'
and tbat 'y'is used after 'i,'
with their longvowels,and 'ei.'Thus
'e,'
in Tamil, vara
not come, is written and
illei,'
pronounced vara-(v)and
iilei,'
(itis)not the way, becomes
vari-alla,'
vari-(y)-alla.'
This use
of v,'in one
conjunctionof vowels, and of y,' in
refinement of the language.
another,is doubtless a result of the progressive
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

we
Originally,
may

for this
purpose.

These

contiguousvowels
Dravidians,as well

that

sure

observed

as

in written
dialects

in

the

alone

consonant

one

of 'v'

euphonicinsertions

are

in the barbarous

even

be

and

'y

between

conversation

common

compositions
; and they are

e.g.,in the

used

was
'

Ku, which

of

found

reduced

was

to

be used for euphony,

few years ago, 'v' may optionally
'
Thus in Ku, one may
she,or ' a(v)alu.'
say either aalu,'

writingonly a
as

in Tamil.

This insertion of
with

'

'

vowel

not only when

nating
termia word
y,'takes place,
is followed by a word beginningwith another

or

'

betwerai the
vowel,but also (asin Sanscrit)
and the initialvowels of their case
in the

final vowels

of substantives

terminations: e.g., pu]i-(y)-il,'

'

in the Jack.
tamarind, pilS-(v)-il,'
'

The

use

of

'alphaprivative

to the Dravidian

languages,
producenegationbeingunknown
the
of an,'
there is nothingin any of them which corresponds
to
use
instead of a,'in the Indo-European
in,'or un
lan^ages,
privative,
before words beginningwith a vowel.
have
Hitherto th" only analogywhich may
appeared to exist
between the Dravidian usage and the Greek, in respectof the prevention
of v
of hiatm, consists in the use
or
y,' by the DrSvidian
languagesas an euphoniccopula.
'

to

'

'

'

'

'

'

As

soon

as

we

'

'

enterupon the examination of

the

means

by

which

to
a real and remarkable
analogycomes
preventedin Telug'tt,
where the Tamil uses
v,'the Telugu,
light; for in many instances,

Aiatics is

'

k2

1 32

SOUNDS.

like the

n.' By one of the two classes into which all

Greek, uses
words are arrangedin Telugu for euphonicpurposes,
is used to
y
prevent hiatus when the succeedingword beginswith a vowel; by the
in Greek.
other,a very numerous
as
Thus,
class,'n' is used,precisely
instead of 'tinnagaegenu,'it went slowly,the Telugu requiresus to
is used in Telugu to prevent
When
n
tinnaga-(n)-egenu.'
say
hiatus,it is called druta,'and words which admit of this euphonic
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

appendage,are
'

'

Drnta

is used in the
'the

as

of extra, and

sense

'the

a,' or

extra

'n,'or prevent

'

of

the druta

which

has

their,
prefering
'y'to

are

'n'

first pointedout

may

meaning

no

'

use

'y

Mr.

by

of its

instead
bination.
com-

the rationale of

and
called the 'cala' class,
was

terpreted
be in-

'

or
by 'sandhi,'

elision in the Sanscrit manner,

Such words

class.

'druta'

the

consists of those which

The other class of words

own.'
of

words
prakrits,'

called 'druta

ever
When-

Brown.

')could have a meaning of its

it could be supposed to representthe copulative
own,
e.c/.,wherever
tive,
conjunction,ni or nu,'or the case signof the accusative or the locabe
sandhi
there its use is inadmissible,
and either y
must
or
used instead. Hence, there is no difference in principle
between
n
'

(orits equivalent,ni

'

'

'

'

'

'

or

nu

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

and

'

the latter is used in certain

;'for

merely for
scarcelybe

instead of the

cases

former,

it can
preventingmisapprehension
; and
doubted that both letters were
identical in origin
originally
The Telugu 'n' directly
and in use, like 'v' and 'y,'in Tamil.
corresponds
v.' Compare the Tel., ra-(n)-eledu,'(he,
to the Tamil
illei.'
she,or it)has not come indeed,with the Tam., vara-(v)-e
is replacedby
Even
in Tel., n
v,'after the emphatic e :
that very property. After
e,'the Tamil requires
e.g., 'a-ast'-e-(v)-S,'
of the Telugu may
here
'y' instead of 'v.' An euphonicpeculiarity
the

of

purpose

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

be noticed.

'

ni'

or

of 'n,'are
'nu,'the equivalents

used

word

euphonicaJly
'

belongingto the druta class

(the class which uses 'n' to prevent hiatus)and the hard, surd initial
which
initial surd is at the same
of the succeedingword
consonant
sonant.
time converted into its corresponding
They may also be
used before any initial consonant, providedalwaysthat the
optionally
in a vowel to which they are affixed,
word terminating
belongsto the
It is deservingof notice,that in this conjunction
class referred to.
be changed into that form of m
ni or
nu
(the.Telugu
may
consonant.
anuswara')which coalesces with the succeeding
form of this euphoniccopulaof the
the original
I regard n
as
An
nudoubted and
Telugu, and 'y,'as a softeningof the same.
in the change
process is seen
independentinstance of this softening
of the Telugu copulative
nu,'and, into yu,'in certain
particle,
the finalvowel

between

of any

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

VREVENTIOK

in
conjunctions

been

also, y
'

base vowels

and

'

is often used

133

language. This

'

That

the

'nu'

word

has

In the Sanscrit of

instead
enphonically

terminations.

case

of

n,'between

'

of
original

the

was

of
nu,' appears from the connection
original
of
Tamil
with its
'um.'
Another instance
nu
equivalent
this interchangeof
and
been pointedout
um
nu,' has already
the identity
Of the nu
and the
of the
of the Telugu aorist,
um
'

'

'

the
the

'

'

aoristicfuture.

It has been mentioned

used

'

'

'

Tamil

'

'

'

in

of the

higherdialect

yu,'not converselyyu

of

HIATUS.'

softened stillfurther in Canarese into 'u.'*

the Vedas

'

the

'

OF

in Tamil

that

'

'

and

'

'

the letterswhich

are

'

are

'

and
used by
n
hiatus,where
are
preventing
y
the forms and inflexions of
Telugu. On examining more
closely
classicalTamil,we
shall find reason
for advancing
a step farther ;

inasmuch
number

as

for

'

in Tamil

also

'

'

'

is used instead of

'

in

'

considerable

of

in the pronominal terminations

of
instances,especially
verbs in the classicaldialect. Thus, the neuter pluraldemonstrative
from
being 'avei' (for 'a-(v)-a,'
a-a'),we should expect to find the
'

'

same

or the
a-(v)-ei,'

of verbs

older

'

in the
a-(v)-a,'

third person

pluralneuter

instead;i.e.,we find the hiatus of

'a-(n)-a'
filledup with
instead of v :' e.ff., irukkindra(n)a,'
a-a
n
theyare
of
whilst
in
So
instead
the separate
(neuter),
irukkindra(v)a.' also,
the hiatus is
demonstratives
avan,' he, and 'avar,'they (epicene),
filled up with
v'
in the pronominalterminations
('a-(v)-an,'
'a-(v)-aT'),
:

but

find

we

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

instead of

(n)an/ he

find

often used
'a-(n)-an'
:' e.g., 'irundainstead of a-(v)-ar
and 'a'(n)-ar'
'a-(v)-an,'
contraction
its ordinary
instead of 'irunda(v)an,'
or
was,

of verbs in the classical dialect

we

'

also find the

'

in the neuter

plural
of appellative
things
nouns
porula(n)a,'
We
instead of 'porula(v)a,'
or
that are real,realties,
simply 'pbrula.'
and relative
of 'n' to prevent hiatus in the preterites
find the same
use
/
of a largenumber of Tamil verbs;e.g., 'kattirn)en,'
past participles
'

irundan.'

We

sometimes

same

'

in the classicaldialect;e.g.,

'

which showed: in which forms the 'n' which comes

ishowed,^
'katti(n)a,'
'katti'and the terminations 'en' and
between the preterite
participle
The
used (as 'v,'in ordinarycases)to prevent hiatus.
'a,'is clearly
be its origin(respecting
whatever
euphoniccharacter of the 'n' of 'na,'
is conformed by the
Verbsy Preterite tense),
that 'n' optionally
circumstance
changes in classical-Tamil into 'y ;'
that showed, instead of katti(n)a.
e.g., we
say, 'katti(y)a,'
may
which

see

the section

on

"

'

the Canarese
this view of the case, the connection between
'
'
which
is found
the
and
copulative
u,'
conjunction,
conjunction, t;
Semitic
the
will
'ft'
of
also
languages,
the
and
appear to be
in the Vfidaa,
of the
to suppose the ' u
reason
have no
accidental rather than real ; for we
um,' ' mu,' or " nu.'
to be softened forms of
Sanscrit and the ' ft of the Hebrew
*

According to

of
particle

'

'

"

134

SOUNDS.

Another

instance of the

is furnished by
hiatus,
'

'

ten

and

'

twenty

with

*ten'

each

formed

are

numeral

"pattu;'but 'padu
identicalwith the

'

compound

numerals

the combination

of the

the numerals.

'

by

of
prevention

for the

of 'n' in Tamil

use

The

Tamil

The

in rotation.

word

between

for

above twenty, and

for 'ten,'
is used in the numerals

is used in the numerals

Teluguword

for

word

is

ten

'padi,'
from

eighteeninclusive. Between this 'padi and the units which

follow,each of which,,with the exceptionof 'miindru,'three,and
eleven

'

'

to

nalu/ four, commences

with

vowel,

hiatus,where the modern

euphonic character of this Tamil
:'

is inserted

for the prevention

have

used

'

v.'

The

will appear on comparing the

with those of the Telugu,
in most of which 'h' is used

Tamil numerals
'

'

Tamil would

of

instead of

'

"

'n'

e.g.,
Telugu.

Tamil.

In the Tamil compound numeral, 'padi-(n)-mundru,'

find
we
thirteen,
the

'

same

'

hiatus to be
'

rese,

used

as

in the

prevented.The

hadi-muru

;' and

previousexamples,though there is no
Telugu has here pada-mudu ;'the Cana'

the Canarese

as

uses

'

n,'like

Tamil, in

the

all

the other

sive,
compound numbers between ^eleven' and 'eighteen'incluand dispenses
with it here, I think it is to be concluded,
that in
the Tamil
the n
has crept in throughthe influence
padi(n)m.undin,"
of the numerals
each side of it,and in accordance with the euphonic
on
tendencies of the languagein general.
'

We

have

Tamil,to

'

an

'

indubitable instance of the

use

of

endingin

in
prevent hiatus,

in

'n,'even

common

ei :'e.g., when

nouns
appellative
from
an
noun
or young,
ilei,'
yoivth,
by annexing
appellative
the compound is not
an,' the sign of the masc.
sing.,
ilei-(y)-an,'
but
is merely a more
or
even
ilei-(n)-an.'
ijei-(nj)-an
'iij'
liquid
form of 'n/ and in Malayalam regularly
replaces'n' in the pronoun
of the lirst person.
Probablyalso manar,' the epicenepluralof the

is formed

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

future tease

of the Tamil

verb in

some

theywill say, for

e.g., enma-(n)-ar,'
'

more

common

of the

'enmai,'and

poets,is

for

that for

'ma-ar;'

'enbar,'the

form.

There is thus

to

reason

suppose,

that

the
originally

Tamil

agreed

Telugu in using a nasal instead of a semi-vowel,to keep

vowels separate. It may be objected
that n' evinces no
contiguous
tendencyto change into v.' I admit this;but if we suppose m,' not
n/ to have been the nasal which was
originally
employed for this
with

the

'

'

'

'

PREVENTION

OP

'HIATUS.'

135

will disappear,
for 'm' readily
purpose,. every difSculty
changeson the
hand
to 'v,'
and on the other to 'n.' Nor is it a merelygratuitous
one

that
supposition
instead of

the

n,' for

Telugu may have used

have alreadynoticed
we

'

m'

at

that

-former

a
'

ni'

or

'

period

nn,' the

of 'n,'
in certain conjunctions
euphonicequivalents
are
interchangeable
with the *anuswara' or assimilating
instances
'm;'that in two importaynt
and
the
aorist formative)the 'n' of the
(the copulativeparticle
of the Tamil; and that in Sanscrit
Telugu replacesan older m
inserted between certain
also,instead of the n which is ordinarily
older 'm' is somepronominal bases and their case-terminationsj
an
times
employed. It may also be noticed that the ni or
nu,'which
may be considered as the euphonicsuffix of the accusative in Telugu,
is replacedin Old Canarese by m.'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

The

reader

languagesaccord
which

has

fail to have observed that whilst the Dravidian

cannot

to

been

certain

extent

with

discussed,
theyaccord

the Sanscrit

in the

point

much

largerextent,
with
the Greek, and
in one
particular(the preventionof hiatus
between the contiguous
vowels of separate words)with the Greek alone.
It is impossible
that the Dravidian languagesborrowed
to suppose
this usage from
the Sanscrit,
seeingthat it occupiesa much less
and
importantplacein the Sanscrit than in the Dravidian languages,
has been much
less fully
developed.
now

It should
used

to

In

to

here that the letter 'r' is in

be mentioned

prevent hiatus in each of the Dravidian

idioms.

Tamil, 'ka,'the imperativesingularof

in certain

the

verb

to preserve,

The Canarese
but 'ka-(r)-um.'
not 'ka-(v)-um,'
plural,

in the

becomes

instances

some

inserts

cases

'

'

or

'

ar

between

the crude

and

noun

the

instead of the more

common
v,''n,'or 'd;'e.g.,
terminations,
karid'-ar-a,'
of that which is blaeh. The Telugu inserts r in a more
and 'alu,'
the
between certain nouns
euphonic manner
distinctively
suffix by which the feminine gender is sometimes denoted;e.g., 'sun'

case

a handsome
daru-(r)-alu,'
'

'

'

'

in which
soundariya-(v)-al,'

use

of the

the

same

latter with

the Tamil

separationis effected by

the

euphonic v.'
'

common

more

Compare the

woman.

'

which

intervenes between

the

'

i ' of the

verbal
preterite
Canarese verbs {e.g.,
and the suffixes of many
madi-(d)-a,'
participle
of
the
in
its
is now
a
that did),
preterite,
origin sign
though probably
The

'

'

simply as an euphonicinsertion. 'This 'd' becomes invariably

softened
'n' in Telugu and Tamil; and in Tamil it is sometimes
in Telugu for a
is stated to be used
t
further into
y.'
of
similar purpose, viz.,to prevent hiatus between certain nouns
used

'

'

and
quality

the

nouns

'

which

are

qualified
by

them

'

; e.g.,

kaaaku-t-

136

SOUNDS.

amma,'
with

sharp arrow, but

I have

that this 't' is identical

doubt

no

inflexional particle,'g' is, in

an
originally
by the Telugu to prevent hiatus,or at least

'ti,'and

used
instances,

some
as

an

euphonic formative,where the Tamil would preferto use 'v;' e.g.,

either be
the
rational
of number, six persons, may
pluralnoun
:' probably kadu,' ke, for
vadu,' is
or
aru(g)ur-u,'
aru(v)ur-u
another instance of the optionaluse of 'g' for 'y" in Telugu. It
is used euphonically,
instead of the y euphonicof the Tamil,in such
to signify
words
as
tandri-(g)-ar-n,'
fathers(used honorifically
tandei-(y)-ar.'
faiher'),
compared with the Tamil
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

languagesof the
Turkish,Mongolian,Manchu), but especially
(Finnish,

Harmonic

Sequence

Scythiangroup
in

Manchu,

law has

op

been

Vowels.

In

"

all the

observed,which

be called

may

'

the law

sequence.'The law is,that a given vowel occurringin

of a word, or in the root, requiresan
one
syllable
analogousvowel,
vowel belongingto the same
in the
sets there are
set (of which
a
i.e.,
of the same
word or in the
Turkish four)in the followingsyllables
alter their vowels
ingly.
accordappended to it,which, therefore,
particles
of harmonic

ruleiof

This

which

traces

some

remain

even

in the modem

pervade all the Scythianlanguages;and has been

regardedas a confirmation of the theorytha.t all those languageshave
origin.
sprung from a common
In Telugu a similar law of attraction,
harmonic
or
sequence, is
found to exist. The range of its operation
is restricted to two vowels
'i^ and 'u;' but in priirciple
it appears
to be identical with
the
i into u,' according
Scythianlaw, u beingchanged into i,'and
of the preceding
Thus the copulative
vowel.
is
to the nature
particle
Persian,appears

to

'

'

'

'

'

'

ni

after

'

'

i,' i,'
'

'

ei j' aud

'

'

nu

'

after

ku,' the signof the dative case, becomes

ei.'
i,' 1,'and

'

and

in like

'

the

other

vowels.

'ki' after

manner

'

'

In the above mentioned

which
particles
the words

'

'

are

to which

Uie suffixed
of the verb

instances it is the vowels of the

appended
changed through the attraction of the vowels of
they are suffixed: but in a largenumber of cases

retain
particles
to which

their

vowels,and draw

own

theyare

the vowels

also the vowels of

as
suffixed,
that may
be added to them, into harmony with themselves.
any particles
termination or suffix being'lu,'
Thus, the Telugu pluralising
would
the pluralof katti,'
be
kattilu ;'but the
a
knife,
naturally
vowel of the suffix is too powerful for that of the base,and accordingly
becomes
the plural
kattnlu.' So also,
whilst the singular
dative
the dative pluralis,not
is katti-ki,'
but
kattnla-ku j'
kattila-ki,'
or

noun

'

'

'

'

'

'

138

SOUNDS.

Scythianrelationship
may

phoneticlaw

in the

noticed

be

now

mentioned.

Peinciples
is
syllabation
concurrent

Syllabation.

of

its extreme

dislike of

and
simplicity

; and

consonants

of Draridian
The chief peculiarity

"

compound

characterizes the
this peculiarity

or

Tamil,

marked
of the family,in a more
early cultivated member
degreethan any other Dr"vidian language.
In Telxigu,
tive
Cauarese,and Malayalam, the great majorityof primi-

the most

words
Dravidian -words,i.e.,

have

which

been

not

derived

from

and in Tamil all words

throughSanscrit influences,
without
Sanscrit derivatives,
divided
are
includingeven
exception,
into syllables
the followingplan. Double
treble consonants
at
on
or
like
the beginningof syllables,
missible.
inadstr in strength,'
are
altogether
At the beginning not only of the first syllable
of every
is
"word,but also of every succeedingsyllable,
only one consonant
If in the middle of a word of several syllables,
allowed.
one
syllable
with
ends with a consonant, and the succeedingcue
commences
be euphonically
another consonant, the concurrent
consonants
must

Sanscrit

or

altered

'

'

else

or
assimilated,

conclusion of
'

must

in

word,

are
strength,'

vowel

must

double

be inserted

and

inadmissible

as

'

'n'

or

at

as

the

It is obvious

'm.'

extremelyunlike that
The
only double

them.

treble consonants,

beginning:

terminate,in Telugu and Canarese,in

vowel or in a singlesemi- vowel, as

nasal,as

between

that

At

like

and

'

the

gth

'

in

word

every

rowel ; in Tamil, either

'

r,'or in a single
this plan of syllabation
is
'

'

or

of the Sanscrit.

which

stand

togetherin the
without
of a word in Tamil
middle
an
interveningvowel, are as
various nasals, ng,' nj,' n,' n,' and
The
follows.
m,' may
of
the
which
the
and
to
sonant
hence,
varga'
they belong;
precede
also
'n-d,' n-d,''m-b,' may concur;
'ng-g,''nj-s,'
'ngng,' njnj,'
:' the doubled
surds
nm
kk,' chch,'
nn,' nn,' mm,' nm,' and
'tt,''tt,''pp,' '11,''rr' (pronounced'ttr'):also 'tk' and 'tp;'
Rk,' Rch,' and
Kp ;' yy,' 11,'vv ;'and finallyur,'pronounced
which can coalesce in Tamil under
The only treble consonants
ndr.'
the very soft,
are
liquidones, rnd and ynd.'
any circumstances,
Tamilian laws of sound allow only the above mentioned
consonants
in
of
middle
words
without the intervention of a
to stand together the
be assimilated,
must
All other consonants
that is,the first
vowel.
the second,or
the same
else a vowel
be made
as
must
must
be
inserted between them to render each capableof beingpronounced by
consonants

'

'

can

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Tamilian

organs.

In

the other

Dravidian

'

'

dialects,
through the

PRINCIPLES

OP

influence of the Sanscrit,

nasals

139

SYLLABATION.

are

with

combined,not

sonants

only,

but also with surds ; e.g., pamp-u,' Tel.,to send, ent-n,'Can., eight.
The repugnance of the Tamil to this practice
is so
that
decided,
'

'

very

it must

be concluded to be Un-Dravidian.

Grenerallyi
'

'

is the vowel

which

is used

for the purpose

unassimilable consonants, as appears from the

Sanscrit derivatives are
Tamilised.
Sometimes

manner
'

of rating
sepain which

is

employed
Thus
the Sanscrit prepositionpra
is changed into
pira in the compound derivatives which have been borrowed by
the Tamil; whilst 'Krishna' becomes
Kiruttina-n
('tt instead of

instead of

'

i.'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

or
'sh'),

'Kittina-n.' Even

even

the Sanscrit

'

such

'

soft conjunctions
of consonants

dya,' dva,' gya,'"c., are separatedin Tamil into

diya,' diva,'and
giya.'
Another rule of Tamil syllabation
is,that when the firstconsonant
of an unassimilable double consonant
is separated
from the second and
formed into a syllableby the intervention of a vowel, every such
consonant
(notbeing a semi-vowel)must be doubled before the vowel
as
'

'

'

'

is suffixed.
'

'

Thus, 'tatva,'
Sans.,nature, becomes

in Tamil

;'
'tat(t)uva

unprofitable,
aprayojana,'
ap(p)iray6iana.'
In consequence
of these peculiarities
and
of syllabation
'

the

of its inflexions,
the Tamil
structure
agglutinative
language appears
and
when
with
the
Sanscrit and the
lengthy
compared
very verbose
languagesof Europe. Nevertheless,each syllable
being exceedingly
rapidity
simple,and the great majorityof the syllables
being short,
of enunciation

The

mental

is made

to

compensate

physiologyof

for the absence

the diflerent

races

may

of compression.

be

illustrated,
Indo-European

perhaps,by their languages. The languagesof the

class are fond of combining clashing
consonants, and weldingthem
into one
by sheer force of enunciation; and it is certain that
syllable
racteristic
strengthand directness of character and scorn of difficultiesare chabut of the races
not only of the Indo-Europeanlanguages,
by which those languages are spoken. On the other hand, the
Dr"vidian family of languagespreferssofteningdifficulties away to
grappling with them; it aims at ease and softness of enunciation
rather than
:
sonants,
impressiveness
multiplyingvowels, separatingcondiiferences of sound, and lengtheningout its
assimilating
it illustratesthe characteristics
words by successive agglutinations,
of the races
by which it is spoken by the soft,sweet, garrulous
of
effemiuancy

its utterances.

of the Dravidian languagesdifiers widely

syllabation
from that of the Indo-Europeanand Semitic families of tongues,it
Whilst

the

140

SOUNDS.

exhibits many

pointsof resemblance

the system of the

to

Scythian

and

to that of the Finnish or Ugrian family.

especially
The Finnish,the Hungarian,and other languages of the same
of a syllable.
at the beginning
stock,allow of only one consonant

group,

When

of

foreignwords which begin

by a Magyar, the consonants

with

two

consonants

separatedby

are

are

the
vowel; e.g., 'kral' becomes
kiraly.' Where
it is formed into a distinct syllable
is a sibilant,
by
'

'schola'
e.jr.,

vowel;

Tamil

with

India,who

this

is,is

known

has heard

their children to,

'iskola.'

becomes

the

to

How

nounced
pro-

the insertion
first

sonant
con-

prefixed

in accordance
perfectly

European resident in Southern

or
speak of establishing,
sending

every

natives

has
English iskool." The same
peculiarity
in
the
the
been discovered
language of
Scythictablets of Behistun.
the translator is found
In rendering
the word 'Sparta'into Scythian,
to have written it with a preceding i ; e.g., Isparta,'
as it
precisely
would be written in the present day in Magyar or in Tamil.
the Tamilian
I do not suppose
system of separatingcontiguous
consonants
by a vowel to be older than the Indo-Europeansystem of
On
the contrary,many
of the
combining them into one syllable.
'

an

'

will be found

lexical affinitieswhich

'

in the section of

'

Roots

'

and

in

that the Dravime

Affinities,'
appear
prove
and
dian roots were
that the tendencyto
originally
monosyllabic,
the
insertion of a vowel, was
not a characby
teristic
separate consonants
of the older speech,whatever
it may
have been,from which
the DrS,vidian family branched off. The inference which I draw is,
that as a similar phoneticpeculiarity
appears in the Ugrian family
in the Behistun
of languages,and is found
tablets to have been a
characteristicof the oldest Scythian tongue of which written records
survive,the Dravidian languagesprobablyclaim kindred rather with
the

'

Glossarial

Scythian
group

the

than

with

the

to

Indo-European.

Peculiarities.

Dialectic

Minor

"

Euphonic displacement
of CotisorwMs.

1.

In

to

the

Dr"vidian

consonants
languages,

are

sometimes

found

to

through haste or considerations of euphony.

change places,
We have an example of this in the Tamil 'tasei,'
which by
flesh,
of
and
of
a consequent'change
the surd
a
displacement consonants,
into

the

hard

'^adei.

'

kndirei,'
a
horse,is

in this

often pronouncedby the

manner

and

sonant, has become

lookingat
to

the true

the

vulgarin the Tamil country'knridei :'

of the Telugn word,
root-syllable
it is
gur-rann,'
'

decide whether
Dravidian

'

kuridei

'

or

'

kudirei

'

is to be

regardedas

original.In many instances,

throughthe

opera-

MINOR

DIALECTIC

141

PECUl.TARrTIES.

tion of this

find one form of a word in Tamil,and

we
diaplacement,
in Teluguor Canarese.
another,
Thus, koppul,'
different,
considerably
and 'padar,'
Tam., the navel,is in Telugu 'pokkili;'
Tarn.,to spread
as
a
patad-u.' In comparing words in the
a-eeper, is in Canarese
different dialects,
it is always necessary to bear in mind
the frequent
'

'

of this

recurrence

displacement.

Euphonic displacement
of Vowels.
instances of a stillmore
curious displaceIn Telugu we find many
most
This displacement
occurs
pient of vowels.
commonly in words
which
consist of three short syllables
beginningwith a vowel; and
when
it occurs, we
find that the second vowel has disappeared,
and
that the firstvowel
has migratedfrom the beginningof the word
to
the second
and at the same
time been lengthenedto compensate
syllable,
the
is
I
for
vowel that
lost.
take as an example the Dravidian demonstrative
and proximate; and I select the
pronouns, remote
element
rather than the singular,
to get rid of the disturbing
plural,
2.

of

difference which

'

illi' and

they become
should

those pronouns

'avar,'i/tey,
ing
correspond"Aey,proximate,
remote; and 'ivar,'

are

to

Tamil

In

formatives.

exists in the

hi.'

The
and

'

'

avaru

Canarese

Telugu also ; but

'

of

instead

Telugu varn
a change which

'

'

'

on

avaru,' and

'

is the form

viru

'

instead of
the

we

find in

examination,we

evidentlybeen producedby

has

word, so that

to each

By analogythis

ivaru.'

'

adds

to find in

expect
'

'

'

ivaru

of
rejection

;'

the

lengthenedform of
the first. The neuter
demonstrative pronouns of the Telugu being
there is no
('adi,'
displacementin their nominatives
dissyllables,
the
Tamil
to
adu,' 'idu');
that,'idi,'this, corresponding
closely
second

and

vowel,

the

substitution for" it of

'

by the addition of the inflexional

they become trisyllables
suffix 'ni,'we
find a displacementsimilar to that which has been
and idini becomes
it or of it,becomes
described : e.c/., adini,'
dani,'
but when

'

'

'

'

'

dini.'

Many ordinarysubstantives undergo in Telugu a similar change;

should by analogybe
e.g., ural,'Tamil, a mortar, pronounced oral,'
'

'

'

oralu

As

'

in
soon

broughtto

'

first sightappear
are

'

be,or

ledu,'ihere

extension of

be

to

found to be the

it will not

'

Telugu; but instead of oralu we find r61u.'

this peculiarlaw of the displacementof
as
a
light,
largenumber of Teluguwords and forms
same

widelydifferent from the

altered.
but slightly
or

it is not,is found to be the

is not,

'

to
corresponds

similar rule to

same

the Tamil

Tamil
Thus

as
'

and
'

vowels
which

is
at

Canarese,

k"du,'Tel.,

the Tamil

illadu,:'and

'

agSdu;'
by an

find 16,'
we
Tel.,within,
monosyllables,
'

142

SOUNDS.

to be identical vrith '

nl/Tain.;and 'nu,'Tel.,the copulative

particle,

"to be identical with

A
a

'

um,' Tam.

similar rule of

in the

displacementappears

Tulu, though

in

less degree.

Rejection
of Radical Consonants.
evinces
soften away consonants
a
Telugu
or
tendencyto reject
in the middle of words,even
though such consonants should belongto
the root, not to the formative.
Thus, neruppu,'Tamil, fire,is
softened into nippu;' elumbu,'a hone, into emmu
;' udal
nounced
(prointo
into
'ollu
t
ime,
'odal');
;' porudu,'
body,
'poddu;''erudu,'
3.

The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ox, into

an

'

eddu ;' ' marundu,'medicine,into

'

mandu.'

Something similar to this process "takes place,but not so systematically,

in vulgarcolloquial
Tamil.
In a few instances,
the other hand, the Telugu appears to have
on
retained a radical letter which has disappeared
from the Tamil.
For
with,the
example,if we search for the originof odu,'with, together
suffix of the Tamil conjunctive
is apparent
case, no trace of its origin
in Tamil.
On examining the Telugu,we find that the corresponding
suffix is toda.' It has already
d
in Telugu corbeen shown that
responds
become
in
to 'r' in Tamil; and consequently'toda' would
'

'

Tamil

't6ra.'

that the Tamil

'

of the suffix

'

6du
'

6du

and
'

'

thus
tora

by

'

are

the

help

of the

in

Tamil, and

Telugu we

identical; that
virtually

accords
exactly

witn

its use

; and

the

find
ing
mean-

that there is

pairof similar words to be allied,

viz.,
in itself a noun
case
udan,'with,a suffix of the conjunctive
ing
signifyto
and
verbal
to
a
connection,
root, follow, join on.
tu4ar,'

also
'

contained
is actually
(tora-mei)

'tora'

companionship
; and

means

'

'

to

reason

conclude another

'

4. Aexnt.

stated that the Dravidian

It is generally

accent, and

emphatic

that

alone.

'

system

accords well

one,

The

accent

alone,in most
Word, that syllable
addition of formatives

always unchanged.
as

the

natural

use

of accent

is not

seat

and

of the Dr"vidian accent,

position
with the agglutinative
structure

is upon

the first

of
syllable

the

the base,priorto
constituting
inflexional forms, and remaining

cases,

of every word
firstsyllable
may be regarded
of accent; but if the word is compounded, a

The

of
the firstsyllable
distinguishes
compound.

secondaryaccent
of the

of accents, the

'

to them ; and the

of Dri.vidian words.

every

destitute of

emphasis is conveyed by the addition of the e

Though, however, the Dr"vidian languagesare

destitute of the Indo-Greek

unknown
altogether
always an accute

are
languages

the second

member

MINOE

As

be

in

other

is

syllable
is
is

'

'

Though

of the

upon

hence

it is

The

Tamil

first

the

oduvadu,'

future

form

have

meaning

he

noun,

will

meaning

'oduvdn.'

more

'

read, the
6duvau

he

who

used

is left in
it

when

emphatically,

the
that

is

an

in

verb

the

of
noun

i.e.

to

e.g.,

reader.

singular,

both

or

accent

poetical

In

cially
espe-

senses;

which

douhle

Thus

accent.

reads,

in

difference

the

accent

; but

or

the

fixes

reads,

in

e.g.,

read,

will

Tamil

sense,

'

its natural

oduvan

is, it becomes

'

marians
gram-

is

place, on

appellative

pronominal

or

be

seat

verb,

the root

participial
is

termination
the

or

read.

significationshould

when

the

rapidity.

neuter

that

accent

auxiliary

the

person

who

used

ud,'

'

secondary

participial

person

read,

word,

first

of

third

one

word

first

the

which

it

position, yet

with

still,a reading,

thus

in

or

third

will

that

difference

pronounced
e.g.,

being

determined

syllable, e.g.,

it

as

constantly

commonly

more

and

read,
the

is

tense,
either

means

same

by

will

the

as

gender)

colloquial dialect,

abstractedly, yet

denoted

is used

the

exception.

one

broken

been

syllable,except

every

of

compound

the

the

base

languages

second,

and

the

lightly and

Dravidian

he

either

crude

udeindirukkiRadu,'

and

by

and

which

by nature,

syllable of

and

syllable

form

same

long

compound,

the

being enunciated

the

the

first

the

of the

of

the

second

the

the

by

syllable

is

word

the

than

furnished

second

root-syllable,admits

means

in

The

'

tense, number,

oduvan,'
in

first

shorter

in

is that

accent

to

short

Thus

one.

only by position, but

portion of

rule

or

and

each

the

upon

accented

an

broken, literally having

is

auxiliary

rests

ones,

one

Even

the

is

carefully

contained,

only

though

example

long, not

of

general

the

(in

is

is

the

yet

long
it

is

accent

enunciation

adangugiaadu,'

'

instance

pronounced

accented

two

this

ir,' the

'

in

unaccented

an

Another

emphatic

rests

'

in

accent

most

and

'

syllable

principal

Dravidian,

syllable ad,' which,

compound

second

the

than

udeind'-irukkiRadu,' it

'

the

long by position

emphatic.

verb

in

first

in

so

143

PECULTAKITIES.

quantity;

verh,

is

ang

more

is.

Tamil

the

upon

from

emphatic

more

intransitive

'

languages,

distinguished

vowel

DIALECTIC

of

to

be

accent,.

11.

SECTION

ROOTS.
Before

and compare
the grammatical
proceedingto examine
forms of the Dravidian
languages,it is desirable to examine the
of the changes
characteristics of Dravidian
roots, and the nature
which are effected in them
by the addition of the grammaticalforms.
The
various languages deal with
their roots is
in which
manner
and distinctive character;
stronglyillustrative of their essential spirit
and it is chiefly
with reference to their differences in this particular,
that the languagesof Europe and Asia admit of beingarranged into
'

classes.

monosyllabic,uncomof no change or
pounded,or
combination, and in which ail grammatical relations are expressed
words or phrases,
either by auxiliary
of words in a
or by the position
sentence.
(2.) The Semitic or intro-mutative languages,in which
grammaticalrelations are expressedby internal changesin the vowels
in which
of dissyllabic
roots.
languages,,
(3.)The agglutinative
grammaticalrelations are expressedby affixes or suffixes added to the
the
root or compounded with it. lu the latter class I include both
Indo-European and the Scythian groups of tongues. They differ,
and that not only in their'
indeed,greatlyfrom one another in details,
but also in their grammaticalforms ; yet I include them
vocabularies,
Those

classes

are

isolative

both in

one

as

follows:

"

in which
languages,

because they appear

class,

agreed,in the

(1.)The

of
principle

roots

admit

to agree,

or

to

have

expressinggrammatical relation

originally
by means

of auxiliary
words.
The
difference between
agglutination
is rather in degree than in essence.
them
Agreeing in original
in development. In the highly
construction,
they differ considerably
of the

cultivated languages of the

Indo-European family,post-positional
been melted down into inflexions,
and someadditions have gradually
times
blended with the root ; whilst in the less plastic
even
languages

146

ROOTS.

a hank, a shore;
to melt,to he washed
as a noun,
verb,means
away;
In these
alei,'Tarn.,as a verb,to wander; as a noun, a wave.
strained,
instances it is evident that the radical meaning of the word is unre-

'

and

free

take

to

either

verbal

nominal

or

direction.

is not separatefrom the noun,

Moreover,as the Dravidian adjective
but is generally
identical with it,each root may be said to be capable
and
of a three-fold use;
viz., (1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective,
(3) as a verb. Thus, in Tamil, kad-u,'if used as the nominative
of a verb, or followed by case
terminations,is a noun, and means
for the
or
sharpness:if it is placed before another noun
pungency
it,it becomes an adjective
; e.g., kadu nadei,'
purpose of qualifying
mouth : and when
kadu vay,'the tiger,
a sharpwalk;
literally
sliarp
'

'

'

it is followed

it becomes
by verbal suffixes,

verb;

e.g.,

'

kadu-kkum,'

gu,'
sharp or pungent. With the formative addition
the same
root becomes
kadu-gu,'mustard.
In these and
in all similar instances,
the quantityof the root
vowel
remains
unchanged; whereas in those few instances in which
the Sanscrit root is not tied to a singlecondition,
and
the nominal
verbal forms differ in the quantityof their root vowel ; e.g.,compare
vach-as
vak-mi,'I speak.
(for vak-as '),of speech,with
It would
difference whatever
there was
no
appear that originally
it is

or

will he

'

'

'

'

in any
in any

'

'

instance between
Dravidian

as

to

form

the nominal

of the root

the dialects became

a
logicaldistinctness was felt to be desirable,
effected
to take place. This separation
was

separationcommenced
by modifyingthe theme
desired

and

dialect;gradually,
however, as

and
cultivated,

more

the verbal

restrict it to

by
the

formative

some
one

purpose

addition,when

alone,and

it

was

prevent it from

being used for the other also.

ance
In many
instances the theme is stillused in the poetry,in accordwith ancient usages, indifferently
either as a verb or as a noun
;
but in prose

more

(2.)Nouns.

"

commonly
In

as

Sanscrit and

noun

the

only,or

as

verb

only.

languagesallied to it,all words,

and particles,
derived by
are

exceptionof a few pronouns

In the Dr"vidian
native grammarians from verbal roots.
languages
of nouns
which are incapableof being traced up or
the number
with the

resolved into verbs,is more

small

proportionto

considered
generally
or

'

the

considerable.
entire

Stillsuch

number; and

to be underived

roots,are

not

in

nouns
a

few

bear but
which

verbal
reality

are

nouns

verbal derivatives.

have for their second syllable

nouns
Many Dravidian dissyllabic
which is a commonly used formative of verbal nouns
in
al,'a particle

CLASSIFICATION

Tamil,and

Or

signof the infinitivein Canarese

of

this class may

safelybe concluded
roots.
In some
instances their themes
of the verb

trace

from

I cannot

which

doubt

are
regarded as primitives,
a
viz., viral,'
finger,from

the

derived

and

to have

All

from verbal

sprung

been derived is

followingTamil
from

nouns

in others
discoverable,

are

have

Gond.

now

no

rent.
appa-

words,generally

roots which

still in

are

use

to expand;
viri,'
kadal,'the sea, from
kada,'to pass heyond; manal,'sand, from man,' earth; kudal,'
bowel,and kural,'a pipe,from
kudei,'to hollow out. I cannot
'

'

they

that

147

ROOTS.

'

'

'

'

'

'

discover the derivation of

similar nouns;
littledoubt that

'

'

niral,'
shade, seval,'a cock,and a few
nevertheless,
judging of them by analogy,I have
'

they also have been derived from verbal themes.

There are many
which
in most
nouns
denotingprimaryobjects,
languagesare primitive
words, but which in the Dravidian languages
derived from,or are identical with,extant verbal roots.
are
evidently
to stand; madu,' an
Thus, nilam,'Tarn.,the ground, is from nil,'
is identical
madu,' Can., to do, to worh; adu,' a sheep,
ox, is from
with
a monkey, is from
adu,'to frisk; kurangu,'
kura,'to make a
from night,is from
noise; pagal,'day, as distinguished
pagu,'to
divide; 'kan,' the eye, is identical with 'kan,'to see; 'mukku,' the
mugu,' Can.,to smell. Probablyalso, kei,'the hand,
nose, is from
relation to ge,'Can., to do, which
bears the same
kara,'Sans.,hand,
the Sanscrit verb to do.
bears to kri' or 'kar,'
are
undoubtedly
Though the greater number of Dravidian nouns
certain
be
verbal
to
a
derivatives,
proportionremain
regardedas
which appear to be underived and independent. In this class are to
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

be included the
which

other

are

used

of relation
personalpronouns; most of the nouns
of
as
answering to the prepositions
post-positions,

such
languages,

as

'

mel,'above, kir,'
below; and
'

considerable

of objects,
includingnames
foot,
e.g.,'kal,'
of quality,
man,' earth, vin,'the sky,and nouns
e.g., kar,'black,
vel,'
white, se,'
red,"c. A suspicion
may be entertained that some
of the apparently
belongingto this class are derived
simple nouns
obsolete. Thus, mun,' before,
from verbal roots which have become
underived radical,
of relation,
a noun
appears at firstsightto be an
mudal,'first;and this
yet it is evident that it is connected with
derived from a verb in
in dal,'is plainly
word, beinga verbal noun

number

of

common

'

nouns,

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'mu,'

now

lost J

that after all 'mun'

so

itself may

be

verbal

derivative.

(3.)Particles.
"

and

of
largemajority

the Dravidian

post-positions

employed in nominal
adverbs,and several of the particles
l2

and

148

ROOTS.

verbal inflexions are

in the Dravidian
the

verb,or

and

verbs
reality

Every word belongingto

uses.

in

of

languagesis either the infinitiveor

nominative

of

case

used

noun

'

ablative,che
'

and

which is

locative sense;
sion
employed in the declen-

are

in

and

the

in

the

prepositions
of
participle

to
verbs,several are easilyrecognized
conjugating
nouns.
Thus, in Telugu,the signsof the instrumental

and

nouns

be derived from

hand;

the class of adverbs and

of the inflexional particles

which

even

adaptedto especial

nouns

or

same

is formed

in Tamil

case

and locative of the word

the nominative

are
'cheta,'

of 'kal,'
in
probablya corruption

by

the

the addition
of

sense

of

'

al,'

channel.

So

'locative of rest' may be formed by the addition of any

'
and the 'locative of separation,'
a place;'
a case
signifies

also the Tamil

which

noun

denoting'motion
motion
means

commences,'is
a

The

from

place,'or rather 'the place from whence

formed
by the addition of il or
in,'which
a

'

'

'

house.

'

suffix added to the crude aoristic form

same

of the

stitutes
verb, con-

in Tamil, e.g., var-il,'

case
if (he,she, it,or
subjunctive
in (his
or
their)coming,that is,in the event of
they)come, literally
(hisor their)
coming.
the

Whilst

'

all the

adverbs
post-positional

and

of the inflexional

some

derived either from verbs or nouns, there

are
certainly
particles
in use
in the Dravidian
several particles
languages which do
appear

to be

connected

with

any

nouns

verbal

or

roots

that

are

are

not
now

originis unknown
; e.g., the copulative
particle,
in Telugu,and 'u' in Canarese;the suffixes
nm' in Tamil, 'nu
of presenttime,which form the present tense of verbs; viz. 'giR,'
in
in modern Canarese ; and 'chu' or 'tu,'
in ancient,'utta,'
Tamil; 'dap,'
the suffix of past time,and
in Telugu; 'd' or 'i,'
'v' or
'b,'the sign
extant, and of which

the

'

'

of the future.
Of the
some

which
or
suffixes,
post-positions,

used

are

as

signsof

case,

retain their
distinctly

meaning shines
; but

no

more

trace

or

whatever

the signof
ki,'or 'ge,'
signof the accusative.
'

The Dravidian

originalmeaning ; in some, the original

less distinctly
throughthe technical appropriation

the

remains

dative,or

of the
of

dative and accusative

'

original
meaning of ku,'
ei,'e,''annu,'or am,' the
'

'

'

assumed
have,therefore,

the

grammaticalcases
broughtinto harmony with the geniusof the
cultivation which theyhave
by the literary
Indo-Europeangrammar
I believe,
to identify
received. It is impossible,
connect
or
any of the
; and

character of real

in this particular
the Dravidian

languageshave been

above-mentioned
now

with
particles

any

discoverable in the Dravidian

verbal

or

nominal

languages,
as

roots

will be shown

which

are

respect-

ROOTS

ingeach
that

of them

ORIGINALLY

in order ;

of them

some

DrItidian

Roots

it is not

yet

from

have sprung

may

only possiblehut probable

such origin.
some

Monosyllabic.

originally

at firstsight
credible that the Dravidian
scarcely

when
monosyllabic,

the

'

'),and

est

longerthan
{e.g.,
compare
inferior in

are

of
poly-synthetic
languages

The

great lengthof

of

It may

"

roots

appear

originally,

were

it is considered that the

every Dravidian sentence are

languagein Asia or Europe
with the Latin

149

MONOSYLLABIC.

Tamil, it is,
'irukkiRadu,'
lengthonlyto the words of

America.

Dravidian

clashingconsonants

of the words in
majority
those of (perhaps)
any other

by

words

arises

partlyfrom

the ration
sepathe insertion of euphonicvowels,but

from the successive agglutination

of formative and inflexional
chiefly
and pronominalfragments. A considerable number of Dravidian
particles
verbal themes,priorto the addition of inflexionalforms,are
be found that the firsttwo syllables
trisyllabic
; but it will generally
have been expanded out of one by the euphonicinsertion or addition of
of the apparent base is in reality
a vowel; whilst the last syllable
a
formative addition,
which appears to have been merelyeuphonicin
but which
to distinguish
transitive verbs from innow
serves
origin,
In some
transitives.
instances the first syllable
of the verbal theme
contains the root,whilst the second is a particle
added to it
anciently
and compounded with it for the purpose of expandingor restricting
the
The. syllables
that are added to the inflexionalbase are
signification.
those which

denote

tense,person, and number.

case,

Hence, whatever be the length and complicationof Dravidian

be traced np to monosyllabic
words,they may invariably
roots,by a
careful removal

of successive
it

Tam.,
'perugugiRadu,'
the

accretions.

we
increases,

we

find that the final

'it;'giR,'is the signof

'

pronoun

Thus, when
the

analyse

'adu,'represents

present tense; and

Of this base,the final syllable

is the base or verbal theme.
'perugu,'
the verb to an intransitive or
gu,'is only a formative,restricting
the real
to "^peru,'
come
neuter signification
; and by its removal we
of quality,
noun
or
signifying
root,which is used also as an adjective
this
is
the
Nor
ultimate
even
dissyllable
peru,'
greatness or great.
is
condition of the root ; it is an euphonizedform of per,'which
and
and
a lengthened
per-um,'
found in the adjectives
great;
per-iya'
is pSr.' Thus, by successive
but monosyllabicform of the same
'

'

'

'

'

'

a word
agglutinations,
one.

assume,

In

all these

of six

has
syllables

forms,and under every shapewhich

the radicalelement remains

that it can

been found

be
readily

pointedout

unchanged,or

by

is so

grow out of
the word can

to

slightly
changed,

the least experienced

scholar.

150

KOOTS.

The

root

always stands

unobscured,
relief,

in distinct

out

un-

affixes.
absorbed,though surrounded by a largefamily of auxiliary
This distinctness and prominenceof the radical element in every word
of the
is a characteristic feature of all the Scythian tongues (e.g.,
pean
Turkish and the Hungarian); whilst in the Semitic and Indo-Euroaltered that it can scarcely
so much
tongues the root is frequently

be

recognised.

in which Draexplainin detail the manner

vidian roots, originally
have been lengthenedby the
monosyllabic,
or
insertion or addition of euphonicvowels, or by formative additions,

It is desirable here

to

in both ways.

Euphonic
which

Lengthening

the crude Dravidian

the

First,by

must

This is
in

the

of

event

that

obvious

Thus,

be inserted,
or

the
invariably

'

the root, if

first

probablyat

'

vri.'

sounds,a

syllable.A

must

be omitted.

Tamil, and generallyso

in the

originof

double

in

Telugu;

double

become
'

double

or

word

any

will
monosyllable,

The

of

of the consonants

being inserted
a

system

beginningof

to expand, the

viri,'
Tam.,

in

an

one

rule in

vowel

modes

two

are

lengthened.
euphonically

oldest Dravidian

or

stand at the

cannot

There

"

the two
euphonic vowel between
base. It has alreadybeen shown
original

of the

that in the Tamilian

vowel

is

root

insertion of

initialconsonants

consonant

Roots.

of

and

it
initial,

is

dissyllable.
a
viral,'
finger,was
vr,'was incapable
converted
therefore,
a

'

consonant

being pronouncedby Tamil organs, and was,

The probability
of the
into a dissyllable
by the insertion of a vowel.
change in this instance is strengthenedby the circumstance that
the Telugu has first vrelu,'
where the Tamil has
and
a finger,
viral,'
where the Tamil has 'maram,'
finally'velu.' In the same
manner,
has 'mrann,'softened in Telugu into
tfree (Canarese mara'),the Ku
a
manu
;'and where most of the Dravidian languageshave tala,'
head,
has 'tlava;'the final 'vu' being an
the Ku
euphonic addition to
best proof that in the Dravidian
tla.' The
languages dissyllables
in this manner
is furnished by
were
lengthenedfrom monosyllables,
that all Sanscrit words and particles
the circumstance
which commence
of

'

'

'

'

'

'

with

double

altered

this very

plan when
is converted
Tamil; e.g., 'tripti,'
satisfaction,
they are borrowed by
and
into 'pira.' This
into 'tirutti,'
'pra,'the prepositionbefore,
euphonic lengtheningout of the crude base by the insertion of an
euphonicvowel^ is apparent also in those bases which become polysyllabic
further
addition
of
formatives.
the
to
Thus,
by
'tirumbu,'
the original
base,and bu (euphonized
turn, is compoundedof tiru,'
a

consonant,

are

on

the

'

'

'

EUPHONIC

LENGTHENING

in tte intransitive into

(answeringto
doubtless

was

form

'

'mbu'),

OP

formative.

tiri/to wander, and

151

BOOTS.

'tiru' itself,
however

to several

other

related

a monosyllable,
originally
probably'tri.'

in the

words),

find this

We

Telugu transitive verb,which is tri-ppu,'

ponding
corresto the Tamil
the
;' with which we may compare
tiru-ppu
Greek
which is almost identical in sound as well as
a word
T^oeVe,'
in signification.

very

'

'

'

The
is

by

second

the addition of

addition to the
and

Canarese

of

the

examined, it

for

'

consonant,

'

of

been

have

that

two

and upwards,
syllables

helpingthe enunciation

made

,theyare

; but

when

monosyllabicroots are
intended not merely for vocalisation,
to

some

euphonization.

it is desired

When

are

place in
ending in a consonant, whatever

which contain

the purpose

is found

but rather

to the

takes

of all words

to roots

which

additions

lengthened,
base.
This euphonic
grammatical Telugu
roots

syllables
they contain.

solelyfor

made

Dravidian

vowel
euplionic

an

case

additions

Vowel

crude

final consonant

in the

be the number

are

in which

mode

merely

is the vowel

help

to

that is

'),and

this

the

enunciation

of

ordinarily
employed for

final

this purpose

is

uniformlyelided when it is
is not the only vowel which is
u
followed by another vowel : but
added on to monosyllabic
roots,though perhaps it is most frequently
(in Malayalam

'

'

met

with;

in

some

the

of

'

u
'

instances

under

it
consideration,
base,that it will not

intimatelyblended with the real

to be elided ; e.g.,
adu,'Tamil, to he near, the
does not admit of elision,
though the crude base

becomes

so

'

consent

which
*

and

'

final

'

'

of

is

probably
commonly employed is

u,'the vowel which is most

follows 'a;' then 'e' or 'ei.' Verbal

Next

ad.'

to

'

roots borrowed from

'i;'then
in all
have
the Sanscrit,
generally i added to the final consonant
the Dravidian
languages;to which the Telugu adds 'nchu,'and the
Canarese
'su,'formatives which will be noticed afterwards. Thus,
in
'sap,'Sans., to curse, is in Tamil 'sabi;'in Telugu, 'sabinchu;'
Can., 'sabisu.' On comparing the various Dravidian idioms,it is
enunciative
vowels are interchangeor
found that all these auxiliary
able.
in
is
in
to
'a,''kada,' pass,
Telugu,'gadaThus, of Tamil verbs
:' of Tamil verbs in
mare
chu ;' maRa,' to forget,is in Canarese
i,'
to wm,
is in Canarese
'kadi,'to bite,is in Telugu 'kara-chu;''geli,'
'gillu.'Of Tamil verbs in 'ei,''mulei,'to sprout, is in Telugu,
These final vowels being thus interchangeable
'moluchn.'
lents,
equiva'

'

'

'

they are intended merelyfor the promotionof

that they are not essential parts
helpsto enunciation,

it is evident that

euphony,and

as

'

152

BOOTS.
"

of the themes
their

to which

they

do not add

and
suffixed,

are

anythingto

meaning.

Formative
to the

added

Additions

crude bases of nouns,

well

as

suffixes

Fonnative

Roots."

to

are

to those of verbs.

as

pended
ap-

They

which appear
but to nouns
only to verbal derivatives,
to be primitive;but they are
most
frequentlyappended to verbs
properlyso called,of the inflexional bases of which they form the
last syllable,
been the
have
generallythe third. Whatever
may
transitive
to distinguish
serve
originof these particles,
they now
are

verbs

not

from

which

and
intransitives,

stands in

isolated

an

Tamil, in which these

form

the

is used

of

the

formative

In

nominative.

as

that

from

nouns

largelyused

most

are

of

is

and

most

fully

singlewhen

it

of the verb, or that

signification
the noun
which governs verbs or is governed by them : when
the transitive or active voice of the verb, or the adjectival
the noun,
which
is assumed
viz.,that form of the noun
by

of

it marks
of

form

formatives

intransitive

form
adjectival

and
position

initial consonant

developed,the
marks

the

the firstof two

nouns

or

neuter

that stand in

of the formative is

initial consonant

into

surd.

case

relation to

doubled,and

another,the

one

is at the

same

time

The

singleconsonant, which is
characteristic of the intransitive formative, is often euphonised by
its signification
value.
a nasal,without,
however, altering
or
prefixing
formatives are
Tamilian
The
(1.)'gu' or
ngn,'and its transitive
nchu ;' (2.) iu
and its
or
kku,' answering to the Telugu chu
transitive 'ssu' or 'chu;' (3.) du
or'ndu,' and its transitive 'ttu;'
changed

from

sonant

'

"

'

'

'

'

and

(4.)'bu'

to

even

'mbu,'

I call these

Though
in this

or

with

'

'

'

'

its transitive

'ppu.'
particlesformatives,'
they are
'

native

grammarians. They
lightby
w
hich
is supposedto be
the imperative,

are

not

regarded

generallysuffixed

the crude form

of the

verb; they form a portionof the infiexional base,to which all signs
and
of gender, number, and case, and also of mood
tense, are
it
hence
natural
native
and
that
was
grammarians should
appended;
regard them as constituent elements of the root. I have no doubt,
them as formatives,
however, of the proprietyof representing
seeing
of the root, and that
that they contribute nothing to the signification
of a further change,i.e.,
it is onlyby means
by being hardened and
viz.,the difference
doubled,that they express a grammaticalrelation,
which

subsists

verbs,and
In

between

the

transitive

and

the intransitiveforms of

and independent
nouns.
adjectival
than in any
particular
perhaps more

between

this

other,the high

154

BOOTS.

the Tamil

'

manni-kka.'

is

In

some

in

cases

Telugu the euphonicnasal

to
prefixed
chu,'not after i only,but after other vowels besides.
in Tamil and in Telugu.
to increase,
Thus, perugu,'
neut., is the same
but instead of finding'peru-chu'to be the transitive or active
find
to the Tamil transitive peru-kku'),
we
(corresponding
penchu,'
corruptedfrom 'peru-chu:'so also instead of 'pagu-kku,'Tam., io
divide,we find in Telugu 'panchu,'for 'pagu-nchu.'
of the Tamil
k
and the Telugu ch
The identity
appears also
from the circumstance
that in many
be
vu
cases
optionally
may
used in Telugu instead of chu.' This use of vu
the equivalent
as
of chu
the formative in ordinary
was
pointsto a time when
gu
in Telugu as in Tamil; for
ch' has no tendencyto be converted
use
into
dency
V,' b,' or
p,'whilst k or
g,'constantlyevinces this tento change into
v,'not only in Telugu,but also in colloquial
with 'b' and its surd
Tamil; and 'v' is regularlyinterchangeable
'P'
that
the original
I conclude,therefore,
was
shape of this
gu
formative in the Dra vidian languages; and that its doubled, surd
softened in Telugu into
was
shape, kku,'the formative of transitives,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'chu,'and

in Canarese

stillfurther softened into 'in.'

transitive 'ssu,'
pronounced'chu.' This formative
(2.)'su,'and its,
the Telugu contains,
in Tamil, and the examples which
is very rare
inasmuch
as they are
though abundant, are not to the point,
apparently
altered from the older 'ku' and 'kku,' by the ordinarysoftening
'k' changesinto 's,'and 'kk' into 'ch.' A Tamil
process by which
of which
to take refuge,
example of this formative is seen in adei-iu,'
"

'

the transitive is

(3.)'du'
be

no

'

'

or

to
to enclose,
adei-chu,'

itstransitive form 'ttu.'

ndu,'with

difierence whatever

twine round.

There appears to
and the other three,
"

this formative

between

and as 'gu'is
grammaticalrelation;
to 'ndu;' whilst in
in the intransitiveto ngu,'so is 'du,'
euphonized
d (and its equivalent nd ') changes by
the transitivethe doubled
rule into tt.' The euphonicchange of 'du' to ndu,'has so generally
ndu' is invariably
used instead of 'du' in the forthat
taken place,
that 'du,'
matives of verbs; and it is only in the formatives of nouns
form,is sometimes found to have survived.
the more
primitive,
form of
The
formative 'gu' remains unaltered in the adjectival
when
used adjectivally,
but 'du' changes into 'ttu,'
in the
nouns;
of verbs. Tamil examples of
as in the transitive voice
manner
same
to become
to correct;
correct, tiru-ttu,'
this formative; tiru-ndu,'
form of the same,
maru-ttu,'e.g.,
maru-ndu,'medicine,adjectival
medicine
The
unnasalised
'du' and
a
lag.
primitive
maruttu-(p)pei,'
'

gu,''su,'or 'bu,'in meaning

or

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

FORMATIVE

ADDITIONS

TO

155

ROOTS.

its

found in such words as

adjectival
'ttu,'
are
a hull,
eru-du,'
an
ox,
and
the fastening
eru-ttn-(p)puttu,'
of an ox's traces. Nearly all the
verbs which take 'da,'
Of the
or
'ndu,'as a formative are trisyllabic.
few dissyllabic
is
verbs of this class in Tamil,the most interesting
'

'

nindu,'to swim, of which I consider 'ni' as the crude form.

'

is

an
euphonizedform
evidently

for the verbal

nasal, and
'nindu.'

the

Telugu

I have littledoubt

and
simplya formative,
to the Greek

boat,of which

'

uses

Derivative

'nidu,'('du'changed into

of

derived from

noun

nidu,'for

that the

Latin

'

from

formed

doubles and hardens

base
primitive

no,'

'

'

nato

and

is

'

also to

ing
nl,'answer'

nau,'Sans.

the root.

have formative suffixes

the transitive

that which

or
suffix,

Thus

from

and
tiru-ttam,'
correction;

'

of this word, is

'ndu'

'du,'or

the initial consonant.

heoom,e correct,is formed

instead of
itself,

verb

the

verbs which

their formative

always preferas

the

'

the Sanscrit does not contain

nouns

Nindu/
'ndu');

it, nittal,'
swimming,is without

that the crude

ve-to, the

'

'

from

to
tiru-ndu,'
to
tu-ngu,'
'

sleep, tu-kkam,'sleep.
'

In

instances

some

the crude

whilst the transitive

E.g. 'padu,'to

root.

to lower;
tar-ttu,'

'

of the Tamil

'nil'

or

In such
'

'

transitive

the

by

on

'

the

as

the intransitive,

addition of 'ttu'

Canarese

the

to

a
'

'

ttu' is used
'

chu'

'

d,' nd,' and

'

'

This

causal;but it wiU
'

as

the formative of the

or

'pu.'

of this formative all those

cerebral' consonants

'du' instead

bi,'
(enphonically
languages.In all

in the Drfi,vidian
'

uses

of 'tar-ttu.'

foj^er, instead

Tamil,the Telugu uses

I class under the head

the

the

representedas
The Verb,'that vi

mentioned, where

now

is used

verb

is sometimes

in the section

cases

by

cases

'ppi')is the onlyreal causal

the

of

to lay; 'tar,'
to he low,
down, 'padu-ttu,'
to stand, 'nirn-ttu' (for
(Telugu 'nilu'),

'ttu,'e.g., tai-du/to

transitive formative
be shown

is formed

lie

to establish.
'nilu-ttu'),

root

used

tt,'are

in which

nouns

in the

same

'd,' nd,'and 'tt;'

form of the same,
adjectival
blind;
kuru-ttu,'
e.g. kuru-du,' blindness,
double.
The Telugu hardens
form, ira-ttu,'
ira-ndu,'
two, adjectival
but does not double the final d' of such nouns;
a
leak,
e.g., '6d-u,'
oti,'
leaky.
In some
instances in Tamil,the hard rough r,' when
used as a
and
is
to
doubled and pro^
to be equivalent
seems
du,'or du,'
final,
for the

and

manner

same

as

purpose

the

dentals

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

nounced
'

kinattru'),
of a

Increment

'

(4.)'bu'
form
original

't;' e.g., kina-Bu,'a well, kina-RRu' (pronounced

'

with

'

well. On this point,

however,see

or
ti,'
or

'

'

attu.'

Section

on

Nouns.

"

'mbu,'with itstransitive 'ppu.' In

"

Canarese,'bu,'the

has been softened into 'vu,'

of thisintransitive suffix,
and

156

KQOT^.

This
been enphonrzedinto 'mbu.'
'bn,'has universally
instances softened iii Telugu
Tamilian formative 'mbu,' is in some

in Tamil

into 'mu.'

nouns

The 'bu'

or

verbs is superseded
by

of Tamil

'mbu'

sitive
'gu' in Telugu; and the forms answeringto the Tamil tranpu' and mpu,' rarely ppu.'
ppu' are
Tarn.
nira-mbu,'
Example of the use of this formative by a verb:
to he full,
to fill;of which the crude base 'nir,'
'nira-ppuj'
re-appears
The
has
to
in the related verb
he
t
o
or
Telugu
niR-ei,'
fill.
full,
'nindu' instead of 'nirambu;'
but the transitive 'nimpn,'
answers
very
in
'mbu'
and
of
the
Tamil
a
noun
'nirappu.'Example
nearlyto
form, iru-ppu,'
of iron,e.g.,
'ppu;' 'iru-mbu,'Tam., iron,adjectival
In Telugu 'irumbu' is softened into
iron rod.
an
iruppu-(k)k61,'
form
inumu,'adjectival
inupa.' The Canarese still adheres to the
'b' into 'v,'
but leaving
form of this suffix,
generally
softening
original
it always unnasalised ; e.g.,Canarese
havu,'a snake,properly pavu :'
form 'pappu,'e.g.,
Tamil
pambu,'nasalised from 'pabu;'adjectival
the serpent hanner:
Telugu, still further altered,
pappu-(k)kodi,'
illustrates the progress of the formative
'pamu.' This example clearly
and confirms the supposition,
that it was
in question,
merely^euphonic
and that it was
in its origiil,
by degreesthat it acquiredthe character
'

vu'

or
'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

of

formative.
It has been

formative
be

added

mentioned

of transitive
that

even

that the

verbs,where

in those

Telugu
the

Tamil

where

cases

uses

'pu' or 'mpu' as a
uses
ppu.' It should
'

the

Tamil

uses

the

other

the Teluguoften
noticed,viz.,'kku' and 'ttu,'
previously
prefers'pu.' Compare the followinginfinitives in Tamil and in
Tam.
'mepa,'Tel.;'nirutta,'
Telugu,e.g. 'meykka,'Tam. to feedcattle,
Tel.
'kku'
Where
in Tamil,and 'pu'in Telugu
to establish,
nilupa,'
are
precededby i,'this formative becomes in Telugu either mpu' or
nchu ;'e.g., compare
oppuvi-kka,'
Tamil, to deliver over, with the
Tel. infinitive,
or
appavi-mpa,'
appavi-ncha.'
corresponding
It appears from the various particulars
now
sitive
mentioned,that tranused adjectivally,
must have been regardedby
verbs,and nouns
Tamilians as possessing
in common.
the primitive
The
some
quality
feature possessed
of transition;
common
by each,is doubtless the quality
formatives

'

'

'

'

'

'

for it is evident that when

of the

qualityor

substantive to

nouns

'

are

act denoted

by

there
adjectivally

is a transition

the

to the noun
noun
adjectival
which it is prefixed,
which corresponds
to the transition

of the action denoted

by the

transitive verb to the accusative

governs.
It is manifest that the various
do not

used

diflfer
from
essentially

which
particles
one

are

used

another either in

which

as

it

tives
forma-

signification,

FOEMATIVE

ADDITIONS

TO

157

ROOTS.

in the purpose for which theyare used,in the manner

in which they
in
are
the
in which they are doubled and hardened.
ai"xed,or
manner
It
'

euphony only that

was

d,' d/ or

or

'

'

determined

b,'should be suffixed as

which

of the sonants

formative to

'

g,' s,'
verb
any particular
'

noun.

indeed,the
Possibly,

of these formatives

use

originated
altogether
a
grammatical

in considerations of

euphony.

principle
appears

exist,is the doublingof the initial consonant

the formative
which

to

denote

to

or

is inherent in the
from

From

onlypointin which

of

correspondwith the puttingforth of energy

idea of active or transitive verbs,as distinguished

intransitives.

the statements

that wherever
of the

The

and

examplesgivenabove,it may be concluded

DrS-vidian verbs

referred
syllables

part of the word

or

nouns

found

are

there is reason

to

alone constitutes

or

to

to terminate in any

suspect, that the first

contains

the

The

root.

final

syllables
'gu,''ngu,''kku;' 'su,'
'chu;''dii,'
'ndu,''ttu;'''du,'
'ndu/
'ttu;''bu,''mbu,' mpu,' 'pu,''ppu;''mu,''vu;' may,
additions.
as formative
rule,be rejected
'

This rule will be found

on

the derivation and

on

examination

of many
relationship

to throw
nouns

as

general

unexpectedlight
are
commonly-

which

and independent,
but which,when the syllables
supposedto be primitive
found to be derived from or allied,
referred to above are rejected,
to
are
verbal roots which are stillin use.
I adduce,as examples,
the following
Tamil words:
'kombu,'a branch,a twig; 'vembu,'the Margosa tree ;
the formative final,
as
vambu,' abuse ; pambu,' a snahe. As soon
the verbsjfromwhich these nouns
derived are
are
mbu,' is rejected,
brought to light. Thus, 'ko-mbu,'a twig,is plainlyderived from
the Margosa tree,is from
to pluckof,to cut ; 've-mbu,'
ko-y,'
ve-y,'
shade
shade
of
this
to he umbrageous,
to screen
tree beingpecuor
(the
liarly
va-mbu,'abuse,is from vei,'properly va-y
prized)
respondin
(cor;
to the Canarese
vayyu '),to revile ; pa-mbu,'a snake,is
the verbal base which is
from
pa-y,'to spring. In these instances,
in use ends in
which does not
now
y,'a merely euphonicaddition,
belongto the root,and which disappearsin the derivatives before the
"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

which

consonants

The

same

will
syllables

added

are

as

formatives.

appliedto
principle
be found

to

nouns

endingin the other formative

a hawk,
yieldsimilar results; e.g., 'par-andu,'
the
to he beneath,
a root,from
'kir,'
kirangn,'

to fly; and
'para,'
'i' of which,thoughlongin Tamil,is short in the Telugu 'kinda,'
below.
'

from

Reduplication

of

the

Final

CoNSOffANi of

of employing
as
a
reduplication
principle

means

of

the

Root.

"

The

producinggramma-

158

BOOTS

tical

is recognized
expression
by the Drividian languages,as well as
by those of the Indo-European
family; though the mode in which the
is effected and the objects
in view are different. It is in
reduplication
Tamil that this reduplication
is most distinctly
apparent, and it should
here be borne in

changedfrom

that when
into

sonant

is doubled

root

mind,

the

Tamil

of

purpose

'

'

transitive,.
e.^.,from

of

is

into an
changing a noun
it qualifies
another noun, or puttingit in the
matt-u
hide
ox(t)t61,'
mMu,' an ox, is formed

(1) for

"

adjective,
showing that
genitivecase, e.g., from
; (2) for the purpose
into

doubled,it

final consonant

The

surd.

is

Tamil consonant

of

intransitive or
an
converting

'6d-u,'to

is formed

run,

'

neuter

verb

ottu,'to drive;

to be Jit,
(3) for the purpose of formingthe preterite,'
e.c/., tag-u,'
that was fit; and (4) for the purpose
of formingderivative
tak^-a.^
'

'

'

from

nouns
'

'

verbal

themes,

'erud-u,'to write, is

e.g., from

letter. [Seethis subject

further elucidated
a
erutt-u,'
The

'

Noun

and

'

formed

in the sections

on

Verb.'] It is remarkable,that whilst the Indoof the

the perfecttense by the reduplication

The

European tongues mark

it is by the reduplication
of the last letter that the
firstsyllable,
Dravidian
languageseffect this purpose; and also,that whilst the
'fibetanconverts a noun
into a verh by doublingthe last consonant,
this should be a Dr"vidian method
of converting
verb into a noun.
a
The rationale of the Dravidian reduplication
is,that it was felt to be a
natural

way

to express

the idea of transition both

in the act

and

in

the result.
to this

Up

pointit has

been

found

that all Dravidian

polysyllabic
roots
a
are
monosyllabifbase, lengthenedeither by
or
by the addition of formative pareuphonicadditions and insertions,
ticles.
An importantclass of dissyllabic
bases remains,of which the
is neither an euphonicnor
formative addition,
but an
a
second syllable
of specialisation,
into the nature and use
of which
inseparable
particle
shall now
we
inquire.
traceable

Particles
to the

of

to

Specialisation.

class of bases which

root
monosyllabic

or

"

The

verbs and

nouns

belonging

under

consist of
consideration,

stem, containingthe

and
genericsignification,

are

now

syllable,
perhapsthe fragmentof a lost root or lost post-position,
manner
by which the genericmeaning of the stem is in some
to expand and somemodified. The second syllable
times
appears sometimes
but in some
to restrict the signification,
instances,
through the
second

its force cannot

of synonyms,
is intended in some
to
manner
syllable

absence

now

be ascertained.

As

the meaning of
specialise
of specialisation.'
root, I call it 'the particle

this
the

PARTICLES

The

which
principle
in which

manner

OF

is involved in the

it is carried into

characteristic
feature

159

SPECIALISATION.

and the
of this particle,

use

effect,
remarkablycorrespondto

which it appears
languages,
to be desirable to notice here somewhat
As far back as
particularly.
the separate existence of the Semitic familyof languagescan be traced,
comprisinggenerally
every root is found to consist of two syllables,
three consonants.
When
Semitic bi-literalroots are compared with
their synonyms,
guages,
or
roots,in the Indo-Europeanlancorresponding
and
found
with those which are
in Sanscrit,
a
especially
simplerand more primitive
root-systemhas been broughtto light. It
has been ascertained,
in a largenumber
of instances,
that whilst the
first syllableof the Hebrew
with the Sanscrit,the
root corresponds
second syllable
does not in any manner
pean
correspondto any Indo-EuroIt is found also,that the second syllable
has not any
synonym.
essential connection

law of the Semitic

or

with

families of roots

exist

whilst

the

second

that in such

cases

case,

the initialand

the

and
the first,
in which

that

considerable number

the first syllable

is the

varies.
continually

first syllable
alone

in each

same

It is therefore inferred

two
(comprising

the final,
togetherwith the vowel used for

contains the radical base and

of

consonants,

enunciation)

and that the second

genericsignification,

syllable,
perhapsthe fragmentof an obsolete word,has been appended
of
afterwards compounded with it,for the purpose
to the firstand
definite direction.
and
a
specific
giving the genericsignification
According to this view, which appears to be in the main correct,
pendent
inderoots are
to be regarded not
Hebrew
as
singlyand separately,
in clusters or groups,
monads, hut as arrangedgenerically
differences. The family
exhibiting
generalresemblances and special
the radical base ; the individuality
likeness resides in the first syllable,
in the second, ' the particle
of specialisation.'
or
peculiarity
special
that

in

some

instances

the second

of Semitic
syllable
with its counterpart in the Indo-Europeanlanguages,as
roots meets
rule or
instead of the first; but the peculiar
well as the first,
or even
referred to is found to pervade so large a portionof the
law now
Hebrew
roots, that it justlyclaims to be considered as a characteristic
of the language.
Thus, there is a familyof Hebrew roots signifying
generally to
The
members
"c.
of
this
'to separate,'
'to cleave,'
divide,'
familyare
also
and
'palal;'
'pala,'
(throughthe dialectic
'palah,'
'palag,'
'palah,'
Chaldee 'peras.'
It cannot
of '1'with 'r'),
'paras;'
'parash,'
interchange
or
be doubted that in all these instances the firstsyllable
'pal'or 'par,'
rather p-r,'
'p-1 (forthe vowel belongsnot to the root,but to the
relation),
grammatical
expresses merelythe generalidea of division ;'
It is true

'

'

'

'

160

ROOTS.

"whilstthe second
the finalconsonant

of
syllable
(which is in some instances a reduplication
to express,
of the bi-literal)
expresses, or is supposed

the

mode in which the

particular
The first syllable,
which is the same

division

'

of roots,is that which

is to be

'

'

'

partitionis effected.
'

'

or

in all the members

of this group
in other languages,

compared with synonyms

In this instance
whilst the second syllable
is merely modal.
not onlyobserve a distinct analogybetween
the Hebrew
we
roots,*p-r,'
and the Greet
and
the
p-1,'
irop-w'the Latin par-s,'par-tis,'
Sanscrit phal,'
tinct
but we also discover the existence of a disto divide,
and remarkable analogywith the Dravidian
languages.Compare
with the Hebrew
t
he
Tamil
to
a
'piri,' divide,and 'pal,'
'p-r,'
'p-1,'
and
also
and
cleave
pagir
por,'to
pagu,'to
part ; pila
; as
'

'

'

'

'

'

portionout, to
On

divide.

we

are

See also the

attention

turningour

'

the

resemblance

Semitic root-systemreferred to above.

groups

roots, the

whilst
wholly identical,

first

'

Glossarial Affinities.'

root-systemof

to the

struck with

of related

'

'

it bears

which

We

find in these

of
syllables

their second

the Dravidian

which

are

guages,
lanto the

languages
nearly or

different in each

are
syllables

and in consequence
of this difference produce the required
instance,
in the signification
of each member
of the group.
degreeof diversity
We
also find in these languages,
as in Hebrew, that the generic
particle
of specialisation,
or
common
base, and the added particle
are
so
conjoinedas to become one indivisibleetymon. The specialising
ticle,
parwhich was
at first,
probablya separablesuffix or post-position
has become by degreesa component part of the word, and this word,
the base to which
all formatives and all
so compounded, constitutes
inflexional particles
are
appended.
"

This

root-systemexists

family,but
Out

Tamil.

its

and

nature

all the

groups

languagesof

the

Dravidian

are
peculiarities
especially
apparent

such groups

of many

illustrationstwo

in

which

of related Tamil

commence

with

in the

roots,I select

as

the first letter of the

alphabet.
]

Roots
.

adu

to

which
come

near

radiate from
;

also

'

the

syllablead
'

:'

to unite,
adu,'transitive,

join,to join battle.

contained,to enclose ; verbs formed from
ada,'the preceding
J
the
the
addition
of
and
formatives
'kku.'
ada-kku
verb,by
'ngu'
to enclose,
to attain,
to get in,to roost : transitive,
adel
with
the
addition
of the formative 's'u;'
adeis'u
to take refuge,from
'adei,'
also 'adeigu.'
ada

to

ada^ngu \

to be

adar

to be close together,
to be crowded.

aduk-(ku) to place one

'

thing upon

another,to pile up.

This verb ia properly

162

ROOTS.

this purpose

; and

it

of

of this
particles
from the Tamil,in which

use

'

dialects add 'u

examples of the
mostly
The followingexamples are

desirable here to adduce

seems

class.

'1' and 'r' may stand as finals. The other

The
of each of these particles.
to the final consonant

ends
when
this euphonicaddition of u
a word
requires
besides the nasals and
hard, rough b,' or in any consonant
Tamil

'

in the
vowels.
semi-

'

according
beingconsidered either as a verb or as a noun
well as of verbs. Some
I giveexamplesof nouns
as
to circumstances,
of the following
commonly used
roots, though used as verbs,are more
and some, though used as nouns,
more
are
commonly use4 ae
as nouns,
onlyor
verbs. Some of the examples,again,are used either as nouns
as verbs only :
Bach root

"

to suffer
pain
kadlik-(ku),

uk-(ku)

a sting
koduk-(ku)i

specialising
particles
endingin consonants, of
been adduced,only one appears occasionally
which exampleshave now
for a vowel addition.
alternates with
to be used as an
ar
equivalent
are
ei ;' e.g., amar,'Tam., to rest,and 'amei,'
apparentlyequivalent.
The verb to grow, also,is in Tamil
valar,'and in Canarese
bale,'
valei,' Similar instances,
which in Tamil would be
however,abound
the gener3(l
in Hebrew, without invali"Jating
with
j and even
principle
there is a
respect to the latter of the two Dratidian illustrations,
Tamil
between
and
in
related theme,
marked
distinction
a
valar,'
upwards, as a man, or a tree,'
vilei,'vajar meaning to grow
to grow
as
vilei
whilst vilei,'
as
a crop ;'hence
a
means
noun
afield.
means
and interesting
I here subjoinan example of another peculiar
set
Of all the fourteen

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

of groups of roots which

are

found in the Dravidian

'

and
languages,

'

INTERNAL

which

formed

163

CHANGES.

from that which

plan differing
considerably
has now
been explained.
The roots referred to are dissyllabic,,
but theycontain onlyone consonant,
which is precededand followed by a vowel.
This consonant
whilst the initialand
appears to represent the ultimate or radical base,
final vowels alter in accordance with the particular
shade of signification
which it is desired to convey.
When
we
'idu,'Tarn.,
compare
to press or crush,
'odu,'to squeeze, to bringinto a smaller compass, and
also adi/ to heat;or 'odi,'
to bruise,
to beat down, as
'idi,'
to break
in two, and
udei
(pronouncedodei '),to break open ; we cannot
avoid
the conclusion that the first four roots are
related
closely'
are

upon

'

'

'

members
like
have
the

of the

familyor group ; that the last two roots are in

mutuallyrelated ; and that possiblythe whole of them

manner
an

'

same

ulterior relationship,
in virtue of their
nucleus

same

or

radical

in
possessing

base,the central consonant

common

'd,'and

the

genericsignification.

same

Dravidian
Formative

Roots

sustain

no

Internal

Change

on

receiving

Inflexional

Additions,or in Composition.- In
adhered to, and the deviations from it
generalthis rule is so strictly
that it may be regarded
are
so few and
as a, characteristic
unimportant,
of the Dravidian root-system,
and a counterpartof the rigidunchangeableness which characterizes Scythianroots.
The vowels of Dravidian roots belongas essentially
to the radical
guages,
base as the consonants.
They neither belong,as in the Semitic lanto the system of means
by which grammaticalrelations are
nor
are
expressed,
theymodified,as in the Indo-Europeanlanguages,

by the

or

"

addition of inflexional forms.

languagesthe radicalbase is destituteof vowels,and

by itselfunpronounceable.The insertionof vowels not onlyvocalises
In the Semitic

the consonants
verb

or

noun,

of the root, but constitutes it a

the

inflected
grammatically

of which varies
signification'

with

the variation of

the interiorvowels.

Indo-Europeanlanguagesgrammatical modifications are

producedby additions to the root ; and thoughin the earliestperiodof
the root, generally
the history
of those languages,
is supmonosyllabic,
posed
to have remained unaltered by additions and combinations,
yet
is not capableof direct proof; for on
the existence of that rigidity
examining the Sanscrit,Greek, Latin,and German, the most faithful
In

the

find that
of the earlycondition of those languages,
we
representatives
of the words are modified by the
the root vowels of a largeproportion
that the
addition of the sufiixesof case and tense ; and in particular,
M

164

ROOTS.

of the root,by which

reduplication

the

been formed,is often found either

vowel, to change one

vowel

into

to

perfect
appears usuallyto

have

of the rootquantity
it.
to expunge
entirely

alter the

another,or

Scythianfamilyof tonguee,not only does the vowel belong

stances.
unalterable under all circumto the root,but it remains
essentially
Neither
the consonant
the vowel
nor
(or consonants)of
In the

which

the root

composed,sustains any change or

addition of the signsof gender,number, and case,
and mood; which are successively
to
agglutinated

modification

is

into combination

on

the

of person, tense,
the root, not welded
or

with it.

is characteristic also of the roots of the

or
rigidity
persistency
be menDravidian languages,
which will shortly
tioned.
vith a few exceptions
of
additions
In general,
whatever
the
be the lengthor weight
This

made

to

with

other

Dravidian

words

root, and whether

in

construct

in the obliquecases
faithfully
and

future
I

as

as

in the present tense

proceedto

pointout the

it stands alone

state,it is
in the

is combined

or

fullyand
the preterite

representedas

nominative, in

in the

imperative.
to this
principal
exceptions
or

rule.

Euphonic Exceptions.
and consist only in
exceptionsare purelyenunciative,
such chafhges
as are
necessary to enable Dravidian
organs to enunciate
double
See the portionsof this section in which
consonants.
the
lengtheningof roots by the euphonicinsertion or addition of vowels
is explained.
(2.)A second class of euphonicexceptionsis connfected with one
minor dialectic peculiarities
of the
noticed at the end of the section
1.

(1.) Some

'

'

It consists in the occasional omission

Sounds.

on

of

final consonant

when

root

it is followed

by

or

mutation

of the

formative

or

flexional
in-

particle.Most of the instances which I have noticed,occur

in Canarese or Telugu,especially
in the latter. They are
such as the
erdu
viz., eddu,' Tel,, an
following,
(in Tamil
ox, instead of
erudu '); penchu,'
instead of perunchu (inTamil
Tel.,to increase,
for 'bildu' (Tamil virdu');
'biddu,'
Canarese,havingfallen,
'perukku');
and 'tiddu,'
to correct,for 'tirudu' (inTamil
Caxi.,
This
'tiruttu').
has no relation to grammaticalexpression,
and
omission,or softening,
from haste in pronunciation.A few
appears to have arisen chiefly
examples of this change are found even in Tamil j e.g. vandu,' having
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

come,

instead of

has not
is
'

'

'

'

placein

va,'come,

not

varndu
the

'

or

varundu.'

In this case

the omitted

'

r'

of
imperative

'var;'and

reallybelongsto

'

the second person singular,

which
hence it might be doubted whether the

the root, or

whether

it is

only an

euphonic

INTERNAL

addition.

however,that
suspect,

is
imperativesingular
in

'

165

CHANGES.

ik,'not

'

this

'

'

for the
is radical,

v^,'as if from

'

;'and

vara

Telugu
find

we

the

Bajmahal dialect that to come is 'bara.' In Tamil also the

of the second person plural is var-um.'
Hence
imperative
vandu,'
Another
to be a softened form of varndu.'
having come, seems really
example appears to be furnished by a Tamil verb meaning to give,
'

'

'

which

is

'

the present,and
tar,'in the infinitive,

the future ;

'

ta,'in

the

imperativesingular;and 'ta' in the preterite,

e.^r.'tanden'(for
I gave.
'ta'
The resemblance or identity
of the Tamil
tarnden'),
and the Sanscrit
ta
to be a
da,'to give,might lead us to suppose
Sanscrit derivative,
in which case
referred to would
the
be an
r
euphonic addition. It is difficult,
however, to suppose that this 'r'
has been added
and the difiiculty
is increased by the
euphonically,
circumstance that in every part of this verb,with the exceptionof
the imperative,
find to be used,is not
the form of the root which we
'ta' but 'tar-u.'
that tar-u
is
Hence it seems
open to conjecture
not derived from the present shape of the Sanscrit,
though related to
it,but that it springsfrom an older source, of which a trace remainsi
in the Greek
and possibly
also in the Hebrew
base, tan.'
B"p-ov,'
(3.)A third class of euphonicexceptionsto this rule is connected
It
referred to.
vf'ith another
minor
dialectic peculiarities
of the
of the medial conconsists in the occasional softening
or
sonant
rejection
with
the
verbal noun,
of a dissyllabic
root or
together
coalescence of the vowels that precededand followed it. It has been
and then to
shown
that g has a tendencyto \"e softened into v
into 'y,'when it
and that 's' changesin the same
manner
disappear,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

sometimes

'

'

become

'

either of these

When

absorbed.

'

is

consonants

rejected. Thus,
Canarese,a
Canarese,skin,becomes in Tamil tol ;' pesar,'
dogal-u,'
and then
becomes in Tamil first peyar
per.' So in Tamil,
name,
is softened into
top-pu,'which has the
togup-pu,'a collection,
medial,it is apt

be

to

softened down

thus

and

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

meaning of a collectionof trees,a tope.

(4.) The most important class of euphonic exceptionsto the
of the root appears at first sight
generalrule of the unchangeableness
to correspond
to a characteristicusage of the Indo-Europeanlanguages,
of the
and especially
of the Sanscrit. In those languagesthe quantity
restricted

root

vowel

is sometimes

altered when

the crude

or

abstract

is

noun

changed into an adjective.Thus in Sanscrit Dravida,'a gentile

to the Dravidas,the
a
becomes
pertaining
Dravida,'
appellation,
long,as the 'e' in
changinginto 'a;' and if the vowel is naturally
when the word is changed to an adjective;
Veda,'it becomes a diphthong
In Tamil we discover a
to the Vidas.
pertaining
e.g., Vaidika,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

166

ROOTS.

changeswhich, though in reality

they are purely euphonic
and unconnected with grammaticalrelations,
appear at first sightto
resemble the above-mentioned Indo-Europeanusage. Dravidian roots,
taken a dissyllabic
have very generally
though originally
monosyllabic,

class of

form
to

the insertion or

by

facilitateenunciation.

addition of

such

In

the

cases

isintended

which

vowel

first

alwaysa
syllable,

representsthe crude root, the added vowel constitutes the

predous.
euphonicsuffix;
great; kar-u,'hlach; 'ar-u,'
e.g., 'per-u,'

short one,

'

in the old poetical

dialect and in the speech of
Tamil,especially
often
of quality,
the peasantry,such dissyllabic
are
or
nouns
adjectives,
found
to sustain a further
change. The final euphonic vowel is
In

and
rejected,
is

'

'per-u' becomes

Thus

lengthened.

ar-u,'ar.'

'

compensate for its loss,the interior vowel

to

In the

same

manner

'

of the root

'per;' 'kar-u,''kar;'and

or-u,'
one,

becomes

'

;'and

or

'

ir-u,'

lengthenedmonosyllabicform is considered to be
and is much
used in combinations.
It is also used
elegant,
peculiarly
form as a concrete
of
more
noun
frequentlythan the dissyllabic
kar,'black,is much used by itself to denote the
quality. Thus
the rice grown
Coromandel monsoon,' or
at that
rainyseason,'or
of the root vowel
and rejection
season.' This euphoniclengthening
of the final will be found to throw lightin the derivation of some
of quality
is evidently
derived
a wilderness,
desolate,
nouns
; e.g., par,'
from
para,'old.
This

two, 'ir.'

'

'

'

'

'

'

When
of hard

the

final consonant

of the crude

root

to
belongs

the class

it cannot
be enunciated by
('k,' i,' t,''t,''p,''b.')
the help of an
Tamilians without
appended vowel; and in such
the final
cases, though the interior vowel of the root is lengthened,
in poetical
remains : e.g., pas-u,'green, becomes
and vulgar
u
pas,'but pas-u.'This final u,' however, beingretained
usage, not
solelyfor the sake of enunciation,is considered like the Hebrew
as only half the lengthof an
ordinaryshort vowel.
sh'va,'
of Dravidian
At first sightthe change in the interior vowels
letters

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

roots

now

pointedout

Sanscrit;but

on

may

further examination

It is evident that

resemble

to

appear

the

the

resemblance is found

the Dravidian

increase of

in
adjective,

the Dravidian
vowel

is more
lengthened,

and both forms

are

used

than
a

as adjectives
indiscriminately
; from

is obvious that the difference between

them

to disappear.

of producing

which

the root
quality,or
frequently
employed as a concrete noun
form isalso used as
older dissyllabic
form,yet the dissyllabic
noun

the

quantityis

a
means
whollyeuphonic,and not, like that of the Sanscrit,
grammaticalmodification : for thoughthat form of

of

of

usage

not
pertains,

is
the

concrete,
which it
to gram-

INTERNAL

matical

but
relation,

though

'

is
ar,'precious,

ciousness,
or
poets in the
used in

only

that wkkh
same

as
composition

considerations of

precious,
yet

j and

sense

to

often used than

more

is

167

CHANGES.

'

'ar-u'

either 'ar-u'

or

euphony. Thus,
ar-u/ to signify
pre-

also is used

'ar' may

by the

be
optionally

adjective.

an

2. Heal

Exceptions.
It has been stated as a generalrule that the internal rowels of
Dravidiaa roots sustain no internal change on receiving
formative or
inflexional additions or in composition;
it has also been stated that
deviations from this rule exist,bat that they are few and unimportant.
The apparent exceptions
mentioned
above have been shown
to be merelyeuphonic. I proceedto notice the few real exceptions
which

observed.

are

(1.)In

of the Dravidian

most

the quantity
of
lailguages

the root-

vowels
and

of the pronouns of the firstand second persons, both singular

The nominatives
plural,is shortened in the obliquecases.

of those

pronouns

thou, nir,'t/ou.
all the

long; e.g., 'nan,'Tamil, I, 'nam,' we;

are

But

'

the

obliquecases

and
Tamil, Canarese,Malayalam,

in

vowels

shortened

are

before

suffixed inflexional particles.Thus, in Canarese,to

me

'ni,'
Tulu, in

the
receiving
is not

'

uka-

but 'nin-a-ge.'
to thee is not
The
a-ge,'but 'nan-a-ge;'
nin-a-ge,'
Telugu, Gond, and Ku generallyretain the quantityof the rootvowel unaltered : e.g.,in Telugu we
find nl-ku,'to thee,as well as
the quantityis altered
ni,'thou; but in the accusative, nin-u,'thee,
in the same
ing
The only other instance of a similar shortenmanner.
of the root-vowel of a Dravidian word is that which is supplied
by the numerals. The radical portionof the Tamil numeral 'mundru,'
is 'mu;' but this becomes 'mu,' when used as an adjectival
three,
and
in
munnuBU,' three hvmd/fed. In
as
muppattu/ thirty,
prefix,
it is shortened
when
like manper
aR-u,' six,is used adjectivally,
'eruto 'aR-u;'and 'er-u,'seven, to 'eru;'e.g., aRubadu,'sixty,
is identical
or
pronoun
badu,'seventy. The obliquecase of a noun
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

takes when
it is
pronoun
and hence both these classes of instances fall under
used adjectivally;

with

the

that

same

The

form

which

the

same

noun

or

rule.

placein the personalpronouns

and
stantive
subnouns
and numerals alone. All other pronominals
adhere to the generalrule of the Dravidian languagesof
of
shortening

the
preserving

the root-vowel

takes

root-vowels unaltered.

of
enough,this exceptionfrom the generalrigidity
Singularly
In
as well as a Dravidian one.
exception,
root- vowels is a Scythian

the
the

168

ROOTS.

whilst the nominative

of the Behistun tablets,

Scythianversion

of the second

pronoun

the

is

person

is

case
possessive

'

'

ui,'thou,as

in the

Dravidian languages,

the accusative

m,' thy,and

of the

'

nin,'thee,

obliquecases ; e.g.,Telugu
and
thee.
and Tulu, nin-u,'
ninnei,'
nifn,'
thi/,
thee,
High Tamil
(2.)Another class of exceptions
appears in those few instances in
which the Tamil shortens the quantity
of the long vowel of the root
in the preterite.This shorteningis occasionally
observed in ,the
Canarese,but the best illustrationsare those which are furnished by
the Tamil: e.g., 'vegu,'
to burn,has for its preterite
properly've,'
ticiple,
parbut 'vendu/ 'nogu,'
not 'vegundn' or
to he in pain,
'vendu,'
not
properly'no,'has in the preterite,
'n6gundu'or 'n6ndu,'but
'nondu ;'and 'kan,'
but 'kandu.'
to see, not 'kandn,'
above evidently
The two classes of exceptionsmentioned
accord,
far
with
of
the Indo-Europeanlanguages,
as
as they go,
a
prevalentusage
inasmuch
of the interior
as
they are examplesof the shortening
vowels of the root on receiving
the addition of the inflexional particles,
to make
compensationfor the additional weight which is thus
imposed on the root-vowel.
the Dravidian

in quantity
to
corresponding
'

'

'

third class consists of instances

(3.)A

vowel is lengthenedwhen

in which

the

of
quantity

verbal root is formed,directly

and

without

into a noun.
The alteration which the root
addition,
vowel
sustains is priorto any inflexional additions beingmade.
If
is
it into a
any formative particle added to a verbal root to convert
the quantity of the root-vowel
remains
noun,
unchanged. The
of the root-vowel
I refer takes place only in
to which
lengthening
(some of)those cases in which the verbal base itselfis used as a noun.
extraneous

any

to destroy
Thus, the verb 'ked-u,'
or

verbal

in which
destruction,

verbal base may

which

'ked-u

case

event

the root-vowel

also be used
'

destroyed,
may become a
formative 'di,'e.g., 'kedndi,

addition of the

the

by

noun

to become

is

without

remains

addition

lengthenedinto

'

as

unaltered ; but the

a

verbal

noun,

iu

kid-u.'

The

Tamil examples of the lengthening

of each of the
following
five primaryvowels will suffice to illustratethis usage :
From
from 'min,'
pad-u,'to sufer,is formed
a suffering;
pad-u,'
'

'

to burn, 'sud-n,'
shine,'min,' a star; from 'lud-u,'
heat; from
to
and
from 'kol,'to
'peR-u,' obtain, 'piR-n,'a benefit
obtained;
receive,k61,'reception.
to

'

am

not

aware

of the existence of

but
Scythianlanguages,
'

similar rule in any of the

to the Sanscrit {e.g.,
comp.

it is well known

vach,'to ^eak, with v"oh,'a word;

'

I can
death).Nevertheless,

'

'

mar

think
scarcely

to die,
with 'mara,'
('mri'),
it likely
that it isfrom the

III.

SECTION

THE

NOUN.

the nature
In this section it will be my endeavour to investigate
its
and aflFectionsof the Dravidian noun, with the view of ascertaining

expressingthe relations of gender and number, and the

teristics
which
that method
on
principles
proceeds,
togetherwith the characand origin
for expressing
of its case-system,
or system of means
the relationship
of nouns
with other parts of speech. It will be shown
method

at

of

the close of the

formed

from

verbal

will then also be

section
roots

The

'

on

; and

Verb,' how

derivative

the various classes of

nouns

are

nouns
participial

investigated.
I." Gender

Part

].

and

Number.

Gender.

Indo-Europeanlaws of genderare compared with those

of tongues,it will appear that in this point,
of the Scythiangroup
as
in many
with the
others,the Dravidian languagesaccord more
closely
Scythianthan with the Indo-Europeanfamily.
In all the more
not only are
primitiveIndo-Europeanlanguages,
and
denote
rational
that
words
beings
livingcreatures regarded as
masculine or feminine,accordingto the sex of the objects
referred to,
and even
abstract ideas have similar sexual
but also inanimate objects
When

the

distinctions attributed

them;

to

destitute of gender,and
naturally
as

neuters, are

treated

objectsthey denote

by

were

so

which

the grammars

that

many

which

are

oughttherefore to be regarded
of those languages as if the

males and females,and

neuter, but with masculine

nouns

are

fitted not with

feminine

and with
case-terminations,
genders. This peculiarsystem is a proof
pronouns of corresponding
and poetical
character of the Indo-European
of the highlyimaginative

mind, by which

or

of
principles

resemblance

were

discerned

in

the

171

GENDEK.

midst of the greatestdifferences,

and

all

not
thingsthat exist were
only animated,but personified.A similar remark appliesto the
Semitic languages
in which the same
or a similar usage respecting
also,
gender prevailed.
In the
progress of the corruptionof the primitiveIndo-European
natural usage gainedground:
but more
a less imaginative
languages,
in a majorityof the modern
dialects of this
nevertheless,
colloquial
both in Europe and in India,the gender of nouns
is stillan
family,

important and
in

and a
difficultsection of the grammar,
of those
the way
of the idiomatic use

pediment
standingimlanguagesby

foreigners.
On

the

other

hand, in

the

Mongolian, Turkish, and

Finnish families of tongues the principal
families of the Scythian
law or usage respectingthe gender of nouns
a
universally
group
which is generically
differentfrom that of the Indo-European
prevails,
all things
and the Semitic idioms. In those families,
not only are
and lifedenoted by neuter
which are destitute of reason
nouns, but no
which denote human
nouns
nouns
beings,are
whatever, not even
regardedas in themselves masculine or feminine. All nouns, as such,
are
neuter, or rather are destitute of gender. In those languages
annexed
there is no mark
of gender inherent in,or inseparably
to, the
nominative
tive);
of any noun
(the crude root being generallythe nominaused as
of the obliquecases, or post-positions
and in none
The unimagiis the idea of genderat all involved.
case-terminations,
native
Scythiansreduced all things,whether rational or irrational,
and regardedthem all as
dead level,
animate or inanimate,to the same
they found it
impersonal. They prefixedto common
nouns, wherever
to 'male' or 'female,'
word denotingsex, equivalent
necessary, some
such nouns
in themselves
but theyinvariably
as
'he' or 'she;'
regarded
The
them with neuter pronouns.
theysupplied
neuters, and generally
to this rule in the Scythianlanguagesconsist in a few
only exceptions
which are so
words, such as God,' man,' woman,' husband,'wife,'
that of themselves,
and without the
highlyinstinct with personality
addition of any word denotingsex, they necessarily
fication
convey the signiManchu,

"

"

'

'

of masculine
When

our

or

'

'

feminine.

attention is turned

that whilsttheir rules

'

to the

Dravidian

languageswe

gender differgenerallyfrom
respecting

find

those of

identicalwith those of the

Indo-European
group, they are not quite
in which
however, that the particulars
probable,
Scythian. It seems
the Dravidian rules respecting
genderdifferfrom those of the Scythian
and evince a tendencyin the Indo-European
are
direction,
languages,
of
which
trace is perceptible
no
not the result of Sanscrit influences,
the

172

NOUN.

THE

departmentof Dravidian grammar, but have arisen from the

mental cultivation of the Dravidians themselves.
progressive
in this

Dravidian

nouns

denote

the technical terms

by

but which

of

Tamil marians
gramand
caste-less

which
classes,

divided into two

are

'

highcaste

'

'

by Telugu grammarians mahat,'majors

and
those
minors.
are
'a-mahat,'
'High-caste'nouns, or 'majors,'
the celestialand infernal deities and human
which denote
beings,'
all thingsthat are endowed with reason;
and in all the
or, briefly,
Dravidian dialects (with a peculiar
exceptionwhich is found only in
the Telugu and the Gond) nouns
of this class are
treated in the
masculines
feminines respectively,
and in the pluralas
or
as
singular
masculines
and
between
epicenes,that is, without distinguishing
but distinguishing
both from the neuter.
The other class of
feminines,
or
caste-less,'
minors,'includes everythingwhich is
nouns, called
nouns,

called

are

'

'

'

destitute of
of nouns,

'

whether animate

reason,

or

inanimate.

This classification

that of the Indo-Europeanand

as
imaginative
Semitic tongues,is decidedly
for the difference
more
philosophical;
between rational beingsand beings or thingswhich are destitute of
reason,

though not

is

and

momentous

more

the

exists between

for
isingparticle

differentone

so

New

that denote

nouns

for

The

sexes.

essential than

thingsthat

are

any
which
Persian,

animated

difference that
uses

beingsand

destitute of life,
is the

plural-

one

another

and

onlyUn-Dra-

classifiedin a manner
which
is in
are
languagein which nouns
Dravidian
any degreesimilar to the Dravidian system.* The peculiar
law of genderwhich
has now
been described would
appear to be a
result of grammaticalcultivation;
for the masculine,feminine,
and
epicenesuffixes which form the terminations of Dravidian 'high-caste'
are
properlyfragmentsof pronouns or demonstratives of the
nouns,
vidian

third person, as
indeed,be stated

also

are
as

of the neuter

It may,
Dravidian nouns
generalrule that all primitive
some

formatives.

destitute of

gender,and that every noun or pronoun in which the

idea of gender is formallyexpressed,
being a compound word, is
of later originthan the uncompounded primitives.The
necessarily
denoted
technical term by which such nouns
are
by the grammarians
divisiblewords,i.e.,
is pagu-padam,'
compounds. Hence the poetical
of the primitive
which
retain many
fond of
are
land-marks,
dialects,
are

'

sufiSxes
the ordinary
discarding
*

This is not

the

greaterimportance
our

bodies the

ailment,we

say

'/

am

ill;'whereas

selfor 'atmSl.'"when
'my body is ill.'

and treating
genderor rationality,

in which the
only particular
the Indo-European,
to reason
of personality.When
we
are

than

seat

of

Dravidion idiom
and the mind.

sufferingfrom

attributes
We make
any

bodily

the Drilvidians denote the mind

the conscious
they say /, and therefore say, more philosophically,
"

173

GENDER.

all nouns,
Tamil
more

word

far

abstract neuters.
Thus in poetical
as
possible,
'Dev-u,'God, a crude noun
destitute of gender,is reckoned
classicalthan 'Dev-an,'
the corresponding
masculine noun.
This
is a Sanscrit derivative,
but the same
tendencyto fall back
as

the old

upon

which
which

are

as

Scythianrule

primitiveDr^vidian

is destitute of

in the

appears

nouns

gender,is

case

e.g.,

'

of many

a
iRei,'
king, a

classical than

more

other words
word

the
'iRei-(v)-an,'

form,which possesses the masculine singular

termination.
In the modern
Tamil which is spoken by the educated classes,
the

commoner

words

which

denote

'sun'

derived from the Sanscrit

and

'moon'

surya'and

'

'

and
('suriy-an'

chandra,')
are

gender,in accordance with Sanscrit usage

the Brahmanical
religion
; but in the old
the
peasants,'njayiRu,'
vidian

words,

rivers,"c., are

are

and

sun,

All

neuters.

in like

and

the
'tinggal,'
true

sandir-an,'

of the masculine

with the

Tamil

'

of
principles

of the poets and

moon,

Dravidian

both pure
names

the
Dra-

of towns,

destitute of every mark of personality

few instances the Malayalam and the Canarese
manner

gender. In some
retain the primitivelaws
or

of

than the Tamil.

gender more
faithfully
Thus, in the Tamil word 'peiyan,'a boy, we find the masculine
an
singulartermination
;'whereas the Malayalam (withwhich agrees
the Canarese,)
the older word
uses
a word
a verbal
peital,'
(properly
in a thoroughly
noun) which is destitute of gender;to which it prefixes
male
words that signify
and
Scythianmanner
female,'
respectively
to form
a hoy,
compounds signifying
boy'and 'girl;'
e.g.,'an peital,'
a girl.
pen peital,'
The nature and origin
of the terminations wjiichare used to signify
will be enquiredinto under
gender in the various Dravidian dialects,
the head of
is
Number,' with the consideration of which this subject
ment
connected.
Under this head I restrict,
inseparably
myselfto a stateof the generalprinciples
gender,which characterize
respecting
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the Dravidian
A

languages.
of the Telugu, which
peculiarity

should here be mentioneil.

members
and

of the Dr"vidian

both combined

as

appears

also in the

G6nd,

those dialects agree with the other

masculines and feminines
familyin regarding
Whilst

in
constituting

the

plurala

epicene
respect,that they
and instead of
singular,
common

or

dialects in this

gender; theydifier from the other

destitute of a feminine
are
whollyor virtually
of the neuter.
the feminine singular
the singular
use
This rule includes in its operationpronouns
and verbs as well
well as
and appliesto goddessesand
as
substantives,
queens,

to

Telngupossesses, it is true,a

few forms which

but they are

to the feminine singular,
appropriate

rarelyused,and

ordinarywomen.
are

as

The

174

NOUN.

THE

that

only in

'it,'are

certain

rare

combinations

and

conjunctures.He'

and

'

which are
only pronouns of the third person singular,
made
of by fourteen millions of the Telugu people;
use
ordinarily
and
the colloquial
dialect does not
even
pronoun,
possess any
is capableof being applied
equivalentto our pronoun
she,'which
to women
of the lower as well as of the higher classes. Ordinarily
is spoken of in Telugu as a chattel or a thing,
or as
we
every woman
accustomed
children {e.g.,it did so and
to speak of very young
are
destitute of
either that women
are
so'),
apparentlyin the supposition
the

'

'

reason,

that their reason, like that of

or

lies dormant.
infants,

Whilst

as
a chattel
by Telugu grammar
taken collieotively
or
as
a
are
child,women
regardedwith as much
respectas by the other Dravidian dialects. In the pluraltBeyare
honoured with the same
'rational'suflSxesand pronouns
or
'high-caste'
that are applied
and gods.
to men
The Canarese and MalayMam agree in this pointwith the Tamil,
and regardwomen,
not in the pluralonly,but also in the singular,
as
in those languages
to the class of 'rationals:' accordingly
pertaining
there is a feminine singular
to
ponds
she,'which correspronoun equivalent
of its formation
in the principle
he.' With
to the masculine
those languagesagrees the Ku, whichi though the near
neighbourof
the Telugu and the G6nd, pursues in this respecta politer
than
course

each

taken

woman

singlyis

treated

'

'

either.
In the idioms

of the Tudas

but

masculine.

the

employment in
both

'

Kotas, the

of the
pronoun
feminine,those dialects appear

Nilgherryhills,there
instead of the

and

is

no

This

of the
aborigines
feminine
singular;but
to

extraordinaryusage

the Old Hebrew

of the

same

rude

use

reminds

pronoun,

the

not

'

neuter

of

one

the

hu,'to signify

he' and 'she.'

2. Number.

onlytwo numbers, the singular

languagesrecognize
and the plural. The dual,properlyso called,is unknown, and there
of its use
at any previousperiod. Several
of the
is no trace extant
of the pronoun of the first
languagesof this familycontain two plurals
Dtavidian

The

includes the party addressed as well

and which' may therefore be considered'as
of the speaker,

person,

of which

one

dual,whilst
this

the

other excludes the party addressed;

is
peculiarity

examined

restricted to the

in that connexion.

Under

the head

of

the party

of
species
As, howevef,'

personalpronouns,
'

as
a

it will

Number,'

we

be

shall

enquireinto the Dravidian mode of forming the masculine,feminine,

and the epiceneand neuter plural.
and neuter singular,

NUMBER

MASCULINE

"

(l.)Masculine Singidar. It

has

"

formatives

by which

the

gender of

175

SINGULAR.

alreadybeen intimated
is

nouns

are
expressed,
occasionally

identical with the terminations of the demonstrative

a

very earlyperiodof the

of

gender were

addition of which
formatives
with

of

suflBxed

was
utility

pronouns,

all these suffixes are

instance of the masculine

The

use

to

the

Those

combined

or

extended
gradually

was

matives
for-

as

their

nouns

which

included the idea of

added

will be

illustratedby
sufficiently

gender,
of the
the gender-terminations
express that idea by suffixing
The manner
in
whereby they became appellativenouns.

learned to

which

formed.

were

pronouns

originally
appended

but their

perceived,and

or
particles
languages,
demonstrative
bases,by

the

to

not

were

suhstantiiie nouns;

From

pronouns.

historyof these

suflSxes demonstrative

gender

that the

the

singular.

masculine

on.'
singularsuffix of the Tamil is an,' an,'or
is that which appears in the demonstrative
'An,'the shorter formatiTe,
'avan'

pronoun
to

he; and by suffixing

('a-(v)-an'),
any

abstract

an

becomes

'

'

or

neuter

noun,

the

noun

of these formatives

be

to

ceases

'

and
abstract,

masculine-singular
appellative.Thus 'mupp-u,'
by the addition of 'an' becomes
mupp-an,' an elder,literally
ffl^'e,
and
from
Tamir'
ot
comes
age-he,
a
'Tamir-an,'
Tamilian,
age-man;
concrete

'

'

Tamil-man
.

These

and

words'
of

noun

"

similar

by

called

are

genericaUycompound
'

Tamil

grammarians. They
of quality
or
generallya noun

gender,which

appears

In the instances

also to have

which

have

the nominative

annexed

to

annexed

to

the

to which

noun

nouns

the

itself has the

or

obliquecase
the

case

meaning of

or

been

obviouslycompounded

relation

noun

sible
divi-

"

and

suffix of

originally.

adduced, the suffix of

genderis

it is
cases
rectus; but in many
inflexional base, viz.,to that form of
casiis

signsare
the

been

are

or

and
suffixed,

genitive.When

which

when

used

by

the

or oblique
inflexion,
in compounds of this
the nominative
or
genitival
possessive
signification:
e.g.

employed instead of
a
nature, it generally
conveys
a mountaineer, literally
a man
of the
madeiyman'('malei-(y)-m-an'),
a m^an
mmintain; 'pattinaiian'
'),a cifiscn,
liteiaMj
('pattin'-a"'-an
of
is merely added
the city. Sometimes, however, the genitival in
diflferencein meaning between 'villan,'
euphonically;
e.g., there is no

case,

is

'

'

which
SLn6.'villiwan' ('vil^-^"^-an'),
hoviman,'

'

is considered

more

elegantform.
in some
are
description
grammars called 'adjectives;'
but they are never
regardedas such by any native grammarians: they
of qualifying
be simplyprefixedfor the purpose
other words ;
cannot

Words

of this

176

NOUN.

THE

and

it is evident from their construction

tive
they are merelyappella-

that

nouns.

A
of

subdivision of

gender are

consists
appellatives

annexed

to

Verbs;'but

'

on

whatever

be

the nature

of

is certainly
not
compound), 'kodiya-n,'

it can

be used

ana,'that

must
we
adjectivally

is ; e.g.

'

the suffixes

The Verb,'under the head of

of the

'

in which

adjectivalforms; e.g., 'kodiya-n,'a criiel

and they will
this class as participial
nouns,

regardwords of
be investigated
in the section
man.

of words

append

that
kodiyan-ana,'

is

'kodiya'(thefirst part
adjective;for before
it the relative participle
an

to

cruel man,

lative
'Appel-

and

the

as

pound
com-

in English,
neither is
adjective
in Tamil:
it is properlyan
noun.
appellative
kodiyan'an adjective
It
may
may be said that the neuter pluralof this word, viz., kodiya,'
but
be prefixed
substantive
cruel
to any
:
kodiya,'
things,
adjectivally
the neuter
pluralof kodiyan,'is not identical with the adjective
cruel man,

cannot

be

called

an

'

'

'

'

'

similar in appearance.

distinctfrom it,though so
cruel,but totally
kodiya,'
The

whereas

'a' of the

the

'

former

word

is the

a' of the latter is that of the

will be
as
participle,
and
'Adjectival
Formatives')

relative

shown

at

the

in the section

neuter

suffix of

possessive

case

plurality;
and

of the

close of this section

on

'

(see

Verbs.'

is said by Beschi to be
nouns
speciesof Tamil appellative
formed by annexing suffixes of gender to verbal roots, e.g., oduvan/
Those
a reader,from
odu,'to read ; but this,I believe,is an error.
is literally
words are to be regardedas participial
nouns, and '6duvan,'
Another

'

'

he who

will

In the

he
read,i.e.,

who

is accustomed

to read.

is the participial
noun
'6dinan,'

of the

preterite
he who read or is accustomed to read: '6dugindravan,'
tense, and means
he who reads,belongs to
the corresponding
present participial
noun,
the same
class ; and these forms are not to be confounded with appellative
nouns
properlyso called. On the other hand, such words as
kappan' is not
kippan,' a protector,are ti'ue appellatives
; but
he
formed from the future tense of. the verb (though'kappan' means
derivative noun, of which
but from
will protect),
a
kappu,'protection,
the final and formative 'ppu'is from the same
originas the corresponding
final of muppu,' old age.
See the concludingpart of the section on
same

manner

'

'

'

'

'

The

Verb.'

The

suffixes of

gender which

form

the terminal

portionof appellative

and the same

vary somewhat in form; but they are one
and their variations are merelyeuphonic. It is the vowel
origin,

in

nouns

that

varies,never

When

neuter

only

the consonant.
noun

ends

with

vowel

which

is essential to

it,

178
the

THE

termination

same

form which
That

ad-u

'

is more

the

'

'

or

into.

The

were
u^-u,'

and

'

and

an,'and the Telugu

will, I think,
same,

'

the

of both

connections

simpleand

demonstrative

base, to

Dravidiau

point. It
trulyprimitivemanner
this

other upon

any

inquired

are

of the

barbarous

in

pronouns

prefixing a,'the

sufEx

of the most

one

lightthan

more

vadu.'

'

masculine

derivation

its demonstrative

'

one
originally

Ku, though

throws
dialects,

than

rarelyused

the

deraonstralivBiayana,'he, a

survives in the

Tamil-Oanarese

when

appear

NOUN.

common

forms

by
nify
sig-

which

nouns,

and
a man,
al-u,'a
anj-u,'
that
and 'aanj-n'(compare Tam., a(v)an'),
literally man, is
woman;
to
aalu (compare Tam.
used to signify
he,and
a(v)al')that woman,
is certainly
-identical with the
sAe. The Ku
a
anj-u,'
signify
man,
and

man

Those

woman.

nouns

'

'

are

'

'

'

'

'

Tamil
Can.

male:

'an,'a

noun

'anma,'

the Tamil

and

we

the

see

husband, a ruler,and

abstract

'

noun

'

root

same

anmu,'

to

an-mei,'strength).In

in the Ancient

(compare

he brave

the

use

to which

this

but see the

cannot
we
"-anj-u,'
primitiveroot is put in the Ku word
originof 'an,'the suffix of the masculine singularin most of the
tion
Dravidian
dialects. The final n,' and probablythe entife terminaafi-ju,'
'nju,'of the Ku word
being merely euphonic,the root
'

'

'

appears

be

to

'

Sn

;'and

as

'

'

and

'

'

have

been

shown

be

to

'

be regardedas only another form of ',an.'

must
an
interchangeable,
n,'again,is not only often euphonisedby suffixingdu (e.g.,pen,'
and poeticallypend-u'),
but it is also
Tam., a female,colloquially
sometimes
directlychanged into d,'of which we have an instance
in the classical Tamil
a
hen, a word which is derived by
ped-ei,'
this process from, and is identical with, pen,'a female. Hence, the
be derived from an older form
Telugu suffix ad-u,'might naturally
in 'an,'if it should appear that that form existed;and that it did
instead
exist,appears from the vulgar use to the present day of n
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

of
'

'

'

in

vani

'),and
'

from

du'

connection

Telugu

the
the

obliquecases
'

half

speechof
pedantic; e.g.,

the

is thus

{e.g.,vanni,'him,
'

anuswara,'or

itself in the

of

the

of

some

the
'

obscure

vulgarand

instead

nasal, which

established between

ad-u,'through the middle

the

cedes
pre-

in the written

vawdu,' for 'vadu,'Ae.

Tamil-C^narese

positions
com-

A
'

close
'

an

of

and

point an.'
in the way of the perfectidentificationof the
The onlydifficulty
and
formative 'an' with the Ku, 'anj-u,'
with the Tamil
a
man,
an,'a male, lies in the length of the vowel of the latter words.
'

'

'

Here

vowel

again the
was

dialect in

Ku

comes

to

our

assistance;for

we

find that the

instances in the very

euphonicallyshortened in some
which the originof the word itself was
discovered. In Kn

NUMBER

the 'a' of
and

in the

THE

"

FEMININE

179

SINGULAR.

'Snj-u'is long,both when it is used as an isolated

demonstratives,
slie;but
he, and 'aal-u,'
'aanj-u,'

the demonstrative
is appended to, and combined
pronoun
relative participle
of the verb, so as to form with it a
'

word

when

with, the

participial

of afij-uis shortened into a,'and in this shortened

noun, the a
form the connection of the Ku formative with the Tamil-Canarese is
'

'

'

'

to be

he
complete. Compare the Ku participial
noun
gitanj-u,'
who did,with the corresponding
Canarese
Ku,
geyidan-u; gitar-u,'
they who did, with geyidar-u,'
Can., and also gital-u,'
Ku, she who
Can.
did,with geyidal-u,'
seen

'

'

'

'

'

'

(2.)Feminine Singular. Though the Telugu and the Gond generally

the neuter singularto supply the place of the feminine
use
the other ,Dravidian dialects possess and constantlyuse
a
singular,
feminine singular
of
the
that
formative which is quite distinctfrom
neuter.
This formative is 'al,'
in
in Tamil
and Malayalam,'al-u,'
Canarese ; and by suffixing
the sign of gender to the demonstrative
'aval' (a-(v)-ar),
demonstrative pronoun
base,the feminine singular
which perfectly
to 'avan' (gr-(v)-an'),
she,is formed
a word
corresponds
"

"

he.
A

class of feminine

numerous

the
by suffixing
crude

state;

same

is formed

nouns
appellative
singular

particleto

abstract

or

neuter

in their

nouns

with 'mag-an,'
Tain.,a daughter,
'mag-aJ,'

e.g., compare

of the vowel) ill-al,'

a
(with an euphonic lengthening
with 'ill-an,'
husband.
a
a wife,
house-vjife,
few connexions,uses a feminine singular
The Telugu,in some
formative
o

and

son;

'

which

Canarese.

largelythan

appears

That

be

to

formative is

identical with
'

Telugu ; and

by the

that

of

al-u,'which is used by

the

Tarail-

the Ku

more

its identity
with the Tamil-Canarese

al,'will be found to furnish us with a clue to the originand literal

in Ku, means
a
so
al-u,'
man,
meaning of the latter. As afij-u,'
that
The
word
means
a woman
:
same
aaj-u,'
she,is literally woman.
and vulgarTelugu also ; and
in poetical
means
a woman,
a wife,
al-u,'
which is apparently
allied to it, ar,'a
in G6nd
there is a word
woman's femalefriend.
a
Even in Sans, we meet with
woman.
ali,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

It is evident that
'

'

anj-u

into

'

'

would
al-u,'

an,' and the

be shortened

constant

occurrence

into
of

'

al,'as

easilyas

cerebral

'

1 ' in

Canarese,where the Telugu has the medial '1,'fully

semi-vowel
into the other. The
for the change of the one
accounts
unchanged form of this suffix appears in Telugu in such words as
a
compared with 'manama-du,' a
manama-(r)-alu,'
granddaughter,
grand-son. The abbreviation of the vowel of the feminine suffix,
Tamil

and

'

180

THE

which

ia characteristic of the

Telugualso,in
in

in-lawf

which

words

the

the older and more

al-u,'
of beingused by itself as

Probablythe

Tel.

al-u,'
throughthe
of which

'al'

regularform
a

al-u,'is evidentical

'

and
'al-u,'
which
suffix,

of this

is

capable

noun.

of
interchange

common

have

we

also with

or

ad-u,'adj.,female,is identical

very

daugpier-

'kodal-u,a

'

'

in

in

and

Tam., to use,
kei-(y)-alu,'
dialect to
colloquial
kei-(y)-adu.'*

in the

'

'

originwith
1

tration
illus-

;'an

which

is

verted
con-

'

The feminine

The

'

suffix

feminine

the Tamil-Canarese

'

Canarese

in
Canarese,is exemplified

and

Tamil

and
the words 'maradal-u,'
a niece,

identical both with

'

NOUN.

singularsuffix,al
'

in the terminations

Telugu,on

instead of the
demonstrative

'

of verbs

hand, which
feminine singular,
uses
the

termination

in Tamil

al-u,'appears

well

as

the other

as

'

or

as

in those of pronouns.
demonstrative

the neuter

uses

and

fragment of the same

feminine
singularof its-

the final

of

the

verb.
It may
and

'1'

Tamil

be remarked
used

are

e.g., in

There

may

consists in

masculine

Awar,

is another

'

of the Caucasian

some

and

dialects,n
'

terminals,exactlyas

feminine

'

in

emew,' is father, eve?,'is wather.

mode

'

of

forming the

is much

which

nouns,

which

as

that in

used

feminine

in all the

lative
singularof appel-

Dravidian

and
dialects,

be

characteristic of the Telugu. It

regardedas especially
the Telugu neuter
its termination,
suffixing
singulardemonstrative,
or

modification

of

it,to

any

abstract

or

neuter

noun.

The

singulardemonstrative beingused by the Telugu instead of the

this neuter
suffix has naturally
feminine singular
in Telugu
(it for she),
suppliedthe placeof a feminine suffix ; and though in the other dialects
the feminine pronouns are formed by means
of feminine suffixes,
not by
those of the neuter, yet the less respectful
Telugu usage has crept into
the departmentof their appellative
nouns.
neuter

In
appear

Tamil, this
on

It ia

the Tamil

neuter-feminine

suffix is 'atti'

a woman
comparing vellal-atti,'

ofthe

'

more

doubtful

common

noun

whether

the

'tl,'a

person;

or

'

tti.' This will

cultivator caste,with

a woman,
G6nd-Telugu, Jll-u,'
'

and

yet the existence

of

is allied to

alliance

some

'

male
properly a subjectperson, a servant
or
probable.
tl,'means
this seems
to rule,and
a
female, a slave. It is derived from '9,1' (Tel.'61-u'),
intended to signifya Hindu
natural enough origin for a word
The
woman.
is pen,'the literal signification
a woman
ordinary Tamil word which signifies
from the verbal root
to
of which is desire,
pen,' desire;but the word is generally
bride.
restricted to mean
a
a
Hence, taking into consideration
woman,
young
in India,the word
who is subjectto rule,
the subjectpositionof women
one
ill,'
is
is
natural
whose
for a word signify-,
sole
to
derivation
a
as
duty
obey,
a
person
and
a
as
to
into general
more
come
female,
'pen;'
a
perhaps
likely
ing woman,
singular.
as a suffix of the feminine
use
seems

"

'

'

'

NUMBER

vellal-an,'
a man

"

'

THE

"

the

of

oru-(v)-aii,'
one
man,

unws

used in

vulgarTamil
'

noun

as

With

and

una,'with

'

woman,

with
a zcasAej-toomaw,
vaimS.-tti,'

'

tt/ a portionof
instead

man,

this

one
oru-tti,'

'

this

component element

oruttan/one

oruvan.'

'

'

181

SINGULAR.

caste ;

same

vanna-n,'a washerman.

'

NEUTER

is erroneously
suffix,

tive
appella-

in the masculine

of the

classical and

solitaryexception its

is

use

correct

exclusively

feminine.
The

suffix is

same

to
(corresponding

The

Telugu uses
of the

woman
a

'

'

the

Komti

ti

'

iu

a queen
Canarese,e.g., arasiti,'
Tamil
rasatti'), okkalati,-'
a farmer'swife.'
a
or
or
komati-di,'
di,'e.g., k6mati-(y)-adi
'

'

'

'

adi

iti'or

'

'

'

'

caste;

'

Pariar

mala-di,'a

'

'chinna-di,'

woman;

girl.
It

evident,not only that all these suffixes are identical,

but that the Telugu form of the demonstrative
viz.
neuter
singular,
adi,'it,which is used systematically
she,is
by the Telugu to signify
the root from whence
they have all proceeded.
Another
which
is occafeminine singularsuffix of appellatives
sionally
used in the Dravidian
languages,has been derived from the
to

seems

me

'

of the

imitation
crude
from

neuter

or

'

Dravidian

pure
'

only in quantitythat this

it is

much

so

in the addition of 'i' to

used

it is

cases

by

the Sanscrit

only in

manei,'

and
'

be confounded
of

formation

with
nouns

the section

on

The

differs

feminine
Sanscrit

to be

come

also the Gond

compare

feminine suffix is not

to

suffix of agency, which is much used in the

and 'which is used by all
of agency
and operation,

'i,'a

See
gendersindiscriminately.
'

with

the

'

from
head :
a
a
talei,'
lord),
talei-(v)-an,'
a
a hoy, with
'perdgi,'
girl. This
'perdgal,'
'

'

appended
Tam., a house-wife,'
e.g., 'manei-(v)-i,'
Tam., a lady (compare
talei-(v)-i,'

nouns;

house ;

'

as

connexion

that this suffix is used ; but it has also

derivatives

from

is

majorityof

suffix. In the

to some

; and

noun

long I,'which

the

It consists

Sanscrit.

'

Verbal

at
Derivatives,'

the close of

Verb.'

Singular. There is but little which is worthy of

Dravidian nouns.
in the singularforms of neuter
remark
Every
of
destitute
it
is
and
or
Dravidian noun
gender,
naturallyneuter,
in virtue of the addition of a
feminine solely
masculine
becomes
or
(3.)Neuter

masculine

'

am

pure

feminine

or

adoptedby

"

suffix,

liiative. The

however,

as

form

the Dravidians,the neuter

retained ; and
') is generally
Dravidian originwhich end

Dravidian

there

are

of those

also

some

'am,' or take

in

termination

signof the neuter, or

Sanscrit^nouns

abstract

When

'am'
neuter

is not

(endingin

nouns

neuter

'am'
to

are

as

be

nouns

of

their for-

regarded,

suffix,
though such is

an-

182

THE

its character
doubtedly
class of

Such

formatives

not
itself,

noun

much

at the
Derivatives,'

All animated

numerous

Dravidian

the

by

vative
deri-

crude verbal roots become

regardedas forminga part

to be

are

See

inflexional additions.

of the

close of the section

beings that

is made

use

of

merely one

It is

the addition of which

by

nouns.

of the

in Sanscrit,

of which
formatives,

and
dialect,

NOUN.

on

Verbal

Verb.'

The

'

'

of

placedby
and the
grammarians
class,
that denote such animals,
nouns
and in the plural,
both in the singular
are
of
uniformly
regardedas neuter or destitute of gender,irrespective
Drividian

in

the animal's

destitute

are

reason

are

neuter
the 'caste-less,'
or

sex.

If it

the sex of any animal

happens to be necessary to distinguish
that isincluded in this class,
a
or
separate word, signifyingmale
'

'

'

female,'cock

'

'

the pronoun

'

or

with

hen,'is prefixed. Even

which the

'

caste-less
'

animal's

sex, the

itself

noun

class.

neuter

or

however,

stands in agreement is neuter, and

noun

the specification
of the
notwithstanding

remains in the

in such cases,

For this
reason, suffixes

singularor plural,were
The only neuter
nouns.
which is nsed in the
the

feminine

neuter

manner

that

adi,'

'

which

The

being

'a

which

and

nouns.
appellative
'adu,'that, idu,'this; in Telugu

Malayalam ata,'

'

'

'i

'

is found

suffix
a
evidently

('a'remote,
to

'

ita

'

;'in
in

Gond

'

Dravidian

the

'

id.'

instances

some

in

ad,'
verbs

Telugu

as

Dravidian

its termination

to those

the

signof
sign of the

as

the

demonstratives

proximate),that part

be annexed

of number

adu,'and

'

or

'

or
demonstrative,
only,is used in the conjugationof
the neuter
singularof each tense,and
feminine singular
also. The bases of
'

'

an

and

-pronouns

neuter

same

'

termination of the

the

constitutes

is in Tamil-Canarese

idi ;'in

the masculine

as

singularof demonstrative

This pronoun
'

same

al,'is

'

expressiveof the neuter gender,whether

not much
requiredby Dravidian substantive
singularsuffix of the Dravidian languages,

of each pronoun

demonstrative

vowels is

gender ; and as the final vowels of

ad-u,' ad-i,'at-a,'id-u,' id-i,'it-a,'
are
merely euphonic,and
have been added onlyfor the
it is
purpose of helpingthe enunciation,
evident that 'd' or 't' alone constitutes the signof the neuter
gular.
sinThis view is confirmed by the circumstance that
d
or
t
never
in
the
of
but
neuter plural this demonstrative, is replaced
appears
by ei,' u,' i,'or short a,'with a precedingeuphonic v or n ;'
'adu'
('a-d-u'),
Tam., that,with 'ava' ('a-(v)-a'),
e.g., compare
'

'

'

'

and

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Malayalam,those.
a

signof

the neuter

nouns
Appellative

'

'

It will be shown

afterwards that

'

'

'

'

this final

'

'

is

plural.
which

form

their

masc.

singularin

Tamil in

NUMBER

PLUEALISATION.

"

183

'

an,'and their feminine sing,in 'al/form their neuter sing,

ing
by annexdu,' with such euphonic changes as the previousconsonant
happens to require;
a good thing;'al-du,'
e.g., 'nalla-du,'
euphonically
audru,' a thing that is not; periyardu or
peri-du,'
great,a great
'

'

'

'

This neuter

'

suffix d,'is largely

used
singular

in all the dialects

'

in the formation

of verbal nouns,

Tam., the
p6giEa-du,'
'p6va-du,'the being about

e.g.,

'

act

of

the having gone,

going, 'p6na-du,'
to
go.
This form has been represented
tive
infinias
an
by some, but erroneously,
verbal or participial
: it is a concrete
of the neuter gender,
noun
which

has

come
gradually

to he used

The affinitiesof the

as

an

abstract.

clusively
singularsuffix in 'd' or 't,'are. exand they are
in the Indofound especially
Indo-European,
European pronouns and pronorainals.We may observe this suffix in
the Sanscrit 'tad' or 'tat,'
weakened
a
that; in 'adas,'
that;in 'tyad,'
of
form
find it also in the Latin
adat,'that; in etad,'this. We
'illud,'
'id,'"c. (compare the Latin 'id,'with the Tamil 'i-du,'
this);and in our Englishdemonstrative neuter 'it' (properly
'hit'),
of
the neuter
he,"as also in what,'the neuter of who.' Compare
'

neuter

'

'

also the Vedic

neuter,'which

'

'it,'an

'

indeclinable pronoun,

combines

with

described

the

as

'

suffix

'

petrified

negativeparticlena
in Telugu the
manner
as
if not, apparentlyin the same
there is not, is compounded of the negative'la
neuter
'ledu,'
'

'

to form

'

net,'

aoristic
'

and

the

du.'

pointto be allied
rowed
it would
be unsafe to suppose that they borto the Sanscrit family,
this neuter singularsuffix from the Sanscrit. The analogy of
the Dravidian neuter pluralin a,'which though Indo-European,is
strative
foreignto the Sanscrit,and that of the remote and proximatedemonpean
and
vowels
a
i,'which though known to the Indo-Euroand distinctively
by the
family,are used more
systematically
Dravidian languagesthan by any other class of tongues, would lead
inherited by the Dravidian
to the supposition
that these particles
were
Pre-Sanscrit
with the Sanscrit,from a primitive,
family,in common
Though

the Dravidian

languagesappear

in this

'

'

'

'

source.

the

primitive
from the
is carefully
distinguished
Indo-Europeantongues,the plural
of quantitywhich
of a few nouns
singular
; and with the exception
The

have
of

Principles

of

Pluralisation.

"

In

the 'number'
singularbut a pluralsignification,
is always clearly
denoted by their inflexional terminations.
like our
modern
whose number is indefinite,
English sheep,'

the form of the

nouns

Nouns

Plural

'

184

THE

are

unknown

the

Scythiangroup

left

to the older dialects of this family. In the

indefinite,
ao

"whether

NOUN.

is

and number
looser principle
prevails,

that it is the

connexion

languagesof

alone which

generally

determines

restrictsthe use
singularor plural. The Manchu
of its pluralising
to words wliich denote animated beings: all
particle
other words are left destitute of signsof number.
Even the Tartar,
Oriental Turkish, ordinarily
the pronouns
or
alone,and
pluralises
a

is

noun

leaves the number

the number

of

of other

In the Brahui

indeterminate.

nouns

also,

it is
generallyleft undefined; and when
desired to attach to any noun
the idea of plurality,
a word
signifying
several
is
it.
or,
prefixedto
Notwithstandingthis rule,
many
of an
terminate
indeBrahui verbs are regularly
pluralised
; and the number
'

'

'

'

noun

with

which

With
difier

is

nouns

often be ascertained from the number

may

it agrees.

of pluralisation,
the
respectto principles

from
considerably

whole

stock.

of the verb

the

Indo-Europeanfamily,and

exactness
surprising

with

number

The

with

of Dravidian

indefinite ; and
ordinarily

Dr4vidian

tongues

accord

on

the

languagesof the Scythian

of neuter
especially
nouns, is

the

nouns,

depends upon the connexion whether any

is to be regardedas singularor as plural. It is true that when
noun
'rational'
or
more
'persons'than one are referred to,the 'bigh-caste'
that are
used are almost invariably
plural; and that even
pronouns
themselves are sometimes pluralised,
in polished
neuter
nouns
especially
: but the
poets and the peasants, the most faithful
prose compositions
the neuter, and
guardiansof antiqueforms of speech,rarelypluralise
in an indefinite singular-plural
fond of using the singular
noun
are
of number, except in so
far as it is
specification
sense, without
This rule is adhered
with
to
expressedby the context.
especial
in this,as in many
other particulars,
strictness by the Tamil, which
the primitive
condition of the Dravidian languages.
exhibits most faithfully
Thus

accordingto

in

it

Tamil,

the connexion

'

madu,'
; and

the

ox,

even

idea of

means

when

either

an

numeral

ox

is

idiomatic
plurality,

or

oxen,

prefixed
speakers

necessarily
conveys
Hence
singularor indefinite form of the noun.
/oi/rox isfeed'
they will rather say nalu madu meygiRadu,'literally
nalu madugal meygindrana,'
which
four oxen are feeding,'
ing,than
would sound olamsy and pedantic.
is pluralised
Even when
a neuter
noun
by the addition of a pluralising
the verb is rarelypluralised
to correspond
particle,
; but the
form of verb is stillused for the plural, the number of the
singular
indeterminate.
This is invariably
the
neuter singular
beingnaturally
which

preferto retain the

'

'

"

in
practice

the

speechof

the lower classes ; and

the

colloquial
style

186

THE

plural,and

that not

only,but

NOUN.

guages
only, or in the Dravidian lanall the languages of the Scythian

in the Tamil

also in

almost

group
in which the Indo-Europeanlanguages
importantparticular
differfrom the Scythianis,
that in the former the pluralhas a different
set of case-terminations
from the singular,
by the use of which the idea
of plurality
but is conjoinedwith that of
is not separately
expressed,
set
the same
case-relation ; whilst in the latter familythe pluraluses
is expressed
of case-terminations
and plurality
the singular,
by a
as
is inserted between
to all the cases, which
common
signof plurality
In
and the case-terminations.
the singular
crude form of the noun
or
each inflexion includes the twofold idea
the Indo-Europeanlanguages,
of number
Thus there is a 'genitivesingular'and a
and of case.
each of which is a complex idea; but there is uo
'genitiveplural,'
of number
inflexion which can be called
irrespective
genitive,'
; and
in many
of the genitive
instances (this
beingone) there is no apparent
of the singular
and that which
connexion
between
the case-termination
is used in,and which constitutes,
the plural.
In those few cases
in which
the sign of number
and the sign of
and to have coalesced into
to have been
case
seem
distinct,
originally
to have
seems
precededthat of number : e.g., the
one, the signof case
Gothic pluralaccusative 'ns,'
is derived from 'n
or
m,' the signof
and
s,' the sign of plurality.When
the
the accusative singular,
Scythianfamilyof languages is examined, it is found that each of
is fixed and unalterable. It expresses the idea of
their case-signs
in the pluralas in the sinand nothing more, and is the same
'case
gular,
with the exceptionof those few trivial changes which
are
also is not only distinct
by euphony. The sign of plurality
required
but is one and the same
in all the cases.
It is an unfrom the case-sign,
alterable
fixed quantity;and it is not post-fixed
a
to
post-position
much
less compounded with it,as in the Indo-European
the case-sign,
but is prefixed
to it. It is attached directly
to the root
languages,
and followed by the variable signsof case.
itself,
and rigidity
In the Dravidian
of
languagesa similar simplicity
of plurality.They are
structure characterizes the use of the particles
base of the noun
to the crude
added directly
to
(which is equivalent
and are
tlie same
in each of the oblique
the nominative
singular),
The signsof case
the same
are
cases
as in the nominative.
precisely
the only difference being that in the
in the pluralas in the singular,
in the pluralto the
itself,
they are suffixed to the crude noun
singular
after the addition of that particleto the crude
particle,
pluralising

Another

'

'

'

'

"

noun.

'

NUMBER

For

187

PLURALISATION.

is declined
example,in Hungarian liaz,'
a house,
'

In Tamil

The

'

manei,'a home, is

particular
signswhich

exponents of
the

"

case,

taken

are

in which

manner

they are

declined

used

are

from

as

the

used in

follows

as

foUo-ws

pluralityand as
of each language;but
resources
both languagesis precisely
the
to

express

same.

The

neuter

base,when
attached

the
to

and
directly

In the

case

of Dravidian

being identical

nouns

is attached
pluralising
particle

it not

as

to

with

neuter

the crude
noun,

it is

substitute for any suffix of the

without

any
of masculine

change:
and

different method

it is attached

feminine

nouns,

to

but
singular,
it pure and simple.

including
pronouns,

The singular
is necessary.
pluralisation
of the masculine and feminine is formed,as has alreadybeen pointedout,
denoting'a male,'or 'a female.'
by the addition to the root of particles
those nouns, it is necessary either to add a pluralising
Hence to pluralise
and feminine suffixes,
to substitute for
or
to the masculine
particle
those suffixes an epicenepluralising
particle.
In all the Dravidian
languages the primitiveplan of pluralising
that of substituting
for the masculine
these two classes of nouns
was
which
and feminine singularsuffixes a suffix of plurality
appliedin
somewhat

common

mode

to

which

retains its
has

of

men

and

neuter

women,

is still used

place only

from
disappeared

suffix.

of

without

in most

distinction of

of the

in connexion

with

which
substantives,

This is the

sex.

but
dialects;
pronouns

form their

and

in

Telugu

it

verbs, and

pluralby

means

188

THE

The

NOUN.

classificatiouof Dravidian
has

: it
alreadybeen explained
the masculine of rational
singular,

the

'

the

feminine.

high

caste

for

same

In

the

into

nouns

has

'

rationals

also been

'

nouns

is

'

and

shown

'

tionals,'
irra-

that in

from
distinguished

genders are combined; the

of plurality,
or
particle
pluralof rational beings,is the
both genders,
and includes men
and women,
gods and goddesses,

without

pluralboth those

distinction of

'Irrational'

sex.

of plurality
different
particle
from this and peculiar
Heuce the Dravidian languages
to themselves.
have one
form of the pluralwhich may be called epicene'
or
line-feminine,'
mascuand another which is ordinarily
restrictedto the neuter;
and by means
of these pluralising
are
particles,
gender and number
termination.
conjointly
expressedin the pluralby one and the same
The masculine-feminine plural
conjointly
expresses the idea of plurality
with that of rationality;
the neuter
jointly
conplural,the idea of plurality
with that of irrationality.
expression to
Arrangements of this kind for giving combined
genderand number, are very commonly observed in the Indo-European
and
feminines
the plan of classingmasculines
family; and even
without distinction of sex, is also very common.
togetherin the plural,
is masculine-feminine
Thus the Sanscrit pluralin
as
; so is the
Latin plural
in,'es,'and the Greek in e?.'
The chief difference with respectto this point between
vidian
the Drasystem and the Indo-Europeanone lies in this,that in the
Dravidian
is
particleof plurality
languages,the masculine-feminine
in the Indo-European
restrictedto rational beings; whereas
carefully
often complimented
are
languagesirrational and even inanimate objects
which
with inflexional forms and pluralising
particles
imply the
but even
that is,rational
of personality,
not onlyof vitality,
existence,
neuter

or

have

nouns

'

'

'

'

self-consciousness.
A

still closer

by the
of which
particles
exhibited

analogyto

New

other, ha,' to

which

are

Persian.

That

nouns

employedby

system

dialect possesses

is suflSxed to
one, 'an,'

'

the

the Dravidian

nouns

denotinginanimate
the Persians

are

is that which

is

pluralising
denotingliving
beings,*
objects.The particles
two

different from

those which

Persian pluralof animated

"n,' the New
beings,from the
Bopp derives
I am
inclined with Colonel Rawaccusative.
Sanscrit tn,'the masculine-plural
with the Chaldaic and Cuthite plural "tl,'
this particle
allied
linson to connect
the
New
Persian
and 'tn' {e.g.,
to'Sm'
'an^n,'Chald.,M;e);
being undoubtedly
tingedwith Chaldaco-Assyriauelements,through its connection with the Pehlvi.
with this suffix our
One
is tempted to connect
English pluralsuffix en/ in
of plurality.
brethren;a suffixwhich is regularlyused by the Dutch as a particle
which wag
Bopp, however, holds that this en,'is an ancient formative suffix,
used by the singularas well as the plural.
originally
'

'

'

'

'

NUMBEK

used

189

PLUEALISATION.

"

in the Dravidian

but the principle

is evidently
languages,
the Dravidians
and
analogous.The Persians specialise
life,
reason;
both of them class the sexes
in the plural.
togetherindiscriminately
In Telugu some
confusion has been introduced between the epicene
lu.' The pronouns, pluralise
signof pluralityar-u,'and the neuter
their masculines and
feminines regularlyby substitutingar-u
for
are

'

'

'

their masculine and feminine

and

whilst
suffixes,
singular

of the

'

the substantives

nouns
appellative
append lu/ which is properlythe
neuter signof plurality,
instead of the more
ar-u.' Thus the
correct
Telugu demonstrative pronoun
var-u,'
they(thepluralof vadu,'he},
to the Canarese
avar-u,'exhibits the regularepicene
corresponding
plural; whilst magadu,'a hu"band (inTamil
'),takes for its
magan
of this class add
pluralnot magaru,'but magalu;'and some
nouns
'lu' to the masculine
feminine singular
or
a sonsuffix;e.g., alludu,'
but 'allundlu/
in-law,makes in the pluralnot 'alluru,'
nor
even,'allulu,'
and
nasalised from 'allud'-Iu;
instead of 'yam,' they, vandlu,'is
used, a word which is formed on the same
colloquially
plan as the
low Madras
Tamil
they,instead of avargal or the higher
avan-gal,'
some

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

and

'

purer

'

'

avar.'

Perhaps the only case in which the 'irrational'pluralising

particle
is used in the higher dialect of the Tamil instead of the 'rational'
is that of 'makkal'
manHnd, people.The singular
epicene,
(mag-gal'),
of this word
being mag-an,'the pluralought by rule to have been
to notice that there is in the higher
'mag-ar;'and it is interesting
dialect a rarelyused plural,'magar,'in addition to the ordinary
'

'

makkal.'
The

Ku

which is properly
irrationalone,
an
pluralis 'nga,'
form their rational pluralby
and participial
nouns

rational

but the pronouns

the addition of

'

aru,'which

is identical with

the

'

'

aru

of the other

dialects.
Tamil has been influenced in some
degreeby
colloquial
the usage of the Telugu,and has adopted the practiceof addingthe
irrational pluralto the rational one, therebysystematically
forminga
instead of the old rational plural ar :' e.g.,
double plural ar-gal,'
avan,'he,and
aval,'she,properlytake avar,'they,as their plural;
but the pluralwhich
is preferred
by the modern Tamil,is the double
one
avar-gal.'So also the pluralof the second person is properly
nir;'but the pluralwhich is most commonly used as ning-gal'
(from
which is a double plural
jiim,'an older form of 'nir,'and 'gal'),
like avar-gal.'Two forms of the epicenepluralbeingthus placedat
of the Tamil people(theclassical 'nir' and 'avar,'and
the disposal
the colloquial
'),they have converted the
avar-gal
ningrgal and
The

modern

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

190

NOUN.

THE

into an honorific
former,in colloquial
usage and in prose compositions,
This
and the same
singular,
practicehas been adopted in Canarese.

thoughuniversally
prevalentnow,

usage,

poets. I have

almost

was

of the old

in any

observed in the poets,or

not

in my

to the

unknown

of the

inscriptions
epicenepluralas

possession,
any instance of the use
and titlesof
honorific singular,
an
except in connection with the names
the divinities,
and titles are appliedto the gods
whether those names
conferred honorifically
or
are
themselves,
upon kings. Even in those
follows the ordinaryrule,
cases, however,the corresponding
pronoun
and is
Telugu a double plural,
very rarelyhonorific. In modern
similar to that of the Tamil, has gaineda footing
(for
; e.g., varu-Iu
var-u
they,and miru-lu (for mir-u'),
'),
you.
The
masculine and
Telugu, as has been observed, pluralises
but
feminine substantive nouns
by the addition,not "f the rational,
irrational sign of plurality
similar inversion
of the neuter
: by a
or
the rational pluralto pluralise
sometimes
of idiom,the G6nd
uses
'

'

'

'

'

neuter

nouns;

e.g.,

'

and

nouns,

however,

usages,

are

Dravidian
distinctively
generaland more
is restricted to
the neuter pluralising
particle
to rational or personalnouns,
epiceneparticle
the

to
evidentlyexceptions
rule,accordingto which
neuter

Such

'kawalor,'crows.

the

masculines and feminines.

i.e.,
shall

We

1.

and

in all the

same

are

thempluralising
particles

This

"

and
dialects,

is virtually
one
particle

the different forms

which

it has

In Tamil
owing merely to euphonic peculiarities.

verbs,it

and

pronouns,
'

consider in detail the

Epicene PlurailsingParticle.

the

taken

now

ir :' in Canarese

and

Ku, 'aru;'in Gond,

assumes

Telugu, aru,'
'

'

The

'6r.'

forms

the

uru

Brahui

of
'

nouns,

'ar,''ar;''6r;''ir,'

are,'

'

also forms

eru

the

;* ri,' ru
'

'

second

:' in

person

or
pluralof its verb in ere,' ure,'"c., the third person in ur
'ar.' I regard 'ar' (notsimply'r')as probablythe primitive
shape
from which
the other forms have been
of this pluralising
particle,
It is true that
derived by euphonic mutation.
ni,'thou,forms its
pluralin modern Tamil by simplyadding 'r;'but this does not prove
the primitiveform of the epiceneplural,
alone was
for an
that
r
from which 'nir'
older form of nir,'you, is 'ni-(v)-ir'
or
'ni-(y)-ir,'
be supposed that in
has evidently
been derived. It might naturally
ir is used instead of
this case
ar,'through the attraction of the
precedinglong vowel, i ;'but we also find ir used as a pluralising
in 'magalir,'
High Tam., women, and also a longerform, 'ir,'
particle
:' consequentlyir has acquireda position
in
of its own
in magalir
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

NUMBER

the

language,as

THE

"

well

EPICENE

'ar.' All that

as

191

PLURAL,

we

conclude
certainly

can

respectingthe

originalshape of this particleis that the final 'r,'

is plainlyessential,
was
preceded by a vowel, and that that

which
vowel

probably

a.'

'

was

The

Canarese

rational

plural suffix

and
(for 'avar-u'),'illi,^
be

identical
the

many,

with

final

of which

'

ar

andar,'e.g.,

'

avandar-u,'

'hi,'seems
(for'ivar-u'),

to

indefinite

Tel.

the

'

'ivandar-u'

'

is

plural'andar-u,indar-u,'so
the ordinarysuffix of the epicene

plural.
Tamil

The
which
'

is

and

MalayMam have another particleof plurality

applicableto rational beings,
viz., mar,' or in High Tamil
'

mar,' which

has

allied to it.

alone,and

'

is used

mar

like

is not

to the

'ar;'for

'

considerable resemblance

'

'

ar

which

noun

whilst

it

'

is

ar,'and

pluraliserational

to

nouns

fixed
It is suf-

by pronouns and verbs.

in a different manner
qualifies
for the masculine

probably

substantive

used

is substituted

*ar'

to

also from

feminine

and

'

is generally
added
not added to them,
mar
singular,
in
to the singularsuffix by idiomatic writers and speakers. Thus
a
Tamil, pnrushan (a Sans, derivative),
a
husband, when
man,
by suffixing'ar' becomes 'purushar;'but if 'm4r' is
pluralised
suffixes of the

'

'

'

instead of

used

ar,'it

'

is not

substituted for

'

'

an

but appended to it,e.g.. purushan-mar,'

not
singularsuffix,
'

is true, is sometimes

'Mar,' it

mar.'

this is considered unidiomatical.

mar;' but
used

an

as

isolated

e.g.,

manner,

added

'

both

parents; in which

'Mar'

in
particleof plurality

tay tagappan

mother

'ar,'e.g.,

to

purusha'purushar'

is also sometimes

Scythian
peculiarly

mothers

mar,' Tam.,

masculine

the

and

in the

father are
both.
pluralise

and

fathers,

and
singular,

appended to
separately
difference in signification
between
no
Probablythere was originally
is

'mar'

'ar'

and

origin.

'mar,' whatever
In

difference there may

have been in their
is suffixed to nouns
Tamil, mar
signifying

modern

kings,"c., as
parents, priests,
'

mek

;'but

be

it may

denotingrational
cannot

in

pluralof honour, like the Hungarian

suffixed,if necessary,

beings.

than
of application

meaning

'

'

In

Malayalam

Tamil,

and

in

to any

it is used with
cases

in which

thieves.
intended,e.g., kalian-mar,'
'

be

class of
a

nouns

wider range
honorific
an

antiquity
favours the supposition

of the

The

Malayalagrammar,
that in ancient Tamil, which was
probablyidentical with ancient
generallyhave been used instead of ar,'as
Malayalam, mar
may

of many

of the forms

'

'

'

of
A few traces
particle
high caste nouns.
ordinarypluralising
survive in classical Tamil ; mfir,'
of this use of the particle mar
which is evidentlyequivalentto
mar,' and probably older,being
'

the

'

'

'

'

'

192

THE

sometimes

used

in

NOUN.

poetryinstead of

ar,'e.g.,

'

'

'

(from en,'to
'

en-mar

accountants.
count),

We

have

inquirewhether

to

now

'

'

ar

and

'

Dravidian

mar,' the

sustain any relation to the pluralterminations,

pluralsof rationality,
of other languages.
or pluralising
suffixes,
It might at firstsightbe supposedthat the formation of the plural
of the
characterises some
which
by the addition of r to the singular
in the Dravidian
Teutonic tongues, is analogousto the use of r
ar
or
pluralis that
languages. In the Icelandic the most common
'

'

'

'

which

terminates

in

'

'.

"

sometimes

the

'

'

times
alone, some-

'

'

consonant

syllables
'ar,''ir,' ur,'e.g., 'konungur,'hings. A relic
for
of this pluralmay
be traced in the vulgar English childer,'
children.' The same
pluralappears in the Old Latin termination
in the Eugubian
of the masculine
which
is found
plural in or
for
for subacti,'
and
screhitor
tables,
script!.'
e.g., subator
Compare also mas,' the termination of the first person pluralof
verbs in Sanscrit,
termination in Irish,
with
mar,' the corresponding
answeringto the Doric ^es and the ordinaryGreek fiev.
In these cases, however, the resemblance to the Dravidian
plural
the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ar

has

is rather

apparent

hardened

been

from

of the existence of
'

than

real ; for the

older

an

final

's;'whilst

'

'

there

of these forms
is

evidence

no

tendencyin the Dravidian languages to harden

the supposition
that
into
r,'and therefore nothing to warrant
Dravidian
epicene'ar' has been derived from, or is connected

'

'

the

with, the Sanscrit masculine-feminine

It should also be

noted

that

'

the

as.'
Irish 'mar'

is

compound

of

forms, ma,' the repres^tativeof the singularof the personal

of the pluralsuffix 's;'
'/,'and 'r,'the hardened equivalent
pronoun
two

'

that, therefore,it

and
'

is

mar,' which

has

real resemblance

no

to

the

and exclusively
a
pluralsuffix
entirely

Dravidian

of the

third

person.
of the Dravidian pluralsuffixes being
probability
of some
of the Scythianlanguages.
related to the pluralising
particles
in the Dravidian
which
is inserted,as
The
Turkish pluralsuffix,
and each of the case terminations,
between the crude noun
languages,
is 'lar' or 'ler,'
they. Dr. Logan says, but on what
e.g., 'an-lar,'
is a pluralsuffix in K61.
golian
Monauthoritydoes not appear, that nar
the
which
end with a vowel, are pluralised
addition
by
nouns
related to, or identical
which is evidently
a particle
of
or
ner,'
nar
lar or
ler :' and the resemblance of this Mongol
with,the Turkish
suffix 'nar' to the Dravidian 'mar,'both in the final 'ar' and in
There

is

more

'

'

'

'

'

the nasal

'

'

'

is remarkable.
prefix

It is well known

that

'

'

evinces

194

NOUN.

THE

Turkish

'

and

the

Tamil

'

the last

remotely connected,as

'

are

relics of
or
remainingrepresentatives

and
mar,' fiar,'

'lar.'

'

'

There
are
PluralisingParticles of the Neuter.
used by the Dravidian languages.
particles
pluralising
2.

"

two

neuter

"

(1.)

The

its varieties.

plural suffix'gal,'with

neuter

"

It

has

but improperlyused
'gal' is occasionally
in Tamil
and
and
Canarese as the pluralsuffix of 'rational' nouns
lu
that the correspondingTelugu
is still more
; and
pronouns
used in this manner.
Nevertheless,I have no doubt
systematically
that it was
suffix of the neuter
a
originallyand is essentially
plural.
This suffix is in both dialects of the Tamil
'gal,'e.g., kei-gal,'
with
such
hands,
only
changes as are requiredby Tamilian rules of
euphony. In accordance with one of those rules,when 'g,'the initial
of
consonant
gal,'is doubled, or preceded without an intermediate
vowel
by another consonant, 'gal' is regularlyhardened into 'kal'
Thus
'kkal.'
or
kal-gal,'
stones,is changed b^ rule into 'kaR-kal.'
gal is occasionallylengthened in Tamil poetry into gM.' In
is generally kal
or
kkal,' but sometimes
Malayalam this particle
coalesces with
the initial k
a
precedingnasal and becomes
ng,'
instead
of
-in
Tamil
'nim-kal,'
'ning-gal.'In
you,
e.g., 'ning-ngal,'
rnodern Canarese
have
in ancient 'gal,'
in Tamil.
we
The
gal-u,'
as
three southern idioms are in perfect
agreement with respectto this particle,

alreadybeen

noticed

that

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

but

when

advance

we

further

north

we

shall find its

siderably
shape con-

modified.
neuter
Telugu,the corresponding
pluralsuffix is lu,'of
is usual in Telugu, to the cerebral '1'
'1' answers,
as

In
the

'

other dialects
Canarese

'

accords
1-u,'therefore,

'

'

gal-u

The

vowel

or

derived from
base
'lu.'

'

guRHa

the
and

initial

'

the combination
'

We

only real difference between

syllableof
the Telugu

by the former of the

g.' Traces,however, exist in Telugu,of the
before 'lu.' Thus, in 'guRBalu,' horses,the long
'

'

of the

the final

consists in the omission

the Tamil-Canarese
consonant

with

which

and

of the short
'

as
'al-u,'

the

of

'a'

is

final 'a' of the inflexional

vowel, evidently a,' which

thus arrive at

use

must

primitiveform

have

preceded
Telugu

of the

plural; and it is obvious that 'al-u' could easilyhave been softened

from
'gal-u.'Conjecture,however, is scarcelyneeded, for in some
nouns
ending in n-u,'of which the Tamil equivalentsend in m,'
'

the old Dravidian

'

in
pluralising
particle

gal,'is exhibited in Telugu

in Tamil.
almost as distinctly
as
Thus, 'kolan-u,'
tank (Tamil
a
'kulam')jtakes as its plural kolan-kul-u (Tamil 'kulang-gal
'),and
'

'

'

NUMBEJl

'gon-u,'the

of

^TIIE

NEUTER

195

PLURAL.

speciesof tree, forma its pluralin 'gon-gul-u.'

When
'kul-u' and 'gul-u' are
compared with the TamiUCanarese
forms 'kal,'
it is obvious that they are
'gal,'and 'gal-u,'
not onlyequivalentbut identical.
name

An

illustrationof the
softened from
gal-u,'

in which

the

Telugu 'lu' has been

be taken also from colloquial
Tamil, in
may
which 'avar-gal,'
they,iBcommonly pronounced 'aval.' 'k' or 'g'
IS droppedor
elided in a similar maimer
in many
languages of the
manner

'

Scythianfamily.
The Tulu, though locally
remote

from

the

example in
'k'

Telugu, follows its

this. It rejects
the

a,nd amongst others in

points,
many
'g' of the plural,and uses
merely ' lu

or

'

or

'1,'like the

Teluguj rarely'kula.'
The
of

some

form of the

same

pluralising
particle
appears

of the tribes of the

north-eastern frontier

in the

languages
languageswhich

"

forpi a link of connection

possibly

between

Tibetan families.

dialect, n6,'thou,forms
is pluralised
Dhinial, na,'titou,

its

pluralin

into

'

'

In the. Miri

nolu,you

nyel,'you.

The

; and

the

Dravidian

Abor-Miri

or

in the
of

and

the

'

'

the Mikir

pluralised
by adding
e g.,
In the
li,'
na-li,'
you, whilst substantives have no pluralform.
Dhimal, substantive-nonns are pluralised
by the addition of galai,'
which is possibly
the originof the pronominalplural 1,'though this
is not compounded with, or agglutinated
or
particle
word, galai,'
to,
the noun, but placedafter it separately.Though it is used as a separate
of its own
pendent
indeword it does not seem
to retain any signification
The resemblance
of galai to
of its use as a post-position.
the Tamil-Canarese
is distinct and remarkable.
The
'gal' or 'galu,'
of the Naga also is khala.'
pluralising
particle
It is not an uncommon
to find one
occurrence
portionof a much
used prefix or
suffix in one
language or dialect of a family,and
another portionof it in another member
of the same
family. Seeing,
the
has
the
latter
that
therefore,
adopted
portionof the parTelugu
ticle
and omitted the initial ka,' ga,'or 'k,'
'kal,''gal,'or
gain,'
in some
we
particle
expect to find this k used as a pluralising
may
pronoun

is

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

aud
dialect,

other Dravidian

'

the

final 'lu'

or

'1' omitted.

ingly
Accord-

pluralneuter is commonly formed by

the addition of k alone, e.g., nai,'
a
dog, naik,'dogs (compare
Tamil
'naykal,'pronounced nay gal.')The S"oni-G6nd forms its
afield,'n"lok,'
pluralby adding 'nk,'e.g., 'neli,'
fields.The Ku
dialect uses
stitutes
nga,'and also ska,'of all which forms k or g conin Gond

find that the

we

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the basis.
'k' is sometimes

found

to

in the
interchangewith 't,'especially
o

196

THE

NOUN.

of High Asia.
This interchangeappears also in the Gond
languages
in general
pluralising
particle
use, the
; for whilst 'k' is the particle
of the firstand

pronouns

second

form

persons

their

double

or
plurals,

plurals,by the addition of 't' to the nominative, e.g., amat,'

'k' and 't' appears
The same
between
'imat,'you.
interchange
the Brahui.
Though a separate word is usually employed by
'

Brahui
this
'

'

'

to

in the
When

denote

a suffix
plurality,

is found

only in
obliquecases.
to the

turn

we

the

in

'

'

is also sometimes

plural,and

nominative

is

we,

in
the

used ; but

replaced
by

grammaticalforms of the Finnish familyof

tolerablydistinct analogiesto this Dr"vidian

find some
we
languages,
pluralsuffix. Compare with the Dr"vidian forms noticed above the
ak ;'the Lappish in
k,' ch,'or h ;'also
Magyar pluralin k or
the 't' by which
'k' is replacedin almost all the other dialects of
the Finnish family:and observe the re-appearance
of the sound of '1'
in the Ostiak pluralsuffix
is 'kan' or
tl.' In Ostiak the dual suffi^f
ka ;' in Kamass
'gan;' in Samoi'ed-Ostiak
'gai.' Castren
'ga' or
'ka'
particle
supposes these suffixes to be derived from the conjunctive
or
'ki,'also; but their resemblance to the Dravidian signsof plurality
forms its plural
renders this derivation doubtful.
Even the Armenian
I low,
siremk,'we fow.
in'k/g.^f.,tn,'thou, 'tuk,'you; 'sirera,'
forms of the
In the Turkish also, 'k' is the signof plurality
in some
first person pluralof the verb, e.g., idum,' I was,
iduk,'we were.
t,'on the other hand, is the signof the pluralin Mongolian,and in
the Calmuck
is softened into 'd.' Even in Zend, though a languageot
there is a neuter
a diflferent family,
pluralin 't.' Thus, for 'imani,'
the Zend
has
imat.'
Sans.,these things,
In those instances of the interchange
of
and
t
k,' in which it
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

can

be ascertained with

tolerable

one

used
originally

which

older than

'

k,'

and

Thus

which

accurate

more

'ka.'

In

and

'

several

of the

the

was

to

appears

be

t^i-o? is in better accordance with

k^i/os,'
probablyolder,than the jEolian
'

'

older form

consonant

corruption, t'

'

'

'

'

'

originof e-iceivo9.'The Semitic

and
ta,'thou (preservedin atta

the
'

the

was

the Doric

related words, and therefore

clearness

'

than

'

the

anta

pronominalfragment

or

pronoun

'),is

also, I doubt

not,

suffix
equiyalentor auxiliary

Polynesiandialects,'k'

is found

instead

t.'
If, in
undoubtedly earlier Sanscrit or Pre-Sanscrit
with
these precedents,where
k
accordance
and
found
t
are
is to be regarded as
older than
to be interchanged, t
k,' it
would
follow that
deration,
under consikal,' the Dravidian pluralsuffix now
have been-'tal.' I cannot
think that the
originally
may
Dravidian 'gal has been derived,
Dr. Stevenson supposes, from the
as
of

'

an

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

NUMBER

Sanscrit
'

'sakala'

Las been
sa-kala,'

which

(in

NEUTER

Tamil

connected

the Dravidians

with

not

THE

"

have

'sagala'),all.
wiih

Englishall.

This

preserved the

being the

other

j'but the

'kol,'"c., but

case, it is

also.

root

'

kal,'the

base

of

all,
signifying

root

is connected,
preferredto retain,viz.,'ell,'

l,\;whole,the Hebrew

'

oVos-

'

197

PLURAL.

The

with

that
unlikely

Dravidian

'

the Saxon

they

tal-a

host,a crowd, would give a good meaning ; but even

kal' or 'tal,'
is altogether
destitute of evidence.

'

or

'eal,'

would

have

dal-a,'
a

'

this derivation

'

of

The

supposititious
compared with the Ostiak pluralsuffix 'tl ;'
may
but in the absence of evidence it is useless to
proceedwith conjectural
analogies.
Dravidian

The

'tal'

New

be

Persian

or
plural,

plural of inanimate objects,

which correspondsgenerallyto the Dravidian
neuter
is h",'a
plural,
form which
from the Zend.
It
Bopp derives with much probability
here be mentioned, though I do not attach
may
any importanceto a
neuter

'

resemblance
sometimes
e.g.,

in

'

'

which

is

becomes

that
accidental,
certainly
'

ha

'

in

irukkiaargal,'
theyare,

(2.)Neuter
gal,'with

Plural
its

neuter

plural'gal'

the

pronunciationof the peasantry,

is vulgarlypronounced irukkinaha.'
'

Sufix in

In addition

'a.'
"

find in

varieties,
we

pluralin

the Tamil

short

'

a,' or

to the neuter

plural

nearlyall the Dravidian

traces

of the

use

of it at

guages
lansome

former

in

period.
is occasionally
'gal,'
though a neuter pluralsuffix,
used,especially
the modern
the pluralsuffix of rationals ; but in those
as
dialects,

dialects in which

and it

'

a' is used, its

therefore

seems

to

be

use

more

is

restricted
invariably

neuter
essentially

form

to

neuters,

than

'

gal

'

itself.
We

shall first examine

suffix which

are

contained

of the

the traces

existence and

of this

use

in the Tamil.

'

gal is invariablyused in Tamil as the pluralsuffix of uncomin the classical dialect for
is preferred
a
pouuded neuter nouns
; but
neuter
compounds,that is,appellative
pluralising
nouns, or those which
are
compounded of a base and a suffix of gender,togetherwith demonaud participial
stmtive pronouns,
Even
nouns.
pronominaladjectives,
in the ordinary dialect,'a' is generallyused as the suffix of the
n"uter
pluralin the conjugationof verbs.
The second line in one of the distichs of Tjruvalluvar's
KuRal,'
neuter pluralof appellaa
contains two instances of the use of a
as
tive
vain shows (are all)oilier (things').
nouns
; e.g., agula nira pina,'
in that case
The first of these three words is used adjectivally
; and
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the final

'

'

is

merely that which remains

of the neuter

termination

198

THE

NOUN.

words
regularrejectionof m / but the next two
nira' and
pina,'are undoubted instances of the use of a as a
used
Tamil
suffix of the neuter
plural of appellatives.The much
words
and
or
some
sila,'
some,
pala,'several, or many
{things),
sil'),
tives,
{things)
(from pal and
though commonly considered as adjecin realityneuter
are
pini pala,'diseases (are)
plurals
; e.g.,
the gender
the neuter
pluralgender,literally,
pala-(v)-in
pal,'
iMtny
;
and with
of the many {things).The use of these words adjectivally,
the signification,
but of the distributive plural,
not of the collective,
has led some
persons to overlook their originand real meaning, bnt I
have no doubt that they are plurals. So also
a
alia,'
nM, is properly
tion
from the root
: it is formed
al,'not, by the addipluralappellative
of
and literally
a,' the pluralsuffix,
means
thingsthat are not,
and the singular
that corresponds
to 'alia' is 'al-du,'
not, euphonically
In the higher dialect of the
a
'andru,' literally
thing thai is not.
of qualityand relation may
Tamil, all nouns
be, and very frequently
into appellatives
and pluralised
by the addition of 'a;'
are, converted
We
have some
'difficilia.^
(KuRaP, thingsthat are difficult,
e.g., 'ariya,'
the pluralsuffix even
of
instances in High Tamil of the use of a
as
substantive nouns,
substances,thingsthat are real,realities
e.g., 'pornla,'
and
a
(from the singular'porul,'
thing,a substance)
; also 'porulana'
and
avei
(for ava '),the
porulavei,'with the addition of ana
pluralneuters of the demonstrative pronouns.
The neuter
pluralof the third person of the Tamil verb, a form
in ordinaryprose as well as in the classical
which is used occasionally
ends in
ana
ana
dialect,
are.
;'e.g., irukkindrana,'they (neut.)
is undoubtedly identical with
ava
(now avei '),the neuter
plural
of the demonstrative
and
older
is
form
than
probably an
pronoun,

am,' after

'

the

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

ava.'

It is derived

from

the

'

'

demonstrative

base

'

a,' with

the addition
'

and an
pluralsuffix,
euphonic consonant
('n
Sometimes
in
or
or
'v') to prevent hiatus ; e.g., 'a-(n)-a'
a-(v)-a.'
classical Tamil this a,'the sign of the neuter
is added directly
plural,
the addition of the demonto the temporalsuffix of the verb, without
strative
base of the pronoun,
minda,' they (neut.)returned,
e.g.,
instead of mindana.'
This final a
is evidentlya signof the neuter
pluraland of that alone.
should also regard as a signof the neuter
the
we
Possibly
plural,
final 'a' of the high Tamil
adjectives ena,'my {things),
possessive
The final 'a' of 'ena'
nostra.
'nama,' our {things),
would, on
ntea;
this supposition,
be not only equivalentto the final a
of the Latin
are
mea,' but reallyidentical with it. These possessiveadjectives
Tamil
and
it will be shown
regarded by
grammarians as genitives
;
of

'

'

the neuter

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

NUMBER

THE

NEUTER

hereafter that 'a' is

undoubtedlyone of the
languages. The real nature

the

Dravidian

will

be discussed when

199

PLURAL.

forms
of

of the
'

'

genitivein
and

ena

'

'

nama

genitivecase-terminations are inquired

into. It should be stated,however, under
this head, that Tamil
and
grammarians admit that ena
nama,' though, as they say,
must
be followed by nouns
in the neuter
genitives,
plural;e.g., 'ena
keigal,'
hands; and this,so far as it goes, constitutes the principal
my
of these words, not as
argument in favour of regardingthe final a
but as the ordinary
a
neuter
genitive,
pluralsuffix of the high dialect.
In Malayalam, the oldest daughter of the Tamil
and a faithful
old forms, the neuter plurals
of the demonstrative
preserver of many
and 'iva,'these (things').
The
are
'ava,' those {things),
pronouns
existence,
therefore,in Tamil and Malayalam of a neuter pluralin
short
established.
a,'answering to a neuter singularin 'd,'is clearly
The Canarese appears to have originally
agreed with the Tamil in
all the particulars
and
instances mentioned
above:
but the neuter
pluralin 'a' is now
generallyhidden in that dialect by the addition
of a formative or euphonicsyllable.Thus 'pina,'
Tarn.,other {things),
is in Canarese 'peravu,'
of which
the final syllable
'vu' is undoubtedly
is very fond.
addition of which
the Canarese
an
an
euphonicaddition
The
is not
in
neuter
ava
pluralof the demonstrative
pronoun
Canarese,as it is in Malayalam, and as it must have been in primitive
avn.'
Tamil, but
Though, however, the nominative is avu,'all the
in the ancient
Canarese
oblique cases
rejectthe final u before
and must
have been formed
from the base
receivingthe case suffixes,
of an older 'ava;' e.g., 'avara'
of those things.
{'a.va.-ia,'),
The
are
avi,'those,
Telugu pluralneuters of the demonstratives
'adi' and 'idi.' The
ivi,'these,answering to the singularneuters
tions
demonstratives,to which the case-terminaobliqueforms of the same
vi proximate,which
are
va
are
remote, and
suflixed,are
to
formed (by that process of displacementwhich is peculiar
evidently
and 'iva,'like 'varu'
the Telugu) from
the primitivebases 'ava'
ivaru.'
from'avaru,'and 'viru' from
The neuter
pluralof the Telugu verb is formed by suffixingavi
the

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

or

'

'vi.'

responding
singulardemonstratives are 'ad' and 'id;'the coriv.'
and
plurals av
the only extant
dialects of the
If the Telugu and the Gond were
d
is the
Dravidian
family,we should naturallyconclude that as
is the sign of the neuter
so
v
plural.
sign of the neuter singular,
however
the other extant
When
(the Tamil, Malay"lam,and
dialects,
Canarese),are examined, we perceivethat this v is not a sign

In Gond

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

200

THE

NOUN.

of

but of
nor
a signof anything
plurality,
that it is merelyan euphoniclink between

abhorrence

of

hiatus;and

ing
precedingand succeedvowels.
The Telugu and Gond
therefore yield to the overmust
powering
of
adducible
of
this
in proof
weight evidence which is
point
from their sisterdialects. Nor is there anything opposed to analogy
in the supposition
which was
that the Telugu has changed the 'a,'
the
signof the neuter pluralof its pronouns and verbs, into i,'and then
which was
used
consonant
adopted to represent the idea of plurality
a
the

'

mereh'
originally
converted

into

to

prevent hiatus.

varu,'and

'

'

In the

of

case

'avaru,'they,'ilU,'
into 'viru,' v,'

ivaru,'
they,'hi,'converted

'

has become
initialand apparently
though onlyeuphonicin its origin,
an
and the old initialand essentially
vowels
'a'
a I'adical;
demonstrative
and

'i,'have

of
therefore,

been
'ava

'

thrust
into

'

into

va,'and

secondary place.

of

'

iva' into

'

The

conversion,

vi,'the obliqueforms

of the

Telugu pluraldemonstratives,is directlyin accordance with

this analogy; and thus the Telugu cannot
be considered as opposed to
the concurrent
testimonyof the other dialects,which is to the effect
is merely euphonic,and that
that V
is the signof the neuter
a
pluralof the demonstrative pronouns.
It may
here be remarked
curious irregularity,
that in Tulu
as
a
has become
the signof the neuter
V
singularinstead of d,' e.ff.,
to the Tamil-Canarese
'avu,'it. The Tulu 'atu,'corresponding
'adu,'
which should have been used to signify
to be used for yes.
it,has come
If short
a
be, as it has been shown to be, a signof the neuter
and most used by
pluralwhich is inherent in the Dravidian languages,
have now
into the relationship
to inquire
the oldest dialects,
which
we
of the Indoit evidentlysustains to the neuter
pluralsuffix of some
of no
neuter
pluralin any of the
European languages. I know
Scythiantongues with which it can be compared; and we appear to
be obligedto attribute to it,as well as to
d,' the suffix of the neuter
an
originwhich is allied to that of the correspondingIndosingular,
In the use
of
neuter
a
it is
a
as
European forms.
pluralsuffix,
evident that the Dravidian familyhas not imitated,or been influenced
of the
not
through the medium
by, the Sanscrit,and that it was
their way
into this
Sanscrit that Indo-European influences made
neuter
department of the Dravidian
languages;for the Dravidian
plural a,'differs widely from the Sanscrit neuter plural ani,'and it
is as certainly
unconnected with the masculine-feminine
plural'as'
in modern
Sanscrit into 'ah'). It is with the short 'a'
(softened
which constitutes the neuter
pluralof the Zend, the Latin, and the
neuter
Gothic, that the Dravidian
plural'a' appears to be allied.
Compare also the Old Persian neuter plural a.'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

202
such

THE

connexion

particlesare

can

NOUN.

be established ; but

appended

to

their

bases

in the
a

manner

distinct

in which

analogy

may

the

be

observed.

turningour attention to the Dravidian languages,we find that

of cases
the principle
which they have proceededin the formation
on
is distinctively
Scythian. All case-relations are expressedby means
of post-positions,
suffixes. Most of the post-positions
or
post-positional
of the Telugu are, in reality,
separate words; and in all the Dravidian
of their original
dialects most
of the post-positions
retain traces
character as auxiliarynouns.
in the
Several case-signs,
especially
cultivated dialects,
have lost the facultyof separate existence,
more
und can
togetherwith their original
only be treated now
signification,
that they were
but there is no
to doubt
as
reason
case-terminations;
all post-positional
nouns
originally.
of caseThere
is another
point in which the Scythian principles
formation
differ materially
from
the Indo-European. In the IndoEuropean familythe case endingsof the pluraldiffer from those of
the singular. It is true, that on
comparing the case-terminations
of all the members
of the family,some
traces have been discovered of
the existence of an
originalconnexion between the singularand the
of the cases; but in several instances,
pluralterminations of some
e.g.,
in the instrumental
such
connexion
the
between
singularand
case, no
the pluialhas been brought to lightby any amount
of investigation;
and
it may
be stated as a generalrule,that the languages of this
of
familyappear to have acted from the beginningupon the principle
expressingthe case-relations of the singularby one set of forms,and
the case-relations of the pluralby another
set.
On the other hand,
in all the languagesof the Scythiangroup,
the same
are
case-signs
both
in
the
and
in
the
w
ithout
singular
employed
or
plural,
alteration,
with only such alterations as euphony is sup])0sed
to require. In the
the case
to the nominaare
tive,
post-positions
singular,
appended directly
which is identical with the base: in the pluraltheyare appended,
not
to the nominative
or
base, but to the particleof pluralisation
has been
suffixed to the base.
which
In general,
this is the only
the singularcase-signs
and those of the plural.
difference between
The
of the Scythian
only exceptionof importance is,that in some
in the languagesof the Finnish family,
the included
tongues, especially
differs in the two numbers : it is generally
vowel of the case-sign
'a'
in
'e'
and
the plural a change which arises from the
in the singular
law of harmonic
sequences'
by which those tongues are characterized,
On

"

'

and which re-appears, but littlemodified,iu the Telugu.

the Dravidian languages
When
are
examined, it is found that

they

NUMBKK

differ from

OF

203

DECLENSIONS.

those of the

Indo-European family,and are in perfect

accordance with the Scythiangroup, in their use of the same
signsof
in the pluralas in the singular. The onlyexceptionis the
case
truly
Scythianone which is apparent in the Telugu,in which the dative
case
-signis either ki' or
ku,' accordingto the nature of the vowel
by which it is precededor influenced ; in consequence
of which it is
ku' in the plural.
generally'ki' in the singularand
This
identityof the singularand plural case-endingsin the
languagesof the Scythian group, includingthose of the Dravidian
family,will be found greatlyto facilitatethe comparisonof the casesigns of one language of either of those families with those of the
'

'

'

other.

Nuwher

of

called,in the
Those
'

Canarese

constitute

by

no

one

in all
to

the

declension,
properlyso
Scythian familygenerally.

in the

of inflexional increments

which

have

been

called

with reference to
European scholars,especially
Telugu, are considered by native grammarians to
declension ; and in truth they do constitute but one,

difference between

the difference which

only one

languages,as

respect to the signsof

with

is

some

and

but

for there is

or

Dravidian

varieties

declensions'

the

Declensions. ^There

euphonicand

one

so

called declension

Those

case.

exists relates

of tbe

another

the same
signsare precisely
solelyto suffixes of gender,

inflexional increments

the bases before the addition

and

which

are

added

to

on

Ciise-signs.

of the Dr"vidian
proceeding to analyse the case-formation
languages,we shall follow the order in which they have been arranged
that of the Sanscrit.
as
by Dravidian grammarians,which is the same
The imitation of the Sanscrit in this particular
was
an
certainly
error;
the
number
of
for whilst in Sanscrit there are
cases
eight cases
only,
annexed
in Tamil, Telugu,"c., is indefinite.
to
Every post-position
and therefore the
a noun
constitutes,
properlyspeaking,a new
case;
number
of such cases
depends upon the requirementsof the speaker
of meaning which
and
he wishes to express.
the different shades
Notwithstanding this, the usage of Df"vidian
grammarians has
restricted the number
of cases
to eight; and
vantages
though there are disadOn

in this
the

arrangement, it will

conduce

to

to adhere
perspicuity

which we are about to enters

on
analysis,
Tamil gramm.arians,in followingthe order of the Sanscrit cases, have
also adopted or imitated the Sanscrit mode
of denominatingthem
but by
not
'dative' or 'ablative,'
as
by descriptive
appellations,
to

ordinaryusage

in the

"

numbers.

They

have affixed

number

to each

case

in the

same

order

204

THE

NOUN.

Ac, to eighth case.'

Sanscrit,
e.g., first case,' second case,'
of the
first case,'stands at the head
Though a nominative,or
Dravidian list of cases, the only cases, properly
so
called,which are
used by these languagesare
the obliquecases.
Instead,therefore,of
which
proceedingto examine the Dravidian nominative,the particular
as

in

'

'

'

'

falls to be noticed

now

The

is
"

Case-Terminations.

of Nominative
singularis simply

absence

nominative

base of the

without

"

the nominative

'

peyr-e,
addition

the formative, if there

includes
differs from

noun

'

'

be

the

The

"

Dravidian

itself^the

noun

"

alteration;but

or

The

one.

singularonly by

it

nominative

the addition

ional
inflexsarily
neces-

plural

it of the

to

particle.
pluralising
There

the nominative

which

which
itself,

to be

'

the nominative

'

(in Telugu

am

Dravidian

pure
of the

appear

to

have

terminations

inquireinto.
termination
'am'
neuter
might at
nominative
case-sign.In Sanscrit

signof

ending in

might

rule,or instances

in

peculiarto

it is desirable here to

(1.) The
common

this

apparent exceptionsto

three

are

neuter

words,

are

is identical

'

neuter

'),whether

am-u

abstracts.

neuter

with

; and

the

first

sight be

am

is the

in Tamil

also,all

'

'

posed
supmost
nouns

Sanscrit derivatives

In Sanscrit

nominative,but

or

the accusative

in the other

cases

disappears.In Tamil, 'am' is discarded by all the oblique

of the singular
without exception: every case
retains it in the
cases
but in the singularit is used by the nominative
alone.
This
plural,
for regarding am
nation
as
a termicomprisesthe sum total of the reasons
On the other band, though 'am'
of the nominative.
disappears
in the singular,
it retains its place in
in Tamil from the obliquecases
in the plural. The particle
of the cases
of plurality
is
one
every
and
of
the signs case are then suffixed to the
regularlysuffixed to 'am,'
is a clear proofthat,whatever
of plurality
am
particle
; which
may
termination
The
or
case-signof the nominative.
be,it is not a mere
or
'am-u,' as part of the inflexional base,
Telugu regards 'am'
'am'

'

'

'

retains it in each

case

of hoth numbers

alike,and

'

sufiixes to it in the

in the pluralthe particle

of plurality.
singularthe case-signs,
The
'

modern

am,' in any

Canarese
case,

or

makes

no

use

in either number.

whatever
The

of this termination

ancient Canarese

uses

but discards it,not only

singular,
but in every case
of the singular,
of the plural
in the obliquecases
also. In that dialect a tree is maram,' as in Tamil, but the plural
nominative,trees,is not 'maranggal' ('maram-gal'),but mara-gal.'
borrowed from the Sanscrit by the Tamil ordinarily
Neuter nouns

it,like the Tamil, in

the nominative

'

'

retain

205

NOMINATIVE.

THE

(inthe nominative

alone,in the singular)the

singular: this am' is used in every

nominative

'

'

of tho Sanscrit

am

'

of the

one

cases

in the
in

is regarded
'am'
plural; so that even in Sanscrit derivatives,
but as a portionof the inflexional base.
Tamil, not as a case-sign,

Whatever
think
have

must

we

been

different
from

events

the

borrowed
a

into

nouns.

'

on

The

used
'

of

many

of it many

kulam,'Tam.,

for

verbs

tanh,is from

a
'

to
nil,'

stand.

'

spring
At

purest Dravidian

the

are

kuli,to bathe

; and

See

all

roots,

converted

of that class

'

so

Derivative

'

nil-am,'

Nouns,'in

Verb.'

(2.) In Canarese
/, and

to

t/ieground, is from

the section

it is used

which

it added

by the addition

Tam.,

Sanscrit,in

it does not
questionwhether
altogetherindependent of the Sanscrit.

find

'

the

; and

and

Thus

'

from

purpose

source
we

'

am,' considered (as I

originof the Tamil
consider it)as a formative,it does not appear
to

be

the crude

form

of the

is

personalpronouns

sionally
occa-

instead of the nominative, e.g., 'na,' instead of 'nanu,'

ta,'instead

that the final

'

of

'

'

or

'

t"nu,' self;and
'

nu

of those

it

hence

pronouns

might be supposed

constitutes a nominative

however, is inadmissible ; for in all

supposition,
the obliquecases, without exception,
the final 'n' or 'nu' retains its
place,and it is to it that the signsof case are added. Consequently
it is evident that
is not a sign of the nominative,but a formative,
n
which
to
has been compounded with the inflexional base, or annexed
from it.
it,though it is capableof occasional separation
the quantityof the included
(3.) In all the Dravidian languages,
of the obliquecases
vowels
of the personalpronouns in some
(and in
difiers from the quantityof
in all the obliquecases),
Tamil-Canarese
termination.

This

'

'

the

vowels

same

in the

In the nominative

nominative.

the vowel

is

invariablylong,in the obliquecases generallyshort : e.g., in Canarese

find 'nanu,'/, nanna,' mi/;
iAy/ tS.nn,'
we
ninu,'thou, ninna,'
'tanna,'of one's self. This is the onlyinstance contained in these
self,
'

languagesin
the

which

there is

obliquecases of such
a case
by itself. In

difference

nature

this

as

'

'

'

between

the nominative

and

tive
almost to constitute the nomina-

instance,however, the nominative

inflexional base,and the

true, unchanged,

of
shortening

obliquecases, priorto the

the euphonic tendencies

addition

the

is the

of
quantity

of

post-positions,
of the language. The
has arisen from
Telngu shortens the root-vowelin the accusative only. In Tamil the
is often used as a
shortened form,without any inflexional addition,
the vowel

in the

possessive;
e.g., 'nin,'thy, from
which

is in accordance

with

the

the

obsolete 'ntn,'thou

ordinaryDravidian

"

usage

rule that the

206

NOUN.

THE

inflected form

obliquecases, is to be
or
regardedas
adjective.
possessive
it is
Before proceedingto consider the obliquecase-signs
seriatim,
necessary to enquireinto the changes which the base sustains priorto
the suffixes.
receiving
of every
of itselfa

base of
Inflexional
that form
which
The

as

nominative

without

beyond the
In

the

of this class of

ordinary

smaller

the

'

'

or

instances

the crude

base,and

also the inflexi"mal base.

and

nouns

the

case-signs

of the

base

added

are

'

majorityof

constitutes

link of connexion, whether

any

the base

to

inflexional

native
nomi-

euphonic,

prevent hiatus

is inserted to

y,'which

or

oblique
or

vowels.

concurrent
a

which

noun

In the

"

nominative,constitutes

identical ; and

are

between

obliquecases.

of the Dravidian

is used

cases

the

the basis of the

or

noun,

of instances

number

(a

number

which

constitutes,
undergoes

largeminority),the base or nominative

alteration before receivingthe addition of the terminations,or
some
of the obliquecases.
case-signs
In the solitary
instance of the Tamil-Canarese
personalpronouns,
nominative
sustains a curunder
the
the
out
as
tailment
pointed
precedinghead,
of
of
the
the
included
the
quantity
(viz by
shortening
base
of the obliquecases
the
inflexional
:
base,or
vowel) on becoming
however,

very

but in all other instances the alteration which

the base

sustains consists

sary
augmentation,which is sometimes optionaland sometimes neces; and it is to this augmented form (augmented by the addition of
attached.
This
inflexional increment)that the case-signs
are
some
be illustrated by the Hebrew.
In Hebrew
the
Dravidian
rule may
are
personaland other suffixes of substantives and verbal nouns

in

an

attached,not

to

the base

the state in which

i.e.,

nominative, but

or

when

stands

to

the

'construct

state,'

it is

quent
qualified
by a subseJust so in the Dravidian
in that largeclass of
noun.
languages,
in which the inflexional base of the noun,
its adjectival
or
nouns
form,
differs from the crude form or nominative,the signsof case are attached
not

to the

crude,natural

form, viz.,to
or
qualifies

noun

that

noun

form

form

is qualified
by

in the relation of

an

of the noun,

which
a

but to the

Dravidian

noun

altered,inflected
assumes

when

it

subsequentnoun, or when it stands to such

adjective.This inflected form of the noun

without
the addition of any case-termination,
frequentlyused by itself,
force.
Tamil
and when so used it has a possessive
or
adjectival
grammarians hold that the inflexion is not a possessive,
thoughthey
is

'

cannot

but

admit

that for every

genitiveis used,the

'

'

purpose

for which

obliquecase,'or inflectedform

the

or
possessive

of the

noun

may

be

used

instead.

admit

They

207

INCREMENTS.

INFLEXIONAL

that

it is used

but it
adjectivally:
that its use
as
an
appears to me
adjectivalformative is a secondary
like many
other adjectival
formatives
one, and that it was
originally,
in various languages,
a
signof the genitive. Its use eventuallyas the
inflexional basis of all the cases
is in perfect
harmony vpith this view
of its origin,
and testifiesto the existence of a periodin the history
of

the

of case
and
known
was
language when each of the post-positions
felt to be a substantive,
which
requiredto be united to its base by a
or
signof possession
adjectival
relationship.
At present, however, it is our
object to seek out and arrange
the various increments
which are
used for forming the inflexional base
of the obliquecases, without reference to the other uses
to which
those

increments

put.

are

'in,'with

increment
(1.)The inflexional
'in' constitutes

of certain

inflexion

the

its varieties.

The

"

classes of

particle

in

nouns

Tamil-

ni
and 'na.'
are
Canarese; and the correspondingTelugu particles
and the same.
The
All these particles
one
are, I believe,virtually
in
in the singularand in the plural alike ; and its
Tamil
uses
to such a degreethat it is now
has been forgotten
signification
original
often used merely as an
euphoniclink of connexion between the base
its use both in Tamil and in Canaand its case-signs.For this reason
used only
is optional. In Telugu the corresponding
are
particles
rese
in the singular
they are used, their use is not euphonic
; and where
'

'

'

'

The

constitute the

is intended to

merely,but

which

Ku,

this respect is

in

'inflexion.'

nearly allied

more

than

the

'

ni
the inflexion of
uses
as
regular,
Telugu is to the Tamil, and more
of all classes of nouns.
the pluralas well as of the singular
the inflexion of the neut. sing,
is used in Tamil
in
as
When
it is apt to be confounded with
demonstratives
adu,'that, idu,'this,
in the
an,'a termination which those pronouns often take,especially
'
and
idu,'we may
oblique cases, instead of u.' Instead of adu
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

say in Tamil

'

rarelyused

very

'

adan

and

; but

the

'idan.'

'

In the nominative
'

accusative,

adan-ei,'is

more

these forms

are

common,

and

still more
so.
'id-in-al,'
('adan-ku'),
through
dative, adanku
formed,must therefore
throughthat, and cases similarly
this,'ad-in-al,'
'

the

be

'

from
carefullydistinguished

of the latter is
the

'

'

am

formative,which

neuter

nouns

'an'); whereas
of
a case-sign
originally
The

use

of

'

in

idan-al

'

and

'adan-al.'

The

'an'

is

probably of the same

originas
'am
almost
being
(that
vertible
alwayscon'

of many

into

was

'

'

as

an

'in'
the

is

an

inflexional

increment,and

genitive.

inflexional increment

effects no

alteration

208

THE

NOUN.

meaning of the case-signwhich is suffixed to it.

it is not followed by a case-sign,
of itselfa mode of
Where
it becomes
follows,it is merely
expressingthe genitive; but where a case-sign
euphonic,and its use is optional. Thus, we may say either keiyal
with the hand, or 'keiyin-al'('kei-(y)-in-al)
('kei-(y)-ar),
j either
with the foot,
'kalinal' ('kal-in-al').
kalal,'
ox
In the firstof these instances ('kei-(y)-in-ar),
'y' is used to keep
the initial vowel
of 'in' pure, in accordance
with the ordinaryrule of
the language; from
the use
of which, in this instance,it is evident
that
in
in,'though merely euphonic in its presentapplication,
was
its originsomethingmore
than a mere
euphonicexpletive.
'in' is not only attached as an
infiexional increment
to the crude
base of Tamil nouns, but it is appended also to other inflexional increments,
whatever

in

the

'

'

'

'

viz.,to 'attu,'and
classes of
form

we

hy

the
'raarattu,'

inflexional base of the

the signof
'al,'

tree : but

we

'r' of certain

obliquecases, by

the instrumental case,

also

may

doubled
a
('att-in'),

final 'd' and

the addition of 'attu' to 'mara-m,'

Thus, by

nouns.

which

ing to

to the doubled

attach

'in'

we

form

tree.

sufiix-

'marattal,'

'attu,'forming 'attin

to

'

and

euphonized increment, e.g., 'marattinal'

standingalone,without the suflSx
has the force of the genitive,
of any case-sign,
also has the double
so
increment, 'attin ;'e.g., 'marattin' signifies
of a tree. In Tamil, 'in'
As 'in' when
('mara-attu-in-al').

'inflexion' of all nouns,

is the
'd-u'

or

'r-u:' in

Tamil

; but

it is

and
than inflexional,
the

genitive. As

'in' is much

Canarese

where

except those which

used,its

it cannot

in Tamil

use

more

is rather

end

in

'am,'or

rarelyused than in
euphonicand optional,

be used

by itself to express the force of

in a priest,
a.'ai.'guruvinil'
'guruvil,'
are
in Canarese
either 'guruvallior
guru'

so
identical,

we

may

say

in

'

vinalli.'
'ni' and
Telugu the correspondingparticles
natural genitive
of certain classes of
or
inflexion,
In

attached

as

inflexional increments

signs;e.g., 'diniki'
a

younger

to the base

attached

only to

the

nouns,

before

to it,'tammuniki'
('di-ni-ki'),

to
hrotlier,
'guru-na-ku,'

'na' constitute
and

are

the
sufiixing

('tammu-ni-ki

teacher.
spiritual

These

the
also

case-

'),to
ments
incre-

singularin

Telugu : they constitute

the singular
base of the
genitivalor adjectival
are
they to be regardedas the
noun, and are not merely euphonicj nor
and pronouns
inflexion of masculine nouns
alone, though they are
to this, are
chieflyused by them, for daniki,'to that, diniki,'
are

'

the
inflexion,'
i.e.,

'

'

neuters.

The
in

Telugu 'ni,'and

the Tamil-Can

origin. The change in

the

arese

are
'in,'

of the
position

doubtless identical

vowel

is in accord-

210

NOUN,

THE

added

ing
in the singular,
not for the purpose of altertOianyneater noun
the signification,
but merely for the improvement of the euphony,"
and for the purpose of meeting the requirementsof prosody. adu
not only
to the nominative; e.g.^ we
even
may thus be added
may
write 'pon,'
'ponnadu,'
gold,but also poetically
^roM,or etymologically
that (whichis)
however,
i.e.,
gold-ihat,
gold. It ismuch more common,
'

and

in accordance also with

more

the

obliquecases ;
the case-sign,
so
as

in which

the Canarese

to

usage,

it is inserted between

event

adu

'

use

'

in

the base and

virtually
(yetwithout

losingits proper
the accuinflexional increment; e.g., instead of 'ponnei,'
an
sative
character)
of pon/ gold,we may
write 'ponnadei'('ponn-ad-ei').
I connect
with the Canarese
'ar,'and therefore with 'ad,'and
with the neuter demonstrative
the euphonicconsonant
itself,
ultimately
'r,' which is used by the Telugu in certain instances to separate
Sanscrit noun
and
the
between
of qualityused as an adjective
a
become

to

'

handsome
This
feminine suffix ' Mu,' e.g., sundaru-r-alu,'
a
woman.
would
be quite in accordance with
the peculiarTelugu usage
of
employing the neuter demonstrative singulariu placeof the feminine
'

singular.
increment
(3.) The injleosional
most

and

ti.' In
"

it is used in

Telugu,like

'ti'

'ti' is the

or

singular

the

'attu' in Tamil,
corresponding
with the
base,but as the 'inflexion,'
of that of an adjective,
the
or
as

merely as an increment of the

of the possessive
case
signification
instances
context
may require. Two
not

suffice out

Telugu

and characteristic inflexional increment of neuter

common

nouns,

'

of the

of this increment

use

class of neuter

numerous

very
inflexion
their singular

of the

which

nouns

will
form

by the addition of 'ti' or 'ti' (or rather by the

for their last syllable);
substitution of that particle
a door
e.g., vagili,'
'nudum,' the forehead,inflexion 'nuduti.' In
way, inflexion 'vagiti;'
'

these instances of the

use

of

ti '

'

'

or

ti,'the

inflexional increment

is

substituted for the last

to be considered as
syllable
; but it is certainly
as
a particle
addition to the word
an
appendedto it;and the blending
with the base,instead of merely suffixing
of the increment
it,has
arisen from the euphonictendencies of the language.
I have no doubt that the suffixed particle
which constitutes the
ti
not
the dental,
Telugu inflexional increment was originallyti,'
"

'

'

'

"

not

the

cerebral.

alone follows
On

words

This would

account

the

of which

the addition of the dental

coalesce and become

tically

'

'

for the

t;

'

'

to the two
equivalent
euphonically

to

circumstance

final consonant
'

'

or

'

'

is 'r'

that

'1;'for

or

both consonants

the hard cerebral

soft letters. In

't'

dialec-

beingregardedas
no

case

in

Telngii

INFLEXIONAL

is there

double

'

'

211

INCREMENTS.

in the inflexional increment.

It is sometimes,

forms
however,euphonisedby prefixing
a nasal,
aninquity,
e.g., tolli,'
its inflexion in tonti (instead
of
toUinti.' The dental
or
to\\i),
'ti' is used instead of the cerebral 'ti/as the inflexion of nouns
ending in 'yu' after a pure vowel, e.^., 'vayu,'the mouth, inflexion
'

'

'

'

'

vati.' This circumstance

used
originally

was

to

in all

'

that it

proves

The

cases.

the dental

was

dental

changesnaturallyinto

'

'

on

'

'

ti which

beingappended

cerebral ; whereas
the
cerebral rarely,
if ever, changesinto the dental.
If we
now
conclude,as I think we undoubtedly
may, that the
consonants

Teluguinflexionwas

the

not
thisinflexionalincrement
ti,'
originallyti,'
be connected with the Telugu neuter demonstrative,
adi,'

may at once
in the same

'

'

'

manner

as

the Canarese

connected with the Tamil-Canarese

ad,'and

'

the Tamil

demonstrative

neuter

identification
is confirmed by the circumstance that
used

'

'

'

'

attu,'are

adu.' This

atti ' is sometimes

justas attu is
Telugu,and itti for idi,'
Tamil.
in colloquial
sometimes used for adu
cation
Though the identifiof the inflexion and the neuter
sing,demonstrative could not
easilybe established from the Telugu alone,or from any one dialect
alone,yet the cumulative argument derived from a comparisonof all
the dialects has irresistibleforce.
An importantlink of evidence is
furnished by the inflexion which follows.
for

adi

'

'

in

'

'

'

'

'

"

increment
(4.)The inflexional

'

attu

'

'

or

attru.'
"

All Tamil

nouns

or
derivatives
pure Tamil roots,
and take
att-u
in the singular,
in the obliquecases
reject am
that the various case-signs
instead ; and it is to this increment
are
added
is
to
not
suffixed: e.g.,;thelocative case-signil
aram,'depth,
the
in
but to the inflexional base 'ar-attu,'
so
that,
depth is not
'%am-il,'but 'ar-att-il.' This rule admits of no exceptionin the
ordinarydialect of the Tamil ; but in the poeticaldialect,which
older condition of the language^
less distinctly
an
or
representsmore
is added directly
is sometimes
to
leftunused,and the case-sign
attu
to the depth (from
the crude base : e.g., instead of kay-attu-kku,'
kayam,'deyth'), kaya-kku is used in the Chintamani. When the
increment
is not followed by any signof case, but by another
'attu

which end in

am,' whether

'

Sanscrit

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

like the other inflexion

noun,

'

in

and like the

'

it has the force either of the

inflexion ti,'
'

e.g.,
This

'

mar-attu

koppu, the branch of

like 'ad
inflexion,

Telugu, is used
formative

of the

'

and

in connexion

base,which

'

'

ar

with

in

tree, kul-attu min,'tank fish.

'

Canarese,and

the

is used

corresponding
Telugu
of an adjective;
or
genitive
'

ti in
or
^i,'
singularalone. 'am,' the

onlyby the

'

'

nominative in the
p2

212

NOUN.

THE

is retained
singular,
all the

in the nominative only,but in

not
plural,
and the
is appended,
To it the signof plurality
signof plurality
; e.g., maranggalil('maram-

in the

cases.
oblique

follows
case-sign
in trees.
gal-il'),

the

'

'

pronominals
plural(neuter)
naturally
of relation (e.ff.,
those (things);
^sila,,'
nouns
few; pala,'
avei,'
inflexional
the
which receive in their obliquecases
ella,'
all),
;
many
increment
aBRu,'pronounced attru.' Thus, from ellam,'all,which
is properly ejla-um
('um
being the conjunctiveand intensitive
even
all,all together),
particle
even, and 'ella-um' or 'ellam' signifying
the locative which is formed by the Tamil is ellavattrilum,
(ella-(v)in all,literally
in all. So also
avei,'they (neut.)j
even
attr'-ilum),
forms its accusative not by adding ei,'the accusative case-sign"
There

in Tamil

are

few

and

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

to
'

'

avattrei

signof

'

the

inflexional

'

by inserting attru,'and adding ei thereto, e.g.,

('av-attr-ei '),them ; in which instance ei (for a '),the
is rejected,
and its placeis suppliedby
attru,'the
plural,
increment of this class of plurals.

avei,'but

'

'

'

'

'

'

It is evident

that

the Tamil

'

increments,

attu

'

and

'

attru,'are

and in pronunciidentical.
The difference in use is slight,
ation
virtually
still slighter
and
in
is
pronounced exactly
general attru
;
that they
like
attu
by the vulgar. We may, therefore,
c(|)nolude
and the same, and on examining the Telugu we find additional
are
one
confirmation of their identity.In Telugu,avi,thfiy
answering
(neut.),
to the Tamil
'avei,'forms its inflexion in 'vati'(for'avati').
avati
This Telugu (supposititious)
is evidentlyidentical with the
Tamil
avattru.'
The
ti of this inflexion is certainly
the same
as
substantive:
and if there is no
the 'ti' of Telugu nouns
difference
ti which
forms the inflexional increment of
the
in Telugu between
and demonstratives
and the pluralinflexion 'ti'
neuter singular
nouns
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

of such words

as

between

'

the

did

Whence

we
vati,'

take its rise ?

also conclude

may

and the

singular'attu'

the
We

in the ancient dialect

'

'

see
'

which
its

that there is

plural'attru'

is included

in

'

'r,'forms

ar,'or

the

in

real difference

of the Tamil.

aRBu,'

originclearlyenough

no

or

'

attr-u,'

Canarese

; for

inflexional increment

of

in Tamil :
pluralpronominalswhich take aRRu
Tam.
'ellavara'
^Yaiimx'),
of those things;
e.g., 'avara' (corresponding
ellavaRRu
all
'),of
things; 'kelavara' (Tam. silavaRitu'),
(Tam.
r
is,as we have seen, derived from,
ofsome (things).The Canarese
identical with, d,' or
and originally
't;' and hence the Tamil in
doubling'r' gives it the sound 'ttr.' Thus, not only the Tamil
but also aRR-n,' is clearly
derived from the same
increment
att-u,'
'ad'
from
or
'ar,'and the Telugu ti,'viz.,
as the Canarese
origin
every

one

of

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the

these inflexions have

Both
sing,demonstrative.
also by the same
process; for

neat.

formed

213

INCREMENTS.

INFLEXIONAL

'

been

doubled,becomes

ar,'when

ad,' when doubled, becomes

naturallyas
and in each case
att-u ;
the doublingarises from the adjectival
use
of
the
which
It
is
rule
to
the suffixed pronoun is put.
a
recognized
Tamil
that when
the,
a
noun
ending in 'd-u' is used adjectivally,
'

'

('attr-u '),as

aRK-u

'

'

'

d-u

'

ox,

either become

'

may

'

d-in

is formed either 'erud-in

it,which

is

'

'

or

tt-u ;

e.g., from

'

'erutt-u,'
of an

'

or

'

So also

ox.

inflected by the addition of

generally

now

erud-u,'an

'

'

ad-u,'

in,'seems

to

'

adu
is vulgarly
formerlyas att-u.'
nounced
proof
northern
in the obliquecases
the
the
bulk
attu
as
by
the
natives
of Madras, for instance,use
The
of
Tamilians.
majority
'attei' ('attu-ei')
the accusative of 'adu,'tlmt,
instead of 'adei;'
as
and in the neuter
singularpronominalsuffixes to the verb the same
is not
pronunciation
only commonly heard, but is often written :
e.g., instead of 'irukkiRadukku,'to its being(the dative of 'iruMadras
Tamilians
ably
invarithat which is),
or
kkir-adu,'it is,the being,
write
irukkiRattukku ; in which compound 'attu' is evidently
instead of adu.' It is also
used as the neuter demonstrative singular
suffix of a largeclass of
deservingof notice,that the feminine singular
adi
in Telugu,and which
has
which is 'di' or
appellative
nouns,

have

been

inflected

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

been shown
tti

'

'

'

or

be identical with the neuter

to

'

in the nominative

that,and

atti is sometimes

itti' instead of

'

'

Tamil

ofthe Raja caste,a queen. Even

used in Teluguinstead of adi,'

a woman
atti,'
e.g.,- rasatti,'
'

'

is in
demonstrative,

'

this.
idi,'
'

of the Tamil
attu
identity
and the Canarese
ad,'and thus supplythe only link that is wanting
and of
to the perfectidentification of 'attu' with the Telugu 'ti,'
in ancient times,
is comadu.' The Tamil
pounded
both with
purv-att-il,'
the inflexional
of 'purv-am'
'att-u,'
antiquity,
(Sans,deriv.),
the signof the locative. Compare this with the
il,'
increment,and
the

instances will suffice to prove

Two

'

'

'

'

'

Canarese
corresponding
'

ad

is used in the

'

it in
one,

in which
purv-ad-alli,'

'

as

manner

same

Tamil

Again, the
signification.
from

is formed

'

), and 'ondru,' owe.

Syir-attu
Canarese word
corresponding
which

'

Tamil

ondu,' identical
increment

the Canarese
same;

the

and

'

'ad''

same

with

an

purpose

as

and

thousand

ayir")"inflexional

with

with

a thousand
^yirattondru,'

'

form

'

s"vir-ad

'

ondru,'is appended,it is evident

and the Tamil

'

att"

also that in this instance the Canarese

the
precisely
increment

'

and perfectly
att-u,'
agrees

'

'

to
(equivalent

it is evident that

(the inflexion of which is

When
this is compared with the
from s^vir','
a thousand
saviradondu,'

a
ayiram,'

'

'

'

the Tamil

are

'ad"

one

and

is used

"

to

that
the
for

inflexional
a's an
'att','
viz..,

signification.
adjectival

214

THE

NOUN.

and
of dotibling
hy TMans
(5.) The formationof the inflexion
Tamil nouns
ending in 'd-u' and
hardeningthe finalconsonant.
form the basis of their oblique
'b-u
cases
by doublingthe final 'd'
and 'r;' and the doubled 'd' becomes
by rule 'tt/ and the doubled
is
'R,' 'ttr' (though spelled'br'): e.g., from 'kad-u,'a jungle,
to a jvmgle; from
formed
'aB-u/ a river,'attr-il'
katt-(u)-kku,'
in a river.
('aRR-il'),
of such nouns
This doublingof the final consonant
placesthem in
It is to be regardedas
relation to the succeeding
noun.
an
adjectival
verbs ending
for when
intransitive or neuter
a
sign of transition,
double their finals,
in 'd-u' or 'b-u'
they acquirea transitive sig'
"

'

'

nification; e.g., from

'

6d-u,'to

is formed

run,

to drive; from
ott-u,'

'

to clarify,
to
('teBR-u'},
this doublingof the final is an
therefore,
comfort. Properlyspeaking,
basis : but
formative,rather than an inflexion or case-sign
adjectival

in

form is used in both conin many

other cases, the same
nections,
of the case-sign
which
is appended to the
in consequence

this,as

doubled

'tettr-u'

clear, comes

become

'teR-u,'to

final

been
having originally

compounds the force of a noun.

In Telugu the final consonant
but

form

doubled,to

the

of

of this class is hardened,

nouns

inflexion

in
stillretaining

and

noun,

basis of the

obliquecases;
ettri ('eBBi
'),but 'eti,'
of
e.g., the inflexion of eB-u,'a
a
river;and that of nadu,'a country, is n"ti,'
"q/'ocountry. In
instances the Telugu corresponds
to the Tamil
in
some
more
closely
in
bb
by changing that into Bt :'
forming the inflexion of nouns
of
the same
aBti.' If we regarded
e.g., aBB-u,' the neck; inflexion
the Telugu alone, we should consider these examples,not as instances
of the doublingof a final d
or
b,' but rather as instances of the
of ti,'
the usual inflexional suffix with those finalsj and
incorporation
should suppose this view to be confirmed by the circumstance that
we
not

is not
river,

'

or

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the

does not, like the Tamil, double

Telugu

of intransitive verbs
formative

'

chu.'

on

convertingthem

Nevertheless,the

the final
into

Tamil

'

d-u'

or

'b-u

but adds
transitives,

rule is

so

clear and

'

press
ex-

founded upon grammaticalreasons, and the

evidently
'nati,'"c., so exactly agree with the
Telugu words in question,
in them the operation
of the same
Tamil,that we cannot but recognise
In other and parallel
though somewhat disguised.
principle,
instances,
the
it
does
not
double
from
:
hardens,
Telugu
though
pad-n,'
e.g.,
Tarn, and Tel.,to sing,the Tamil forms
the
a song,
patt-u,'
Telugu
i
of
The
such
final
inflexions
as
Telugu
nati,'
pat-a.'
ofa country
of
w
hich
instead
the
nad-u
Tamil
would lead us to
nat-u,'
'),
(from
I
have
is
to
the
influence
no
of 'ti,'
doubt,
which is
expect, owing,
and

so

'

'

'

'

'

the

ordinarysuflSx of

'

'

'

the inflexion of neuter

nouns.

INFLEXIONAL

215

INCREMENTS.

7. The

increment 'i.' The inflexiou of the pluralof

inflexional
the Telugu epicenedemonstrative pronoun consists in i,'e.g., varu
(from avaru '),those persons; inflexion vari,'
of them,their.
vari
The final u
of var-u
is merelyeuphonic,
but the i of
"

'

'

'

'

is

an
certainly

'

inflexional increment ; and

'

'

'

nouns,

but is identical with

'

'

final

the
possibly

singularmasculine demonstrative inflexional vani

inflexional
regarded as a portionof ni,'the ordinary

Telugu masculine

'

'

'

'

the

'

'

'

is not

'

to

'

'

'

be
of

increment

the final i of

of

vari.'

form their singular

inflexion also in
Telugu nouns
What
is the origin
i,'e.g., kal-i,'
of a foot, ter-i,'
of a car.
of this i ?' I think we
arc
guided to a true idea of its originby
Tel.,that which is
comparing it with the possessive
varidi,'
pronoun
which
in Ku
also is
evaridi.' When
'varidi' is compared
theirs,
with the Tamil possessive avaradu,'the meaning of which is exactly
the same, we
that in each language the termination is that of the
see

small class of

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

demonstrative

neuter

which

pronoun,

is

'

adu

'

in

Tamil,

'

adi

'

in

'

'

Telugu; and we also see that the penultimate i of ' varidi is

derived by attraction,
accordingto Telugu usage, from the succeeding
demonstrative singular adi.' The
i,' which is that of the neuter
vari
final i of
therefore be regarded as an
abbreviation
may
'

'

'

'

of

'

'

at least

adi,'or

'

'

derived from it.

as

increment in 'a.' In Telugu 'a'

(8.) Telugu plural inflexional
and
.constitutes the plural inflexion of most
colloquial
pronominals,
without
of all substantive nouns
exception. '1-u,'
properly'1,'is
in Telugu,and of the
the pluralising
particleof all neuter nouns
majorityof rational ones : the inflexion is eflected by changing
'a' to
to speak more
this 'Iru' into 'la,'
or
correctly,
by suflSxing
the final vowel of 'lu' being merelyeuphonic;and it is to this
'1'
the singular
that all
incremental 'a,'as to 'ni' and 'ti,'
inflexions,
inflexion 'kattula/
the case-signs
.Arewes/
are
appended,e.g., kattulu,'
instrumental
kattula-cheta,'
by Icnives.
"

'

'

"

'

'

I have

no

doubt

that this inflexional increment

'

'

is identical

and of the
signsof the genitive,
well as in the plural,
in,the singular
as
of which as a genitive,
we
use
in
the
reflexive pronouns
in Telugu,
have an illustrationeven
tan-a,'
is to be
of self,tam-a,'of selves. This increment also,therefore,
regardedas a genitivein origin,though in actual use merely an
with

'

a,'one

of the TamilrCanarese

'

'

inflexion;and

bears

some

no

doubt

that each of the Dravidian

case-sign.
genitive
I should briefly
refer
leavingthis subject,

from
proceeds
Before

I have

inflexions

some

relation

to

it,viz.:

"

to one

which

216

NOUN.

THE

Euphonic links of connection between the base and the inflexion,

the base and the case-signs,
the inflexion and the case-signs.
or
In Tamil
the dative case-sign ku
is generally
precededby an
euphonic u,'and throughthe influence of this u the k is doubled.
Thus, from 'avan,'he,is formed not 'avanku,'to him, but 'avanukku'
('avan-u-kku'). The personalpronouns, both in the singularand in
"the plural,
make
of an
use
euphonic a in this connection,instead
'

'

'

'

of

u/

'

the

e.g., from

'

'

(or rather

nan

inflexion 'enj' and

this

from

takes

'

'

'

'

'

older

an

'

its dative

as

is formed

'),/,

eii

'enku'

not

or

enukku,'to me, but 'euakku'

(en-a-kku).
In Malayalam the personalpronouns
requirethe insertion of an
euphonic 'i' between the inflexion and the case-sign,
e.g., 'inikka,'
to me,
instances in Tamil
the euphonic
nanikka,'to thee. In some
'

'

vowel
'

which

ei.' Thus
'

or

the

is made

use

of in this connection

is not

'

'

or

'

a,'bat

ual,'a day, forms its dative not in 'nalku,' nalukku,'

In the higherdialect of the Tamil
nalakku,'but in naleikku.'
'

'

'

dative

'

case-sign ku
in those instances
especially
'

is often

directlyattached

in which

the

noun

to

terminates

the
in

noun,

liquid

'
find in that dialect not ' avarukkn
or serai-vowel ; e.g., we
('avarthe
dative
but
'avarku.'
In
ancient
Canarese also,
u-kku'),to them,

attached
invariably

was
case-sign

Whenever

used,as

has

concurrent

in this

vowels

in

meet

alreadybeen shown,

to

manner.

Tamil

and

'v'

prevent hiatus; and

'y' are
accordingly

and those inflexions

they are used between the final vowel of nouns
which begin with vowels; e.g., 'naduvil' ('nadQ-(v)-il'),
or
case-signs
in the way.
in the middle; 'variyil'
('vaTi-(y)-il'),
Compare this
with the use of
for a similar purpose in Magyar : e.g., from
v
16,'
and
of
is
formed
the
the
not
'at,'
a horse,
'loat,'
objective
sign
case,
would
be
done
in
Tamil.
and
but
16 vat,'
as
v
are
precisely
y
in the same
used by the Canarese
manner
as
by the Tamil ; but in
'

'

'

'

has

Telugu,as
The

has

way

Dravidian

'

is used

as

'

'

preventive of

v.'

or

of the
the case-sign
nominative

the nominative

of the
prepared for the investigation
of the signsof case properlyso called.

been

now

obliquecases,

Tlie accusative

of the

'n'

alreadybeen shown,

hiatus instead of

from

'

'

'

and

second

'

case.

accusative of
case.

.This

being used

"

In the

neuter

Indo-Europeanlanguages

nouns

is identical with that

identityhas arisen,I conceive,not

as

an

but
accusative,

vice

versa

from

beingused as a nominative. The accusative case-suffix

of being acted upon ; and it was
sufiixed to
or
passivity,

the accusative
is

sign"f

masculine

and

feminine

nouns

to denote

that in that instance

they

218

THE

for

both

dative suffix,

is allied to the Dravidian

the case-sign
which
instances,
a,nd which

NOUN.

is used

dative,is that which

a
essentially
and
it is the connexion
indiscriminately;

cases

be

to

appears

determines whether

the dative

which

the accusative is to be understood.

or

(1.)Accusative case-dgns ei,''e,'and 'a.' The only sign of the

accusative which the Tamil recognizes
which is suffixed to both
is 'ei,'
numbers
and to all genders; though, as has been mentioned,the
'

"

accusative of neuter

is often identical with

nouns

base.

nominative

the

or

it. The accusarher, ad-ei,'

Examples^'avan-ei,'
him,, aval-ei,'
of the Malayalam is e ;'and this is evidently
tive case-sign
a primitive
'a'
either
form of the Tamil
'ei.' The Canarese
uses
ordinarily
instances (e.g.,
or
annu,' as its accusative case-sign
; but in some
of
it appears to make
nanna,' me, ninna,'
use
na,'instead of
thee,)
the
'a.' This 'a' seems
to be equivalent
to the Malayala 'e' and
into which the Canarese short
a' is often found to change
Tamil
ei,'
by rule.
be conaThe Tamil-Malayalaaccusative case-signe' or
ei,'
may
pared with 'he' or 'e,'the dative-accusative of Hindi pronouns; with
the Gujarathidative-accusative singular'e;' and with the preponderance
'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

of the vowel

'

e' which

'

in the dative-accusatives of

is observed

Bengaliand Sindhi. Compare also the Brahui dative-accusative

e,'and the Malay e.'
ne
or
On pushingthe comparisonamongst the Scythiantongues, not a
found to resemble
the Tamil
few of their accusative case-signs
are
accusative is formed by adding 'a' to the
accusative. Thus the Wotiak
the

'

'

'

'

root, e.g.,

'

ton,'thou, ton-a,'thee.
'

'yi;'the Mongolian 'i'after

after a vowel.
yi,'

The

accusative

instead
'dji,'

consonant:

Turkish

is

'

i'

or

of the Turkish

'

The

Turkish

'i' is doubtless

Turkish accusative
the
is

same

process

case-signni,'from

by

'

which

derived
undoubtedly

from

It would

therefore appear

contained

nasal ; and

the Turkish

softened
which

it has

dative

the old Oriental

that the

in accordance

form

of

the

been

derived,by

'eh'
case-sign
Turkish

or

'

'

'

or

ga

Scythianaccusative
with

Oriental

'yeh,'
ghah;'

originally

this

find in
we
supposition
accusative case-sign
the Calmuck
an
correspondingto the
pronouns
Oriental Turkish
'ni,'e.g., bida-ni,'
its, from 'bida,'we, and also
thee,from the bases na' and dzi.' With
na-mai,'me, and dzi-mai",'
the Brahui dative-accusative ne
this we may againcompare
e.'
or
and naturally
be softened
That the Oriental Turkish 'ni' could easily
into 'yi'or 'V appears from the Dravidian languagesthemselves;in
n4n,'Tarn.,/, has been
which, for instance,the personalpronoun
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

softened first into

to
terminations,

Turkish and
*

'

'

obliquecases and the verbal

the basis of the
beingevidently

yan,'and then,in

'

en' and

en.'

'

the

'ni'

if the Dravidian
the accusative,

Mongoliansignof

is allied to it,as

219

ACCUSATIVE.

THE

'ei' or

this ei' or '6'

supposedto be probable,
must
have been preceded or followed by a nasal ; and in
originally
shall discover
the ot!her Dravidian accusative case-signs
we
investigating
this to have been actually
for concluding
the case.
some
reasons
e

have

we

'

'am,' annu,' 'anna,''nu,'"c. 'am 'is

ease-signs
the characteristicsignof the ancient Canarese accusative,
and is used
in connexion
with nouns
and pronouns
her. The
alike,e.g.,'aval-am,'
modern form of the Canarese accusative is 'annu,'
more
e.g., 'aval-annu,'
and
this
is
with
older 'am.'
'annu'
the
identical
her;
certainly
has in other instances besides this evinced a tendencyto change
'am
into 'an;' for he is 'avam'
in ancient Canarese,though avan' in
Tamil.
The change of the old Indo-European 'm,' the sign of the
accusative in Latin and Sanscrit,into the Greek
is also a parallel
The
ancient Canarese
no
case.
sooner
changed into
case-sign am
be impelledto euphonise an
an,'than it would irresistibly
by the
addition of nu.' Even in Tamil
vin,'the shy,is commonly pronounced
and
in
it
is
'vinnu'
rule.
Hence
we
'vinnu,'
Telugu
by
from
to be quitesafe in deriving annu
seem
directly
an,'and an
(2.) A

ccviative

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

from

'

'

has

form

of the Canarese

annu,'or simply

'

in this instance

force of the

appendage
been

'

'

'

am.'

Another
of

'

'

'

nna

or

been

softened

to

'

na,'e.g., na-nna/
into

the final

a,'whilst

'

'a,' through the

the

'

The

me.

rather,perhaps,the

and
rejected,

been

is 'anna,'
instead
case-sign

'

:' or

primitive an
nu,' has

accusative

changed

'

'

"

final

'

u,'

attractive

entire

euphonic
originalcase-signan
'

'

of the base has been

doubled

and

of the signification.
objectivity
The Tulu accusatives 'nu' and 'n' {e.g.,
yannu,'me)
'yanu' or
evidentlyidentical with the Canarese, and also with the Telugu;
valuable as tendingto show the connection of
they are peculiarly

the

Telugu accusative suffix 'nu

to

augment

or

express

the

'

are

and

the stillolder

first person
accusative
In

'

am.'

singularends
difiers from

Telugu

nominative, as

the

The
in

'

'

or

Tuda

with
'ni,'

of the pronoun
of the
ama,' e.g., 'en-ama,'me : when the Gond

accusative is

in the other

'an'

accusative

the dative it is denoted

neuter

the older Canarese

Dravidian

by

'un.'

the
ordinarily

same

dialects;but when

as

the

the
noun

the accusative must be

majors,'
The accusative case-sign'
expressed
by the addition of a signof case.
be
as in Tamil,to neuter
nouns
; but whether
may optionally suffixed,

belongsto

the class of 'rationals'

or

'

220

NOUN.

THE

the signof case

or
plural,
minor,'singular
must be suflSxed to the inflexion,
basis,not to
or oblique-case
genitive,
the nominative,
the nominative.
the inflexion is the same
When
as
the

be

noun

'major'or

'

is attached is stillregardedas the

case-sign
of no exceptions.
so that in theorythe rule admits
inflexion,
ni :'when
The signof the accusative in Telugu is nu
or
ceded
preis
by i it is 'ni,'e.g., 'inti-ni,'dom-umf where it preceded
by any other vowel it is nu,'e.g., bidda-nu,' puer-um.'
A similar 'ni' or 'na' is used in Telugu (butnot so systematically
ment;
the correspondingin
in Tamil)as an euphonicinflexional increas
and 'na'
ni
is also a sign of the locative in Telugu.
or
and are
originally,
Probablythose locative and genitivesuffixes were
stillto be regarded,
but the signof the accusaand the same;
tive,
as one
though nearly identical in sound, proceedsapparentlyfrom a
with
difierent source.
Comparing it with the Canarese and especially
the Tulu accusative,
avoid the conclusion that,though
we
can
scarcely
in sound it is identical with the ordinaryinflexional augment, it is to
accusative case-signannu
be regardedas a relic of the Canarese
or
am.'
The suffixes of the accusative of the Telugu personal
pronouns
be
this
The
inflexions
of those
alone.
can
explainedon
supposition
different from their accusatives,
and incapable
are
essentially
pronouns
with them ; and the accusatives of those pronouns
of beingconfounded
and not merely for euphony,the nasal suffixes nu'
take of necessity,
and
in the singular,
in the plural. Thus,
nnu
mmu
mu
or
or
whilst
na,'of me, is the inflexion of nenu/ /, its accusative is 'nanu'

the

which

to

noun

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the

'nannu,' me;

or

'

'

'mnuu,' thee,and
or
mimrau,'pou,

their

accusative

of the

are
plurals

'

second
'

niamu

'

or

whilst the inflexions of those

'

person

is 'ninn'

mammu,"

'mimu'

ws,

pluralsare

'

or

and

ma'

'mi.'
these accusatives

When

are

compared with

the Canarese

and

Tulu,

with
their virtual
especially
yanu,'me, and ninu,'thee,in the latter,
and therefore the originof them
all from the ancient
identity,
be doubted.
Canarese
am,' can scarcely
We
proceed to compare this accusative case-signam,'
may now
'an,''annu,' nu,' or 'na' with the Gujarathidative-accusative 'ne,'
'

'

'

'

'

with the

Panjabi nu'

and the Turkish

the
'

and

greaternumber

an,'"c., which

are

or

'

num,' and

also with the Brahui

'

'ne

'

or

'e,'

In the

i.'
Finnish tongues
Mongolian 'ni' or
of singular
accusatives are formed by suffixing
'en,'
also used as signsof the genitive
: in the
plural

rarelyany difference between the nominative and the accusative.

towards
of
further
the
the
source
Ascending
Scythiantongues,
in
of
the
the
tablets
lind
at Behistun an
unlanguage
Scythian

there is

we

'

THE

link
questionable

of connexion

the second

'

with

the Dravidian.

singularin that

person
is the accusative;and

'nin'

nin-u,'thee,
we

languageis

when

fail to be

cannot

221

INSTRUMENTAL.

this is
struck

The pronoun
of
ni,'thou, of which

'

compared with the

with

the

Tulu

closeness of the

resemblance.
We

should

accusative
In

also notice the extensive

in the
case-sign

Canarese,and
A

or

'

'

as

an

Indo-European family.
in Greek, 'n ;'but
Gothic, m' predominates,
like the
of the ancient
m
virtually
identical,
'

'

'

are

the

'

'

languagesof the

Sanscrit,
Latin,and

these consonants

of

use

'

similar form

'

of the modern.

of the accusative

as
beingextensively
prevalent,

we

have seen, in the

Scythiantongues,it would be unreasonable to derive

Dravidian case-sign
from the Indo-European. In this instance it

the

is better to conclude that

both families have

retained

relicof their

oneness.
original
It only remains to inquirewhether the Tamil-Malayilam accusative
case-sign'ei' or 'e' cannot be connected with the Canarese 'am,'
na.'
On
aunu,' and
comparing the ancient Canarese accusative
modern
ninnam,' thee,with the more
ninna,'it can
scarcelybe
doubted that the latter is derived from the former by the ordinary
of the final nasal.
Through this very
process of the softening
away
'

'

'

'

the final

process
'

to

a,' e.g.,

modern

sign

but

be any
ei ',for

cannot
'

of many

substantive

maram,'

Ancient

Can.,

If then

Can.

'na'

not

'

'

am

'

or

raara

'

softened,
mara-vu,'

sign of the accusative in ninna/ thee,is

'a' (instead
of 'am'), as is probablythe case, there
in derivingfrom it the Tamil accusative casedifficulty
the change of 'a' into
ei,'takes placeso frequently
the

'

'

that it may almost be considered

'
Tamil
ila,'
not, with the modern

The

been

'

'

tree,

has

nouns

'

or
instrumental,

differentDravidian

third

dialects

as

dialectic one, e.g.,compare

Tamil

case.

illei.'

Different

'
"

suffixes of the

as

Old

used by
are
particles

instrumental

case.

In

Telugu the most classicalinstrumental is identical with the inflexional

into
the
and consists in changing ti
or
inflexion,'
ti,'
locative,
'

'

'

ta

'

or

ta

with
j' e.ff., ra-ta,'

of which

'

is

'

'

stone,from

'

'

a stone,the
ra-yi,'

flexion
in-

r"-ti.'

This form, of the instrumental

and
signification,

at

all events

the locative ; e.g., 'inta,'

in
inflexion

'

is 'inti.' The

more

was

probablya

ginal
locative in its ori-

it is identical with

house,from

commonly

an

old form of

of which
a house,
'illu,'
used

the

of the

instrumental

'

of 'che
Telugu is formed by the addition to the inflexion of any noun
or
cheta,'which is itself the instrumental form of che-yi (Tam.,
'

'

'

222

NOUN.

THE

the Jinnd,signifying
'kei'),
hy

6jr
{of);e.g., 'nibbu-cheta,'

the hand

Jire,literally
hy the hand offire.
The inflexion,
without the addition of any special
sufSx:,
or genitive,
is also occasionally
used in Telugu,as in High Tamil, to denote the
instrumental case,
The

well

as

the ablative of motion

as

suffixed

is also -sometimes

'

particle na'

the locative.

and
to

neuter

to

nouns

denote all three ablatives.

In

Canarese

Ancient

modern

case-signis
form
euphonised,adjectival

the

'
dip,lect
inda,'an

sufBlx.

The

suflSx of the Tulu

I consider

'

im,' the

old

instrumental

is

or
'

originwith 'in,'the suffix

locative.' It has alreadybeen

:' and both in Canarese

between

the ablative
former

signof the
poets ;

e.g.,

'

and

instrumental

of the Tamil
how

seen

in Tamil

of motion

;'in

im

of the

the

same

d'da.'

Canarese

in

'

'

'

and

easily
so

of

ablative
'

there is

the

is very often used

'

to
suffix,

'

wound
val-in aya vadu,'Tarn.,
a

motion/

changesinto

close

connexion

that
instrumental,

for the

be identical

the

case-

latter,
especially
by

the

a sword,not
inflicted
''by'

In Canarese
^Iso the ablative of motion is denoted
'from' a sword.
more
frequentlyby the suffix of the instrumental than by its own
suffix. Through a similar tendencyto confound these cases, the casesignof the instrumental has disappearedfrom the Latin,Greek, "c.,
and the signof the ablative has come
Even
to be used instead.
in
'close by'),has lost this
locative {e.g.,
a
English,'by,'originally
and is used at present to form
the ablative,or
meaning altogether,
more
properlythe instrumental.
In Tamil and Malay"lam the suffix of the instrumental
is al ;'in
al' is the case-sign
of the ablative or instrumental
High Tamil 'an' also.
in
in G6nd, though
the
Telugu, wLich is spoken between
Tamil country and the country of the Gonds,a different case-sign
is
used. This suffix al is possiblyderived from, or allied to, kal,'
which is contained not only in the Dra vidian
Tarn., a Qhannel,a noun
but also in Bengali.
dialects,
In some
dialeqts 'channel' is a cojnpoundword (Tam., 'kalvay;'
and the only meaning of 'kal' is a
Can., 'kalive'),
Tei..,
'ikalava;'
'

'

'

'

'

foot. This meaning is contained

which

made

the Tamil
of

contains

'kal,'as

lost its initial k

'

'

in the

also,suits

Tamil, but that

better the

signof the instrumental

in the

same

manner

as

supposeduse

case,
'

of

'kal'

kal,' the

"

channel,'
which

may

neuter

is

have

signof

is known
to have dope in Teluguand Tulu,in which it has
plurality,
become '1-u,'
irpm 'kal-u' or 'gal-u.'
by corruption
In the Indo-European familyof languagesthere are no signs
of

the instrumental

case

which at allresemble those that

we

have noticed

in the

223

INSTRUMENTAL.

THE

family. The only analogieswhich I have noticed

exist between the
those which
are
(andprobablythey are illusory)
of the Tamil-Malayalam
and the corresponding
of
case-sign
case-signs
Drividian

the Finnish
the

Magyar, which

with
and

tongues. Compare

is 'al' in the

'

which
A

with the instrumental

'el'
singular,

in the

suffix of

plural;and

suffixes of the Finnish proper,

el.'
augmented forms of ' al and
euphonically

alia,'ella,'
"c.,the

'

'

al

instrumental

'

are

'

mode
of forming the instrumental
periphrastic
as also in the northern
languages,
case, which obtains in the Dravidian
of the preterite
of the verb
verbal participle
is by means
vernaculars,
'

to

secondary or

take,'and

the

accusative

abstract

or

mth

nominative

of any

noun

hnife,
having taken
literally

Tam,,
'kattiyei
(k)kondu,'
the
correspondingBengali churi diya,'with {i.e.,
knife: compare
having taken)a knife.
of the Dravidian (asof all the
This has arisen from the repugnance
languagesto continue to make use of any inflexional form
Scythian)
after it has ceased to express its original
meaning,and has become a
that has taken place,
in the instance of
technical sign. When
as
mere
kal
the Tamil
or
al,'those languagesare often found to abandon
and to adopt some
the old form, or let it fall graduallyinto disuse,
word or phrase instead which has a distinctmeaning of its own, and
of the
itselfat once
to the intelligence
the use
of which recommends
speaker.
Under this head it is desirable to enquireinto the force of the

e.g.,

'

'

'

Dravidian

'

case,

conjunctive

grammarians

Dravidian

in the Sanscrit

nouns

geniusof
'

their

own

and

have

"rder,and

ablative of motion

in

and the

as
thoughrepresented
Sanscrit precedents
; and the

have

doingso
'

Dravidian

which

it is denoted.
of their

system

case

done

violence to the

doubtful whether the Dravidian

locative

diflferent
by

case,

by

arranged the
It is very

grammar.
'

the suffixes

'

are

not

one

and

the

same

grammarians,in deference to
'social ablative,'
as some

have

has
called it,or rather,as it should be termed, the conjunctive
case,'
added on to the
or
been omitted in each dialect from the list of cases',
'

instrumental,
simplybecause it is a case of which the Sanscrit knows
nothing.
of the conjunctive
classed
The onlv reason
are
why the case-signs
in Tamil with that of the instrumental is that the fact of their being
is less obvious in that posidestitute of a proper ,placeof their own
tion
the diiferthan it would .be in any other. Notwithstanding
this,
ence

between
The

those two

instrumental

'by means
'.by,'

cases

is considerable.

is best rendered in

Englishby the preposition

is that of the prepoof/ the force of the conjunctive

224
sition

in the
'with,'
the

of the Latin

sense

Englishprepositionwith

it with

cut

NOUN.

THE

'

knife

the former
strumental

'

'
"

I went

'with'

case, the latter

is used in either sense;

e.g.,

with him :' but in the Dravidian

would be

by that

'

times
Some-

with.
'cum,'or together

of

'

guages
lan-

by the signof the iarepresented

the conjunctive;
e.g., katti-(y)-al,'
'

with him.
Tam., by a hnife,
'avan-odu,'
Though the Sanscrit and the Indo-Europeanlanguagesgenerally
destitute of this case, the Latin evinces a tendencytowar(isit in
a,re
such forms as
nobiscum
;'whilst most of the Scythiantongues have
formed conjunctive
a regularly
case
equallywith the Dravidian : and
be comof the Calmuck, may
even
pared
'den,'the conjunctivecase-sign
with the Tamil
the resemblance is accidental)
(thoughprobably
'udan.'
conjunctive
case-sign,
The Tamil conjunctive
are
'udan,' odu,'and 'odu ;'of
case-signs
which the two last have now
no
meaning of their own, and the firstis
used as a noun
continuity.'
occasionally
signifyingconjunction or
It is also capableof beingcombined
with another word as an adjective,
a fellow
servant; and with the addition of the emphatic
e.g., udan al,'
'e
it is used also as an adverb to signify
immediately.
('udan-e'),
i
s
The final 'an' of 'udan'
(Tel.,'todan-u'), probablya format
tive additiou to the root-syllable,
is another
and equivafor 'udam'
lent
Tamil
form ; and the first syllable
can
scarcelybe doubted to
be allied to 'odu,'the other signof the same
in High Tamil.
case
'u' is always pronounced as 'o' before
d,'and other cerebrals,
whenever
the word in which it appears has a second syllable.Hence
'udan'
is invariably
pronounced odan ;'and in the Canarese postposition
'odane'
is
written
this
as
(Tel., todane'),
proiinnciation
well as heard,
'odu' (emphatically
the third suffix of this
"6d-e'),
in the colloquial
dialect (in
in Tamil, and the most
case
common
Malayalam 'ota'),is evidentlyallied to 'odu,' and through it to
As neither 'odu' nor
'odu' has any meaning of its own
'udan.'
in
and it
alteration,
Tamil, it is evident that they have undergone some
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

is desirable

to

trace

their connexions

in the other dialects.

case
turningto the Telugu,we find that its conjunctive
signs,
which are evidentlyallied to those of the Tamil, have the consonant
and
of them, e.g., 'toda'
't' prefixedto each
'to.' Supposing
Tel.,with,to be identical with the Malayalam o^a and the
'toda,'
is put beyond a doubt by comparing the
Tamil
6du' (and its identity
udan' with th^Tel.
and the Tam. adverb
Tamil adjective
'todan-u,'
the conjunctive
with the Tel. 'todanfi'),
suffixesof the Tamiludane
destitute of meaning by themselves,
are
now
Malayalam,which were
for
the
Tamil
found to acquire
'tora'
a very appropriate
meaning;
(in

On

'

'

'

'

'

'

226

NOUN.

THE

the Dravidian dative

between
analogies

case-sign ku

Of

is very remarlsable.

'

'

dialects and

the North-Indian

the

all the

Southern,this is
be regarded as

important;and it cannot but

and
betokeningeither an originalconnexion between the Northern
of
the origination
Southern races, priorto the Brahmanic
or
irruption,
from one and the same
both races
primitiveScythianstock.
the clearest and

most

dative-accusatives of

The

vernaculars

North-Indian

the

have

tion,
supposed to be accusatives in their originalsignificaalone. This is the opinion
and datives in a secondaryapplication
of Dr. Max
who attempts to derive
ke,' the BengalidativeMiiller,
formative
ka.' I need not
accusative,from the Sanscrit adjectival
been

commonly

'

'

here criticize the Professor's

and exclusively
dative
as
a
equivalent,
distinctively
Dravidian
and also,as will be shown, in the
languages,

suffix in the

Scythiantongues, appears
was

right,in holding
the

accusative to
and

in

to

me

beyond

prove,

reasonable doubt,

an

far earlier and

is attributed

which

to

snffix,
objective
originally
; and that its
than the late Sanscrit genealogy
remote
more
it by the Professor. J)r. Kay is,I believe^

dative,not

originwas

of this

use

its

or
particle,

that it

for the extensive

arguments ;

to

that

the
of

use

attention
directing

dative

'ko'

even

the

to

has

better

in

the

claim

Northern

paralleluse

of

the

than

vernaculars,

the

Semitic

position
pre-

'la.'

The suffix of the dative in the various

the Dravidian

to
familyperfectly
corresponds

Indian

dative-accusative.

languages of

The

forms

dative and

the Turkish
to the North-

of this suffix which

found in

are

'ke,''ka,' ge,''ga,' ghah,'and also 'a.'

dative is eh or
The Osmanli Turkish
yeh,'the initial k or
g
and
then
of the older dialect having been softened into
discarded.
y,'
de
and
the
Manchu
dou
The
allied to
Mongolian
are
possibly
has
for
it
been
remarked
that the change of
the Tartar
already
ke;
Turkish

the Oriental

'

are

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'k'

into 't'

or

vice versa,

'd,'or

of tongues, and

group

'

'

that

is not

amongst

even

an

uncommon

in this

one

sister dialects

belongingto

the pluralising
in one
dialect is
familyor sub-genus,
jjarticle
et.' Perhaps,therefore,we
venture
ek,' and in another
to
may
ke
the
with
not
but
connect
the Uriya
only
Mongolian de,'
even

the

same

'

"

'

'

te

'

and the

'

'

Singhaleseta,'which

differentoriginfrom

'

'

ku

'

and

are

commonly supposed to

have

ghai.'
In the Finnish
familyof languagesthe Turko-Dra vidian dative
le,'not ke.'
re-appears ; thoughthe Finnish proper has
In the Irtish and Surgutishdialects of the Ostiak the suffix of the
a

'

'

'

"

dative is
The

'

to
ga,'corresponding

ordinaryOstiak has also

'

the Oriental Turkish

as
a,' softened,

'

'

ga

or

'

ge.'

in the Oriental Turkish

THE

from
itself,

The

suffix 'va'

and remarkable
analogiesare those which
interesting
broughtto lightby the Scythiantablets of Behistun. We

learn from those tablets that

with

are

adesdve

most

have been

by

Mordwin

the

ga.'

'

or

ga.' Compare also

'

227

DATIVE.

the

and
Dravidian,

the oldest

The dative

Scythictablets

resemblance

'

'

ikki

is almost

and

suffix which
'

or

ikka.'

any

is most

Mr.

identical
used

Ostiak,was

Central Asia of which

or
case-sign

is

which
suffix,

the Turkish

also with

Scythiandialect of

extant.

in the

dative

remains

used
largely

Norris

noticed

of this suffix to the

the

'

nek
and
Magyar genitive-dative
the Telugu genitive
yokka ; but its resemblance to the
post-position
dative suffix of the Telugu and of the other Dravidian dialects is
'

'

'

closer and
The

'

reliable.

more

Tamil

'

'

ku

becomes, as

in construction ; the Canarese

'kka'

we
'

'

have

becomes

ge

'

ige,'and

becomes

letter for

'ikka;' which last form of the

with the Scythian of Behistun.
letter,

Cuneiform

'

akku

'

seen,

'

or

the

suffix is

'

ukku

'

Malayala
identical,

Compare, e.g.,

the

ni-ikki,'to thee,with the corresponding

Scythian ni-ikka or
and the Telugu ni-kn.'
Malayala nani-kka,'
It has thus been
that the principal
shown
languagesof the
Scythianfamilyaccord very exactlywith the Dravidian languagesin
the use of
the suffix of
related particle,
as
ka,' ki,' kn,' or some
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the dative.
be noticed

It may

languageof the Malays there

to or for,and
that there is
signifies

also,that

in the

is

ka,'which
prefix, ko or
in Russian.
similar preposition
even
'

'

It is difficult to determine
has any

connected with
"

with

connexion
the

'\k' is

which

'

whether

ke.'

It

the Finnish

seems
certainly

dative
much

more

Tibetan,Pushtoo,and Marathi dative

evidentlyequivalentto

[Compare,e.g.,the Marathi
New
Persian
to-ra.']

'

the

New

with
to thee,
tu-14,'
thee,

the

suffix

'

le

'

closely
'la;'

suffix

Persian

'

ra.'

corresponding

'

The

Malayalam

alone

of

all the

Dravidian

dialects appears

suffixes of the dative,viz.,'kka,'which

possess two

used, and
largely

'

inna,' na,'or
'

This

the dative

'

a,' which

is

to

is the suffix most

used
occasionally

is

in

inna
a
singularonly.
compound form; and is
from
in-ka.'
The Tamil is fond
evidently
euphonizedand softened
which are to be declined the euphonic
of addingto the base of nouns
before suffixing
in
increment
the signsof
a
genitive),
(originally
The same
in Malay"lam also. Consequently,
case.
practiceprevails
this exceptional
Malayaladative is not inna' or na,'but is simply
'awanna,'
'a;'and the doubled 'n' which sometimes precedesit (e.g.,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"12

228
to

THE

him) is an

or

of

'

'

NOUN.

euphoniccompensationfor the

'ga' has been softened away in

in Malayalam.
Ostiak,precisely
as

kfi'

'

the Turkish

loss of the

or

and

'

some

*k'

The

k.'

dialects of'

to have
This case
ease.
'fifth''
appears
been included in the list of cases
by Dravidian grammariansout of
deference to the grammaticalprinciples
of the Sanscrit.
and meaning of a
It is true,that if we
look at the construction
ablative of raption will,
Dravidian sentence, the signification,
of an
be found to exist;and it will be found to be expressedmuch
mol-e
betweeii
than in Sanscrit : but a distinction is to be drawn
even
clearly
the existence of a case
and the existence of a case-sign,
or
regulai;,.
technical suffix of case.
The Dravidian
languageshave undoubtedly

The

cMative

of motion

or

"

'

'

an

'

ablative

but I doubt

of

motion,'and

whether

great

they have

any

other

many

ablatives besides

case-suffix which

belongsexclu-

"

sivelyto the ablative of motion.

On

comparingthe

used sometimes

in

an

suffixes of the ablatives of motion

instrumental

the various dialects of this

the

class and

the

sense)with

(whichare

those of the locatives in

real differenceis apparent

family,no

also

between,

least,no

adequate reason
appears
for regardingthem as distinct and independentsuffixes;
for whatever
difference does exist is to be attributed,
not to the signsof case, but to
;
verbal participles
the verbs or
which
annexed
to them.
The
are
the
to
object of the ablative of motion is to furnish an answer
whencel and this answer
is obtained in the Dravidian
question,
tongues,
of place the sign of the locative,
to a noun
and annexby suffixing
ing
of motion.
'to that sign a verb
the locative is
By this means
without
converted into what is called the ablative,
changing its caseand the idea of change of placeis thus naturally
and neces-,
suffixes,
sarilyeduced. Native Tamil grammarians appear to hold that il,'
and
the most largelyused sign,:
the ordinarysuffix of the abln.tive,
il,'
of the locative in the colloquial
dialect,
though written and pronounced,
with different significations.
I am
alike,are different particles
suaded,
perone

other; or

at

'

'

however,
system

of

locative and
iblatives by
In

this view

is erroneous;

classificationwould

case

languageshave

that

no

ablative,properly

instrumental
the addition

determine
so

that

that the

natural

Dr4vidiani

but
called,

which
suffixes,

of

and

are

only a variety
of,
capable of beoominge

verbs.
appropriate

Tamil,the suffixeswhich

used in

r.

formingthe fifth case, or

il and 'in.' 'il' (Tel.'illu')signifies
iblativesof motion, are
by,
tselfa house,a place,e.g., k6-(v)-il,'
God's house; and it is,
a temple,
.well suited for beqominga signof the locative. Accordingly
he.vefore
'

'

'

are

'

'

THE

it has

ABLATIVE

229

MOTION.

OF

placein the listof locative suffixes,

as well

and
ablative;

locative far
The

in those of the

as

in the

dialect it is used as a sign of

colloquial
than any other particle.
frequently

more

other

the

I conceive,with
the Old
ira,'
suffix,in,'is identical,
Canarese signof the instrumental : it is used as an instrumental in
Tamil also;but probablyboth that 'im' and 'in' were
previously
'

'

"

locative suffixes,
and were
suffixes of the genitive.In
originally
Canarese the
proper suffix of the ablative is 'attanim,'which is itself
foi-nied from
'

attal-u

the

'

or

adverb

demonstrative

atta,'there,

'

'

or

'attana'

with
(identical

attal,'that side),by

'

the

addition

of'

from which
modern
im,'the old instrumental suffix,
inda,'the more
is derived;and this 'inda,'though the ordinarysign of the
suffix,
instrumental, is also ordinarily
used,with, the addition of a verb of
motion,as the signof the ablative. Whilst I think that not only il,'
but also 'in' aiid im,' were
locative suffixes,
it is more
originally
difficultto determine whether
'il' and 'in' were
identical
originally
in sound and signification,
well as in application.
as
'

'

'

In

instance in which

every

'

il ' is used

substituted for it poetically

; and it is almost
that
'

'

'

in ', may

exclusively
by

is used.

be

the poets

'

with
On

'

the other

hand,

the Canarese

'

il ' and

'

im

'

identical; for

as

the demonstrative

do not
'

il

local suffixes

'

'

to have

seem

'

alii

and

'

as

but
locative,

this,if

we

have

far wider

regard

concluded

'

have

to

as

range

as

is in

regardedby

the
li,'

from

sprung

used

are

Canarese

instrumental and ablative.

will be

'

of

base

different

root.

may
In

as

origin,

Besides
found

to

therefore

be

Finnish

'

of

'im'

locative in its

a
locative,it
originally
and
il,'
analogiesthan

'

in

an

'

which
illi,'

'

is used not

been

is in that dialect

whilst 'in',
signs of the locative exclusively,
(modernizedinto inda),and though possiblya

Tamil,

a house,identical
Moreover, in Telugn, illu,'
euphonized into in,'in the inflexion ' inti,'
of a house.

in

il,'is

'

in

and

frequently in,'used as
Maigyar we find an,' en,' and still more
tive
of the locative. Even in Sanscrit we find in used as a locasi'gus
in him;
of the third person, e.g., tasmin,'
of pronouns
case-sign
i,'yet in the
and though this in may have been euphonizedfrom
and the G-reek
to
^v,'corresponding
Latin locative prepositionin
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

th6 Sanscrit
on
'il,'

'

ni,'we

the other

'

'

find the existence of

hand,

has

very remarkable

apparent affinitiesout

no

analogy,

of the

pale of

the Dravidian

family.
seems
probablethat in,'one of the signs of the locative in
Tamil, is identical with 'in,'a sign of the genitive,or inflexional
'

It

increment,in

Tamil-Canarese

of affinitiesis

as
disclosed,

and if so,

will be

seen

new

when

and
the

very wide range

of
case-signs

the

230

NOUN.

THE

are
genitive
inquiredinto.
atta/ which is often used in Tamil as a
the possiand this shows
is undoubtedlya genitivesuflSx,
bility
locative,
from its use as a
of the use of in
as
a locative being derived
genitive.
The Tamil
il and
in
they are used
agree in this,that when
'

'

'

'

'

'

"

ablative,
they both requireto be followed by verbs
is
of motion.
In the spoken dialect of the Tamil, the verb of motion
irundij,'
precededby the verbal participlesnindru,'standing,or
as

suffixes of the

'

'

that
participles
strengthensthe supposition
In the
il and
in
are
properly to be regarded as locatives.
il or
dispensedwith, and
however, theyare ordinarily
higherdialect,
virum
'in' is followed by a verb of motion
alone; e.g., malei-(y)-in
In this expression
aruvi,'the cataract which fqlh from the mountain.
from a place is plainlyimplied in the aoristic
the idea of motion

heing. The

of these

use
'

"

'"

'

'

'

'

'

'

falls; and hence in,'whatever

origin,
acquiresthe force of a signof the ablative
'

relative participlevirum,' which

'

been

have

may

in

it
of

motion.
and
compound ablative suffixes attanim
not
so
are
commonly used as 'inda,'the terminal
'adeseyinda'
member
of the second compound suffix;and though 'inda'
is described
I have
doubt that it is
to be the sign of the instrumental,
no
and
im
and
identical with
is
a locative in its origin. inda
in,'
alii
not only used by itself to form the ablative,but is also added
to
for the purpose
the sign of the locative,
of denotingthe
or
illi,'
alHnda
ablative.
or
Compare the Canarese
illinda,'
from, with
Tamil compound
il-irundu
the corresponding
il-nindru.'
or
In Telugu the particlena,'which corresponds
in
to the Tamil
In

the

Canarese

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

and

the Old

Canarese

normal

form

im,' is

'

This

ablative of motion.
it may

at

'

locative
a
distinctively

more

is 'ni'
particle

be identifiedwith

once

Telugu ablative of motion

verbal participlenundi
or

is

The
the
any

'

'

suffix

such

as

'

'

na

'

or

'

and

Canarese.

'

nunchi

ni,'

'

'i;'and

il

'

the Tamil

in.'

or

alone,without
'

in ;

'

an

if this is its
'

formed by
ordinarily

ablative has stillless of the character of

Tamil

after

than

'

means

the

of
aid of

this
consequently

independentcase than in
locative particle,
however,viz., 16,'which
an

'

'

'

il or
ul and the Canarese
to the Tamil
corresponds
61,'is often
of place(precisely
suffixed in Telugu to the noun
il or 'in' is in
as
Tamil),before the addition of the verbal participlenundi.' This
is properly unchi,'from a verb signifying
to place,which
l)aniciple
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

has been
in use,
to

to
euphonisedby prefixing

though

not

in

to
origin,

the

stand,which is used by the Tamil.

it the nasal

'

n.'

It

corresponds
participle
'nindru,'from 'nil,'

The

'sixth'
or
genitive,

formed in the Dravidian

various

each
suffixes,

(1.)The

231

GENITIVE.

THE

case.

The

"

or
case
genitive
possessive

languagesin various

of which

and

ways

be examined

to
requires

is

of
by means
separately.

abbreviated pronominalffenitive.
The

personalpronouns of
the Tamil form their inflexion,'
or
ordinarygenitive,
by shortening
the included vowel of the root ; e.g., ni (properlynin '),thou,
This shortened form has the force
nin,'thi/;'nam,'we, 'nSm,'our.
of a genitive
in Tamil without any suffix or addition whatever, though
it is often strengthened
by the addition of a suffix in the other dialects:
to have
a
e.g.,in the Canarese it requires
genitivesuffix appended to
it,and of itself is merely an inflexional basis. It may be worth
noticingthat in the Scythianof the Behistun tablets the nominative of
the pronoun
of the second person is long,viz.,'ni,'whilst the inflexional
form and encliticpossessiveni
is short,
in Tamilas
precisely
"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Canarese.
We

shall best understand

form
Originand force of this peculiar
of the genitive
of personalpronouns, by considering
it as a pronominal
of quality
relation becomes an
adjective.Every Dravidian
or
noun
on
adjective
being prefixedto a noun-substantive for the purpose of
it ; and ordinarily
the only changeswhich
it undergoeson
qualifying
such petty euphonicchangesas are intended
are
becoming an adjective
enunciation
of the two words.
The change
to facilitate the combined
in the quantityof the personal
referred,
pronoun, to which I have now
alone : it is simplyeuphonic,and euphony
appears to have this origin
is certainly
promoted by this conversion of a long vowel into a short
of the governingsubstantive.
or
one
priorto the addition of the case-suffixes,
find a similar euphonicshortening
of the quantityof
We

of the root, on

the vowel

the

the conversion

of the abstract

noun

into

an

in the section on
'Numerals;' e.g., 'anu,'Tam., six, Shuadjective,
which
is
Sruhadu,'
seventi/. The principle
ein,'
hadu,'sixfr/
;
seven,
the same.
involved in both classes of instances is precisely
'

'

'

(2.)The
'

genitive.The
inflexional

neuter

"

attru,' ti,' ti/ "c.,

'

Tamil
The

and

'

largelyused

are

in

neuter

inflexions

'

attu,'

forming the genitivein

Telugu.

various suffixes which

are

used to form the

I conceive,signsof the possessive

case
:
originally,
time theyhave come
or
to convey either a possessive

'

inflexion

'

were

but iu process
an

of

adjectival
nificati
sig-

accordingto the connexion ; and

shrunk

shown, they

have

become

euphoniclinks

mere

case-Buffix. The

into

in many
cases, as has been
inflexional increments of the base,or

of connexion

inflexion which

is

now

between
under

the base and

the

consideration is in

232

THE

NOUN.

alone.
by the singularof neuter nouns
used by neuter pronominal
is occasionally
'aRRu,'pronounced attru,'
Taiiiil

'attii/and

is used
'

plurals. The
same,

is in

Telugu

'

ti

'

it to be the

shown

I believe I have

for
inflexion,

same

'ti.'

or

or
possessive
being,as I conceive,genitive
from
their
suffixes in their origin,
their adjectival
use
naturallyflowed
in forming possessives.
There is littledifference in signification
use
between the genitive
and the adjective
{e.g.,a mountain of gold'and
guages
to the same
a
golden mountain
come
thing); and in several lan-

The inflexional suffixes

'

'

'

besides the Dravidian,the

to have

been

derived from the

formative
adjectival

or
suffix,
possessive

either appears

to be identical with
'

kiilattu min
little whether
(from
Thus, in Tamil, it matters
and 'vam,'
be translated adjectivally
or
kulam,'a tatik,
tanhfish,
fish)
the fishof the tank; whether
render 'attru manal'
we
genitivally
(from aRu,' a river,and
manal,' sand),the sand of the river or
river sand; or
whether
mattu-(t)-t61
(from madn,' an ox, and
hide '),
be translated ox hide or the hide of an ox.
The adjectival
tol,'
the more
natural one, but if a few words be
renderingis ordinarily
added to the compound expression,
to bringout the full force of
so as
it.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the inflexional

it will
suffixes,

be evident that those suffixes must

have

been

and that their adjectival

signsof case, or genitives,
originally,
is secondaryto their use as signsof the possessive.
use
min
to
we
Thus, when
perugittru,'
say in Tamil, 'i-(k)kulattu
render the sentence
this tanhfish
has increas-d,
would n(,t only be barbarous,
but would partlyfail to express the meaning,which is,thejish

of

this tank

suffix

'

attu,'has

capableof
of

incredsed.

In

this instance

in itself the force of

So
a

also,

'

tree,and

marattu

Moreover, this

same

the

that the

though
genitive,
an
adjectival

the force of

(k)koppu,'can

tree-branch would

it is evident

sign of

acquiringin certain connexions

formative.
branch

have

be

only

as

be

rendered

barbarous

suffix 'attu,'has sometimes

as

it is

the
necessary.
un-

in Tamil

like the
(as 'atta' in Malayalam) the force of a signof the locative,
inflexionalsuffixes in Telugu; and when used as a suffix
corresponding
it is governed by a verb not by a noun
of the locative,
; from which
certain that it is a case-suffix in origin.
it is absolutely
I have alreadymentioned the connexion
which subsists between
the inflexional suffix 'attu' and
demonstrative
adu,' it,the neuter singular
It is deserving
of notice in this placethat
adu
pronoun.
I doubt
demonstrative,
not) is one of the recognized
(thevery same
in Tamil, and is occasionally
suffixes of the possessive
used as a
case
'

'

in the
possessive
'

marattu

other dialects also.

(k)koppu

'

Thuswemay

(from maram,' a
'

tree, and

'

say in Tamil either

'

koppu,'a branch)^

234

THE

KOUN.

Its meaning when

base,and
d,' the sign of the neuter singular).
that of a demonstrative pronoun, but by
standingalone is invariably
when
the signification
of a genitive
or
possessive,
usage it has acquired
he
annexed
to any
suffix. avan-adu,'is literally
that,
noun
as
a
but by usage it means
is
his. This use of 'adu,'as a possessive
suffix,
derived from its use as the formative of nouns
of possession.
to any
noun
or
By the addition of this demonstrative
pronoun
'

'

"

it is
it is added to the inflexion, in the case of pronouns
(generally
alwaysto the inflexions that it is added) a compound noun of possession
"

or

relation is formed,which, lilieall Dravidian

is capableof

of relation,

nouns

it is the use
of nouns
adjective
; and
with this termination as possessive
which has led to
adu,
adjectives
and its equivalents,
The
case.
beingregardedas signsof the possessive
adu
is appended may
be used, and often is used,
to which
noun

beingused

as

an

'

'

'

without

any

addition

Thus,

as
modification,

or

enadu,' Tam.

the

nominative

of

verb

or

adu,' that),
(from en,'my, and
signifies
properlythat (which is)mine; and this compound possessive
the
hand, literally
may either be used adjectivally,
e.^., 'enadu kei,'""y
a

sentence.

hand
a

that is mine

'

(inwhich

such it becomes

instance

it may

genitive
case-sign)
; or

'

the nominative

'adu'

be used
of

'

is called

by grammarians

possessive
noun, and as
mine
verb,e.ff.,'enadu poyittru,'
as

that,
property)is gone. Thus 'adu,'which at first meant
became
noun
that
secondlythe formative of a possessive
('avan-adu,'
which is his,literally
he
that),thirdlythe formative of a possessive
and lastly
a
case
signof the possessive
his),
adjective
('avan-adu,'
rally,
geneAnother
t
o.
for
reason
ofov hblonying
signifying
regardingthe
and properlythe formative of a
case-signadu as originally
genitive
of possession,
is that it cannot
be followed indiscriminately
noun
or adjective
kind
of
but
neuter
nouns
by
by any
alone,and properly
noun,
by the neuter singularalone. Thus we may say enadu kei,'my
hand, but not 'enadu keigal,'
my hands; except indeed in the colloquial
in which the singular
is used for the pluralmore
dialect,
frequently
the
than in the higherdialect,
or
by
poets.
The higherdialect would preferin this instance 'ena keigal,''ena'

(or

my

"

'

'

'

"

instead of 'enadu,' i.e., mea'

'"

instead of 'meum.'

but is distinctively
a neuter
formative,therefore,

to the
signification
employedto give a possessive

suffixed. Like

all other nouns,

these

'adu'

is not

to

which

only
singular
formative,
noun

it is

in
adu
nouns
possessive
are
by being prefixedwithout alteration
capableof beingused as adjectives,
'adu' came
to other nouns
to be used and
so prefixed,
; and when
to account
seems
case-sign.This explanation
regardedas a possessive
for all the phenomena, and therefore to be the true explanation.
'

'

THE

similar

235

GENITIVE.

of the demonstrative as a pes.

singular
sessive suffix obtains in Telugu also ; e.g., nadi,'
that
mine, literally
(which is)mine, from 'na/my, and 'adi/that,a form which is exactly
enadu.'
The Telugu uses a similar suffix to
equivalentto the Tamil
forma
with 'enadu' or 'nadi,' viz.,
to correspond
plural possessive
which
'di'
'vi,'which bears the same relation to avi' those (things),
does to 'adi,'that (thing);
theirs or the (things
which
e.g., varivi,'
than
are) theirs. In this respectthe Telugu acts more
systematically
the spoken Tamil.
It is not so fond,however, of usingthese possessive
the
di
and
vi
and
have
therefore
nouns
as
Tamil,
adjectivally
not in Telugu come
of the genitive.
to be regarded
as
case-signs
The Canarese
and the Tamil not onlyform neuter possessive
nouns
and adjectives
them
the
but they
neuter demonstrative,
by adding to
form also masculine and feminine possessives,
or possessive
appellatives,
of both numbers, by adding the masculine
and feminine formatives to
inflexion
of nouns
and pronouns.
the genitive
case
or
All the Di'avidian dialects agree in appending the demonstrativesuffixes to the inflexion not to the nominative,as a general
possessive
of the neuter

use

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

rule,wherever
When
'

attu

receive

and

'

in

'

this

added

to

hrcmch

of a

diflers

the nominative

nouns
'

'

'

in Tamil

(in combination

double

from
considerably

double
'

attin

increment, e.g.,

inflexional

the inflexion.

increment, e.g.,

'),the
'

possessivesuffix is
mar-attin-adu
koppu,' the

tree.

in,'in Tamil,
(4.) The possessive
suffix'in,'and its varieties.
in the other dialects,
and
ni,'in Telugu,and correspondingparticles
not
are
only used as inflexional augments of the base and euphonic
the base and the ease-signs,
but also as
bonds of connexion between
and
formatives. I have no
suffixes of the possessive
as
adjectival
doubt that in and
were
ni,'of themselves and originally,
genitive
'

"

'

'

or

'

and
suffixes,
possessive

but describe it
but
am
'

as

convinced that it was

tive,and
uses,

of their

comparing its use

on

as

In

of the most

Tamil, of
used.

in
('attru')

all

use

to

which

theyhave

as

with

and
originally

its use

'

the neuter
and

in the other

I
dialects,
a signof the genidistinctively

its subsidiary
regarded,
notwithstanding

characteristic of the

'in
genitivecase-signs,

a.ttu

witli both numbers

use

in Tamil

that it is stillto be
one

other

signsof the genitive. Native

not include 'in' amongst their genitive
suffixes,
increment alone :
formative augment or adjectival

appliedgrew out
Tamil grammarians do

been

that every

is used in the neuter

pluralalone; but
with all genders.A

'

suffixes.
genitive
is that which

is most

quently
fre-

singular
alone,and 'aEKu'
'in' is used in connexion
similar

use

of 'in'appears

236

THE

in the
as

an

Malayalam.

Id

NOUN.

the other hand,

Canarese,on

inflexional augment,

not

as

in

'

'

is used

One of the
signof case.
by grammariansto take

declensions of the Canarese is said

only

so-called'
'

ina

'

as

genitivecase- sign; but in this instance the final 'a' is the real
it invariably
is in Canarese ; and this genitive
signof the genitive,
as
'a' is found to be precededby various euphonic increments
'in,'
'ad,*'ar,'
or
'v,'accordingto circumstances.
but it
suffix originally,
the 'in' of 'in-a,'
was
a genitive
Doubtless,
and therefore
has longceased to contribute to grammaticalexpression,
be regardedas a sign of case.
In Telugu, 'na' or 'ni,'
cannot
now
the dialectic equivalentof 'in,'is used as a possessive
in
as
suffix,
is
Tamil, though not so frequently.The only difference in principle
that 'ni' is used in Telugu in connexiou
with the singular
alone,and
if the Telugu stood in an
might be called a genitive
singularcase-sign,
isolated position
; whereas in Tamil it is used in connexion with plural
with the singular. In Ku, which
has special
nouns
as frequently
as
resemblances to the Telugu, 'ni' constitutes the inflexion (inreality
of all classes of nouns,
the genitive)
whether
or
singular
plural,precisely
like the Tamil
'in.' The Gond
'na^
as genitive
uses
case-signs
its

"

and

and

'na,' 'da'

another, as well

as

'a'

to

"

the

forms
Brahui

which
'

are

na,'and

probablyallied
to

the

Telugu

one

and

to

Gond

and the Tamil 'in.'

'ni,'
Though in is not regardedby Tamil grammariansas a sign of
which are regardedas genitive
the genitive,
yet when those particles
suffixed to any noun,
'in' is ordinarily
inserted between
are
case-signs
additional parand those case-signs
or
the noun
; so that all auxiliary
ticles
this
incremental
the
itself
to
not
to
'in,'
noun
are
appended
;
'

'

'adu,'i^,is formed

but
'ad'-udeiya/

e.g., from
it ; from

a
'tanibi,'

but

commonly tambi-(y)-in-adn,'
ofa younger

younger

not

is formed
hrofhe.r,

not

"

more

to indicate that

rule seems

'in' is

ad-in-udeiya,'
of
'

tambi-(y)-adu,'

iroiJier

and

this

a
genitive
essentially
case-sign

been suffixed to it.

subsequently
deducible from the circumstance
inference is stillmore
The same
clearly
of instances,
both in the singularand in the
that in a largenumber
each of the case-suffixesin succession is appended,not to the
plural,
than

the

which
particles
genitive

more

'

crude form

of the noun,

have

but to the increment

'in.'

These

case-suffixes

but were, or are still,

of
bouns
post-positional
fragments,
the
which
particle
they are united to the base,
by
relation;and 'in,'
I conceive,
bond of connexion,in virtue,
of its own
as
ginal
oria
as
serves
and natural signification
as a suffix of the genitive.Thus, in the
in a stone, 'idatTamil, 'kalliuidattil ('kal(l)-in-idattir),
colloquial
in tJieplace;
means
the local ablative or locative suffix,
literally
til,
are

not

mere

THE

and

this suffix

237

GENITIVE.

at
cr
evidently
requires,

least

the possessive
desires,

in' (withthe

'

signification
of)to connect it with the base. Hence
kal(l)in the placeof {oroccupied})!/)
in-idattil,'
a stone.
literally
signifies
The adjectival
meaning of 'in,'though not its only or original
meaning, is one which isrecognised
by native grammarians,and which
they prove by examples ; e.g.,'ponnin ('pon(n)-in')
kudam, a golden
vessel. This adjectival
of
'in'
allied
use
to, but is derived
i^not only
and in the illustration which has
from, its use as a signof the genitive,
been adduced it is evident that 'ponninkudam,' might be rendered
now
with equal propriety,
vessel of gold. It will be found also in the
a
Indo-European analogieswhich will presentlybe adduced, that the
of the adjectival
and the genitive
or
caseformative,
similarity
identity
which
is
this
has
wider
that
of
in
than
a
sign
instance,
apparent
range
the'Dravidian languages.
There is another
particle
resembling'in,'and possiblyidentical
with it in origin,
used in Tamil
for
viz.,'am,' which is occasionally
both those purposes, and, like 'in,'it is-sometimes
appended to the
'

'

and
itself,

noun

to the neuter

sometimes

inflexion.

We

see

this fusion

of 'am,' in such forms

and the genitive
signification
adjectival
'alam
as
('al-am')
pu,'the banyanfloweror the flowerof the hanyan,
the inflexion of 'aRu,'
and 'attrangkarei' ('attru/
the rivera
river),
the 'k' of
hank or the banJc of the river.
Evidently 'attram' (before
to 'attr-in' (aform which
'karei' 'am' changesinto 'ang')is equivalent
is also commonly used),and 'am'
'am' or
'an' and
to 'in;'and as
identical in meaning, though not used with equalfrequency,
are
'in,'
and so nearlyalike in- sound,I think we
safelyregard them all
may
from one and the same
as sprung
origin. am,'indeed,changesby rule
when
it is followed by a dental,e.g., panan
nto 'an,'
('panei-am')
formative is much
used
adjectival
.oppn,'a palmyra tope. The same
in Malaysia also; eg., 'mal-am
puli ('mala-ampuli'),a mountain
tigeror a tigerof the mountain, a royaltiger.
We
have now
to inquirewhether
any trace of the genitivecaseformative in
in,' an,' ni,'or any related form^
signor adjectival

of the

'

'

'

'

'

can

be found

'

'

circle of the Dravidian

beyond the

Of all the North-Indian

vernaculars

the

dialects.

Gujarathiis

the

only one

that which we have

genitiveresembling
been, examining. That language has a genitivesuffix in 'n' ('no,'
'ni,' num'),which cannot but be regardedas allied to the Telugu
the
ni,' nu,'"c. In the languageof the Bodos,a Himalayan tribe,
formed by suffixing
'ni,'
pronominalgenitiveis regularly
e.g.,'ang-ni,'
ofhim.
o/"Aee, bi-ni,'
of me, 'nang-ni,'
which

contains

form

of the

'

'

'

'

In Sanscrit the

'n'

which

precedesthe

'ah,'

or

'as,'of certain

238

NOUN.

THE

is undoubtedly
genitives
euphonic;but both in Sanscrit and in other
members of the Indo-Europeanfamily,we may observe distinct traces
the consonant
of the adjectival
of which
of a particle
or genitival
use
'n' is the most
essential element.
Compare with the Dravidian
formative,and an,'the suffix
particlean-a,'the Sanscrit adjectival
of
the adjectival
use
of appellatives;
suffix 'oiv;'
the Greek possessive
'

'

'

iv'

'

woodew;

in Greek

words

like

of

and
\i0-iv-o9,'

'

'

en,'in

the

which

also 'in,'the Sanscrit suffix of agency,

and

Germanic
is preserved

forms are, it is
These
Persian.
of the New
adjectives
related ; and it also appears probablethat there
evident,reciprocrally
in.' There
is some
ulterior relationship
between them and the Tamilian
also traces in the Indo-Europeanfamilyof languagesof the use of
are
in as a distinctively
suffix. The Celtic forms its genitive
genitival
of
n,' an,' en,'"c. ; nor is it the genitive
systematically
by means
pluralonly of the Celtic dialects which uses this case-sign(as in the
Sanscrit family),
but it is employed to form the genitive
singularalso.
It should be noticed too that in the ancient Egyptian n
(alternating
with
used to express all case-relations,
but particularly
m
') was
that of the genitive.Compare also the Sanscrit genitive
or
possessive
sian
mana,' the Old Permama
('ma-ma
')of me, my, with the Zend
in the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'mana,' and

Gothic

the

Ids; in each of which

examples the

ma,' resembles

'

but also in the

'meina,'mine, 'theina,'thine,'seina,'

the

union

of

in

'

na,' or

'

its Sanscrit

'

or

lent
equiva-

only in

ni,'not
with
adjectival
signification

Dravidian
an

final

'

sound,

that

of the

or genitive
case.
possessive

The

Lithunian

in resemblance

goes further

to the Tamil

than

any

other

Indo-Europeantongue
'

n
as
point,for it not onlyuses
but it adopts
a
(of the first person),
signof the pronominalpossessive
the infle::"ional
base of all the rest of the
this genitival man
as
obliquecases of the same
pronoun.
of
the
In the languages
Scythianstock we find a largenumber
essential analogies
with the Dravidian genitival
of still more
suffix
'

'

'

'in'

in this

'ni.'

or

Compare both with the Dr"vidian and with the Indo-European

the Mongolian and Manohu
'mini' ('mi-ni'),
of me, my;
pos"essives
sini ('si-ni '),
and the Mongolian tchini and the Manchu
of thee,
'

'

'

'

thy.
In the

languagesof

is
genitive
'

'

in

'

or

'

form of the
family,the prevailing
which correspondsto the Dravidian : it is n,' an,'
'

'

but universally.
only in pronominal inflexions,
and Cheremiss,
Mordwin
the genitiveis formed by suffixing
a house, kudo-n,'
en ;'e.g.,'kudo,'
of a house. The genitive

en,' un,'"c.,

Thus
'

that

the Finnish

not

'

THK

plural of the Mordwin

intended

is

239

GENITIVE.

of
nen,' possiblya reduplication

'

'

The

g,ymbolisethe plural;e.g., 'kndot-nen,'"/"AoM"es.

to

n,'

'

in the singular,
i in the
and
Lappish genitivetakes n or en
suffix of the Magyar. The
plural. e forms the ordinary
possessive
Finnish
proper forms the genitiveby suffixingn,' un,' in,' an,'
"G., e.^., 'mina' ('rain-a'),
/, min-un,' of me, my.
form of the genitivein the Tartar or High Asian
The prevailing
suffix of the Mordwin
to
families,
nen,'the reduplicated
corresponds
in the Old Scythianof the
and to its equivalent
plural,
reduplication
Behistun
suffix is very frequently
tablets; but whilst the reduplicated
in.'
alternates with the simplersuffix. un' or
used,it systematically
The Oriental Turkish
forms its genitiveby suffixingning or
Turkish
the initial nasal
nin.' In the Ottoman
nin,'or
ning or
is onlyoccasionally
used : the genitivepluralis uniformly'u"i;'the
it is
to which
or
nuw,' accordingas the noun
singulartakes uji
In the Mongolian, the
suffixed ends in a consonant
in a vowel.
or
is u
after the consonant
n ;'after
signof the genitive
every other
un
;'and after a vowel, yin.' The personalpronouns,
consonant,
has already been
as
observed, from their possessiveby suffixing
ni,'e.g., mi-ni,'
of the foot,
Compare the Mongolian kol-un,'
my.
of the corresponding
with the ordinaryTamil
noun
kal-in,'
genitive
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

of

foot.

Mongolian forms its genitiveby

ending in n,'and
yin to all other nouns.
suffixingi to nouns
'i or
in like manner
The Tibetan postfixes
yin.'
much
of a possessive
makes
relative suffix ngge,'
The Manchu
use
wMcTi
has; but it also forms genitives,
or
'ningge,'signifying
perly
proni
i.'
or
so
called,by suffixing
In the languageof the Scythiantablets of Behistun,the genitive
formed by suffixingna :' the first personalpronoun
was
ordinarily
form of this particle,
a
formed its genitiveby suffixing
reduplicated
pluralwas generally
ni-na,'
of me; whilst the genitive
e.g., 'hu-ni-na,'
of the addition of inna,'probably softened from
formed
by means
The

Calmuck

of

dialect

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

The

'ni-na.'

resemblance

direct

nearest

genitival na,'is the Brahui

'

'

na,'and

to

the

the Gond

Behistun-Scythian
'

'

na

or

'

a.'

speech of the ancient Scythians,

furnishes us, I think, with a clue to the originof 'nuji' or 'nim,'the
is interchangeTartar genitivesuffix. In the Tartar tongues 'nuw'
able
changeable
with and equivalentto 'um;' and 'un' or 'in' is also interwith
ni
un
nu
are
or
;' in Mongolian, yin and
It appears
suffixed to substantives,ni to the personalpronouns.
was
from the Behistun tablets that na,'the ordinary
genitivesuffix,
This

of the

record
interesting

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

240

NOUK.

THE

sometimes

changed into
euphonically

softened into

'

inna.'

I conceive

'

ni-ua,'and
Tartar

the

that

that this again was

'

uji,

in this

was

converted into
nun;'
of the nasal,
reduplication
which in Manchu
became
or
ningge.'Possiblyalso ni or
ngge
'nu'
nasalised by the addition of a final 'to' or 'ng,'of the use
was
of the
of which we have an instance in pointin the final euphonic n
firstand second personalpronouns in most of the Scythianlanguages.
A parallel
of a nasal is apparent in tfie
instance of the reduplication
in the conjunctive
or
Teluguitself,
copulativeparticle.This particle
is 'um'
in Telugu; but this
in Tamil, 'ii' in Cauarese, and 'nu'
becomes euphonically nnu,' and
Telugu nu
by reduplication
in
'nunnu'
instances.
particular
","-;
same

'

the

by

manner,

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'a.'
(5.)The genitival
suffix
"

claims

be

to

It is littleused

used than any

of the Tamil
I conceive

in

'

the

or possessive
genitive

'

in

'

or

ni,'a

distinctively

Tamil, though placedfirstin the

grammarians; but if we
idioms into consideration,
it is perhaps more
other suffix of the genitive a proof of the

take all

Tamil

genitivecase-signs
by

the Dravidian

signof

This

regarded as equallywith

Dravidian suffix.
listof

'

'

"

largely
accuracy

classification.
this sufiix to be identical with

'a,'the formative

of the

frequentlyused Dravidian relative participles

(seethe section
'The Verb'),but totally
distinct from 'a,'the neuter
of
on
particle
which has alreadybeen investigated.
pluralisation,
In Canarese
is the only sign of the genitive
which
is ever
a
used. It is sometimes
precededby an euphonic consonant, which is
most

'

'

it and

inserted between

them, viz.,by

'

nature, and

or

'

base,to

'y,'the

'

the

use

form

link of connection

of which

is purelyof

which
ar','

an

between

euphonic

inflexional increments

are
by in,' ad','or
of the base,and old petrified
genitives;
of a priest;
e.g., guru-(v)-a,'
of a child; mar-ad-a,'of a tree;
of a sheep; kus-in-a,'
kuri-(y)-a,'
this genitive a' is added
or
of it. When
'ad-ar-a,'
of that {thing),
to the abbreviated inflexional form of the Canarese
personalpronouns,
is doubled, e.g., nanna
the final nasal of those pronouns
(from
'namma'
A
'nan,'J), of me;
(from 'nam,'we),of us.
comparison
with
the
Tamil
and
Tulu
forms
of these
nama,' of us, our, proves
of
the
final
nasal
arises
from an euphonicsource.
that the doubling
forms the genitivesuffix not onlyof the singular
of Canarese
a
whether the noun
and pronouns, but also of the plural,
nouns
belongs
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

to the

'

rational

'

or

to

the

'

irrational

'

class,e.g., avar-a,'of
"

them

of them (neuter).
avugal-a,'
(epicene),
'

These

examplesprove

that

'a'

is the true Canarese

genitivecase-

242
lead to the conclusion

signof

the

NOUN.

THE

it is

that in Tamil

not
plurality,

suffix of

in the words
supposition,
mei,'of me, but
signifynot

genitive.On

this

'

keigal,'

ena

mea,' {the
would
hands, ena
or
that are)mine.
It would be a pronominaladjective
things
sive
possesused
in
is
that'
fact
a
largely
not a genitive
plural,
; and the
classical Tamil
'sila,'
few,
as
a
sign of the neuter plural {e.g.,
a few things, pala
literally
proves that
many things),
many, literally
this supposition
would be a very natural one.
On the other hand, a
is classed with genitivesuffixes by Tamil
Grammarians
themselves,and those grammarians,who are remarkably
well acquainted
with the principles
of their own
are
perfectly
language,
irrationals'.
that
of
is
also
of
the
Moreover,
aware
a
a sign
plural
in
that
the
genitive 'a' must
though it is stated by Tamil grammarians
always be in agreement with a pluralnoun, yet they admit that the
with which it agrees is sometimes
in form though plural
noun
singular
in signification;
siB'adi,'
thy small foot;
e.g., the expression'nun-a
in the Chintamani.
occurs
They say that foot is here used ioT feet,and
is determined
this is certainly
true ; but it does not follow that
nun-a
for the use of the singular
with a pluralsignifitherebyto be a plural,
cation,
and
of
the
with
the
declensional
forms
conjugational
singular,
yet
fixed
of
these
1
that
is a
we
fidently
conlanguages. think,therefore,
usage
may
this
illustration
of
of the use
nun-a
as an
a,'even in
regard
'

'

my

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Tamil, in

'

connection

with

'

the

singular.In Tamil,

it is true,

'

'

is

followed by the neuter

pluralalone; but in Canarese and
ordinarily
Telugu it may be followed by any gender or number; and the a' of
is evidently
identical with that of the correthe Tamil
tan-a,'
sponding
of self,
dently
Telugu tan-a;'whilst the a of nam-a,'of us, our, is evi'

'

'

identical with

the Canarese

a
so
genitive,
unquestionably

thus

we

are

'

'

led to the

'

'

namra-a.'

Hence,

the other have

must

that the Tamil

supposition

as

been

the

one

'a' is

and
originally;

rule which

requires

followed

by the neuter
plural is merely a secondary,
which has arisen from the influence of its
recent, dialecticpeculiarity,
accidental resemblance to the signof the pluralof 'irrationals.' This
of the genitival a
in Tamil
peculiarity
may be compared with the
somewhat
parallelcase of the use in Hindustani of one possessive
'

'

to

be

'

suffix rather than

to the

'

another,out of the three that

gender of the

noun

which

follows and

exist in

it,according

that to which

governs

it

is suffixed.

Though in grammatical Tamil

plural,
yet the vulgar in the rural

'

is

always followed by the

districts commonly use
it without
discrimination of number, as in Canarese and Telugu. Thus, they
will say
nama
(ormore commonly,as in Canarese, namma
') ur,'
'

'

'

'

'

THE

243

GENITIVE.
.

and this confirms the supposition

village;
that in Tamil, as
other dialects,
the original
of this a
use
was
simplythat of a
of the genitive.
our

'

We

have

to

now

with
inquire

what

is

analogy for

I have

it,and

the

only affinities which

In the Ho,
Indo-European.

suffix ;
possessive

and

sufiix

of languages
or family
language

this genitive
suffix should be affiliated. There
Kole and

in the

'

Kole

direct Scythian

no

observed

dialect,a'

is

'

are

common

it is also,as in

formative.
Tamil,an adjectival
The most direct and reliableIndo-Europeananalogyis that which
is
of the Indopresented by the personalpronouns, which in some
in
European dialects have a possessive
a,'stronglyresemblingthis
Dravidian possessive.If we
look onlyat the Gothic
meina,'my ;
his
should
c
or
theina,'
thy; seina,'
its;we
naturallyonclude the
in these words to be,not
signof the possessive
a,'but na' (answering
to the Old Scythian
and Brahui
and
the
to
na
Telugu ni ');
but on comparing the forms which this signof the possessive
assumes
in various languages,
it appears probablethat
alone
a
conveys the
of the possessive;
and that the nasal which precedes
it in
signification
the Sanscrit 'mama,' the Zend 'mana,' and the Gothic 'meina,'
may
for the purpose of keepingthe
merely have been inserted euphonically
vowels pure.
contiguous
Compare mama,' Sans, my, (from ma,'/),
with
the
tava,'thi/,(from tva,'thou); and especially
compare
with the corresponding
Crothic meina,' theina,' seina,'
Lithuanian
v
possessivesmana-s,' tava-s,' sava-s.' In these instances
of 'n.' The Indo-Europeanproeuphonicis used as the equivalent
nominal
in
is
the
for
:
a
exceptional
primitive
possessive
languages
in
of as,'
the
of that familyevince an almost perfect
use
agreement
and
related form,as the sign of the genitive
or
some
singular,
closely
of 'sam' or 'am,' as the sign of the genitiveplural. In the later
Teutonic dialects,however, a genitive
case-signin 'a' becojnes
and is found in the pluralas well as in the
common,
exceedingly
singular. Thus in the Frisian all pluralsubstantives and such
form their possessive
by suffixinga : in
as end in a vowel
singulars
the Icelandic all pluralsand all masculine and neuter
use
singulars
and in the AnglorSaxon all plurals.Though
'a' as their casersign;
accorded with the ordinary
Sanscrit forms,
the oldest Gothic possessives
of some
and
5 as
am
;'yet the resemblance between the possessives
is deserving
of the Teutonic vernaculars and the Dravidian possessive
as a
of notice. The use of a
signof the possessive
by all plural
remarkable.
Has the Dravidian
substantives in Telugu is especially
as
under consideration been softened from
(ofwhich,however,
a
? or ha? it
there is not the smallest trace or analogical
probability)
.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

244

NOUN.

THE

been softened from

; for

one

have

we

the
na:,'

old

the Gond

that

seen

'
'

latter supposition,

The

Scythiansuffix?
though unsupportedby direct evidence,is
'

not

improbable

an

alternates with

na

'

'

the

Mnna;' the Turkish 'nun' with 'uwj' and

with
'u,' its Canarese
'nuj' the Telugu particleof conjunction,
equivalent.
'

Scythian ni-na
'

with

Inmost
're' or'de.'
(G.) The Malaydlagenitive
siiffiip,
singular
this Malayalagenitive
takes the shape of 'indre' or 'inde,'of
cases
which
in
is the genitival
suffix and inflexional increment, which
has alreadybeen described. In
en-de,'my, the inflexional base is of
"

'

'

'

itselfa

and
genitive,
that

appears
'

adu

the
to

'

which

is

n,' and

'

or

'

as

dre

'

is

an
'

to

it
required
; hence
like the
suffix,
auxiliarygenitive
from
in in Tamil, and is probably
of

addition

often added

so

Malayalam

which

'

'

in

nKe,'but

possesses

any

is not

it is

'Be;' but

is

added, the compound

'

as

'

'

suffix is written

it is thus

when

nounced, not
the

de

origin. This

same
'

'

the

ndre

'

'

or

nde.'

always added
regularlypro-;
the Tamil

Neither

nor

producing the sound

(a peculiarly
euphonic nd '),but
those languagesand the hard
r;'
method

other

of

'

is indicated

by these letters
that of conjoining
of
the final n
which, when pronounced in combination,have the sound of ndr or,
as
some
it, ndz,'or more
commonly still nd.' Thus, from
pronounce
participle^
en,'to say, and du,'the regularformative of the preterite
the Canarese forms
and
this
in
Tamil is
endu,'sayingor havingsaid;
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

written

'

sign of

the

;'but

euRU

intended

it would

be

the

in Tamil
instead
preterite
be, and is pronounced endu
'

to

'

erroneous

to

of
'

or

suppose
'

'

du,' for

'

'

ru
'

be

to
'

euRu

endru,'nearlyas

is
in

Canarese.
'

analogiesto the Malayala Re

(in realityde ')
at once
which might be suggested,appear
to be illusory. The
with
the
Malayala Re,' has been connected by Dr. Stevenson
'ra.' It has been shown
that 'a,'not 'ra,'is the
Canarese genitive'
suffix of the Canarese,and that the
r' which precedesit is
genitive
which is
properly ar/ an inflexional increment (like ad and
in'),
inserted between the root and the case-signs
of three cases, besides
of certain classes of nouns.
the genitive,
The Malayala'Be' (de),on
the other hand, is suffixed exclusively
to the genitive,
and no
other
it.
suffix of case is ever
to
I
appended
connect
de
as
Nevertheless,
Hence

'

some

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the Tamil

with
'

ad'

'

and

its hardened

modified and
are

allied.

'adu,'it;
remote

and

form

manner,

aS
'

with

this I connect

it
ar','

the

may

'

also the Canarese

be admitted that in this

Malayalaand

the Canarese

forms

THE

Still more
'ne'

the

to

personalpronouns,
the

'ra'and

(e.g.,

'

unsara/our,

English our

'

'

and

'

'

Persian

your
'

the

the Hindustani
'

'

'

'

of

the

of the

which

and

from

Tamil

the

the

formative

'

'

'

of

raadiya,'
my;'

has any

Persian,
except

demonstrative

connected with

the final

to be derived from

Sanscrit

Malayalaform
the

personalpronouns
our

derived.

r,'is supposed by Bopp

that the

suppose

with

'

has been

mera,'meuis, being derived

cannot

Malayala

'mera,' mens,
{e.g.,
meii,'mea) ; to
inflexion
ra,'{e.g.,
to-ra/thy,thee);

izvara,'
your),from
'

The Hindustani
'

'ri'

ra,'the Gothic genitivepluralsuffix

'

of this

suffixes of the Hindustani

possessive
adjectival

New
corresponding

and to

245

"

is the apparent resemblance

illusory

'de'

or

GENITIVE.

'

d;'

but

whatever

the

that
supposition
singular,adu,'is remotely
the Sanscrit possessive

on

'

neuter
'

connexion

'

of

adjective.
The

Malayala de,'like
'

suffix of the

singularalone,a

derived from

'

adu,'which

the

'

Tamil

confirmation

used

of the

as

genitive

opinionthat

is the
originalsignification

in its

singularof the demonstrative.

adu,'ie

it is

neuter

In the

the Malayalam
genitiveplural,
Tamil
uses
ute,'
answeringto the colloquial
udeiya (from udei '),
or
hekmgingto, of. Compare the Malayala 'enre,''endre,'
ende,'of
Tamil
enadu,'o/"me, that which is mine.
me, with the corresponding
The Malayalapossessive
noun
mine, or that which is mine is endeta,'
to the Tamil
from
enadu.'
ata,'it, corresponding
en-de,'my, and
This latter
enadu,'however, is not the genitive enadu,'my, with
but a possessive
in the nominaI have compared en-de,'
tive
which
noun
case
though I suppose the Malayala de to be itselfa
; and
from
ada' or 'ata,'it,yet the demonstrative suffix would
corruption
the originand true meaning of
be appended a second time, on
de
of an ancient
beingforgotten.We see illustrationsof this repetition
suffix in many
High Tam. from a
languages;e.g., 'malei-(y)-in-in,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

mountain; and this very demonstrative

'

adu,'it,is

twice

used in the

the thingwhich is not; in

noun
iW^disAu^
negativeparticipial
of the neuter
which the first d,'though a representative
originally
and become
a
demonstrative,has lost its proper signification,
singular
technical sign,in consequence of
link of connection,
or
mere
euphonic,
which
d is required
to be repeated,
is commonly formed by
In Tulu
the genitiveof neuter
nouns
'kei-ta,'
ofa hnife,
'd,''da,'or 'ta/ e.g.,'katti-da,'
ofalumd.
suffixing
in
the Canarese,
used
d of this da,'or
The
ta,'is not, however, as
'

Tamil

'

'

'

'

as

'

'

'

the inflexional base

alone :
genitive
suffix.
genitive

hence

of any
it bears

other
a

case

; but

is restricted to

close resemblance

to

the

the

Malayala

246

NOUN.

THE

in Telugu and Tamil.

(7.)Aiuxiliart/
suffixiss
of the genitive
(i.)In Telugu, yokka/ or yoka/ is sometimes appendedto the
suflBxof case; e.g., from
or natural genitive,
inflexion,
as
an
auxiliary
the equivalent
the ordinary
possessivena,'my, is formed optionally,
'

'

'

form

na-yokka,'
my, of me.
This suffix is rarelyused, and
'

language; for
resemblingit.
A

no

other

Uraon

elements,though formed

suffix of
possessive
are
ghi.' If these particles

the

feminine

the

probably upon

Rajmahal is

at all connected

should

"we
doubtful,

seems

with

dialect possesses

any

of the
suffix

'

The

which

the idiom

resemblingyokka,'is found in the Rajmahal

which
contain an
overwhelming preponlanguages,
derance

of K61

"

Dravidian

pure

suffix somewhat

and

foreignto

seems

be warranted

'

ki,'that

with
in

of which

is

ki

ka

(masculine

Dravidian

of the

Uraoa

Telugu 'yoka,'
connectingthe whole

suffix of
or
ordinarypossessive
adjectival
'

the

the Hindustani, the

'),and

through that suffix

with the formative 'ka,'of the Sanscrit possessive
'mamaka,'
adjectives
A
closer analogyto
tavaka,'thy, asmakam,' of ns, our, "c.
my,
of the Mikir, which
is yok or
yoka,'is that of the dative post-fix
ayok.'
(ii.)In Tamil, udeiya is commonly appended to the inflexion of
and
as
nouns
an
auxiliarypossessivesuffix.
pronouns,
udeiya'
which is the property of,
means
belongingto,or, literally
('udei-(y)-a')
and is derived from the noun
udei,'property, possession,
by the
addition of a,' the sign of the relative participle,
the addition of
on
it is converted into an adjective.Thus, enudeiya
which to any noun
the hand which is my property, for 'en'
literally
kei,'my hand, means
of itselfsignifies
Through usage, however,there is no diflference
my.
in emphasis,
between
in signification,
or even
'en' and 'en-ndei-(y)-a.
w
ith
The Malayalam dispenses
'ya' or 'a,,'the sign of the relative
and uses
udei '),the uninflected noun
ute
(in Tamil
participle,
suffix of the genitive.
as its auxiliary
itself,
used as an
suffix in
udeiya is very largely
auxiliary
genitival
Tamil ; and in some
written by foreigners
colloquial
it is
grammars
classed with the signsof the genitive;
but,properlyspeaking,
it is not
of
suffix
at all,
but the relative participle
or
case
a
case-sign,
of an
verb used adjectivally,
and it is to be compared not with
appellative
to.
of,but with the phrasebelonging
our
preposition
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

locative
word

'

which

'seventh'

Dravidian grammarians state that

any
'a
be
used
to
signifies place'may
express the locative.

or

case.

"

247

LOCATIVE.

THE

In each

are
so frequently
dialect,
however,some words or post-positions
used for this purpose that theymay be regardedas
systematically

and

locative suffixes.
distinctively
In

of a place,
Tamil, kan/ an eye, which has also the signification
is given in the
the characteristic suffix of the locative.
as
grammars
As

'

verbal

root

looTc! its third

'kan'

to

means

there,its fourth

see

its secondarysignification
was

place;and
signof the

of the last

in consequence

locative. It is very rarely

to be used as a
meaning it came
used; and I have no hesitation in sayingthat the most distinctive
In collohouse.
quial
a
signof the Tamil locative is il,'a place,literally
Tamil the most commonly used signof the locative is idattil,'
a
the
which is derived from
idam,'
compound suffix,
ordinaryword for
the inflexion or basis of the obliquecases
a place, attu,'
('id-attu'),
and
which is added to
id-attu
11/an older,purer word for a place,
with the meaning of our
('id-att'-il
'),as the real signof the locative,
The signification
of the whole suffix is literally
in.
in the
preposition
placeof or in the placeoccitpied
hy; but it is evident that what really
the suffix of a
the locative in this compound is il,'
in
distinguishes
suffix ; and that the meaning which the entire compound receives in
Tamil the
actual use is simply in. In the lowest patoisof colloquial
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

locative

suffix which

is most

used is

'

the

ki^ta,'
near,

higher dialect of the Tamil uses also

within,among, as signsof the locative.
used
The ancient Canarese
to
61,'corresponding

verb.*

The

as

which

adverbial form

answers

dialect uses

to the Tamil

'il.'

'

ul

the

'

its locative suffix ; whilst the modern

infinitiveof
'

'

and

Tamil

'alii'or

alii ' is

'

uri/

'

'

ul,'

an
illi,'

an
properly

'

place,compounded of li and the remote demonstrative

root and 'i,'the
'a ;'and its fellow is 'illi,'
compounded of the same
These
words
that place
mean
literally
proximate demonstrative.
here ; and
their use
there and
locative
this place, or
as
and
suffixes betokens a later state of the languagethan the use of 'il' and
'ul' in Tamil, and of '61' in Canarese.
Compare the change of 'il'
in Latin
in Tamil to 'li in Canarese,with the similar change of in
'

of

adverb

'

into

'

ni

'

'

'

in Sanscrit.

I cannot
forbear
(though doubtless accidental)
noticing the remarkable
the double
between
resemblance
meaning of ' il in Tamil (which is,perhaps,
identical with 'in' the sign of the ablative of motion) and of 'in' in Latin. Each
with the meaning of in ; and each is used also
is used as a locative suffix or affix,
Latin
'in
of
The
not only means
tional
in,but has also the addias a particle negation.
and
meaning of not in such compounds as indoctus (likethe Gothic ' uu
and in like manner
the Tamil 'il
the Greek and Sanscrit 'a' or 'an' privative);
not only in,but also not.
Moreover, as the Latin in privativeis ' an
means
'
the Tamil
other dialects,
il,'not, takes also the ?hapeof ' al,'with
in some
so
*

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

very

not
slightdifference,

in the meaning, but

onlyin

'

the application.

'

248

NOUN,

THE

which is most commonly used,

Telugu the signof the locative,
is more
16
16 :' another form frequently
employed is andu.'

In
is

andu
than
locative in its signification
intensely
61
is obviously
identical with the Canarese
andu
means
simply in,and like the Canarese

'

adverb

; and

is derived in

similar

somewhat

'

Tamil

the

and

'

'

tdthin,and

:'it means

'

'

'

'

'

'

alii

'

ul.'

an
properly

is

'

from

manner

'

a,'the

d,'whilst
mate
'indu,'its correlative adverb of place,is derived from 'i,'the proxidemonstrative.
The Canarese also possesses adverbs corresponds
intalu j'but uses
ing to these,viz.,'anta' and 'inta,''antalu' and
demonstrative,with

remote

the

of

addition

formative

'

'

them

to
chiefly

locative suffix

for

'

andu

'

formative
to

not

'

the

'

'

to the Sanscrit

like our adverb than. The Telugu

comparison,
apparent resemblance
(meaning in) bears some
antar,'
among, but this resemblance is wholly illusory:

express
andu
'

is derived

from

du,' which

becomes

Sanscrit, but

'

a,'that,by the

euphonically ndu,'and corresponds

'

rather

to

becomes

'

as

hence

locative suffix in connexion

its

'

equivalent na
'

also)is

demonstrative

anda,' that, the

'

of the Tamil.
adjective
In Telugu the post-position
na,'which
used

of the neuter

addition

with

neuter

ni

'

'

after
'

nouns.

evidentlyidentical with

'

ni
'

'

i,'is

(and

in,'the

signof the ablative of motion in High Tamil, which I have supposed

to be properlya signof the locative ; and probablyboth are identical
with 'in,'the Tamil, and 'ni' and
na,' the Telugu, genitivalor
'

inflexional suffixes. The

the

than
genitive,

locative

'

na,'we

the Finnish

and

the

locative

is

genitivefrom

may

Magyar

locative.

the

the

compare

to
likely

more

Ostiak

locatives 'an'

With

locative

and

be derived

'

this

na,'

'

from

Telugu
;' and

ne

'en.'

Telugu,and in the higherdialect of the Tamil, the inflexion or

the force of a genitive,
basis of the obliquecases, which has naturally
In

used to denote the locative also.

is sometimes
which

is

used
chiefly

earth. The

in this

uses
Malayalara

is

manner

'atta'in

'

'

attu

similar

In

Tamil

the inflexion

;' e.g., nilattu,'

upon
'

manner:

and in

the

Telugua

'

ti
to
the inflexion or
ta
converts
correspondingchange from
into a locative ; e.g., inti,'
obsolete genitive
of a house, inta,'in a
inflexion in 'ta' denotes the instrumental in Telugu,
house. The same
well as the locative ; e.g., compare
as
cheti,'
cheta,'
of a hand, with
this
form
to have been a locative originally
seems
by a hand, but
This fusion of the meaning of the genitive
and locative suffixes corresponds
to a similar fusion of the signsof those cases
which a comparison
of the various Indo-European
tongues bringsto light. The genitive
'

'

'

'

'

'

often identical in the Finnish

and locative case-signs
are
also.

Bearing this in mind,

may

we

not

familyof

concludo that

guages
lan'

in.

250

THE

by adding e
not
only by

'

'

'

'

or

of

'e'

their vocative

form
plurals

Masculine-feminine

e.'

means

from the
iia,'

NOTJN,

'ira' or
'e,'but also by sufiSxing
the Telugu ara,'viz.,the old nir,'

or

'

'

same

as

source

ye.

Such

vocative,it is evident
other

of the Dravidian

beingthe originand character

that

expect to

cannot

we

signsof

the

in any

find allied forms

familyof languages.

Compound case-signs.As in the Hungarian and other Scythian

of the languagesof the Eastern
islands,so in
tongues,and in some
or
more
Dravidian, two
compounded
case-signsare occasionally
of annexing
into
noticed
custom
the
have
We
one.
together
already
the various signsof the obliquecases
to the inflexion or
sign of the
also in use.
are
Thus,
genitive;but other combinations of case-signs
"

there is

and

of the dative

combination

Tam., within
('vittu-kk'-ul
'),colloquial
'

ul' is combined

with
and

in,
intensifying

in this

dialect would
'

vHtukkul

Dravidian

'

the dative

locative,e.g.,

the

house,in

directive

or

which

'kku,'for

'

'

vittnkkul

the locative

the purpose

of

The
educing the meaning of within.
higher
instance prefer vittul,'
the simplelocative ; but
'

is also idiomatical.

The

ablative

of motion

in each of the

dialects is

generallya compound case, being formed of the

locative and a verbal participle,
of two locatives ; e.g., maneeven
or
illi or
the sign
Can., out of the house,from
alii,'
(y)-ill-inda,'
of the locative,and
inda,'a sign of the instrumental,which is
used also as ,ti sign of the ablative,but which was,
I conceive,a
and identical with
locative originally,
im,'the Canarese form of the
'

'

'

'

'

'

Tamil

'

in.'
and 'ulla'),
Malayala'inikknlla' ('in-i-kka'
wiy,

The

is

pound
com-

of the dative of the

personalpronoun
pound),
(which is itself a comform of 'ul,'
and a relative-participial
within; in colloquial
Tamil also a similar form is used as a possessive.
in these languagesat
indeed be formed
Such compounds may
pleasure,and almost ad infinitum.Another instance of them in
Tamil

is

in the

seen

'idattiB-ku'

or

'

addition

to
kat-ku'),

to be used in such
is required

Possessive

that remarkable
or

and

very

dative to the locative

constitute

the

as
expressions

compounds. The
"

of the

{e.g."

which
locative-directive,
/ sent to hirri.

' '

Dravidian

languagesare destitute,of
convenient compound of nouns
and pronominal

suffixes which
possessive

is

and other Scythianfamilies.

Ugriaiij

so

characteristic
of the Turkish,'

251

ADJECTIVES.

In
with

Hungarianthey form

following
compounds
the pronominalfragments,
used as possessives
:
the

of

'at,'
mastery

"

ur-aim,
ur-aid,

my

ur-ai,

his masters

masters

thy masters

ur-ain-k, our masters

ur-ait-ok,your masters
ur-ai-k, their masters
These

declined like uncompounded nouns,

regularly

compounds are

in the usual way,

e.g.
"

to my
master
(ur-am-nak),
to
master
our
(ur-un-k-nak),
to my masters
(ur-aim-nak),
to our
masters
(ur-ain-k-nak),

uramnak
urunknak
uraimnak
urainknak

The

compounds of this nature in the Dravidian

their agreement with the Scythiangroup
languages,notwithstanding
other points,
is very remarkable : it is the pnlypoint,
in so many
ever,
howin which any structural difference of a generic,
class type,
or
appears

entire absence of

to exist.

In all the Dravidian

to nouns,

as

in the

are
languagesthe possessive
prefixed
pronouns
never
as in the
Indo-European
post-fixed
tongues,

Scythian.
Part
The
the

III."

or
Adjectives,

difference between

Scythiangroup,

with

is very considerable.
The
agreement of
in
qualify,

Nouns

used

Adjectivally.

the

Indo-Europeanlanguagesand those of
respectto the formation and use of adjectives,

with
adjectives

gender,number,and

the

case, forms

an

substantives which

they

invariable characteristic

of the

languagesof the Indo-Europeanfamily; whilst in the Scythian

have neither number, gender,nor
languagesadjectives
case, but are
of relation or quality,
which are prefixed
without alteramere
nouns
tion
In this particular
to substantive nouns.
the Dravidian languages
presentno

resemblance

to the

or
Sanscrit,

to any

other member

of the

dian
Indo-Europeanstock,but are decidedly
Scythianin character. Dravilike those of the Scythian
so
adjectives,
called,
properly
tongues,
w
hich
of
nouns
of
are
qualityor relation,
acquirethe signification
without
adjectives
merely by being prefixedto substantive nouns

252

NOUN.

THE

(declensional
change; and,in virtue of that
are

are

they
signification,
acquired

words.
ciples
Partichol,'
qualitative
of verbs,and nouns
with the addition of participial
formatives,
in ihe Scythian,
also largely
in the Dravidian,
used as adjectives
as

called by Tamil

grammarians

'

uri

family.
Such

of
beingthe simplicity

construction of Dravidian

the

tives,
adjec-

time in the investigatnecessary to occupy much

tion of this department
of grammar.
It may suffice to state,seriatim,
and the
the various modes
in which
words are used as adjectives,
it will not

be

euphonic modifications which they undergo on being

will it be necessary
nor
prefixedto the substantives which they qualify:
formative

to

or

state

all the

which

modifications

are

discoverable in each

or
only those which appear to be most characteristic,
which are peculiarly
worthy of remark.
in
in all the Dravidian
1. The majorityof adjectives
as
dialects,
of qualityor relation
the dialects of the Scythiangroup, are
nouns
which
become
by positionalone,without any structural
adjectives
of
change whatever, and without ceasingto be, in themselves,nouns
quality. Thus, in the Tamil phrases, pon aridu,'gold (is)scarce,
and
the same
in*
'pou,'gold,is precisely
'pon mudi,'a goldencrown,

dialect,but

'

both

whether
instances,

in
adjective,
In

European

used

as

in
substantive,

the

or
first,

as

an

the second.

similar
dialects

connexion, and

in

manner

the

English and
word

same

the

other

is often used

aa

modern
a

noun

Indoin

one

without addition or change,in another

adjective,
ductile than silver; a 'gold'watch:
connexion;e.g., gold'is more
but this is contraryto the original
geniusof languagesof this family,
and is the result of a process of corruption.Whilst
nouns
adjectival
of this class undergo in the Dravidian
structural
languages no
combination
with
the
to which
nouns
they are prefixed
change,their
in
instances
certain
is facilitated
by unimportanteuphonic changes,
of the final consonant
the assimilation
of the adjective
such as
of the substantive,
in accordance
and the initial consonant
with the
requirementsof Dravidian phonetics{e.g., poR chilei (for pon
a goldenimage')
hardening,or doublingof the
chilei),
/ the softening,
initialof the substantive;or the optional
lengtheningof the included
of
word, to compensate for the abandonment
vowel of the adjectival
final
in
the euphonic
u,'e.g., kar,'black,
place of karu,'or vice
versd. These changesare purelyeuphonic
; theydifierin the different
dialects; and they contribute to grammaticalexpressiononlyin so
to indicate the words which are
to be construed
far as they serve
as

an

'

'

'

'

'

'

as
together

and substantive.
adjective

It is onlyon

th-eground of the

FORMATION

OF

repugnance of the Drftvidian ear

that the changesreferred to are
the

of
majority

used

instances

nouns

253

ADJECTIVES.

to certain classesof concurrent

sounds

requiredby Dravidian rules ;

sustain no change whatever on

and

in

being

adjectivally.
the poetialdialects,
formatives
adjectival

In

in the

dialects ;
colloquial

and

less used than

are

it is

generallythe crude ultimate

form of the noun
of quality
which performsthe functions of the adjective
in classicalcompositions.Thus, whilst
nalla,'
good,and pala,'
are
many,
commonly used in spoken Tamil,the higheridiom prefers,
even

'

and
'

almost

nal

'

and

the crude

invariably
uses,
'

'

of

nouns

and
quality

relation

the good way, and

pal; e.g., nal vari,'
(for pal')
pan
'malar,'many flowers.
2. Sanscrit derivatives (neuternouns
of quality)
ending in am
in Tamil, and in
amii' in Telugu,become adjectives
when
prefixed
to other nouns
the final
m
or
mu
by rejecting
;
e.g., subam,'
suba dinam,' a good day.
dinam,' a day, become
goodness,and
This,however, is a Sanscrit rather than a Dravidian rule; and it flows
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

from
a

the

circumstance,that
'

nominative,
"

Pure

'

nouns

are

'

Dravidian

in this
adjectives

when

form

compound,the crude

of the

'

'

'

'

two

Sanscrit

of the firstof the two

subha

'

instead of

ending in

nouns

; and

'

'

formed

into

is used instead

nouns

subham.'
'

am

or

when

'

'

rarelyIncome
tion
through imita-

amu

do, it is

they
of Sancrit derivatives.
is sometimes
In Telugu, final amu
from 'andamu,'beauty,
hardened into
is formed 'andapu'
ampu;
e.^".,
In Tamil, when a noun
of this class is used
or
andampu,'beautiful.'
is generally
and
as
an
am
attu,'the inflexion,
rejected,
adjective
;
is formed
suffixed instead j e.g., from
puBam,' externalityj
puRattu,'
manner

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Sometimes

external.

also the Tamil deals in this manner

th^m
derivatives,
converting
'

attu

most
to

'

but in all instances

common

method

the relative

them

'

into
of

with Sanscrit

of the inflexional

adjectives
by means

or
amu,' the
endingin am
of usingthem adjectivally
is that of appending
of the verb to become ('ana,'
participle
Tam.,
'

nouns

'

'

Tel.,or 'ada,'Can.),without any change,whether structural

'ayana,'
themselves.
or
euphonic,in the nouns
'd-u,''nd-u,'or 'b-u,'double
3. Many Tamil nouns
endingin 's-u,'
when
when
their final consonants
or
they are used as adjectives,
casenS,d-u,'
Tam., the country,
signsare suffixed to them : e.g., compare
"with iiatt-u varakkam,' the custom of the country, or
in the
natt-il,'
the correspondingTelugu 'nad-u,'the country, is
country. From
formed
n"ti,'of the country. In these instances the final consonant
of the root is doubled and hardened (orin Teluguhardened only),for
in
of an adjective
: but
the purpose of conveying the signification
'

'

'

'

254

NOUN.

THE

another

it is the

unchanged,and

class of instances the root 'remains

of the formative addition that is doubled.

consonant

used
are
ending in the formative 'mbu'
irumbu,'iron,
mbu
adjectivally,
changes into ppu ; e.g., from
A similar
iron rod.
and
an
kol,'a rod, is formed
iruppn(k)k61,'
ioumu,' iron,
change sometimes takes place in Telugu, in which
becomes 'inupa,'
iron box.
an
e.g., 'inupapette,'
du
and
ndu
Tamil nouns
change in
ending in the formative
the same
to
ttu
manner
on
compare
being used as adjectives."!.g.,
with
maruttu
and
a
(p)pei,'
marundu,' medicine,
erudu,' an ox,

When

Tamil

nouns
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

load.
eruttu (p)podi,'
ox
an
bag,and
do not, as might have been
Nouns
endingin the formative
ngu
on
becomming adjectives.Both these
expected,change into kku
classes of changesprecisely
resemble those which neuter or intransitive
verbs ending in d-u
or
r-u
(or with the formative additions of
mb-u,' ng-u,' nd-u,'"c.)undergoon becoming active or transitive,
is in each instance apparent in the change; for
and a similar principle
when
of quality
there
nouns
are
adjectivally,
prefixedto other nouns
is a transition of their signification
which
to the nouns
they are
intended to qualify,
the
transition
of
the
action
which is analogousto
^
of a, transitive verb. to the objectwhich it governs.
(See the Section
The Verb ').
Boots,'and also that on
on
of the
4. Each of the inflexional increments,or petrified
case-signs
of substantives
into adjectives.
is used for the conversion
genitive,
in Tamil
These
'in' in Tamil and 'ni' in Telugu, attu
and
are
ti or
ti in Telugu. In those instances in which
in
in Tamil
in Telugu are
used as adjectival
and
ni
formatives,their use is
tella-ni;'
can
tella,'
white,or
optional
; e.g., in Telugu we
say either
either
and
in Tamil
used
niral,'shady (literally
shade, a noun
dialect only) niral-in.' So also,
or
(but in the poetical
adjectivally),
mara
(k)koppu,'Tam., the branch of a tree, or
we
may say either
'mara-ttu
(k)koppu.'In Tamil 'am,' an inflexional increment which
to 'in,'is often used as an adjectival
tive;
formais apparently
equivalent
a
palmyra tope. The
e.g., 'panantoppu' ('panei-amtoppu'),
medicine

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

formative

same

is used

a
('mala-am pambu '),

It has
'

and

been

Malayalamalso

eg.,

'

malam

pambu

'

rock snake.

shown

ti,'are

in

that

the inflexions

or

inflexional augments,

in

or
reality
genitive
possessive
case-signs
; and
substantives into adjectives
that they are used to convert
throughthe
between genitives,
ultimate relation subsisting
e.g., of gold,and adjee*
tives,e.g.,golden. In consequence of the frequencyof tneir use in this
'

attu

'

theyhave
connexion,

come

to be

appendedeven

to adverbial forms for

FORMATION

the purpose

of

givingto

OF

them

an

255

ADJECTIVES.

meaning. Thus,
adjectival

from

'monnais formed the adjective

'monna-ti' {e.g.,
'monna,'Tel.,hefore,
ti tirpu,'
and in Tamil
from
th? former decision');
vadakku,'north,
wortAerw
the adjective vadakk'-att-u,'^
is formed
a
(properly
dative)
(_e.ff.,
a northern Tamilian').
vadakkattiyan,
converted
of quality
of verbs, and nouns
5. Eelative participles
into relative participles
formatives,
by the addition of participial
used as adjectives
in all the Dravidian
are
languages. Much
largely
is made
of relative participles
use
as
adjectives
by the languagesof
High Asia also.
It often happens that the same
root is used,or at least is capable
of being used,both as a verb and as a noun
; and hence,in many
instances of this kind
in the Dravidian
two
methods of
languages,
the noun
are
viz.,either by prefixing
forming adjectives
practicable,
to the substantive which
wish to qualify,
we
or
by using one of the
The colloquial
relative participles
of the related and equivalent
verb.
the latter method : the former is preferred
"^alectof the Tamil prefers
and brevity. Thus,
by the poets on account of its greater simplicity
in Tamil either uyar,'height(adjectivally
high),or the relative parthat was
sidered
literally
high (from uyar conticiple uyarnda,'hiffJi,
be
used to expres highor
to be high),
as
a verb signifying
may
hill : but 'uyar'
malei,'
a lofty
nyajrada,
loft^;eg., 'uyarmalei' or
whilst
would
be preferredin poeticalcompositious,
uyarnda is
better suited to prose and colloquial
purposes, and is consequently
the form which is commonly used by the Tamil people. This usage
is not unknown
to the Indo-Europeantongues ajso,but it constitutes
of the Scythian
a
specialcharacteristic
group.
of
6. The past verbal participle Telugu ver]bsis sometimes used
in
in Telugu ; hence when
Sans, neuter nouns
are
ani
adjectivally
is often
used as adjectives
ayi,'
havingbecome (the verbal participle),
annexed to them instead of 'ayi-na'(Tam. 'ana,'Can.
adu'),that
It is evident,therefore,
that
became,that is (therelative participle).
the final
i of many
is that by whjch the past
Telugu,adjectives
of verbs are formed; e.g., 'kindi,'
adverb,
low, from 'kipda,'.
participles
lower
thfi
hpfise.The additionof
below; e.g., 'kindi 'A\n,'
part of tfie
this i converts
into adjectives
sul^staiittives
als,p
kun-u,'
; e.g., from
kuni,'hump-J"a,ched.
Or hump, is formed,
class of I)ravidian a,djectives
is formed by
7. A very numerous
of qualityof the suffixes of the relative
^hg addition, to crude nouns
less modified.
formed
more
or
uyarn4a is a perfectly
participles,
in addition to,tbeverbal root,
relative partipiple,
comprising,
preterite
a,'the signof the relative;
tense, and
nd,'the sign of the preterite
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

256
and

NOUN.

THE

thoughthe

idea of time is in this connexion

lost sight
practically

expressed. On the other hand, in the

modified
the signsof tense are
class of words now
to be considered,
and the idea of
with their use as adjectives,
to correspond
or rejected,
time is entirely
merged in that of relation. It is words of this class
which are commonly adduced by native grammariansas specimensof
of,yet that idea

is included and

be used
and if the name
can
correctly
wordk,or adjectives;
qitalitative
at all in the Dravidian
familyof tongues, it is to this class that it is
correct to regard
applicable.I am convinced,however, that it is more
I class them
these words simply as relative participles
und.er7
; and
of the noun, because in
this head,immediatelyafter the investigation
the root to which the relative signsare suffixed is used
most instances,
by itselfnot aa a verb,but only as a noun, of qualityor relation,or as
an
appellative.
of this class are formed
by the addition
(1.)Many Tamil adjectives
of iya to the root, e.g., periya,'
small. The roots of'
great, siBiya,'
those words
is merely a helpto
sir-u
are
u
/ and as
per-u and
I do not say that 'u' is changed into 'i,'
but preferto say
enunciation,
I have no doubt that we
that 'iya'
is added to the root.
shall be able
without having
to explaineach part of this addition grammatically,
mutations,
to arbitrary
recourse
pounded
is,I conceive,com'iya' ('i-y-a'),
of 'i,'
a signof the preterite
tense, and 'a,'the sign of the
It has probably been
relative participle.
softened
from
originally
the suffix of the preterite
relative participle
in ancient Canarese,
ida,'
'ina' corresponds
in colloquial
Tamil.
In Telugu,the pastto which
alone is often used adjectivally
without the suffix of the
participle
have alreadyseen ; and the
i with which that partias we
relative,
ciple
the
i
which
the
final
of
such
a
terminates,explains
precedes
'i' is the signof the verbal participle,
Tamil adjectives
as
'peri-(y)-a.'
and the addition of 'a' or 'ya,'transforms it into a relative participle.
In classicalTamil compositions
used instead of 'ina,'
'iya'is generally
relative participle
of ordinaryverbs; e.g.,
as the signof the preterite
that made.
instead of pannina,'
When
the same
suffix is
panniya,'
of quality
added to a noun
like per-u,'
it into a
great, it converts
relative participle,
contains in it
which,with the form of the preterite,
and
reference
to
which
no
time,
may therefore be called an adjective.
The suffix
iya,'being somewhat
archaic,readilyloses the idea of
and the
time; whereas that idea is firmlyretained by 'ida,''ina,'
other preterite
relative suffixeswhich are in ordinary use.
A good
illustration of the adjectival
of iya is furnished by the
use
very roots
have referred,
to which we
small.
viz.,peru,'
great, sIbu,'
these roots are
When
relative
regardedas verbs,their preterite
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

258

Noxnsr.

THE

is aa
of the genitive
examples,the signification
and
the genitive
natural as that of the adjective,
shows how intilnately
the adjective
allied. Nevertheless, as used in these examples,I
are
termination,rather than as a signof the
regard a as an adjectival
genitive,and as acquiringthis force from its being the sign of the
that in most

of these

'

'

words
qualitative

of 'appellative
participles
'The
in the section on
investigated
relative

the

See that class of words

Verbs."

these

define

I would

participle.Indeed
"c.) to be
('raalei-(y)-a,'

relative

Verb.'
This

perhaps,explainsthe originof

usage,

adjectives

the Tamil

and 'sila,'/ew,
viz.,from the roots 'pal' and 'sil'
'pala,'many,
(which are used JP their crude state in the poets),and 'a,'the signof
the relativ.eparticiple.It is true that these words are also regarded
instances they are correctly
so
neuters
as
plural, and that in some
') pal,'the
regarded appears from the phrase palavin ('pala-v-in
the genderof the many
Tamil
of the neuter plural,literally
designation
look also at such phrases as
pala arasar,
we
(things).But when
quial
not
only in the colloMngs phrases of constant
occurrence,
many
"

'

'

'

'

"

but
dialect,

that

in the classics^ it is evident

"

the

'

'

of this

as
a sign
or
pala' is used, not as a sufiix of the neuter plural,
of plurality
of any sort, but as a sign of the relative participle,
by
of
becomes
the use
which
an
adjective.
pal-a
(3.) Many adjectivesof this class are formed by the addition to
of the future or
of qualityof the signof the relative participle
nouns
which
in Tamil, e.g., perum,'great. Beschi supposes
is um
aorist,
the abstract noun
this adjective
to be derived from
perumei,'greatness,
of
by the rejectionof the final 'ei ;' and to all other adjectives
this class he attributes a similar origin. mei,'however, not
ei,'is
formed (^vide
the sufilixby which abstract nouns
the section on
The
are
and indivisible. It is much
and as such it is one
Verb '),
better to
from
derive
per','the un-euphonised form of the root
perum
of
um,' the ordinaryrelative participle
peru,'greatness, great, and
the aorist;in the same
manner
as
periya'has been seen to be derived
from
of the preterite. nm'
per' and
iya,'the relative participle
of the future,but this future
called the relative participle
is ordinarily

latter

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

will be shown, in the section

and
'

such

as

to be used

very

on

'The

with
indeterminately,

Vinnil

in the

minang-um Sudar,'Tam,,
shy,but the stars that shine in

fittedto denote

continued

of reference to
this tense

time,

is better fitted even

means,

the

not

respect to

the stars

fhy,this

tense

aorist,
time.

that will shine

beingespecially

and in consequence of this looseness

of
um,' the sign of the relative participle

existence
'

Verb,' to be properlyan

than

'

iya

'

to

be

suffixed to

nouns

of

FORMATION

as
quality,

was

or

will be great, is

It has

Tam.,

'

more

259

ADJECTIVES.

formative.
adjectival

an

ffreafthan

OP

Hence

that
perum,'literally

'

expressiveand

more

classical word

is

for

periya.'

alreadybeen shown,
is not

green,

in the section

distinct form

of

on

'

Sounds,'that 'peim,'

but
adjective,

is softened from

'pasum' Cpayum') by a dialectic rule, whilst 'pasum' is deriA'ed

from 'pas-u,'
which
Begularly
greenness, green, and 'um,' the particle
is

now

under

consideration.

7. Dravidian

be used adjectivally
description
may
of the verb signifying
to
by appendingto them the relative participles
which are in Tamil
'ana' and
become.,
an
(also ulla,'
lent
equivaagum
in
and
in
Canarese
ada
:' e.g.,
word),
Telugu 'agu'
'ayana,'
that was
or has become
Tam:, lofty,
('uyarv'-ana'),
literally
uyarvana
is especially
used in
high or a height.This mode of formingadjectives
connexion
with Sanscrit derivatives,
of their greater length
account
on
and foreignorigin. Such adjectives,
however, are phrasesnot words ;
and they are incorrectly
classed amongst adjectives
by Europeanswho
nouns

of every

'

'

'

'

'

'

have treated of Dravidian grammar.

I may

again remark, that certain words have been styled

are
adjectives
by some
European writers,which in reality
appellative
and which acquirethe force of adjectives
not adjectives,
merely
nouns,
from the addition of the relative participles
of the verb to become,which
hiave been

here also

referred

to above.

Thus,

the

Tamil

words

'

nallavan,'a

a
are
a
good {thing),
good (man), nallaval,'
good (woman), nalladu,'
'

'

of qualityof the forby the suffix to a noun

matives
of the three genders; and the addition of
ana,' that has
in
become,to any of these words, though it constitutes them adjectives
effect,leaves them in grammatical form preciselywhat they were
before. Bontis may either qualifyanother- noun, e.g., bomis vir,when
it is an adjective,
it may
stand alone and act as nominative to a
or
The
verb,when it is a qualitative
noun,
e.g., bonus virimtem amat.
Tamil
a
nallavan,'
good (man), can only be used in the latter sense,
at all,
and therefore is not an adjective
nouns
appellative

fonned

'

'

dialects comparison
Iri all the Dravidian
4)omparigon
of adjective."
of comparais effected,
not as in the Indo-Europeanfamilyby means
tive
suffixed to, and combined with,the positive
or
superlative
particles
but by a method closely
resemblingthat in which
form of the adjective,
are
compared in the Semitic languages,or by the simpler
adjectives
of the Scythian
used in the ifl,nguages
which are generally
group.
means
of
the
is
of
methods
noun
these
the first
qualityor
adopted,
When
and the noun
or
to be compared is placedin the nominative,
adjective
s

260
nouns

with

which

It is
of motion

which

of the

connexion

from:

it is to be

compared
Tamil

generallystated in

is that
case-sign
that

NOUN.

THE

is thus

used,but

of the

ablative

locative;and
the

that

of in

meaning

e.g., 'avattr'-il idu

am

are

put

in the locative and

grammars

that it is the ablative

that
persuaded

of motion, the
in Tamil

even

when

the

is purely
signification

'il' and

'in,'have

rather
locatives),
are
(i.e.,

nalladu,'Tam.,

fixed.
pre-

than

this is better than

in this
that of

those,

in those thingsthis is good.

literally
The conjunctive
'um,'and, even, is often added,especially
particle
in the colloquial
dialect,as an intensitive,e.g., 'avattr'-il-um idtt
even-in-thosethis is good,
nalladu,'
Tam., this is better than those,literally
is put in the
with which comparisonis to be made
Sometimes
the noun
dative instead of the locative. Sometimes, again,comparisonis efi"ected
with which comparison is
The noun
of an
auxiliaryverb.
by means
by
is put in the accusative ; it is followed and governed'
to be made

subjunctiveor infinitive of a verb signifyingto see, to show, or to

leave; and the phrase is concluded by the subjectof the preposition,
we
with
the adjectiveto be compared. Thus, in Tamil
say
may
idu nalladu,'literally
even
though looTdngat that
'adei-(p)parkkilum
this {is)
good,i.e.,
quittingthat this (is)
good, or 'adei vida idu nalladu,'
that.
this is so good as to induce one to abandon
of comparison,
Such modes
cumbrous, and little
however, are stiff,
in those
used except by Europeans ; and in the Dravidian
as
dialects,
of the Scythiangroup, direct comparison of one
thingwith another is
left to be understood,not expressed. The
efiect which is
ordinarily
aimed at is secured in a very simplemanner
tive
by prefixingto the posiword
much
form of the adjective
some
or
signifying
veri/, or by
a
sign of emphasis,or a
appending to the subjectof the proposition
word signifying
indeed,e.g., 'id-e' (or 'idu tan')nalladu,'Tam., this
indeed is good.
In Telugu and
'nu' and 'u'
Canarese the conjunctiveparticles
not necessarily
are
parison,
requiredto help forward the former method of comlike the Tamil
um
;'nor is this particle
generallyused in the
higherdialect of the Tamil itself. The Canarese makes use also of the
and 'inta,''antalu'
and 'intalu' (which, in their
'anta'
particles
to assist in
origin,are compounds of locatives and demonstratives),
ejOPecting
comparison.
In all these dialects the superlative
is generally
expressedby means
of prefixedadverbs
or
signifyingmuch
by the primitive
veri/, or
Scythianplan of doublingof the adjectiveitself,
e.g., periya-periya,'
the
If
is required,
veri/ great,literally
great-great. greaterexplicitness
method by which it is eifectedisthat of puttingthe objects
with which

the

'

'

COMPARISON

comparison

is made

phrase,

tiger

the

follows,

"

tiger

intensity
is

of

prefixed

in

(i.e., amongst)
It

is

evident

superlative
differ

that

degrees

greatly

and

European

family

compared

like
and

those

which

Prepositions
all

that

suffixed
the

to

locative

form,

or

is
an

the

other

the

rarely

they

to

be

are

Jesuit

writers

of

Tartary

the

but

they

are

It

expressed.
the

the

simply

quite

seems

post-positions

as

nouns

of

in

in

the

relation.-

in

of

ordinary

Tamil

the

been

stated
When'

nouns.

this

be

to

in

un-inflected

their

unnecessary

work

naturalise

supposed

are

case-sign,

locative

parison
com-

failed.

been,

suffixed

generally

and

they

certain

generally.

already

have

doned.
aban-

of

but

attempt

or

are,

venient
con-

perfect

most

to

'tama;'

has

modes

endeavoured

It

sufficiently explained

regarded

the

so

to

in

are

been

been

up

with

particle

post-positions,

as

nominative

of

languages

post-positions
nouns

and

they

Indo-

ever

have

agree,

but

and

had
that

completely

so

and

the

inconceivable

the

idiom,

own

is

"

Dravidian

investigation

as

its

it

Post-Positions.

or

case

in

to

the

e.y.,

described,

been

adjectives

comparison

superlative

Sanscrit

resolutely

adhered

and

compared,

characterize

Drdvidian

method,
in

the

ella,' all,

'

noun

now

which

tongues

Turkish

employed

Nobilis

the

Semitic

the

those

of

mals)
ani-

comparative

the

have

should

plan

as

in

increasing

objects

the

forming

Sanscrit,

the

modes

the
are

de

Tamil

of

with

Robert

of

adjectival

which

If

tongues.

Dravidian

accordance

in

of

of

from

of

the

Tamil

(literally

purpose

the

in

expressed

animals

the

Thus

is cruel.

tiger

modes

essentially

be

denotes

adjectives

expressive

with

point,

the

the

of

those

The

which

animals

all

for

signification

noun

locative-case.

amonffst

Sometimes,

plural

the

would

puli kodidu,'

superlative

the

to

in

fiercest animal,

is the

is cruel.

the

and

plural

the

vilangugalil

'

the

in

261

ADJECTIVES.

OF

stood,
under-

though
to

kind,

grammars,

enter

into

inasmuch
and

are

IV.

SECTION

NUMERALS.

THE

languages,each of the cardinal nnmbera presents

itself to ns in a two-fold shape. The first and more
primitiveform is
that of numeral
more
; the second and
largelyused is that
adjectives
numeral
adverbs ("'
of neuter
of number.
The
twice,' thrice,'
nouns
"c.)
"o.) and also the distributive numerals ('by twos,' by threes,'
In the Dravidian

'

'

are

formed

the

from

the ordinal numbers

adjectives
; whilst

numeral

('second,' third,'"c.) are formed f^om the abstract numeral nouns.

often
dialects the neuter
of number
In the colloquial
are
nouns
used, without change,as numeral
adjectives:
may
e.g., in Tamil, we
the still more
irandu per,'two
or
though iru p6r,',
persons;
say
classical appellative
iruTaT,'might have been expected tft be
noun,
'

'

'

'

used.

This

of

use

the

noun

adjectiveis not nngrammatioal;

rule that

of

number

but

instead

is in accordance

of

the

with

numeral

teristic
the charac-

of

though
qualityor relation,
and abstract,becomes
in itself neuter
an
adjective
by being prefixed
in direct apposition. The
numeral
substantive noun
to a
noun
Tel.,one, is the only numeral which is never
okati,'
ondru,'Tam.,
in the colloquial
dialects j the adjectival
used in this manner
even
numerals, oru,' oka,' "c., being invariably
prefixedto substantive
numeral
the same
forms
nouns
as
are
adjectives:
employed also as
Dravidian

'

every

noun

'

'

'

indefinite articles.
The

abstract

neuter

or

instead
post-fixed,

of

nouns

of number

sometimes

are

substantive

elegantly

which
nouns
being
they are intended to qualify. E.g., instead of nal' erudu,' Tam.,
of
(using the noun
four oscen, we may say, not only n"ng' erudu
number
uangu,'instead of the numeral adjective nalu '),but also
erudu n"ngu ;' a phrase which
means
a
literally
quarternion of oxen.
This phraseafibrds an illustration of the statement
that the Dravidian

pre-fixedto the

'

'

'

'

'

'

nouns

of number

are

properlyabstract

neuters.

263

ONE.

The
found

primitiveradical
to

numerals

of the

forms

be those of the numeral

by

one

of number

one, it will be

have

adjectivesby
It

been

the

formed

seen

from

addition of

numerals, will be

the
adjectives.In investigating
that the neuter

formatives

neuter

their numeral- nouns,

and

to

are

nouns

simplernumeral
ments.
euphonic increthe

adjectivesof

which

abstract

or

shorter and

the

is,therefore,the numeral

not
languages,

Dravidian

be

Dravidian

compared

with

the

numeral^ of other famjlies of languages.

The compound numbers between 'ten' and 'twenty,'
and especially
the higher compounds ('twenty,' thirty,' two
hundred,' three
the oldest forms
hundred,'"c.),afford much help towards ascertaining
of the Dravidian
numeral
roots; seeing that the numeral
adjectives
which
in
exhibit
the
numerals
in their
are
those compounds
employed
briefest,
purest, and most ancient shape.
"It is the adjectival
form of the numerals
which is used in forming
of number, such as 'iruvar' ('iru-(v)-ar'),
Tam.,
appellativenouns
The
is not
of
basis of thjs word
two
irandu,'the noun
persons.
number
with the addition of ar,'
two, but the numeral adjectiveiru,'
the usual suffix of the epicene or masculine-feminine
plural. In the
of number
are
colloquialdialects,adjectivalor appellativenouns
three
numeral
from
the
first
formed in this manner
alone; e.g.,
adjectives
one
(fem.),
'oruvan,'Tara.,one person, (masc), 'unus;' 'orutti,'
person
three persons
(both epicene):
'una;' 'iruvar,'two persons; 'mixv"T,'
almost
all the numeral
but in the higher or poeticaldialects,
tives
adjecinto'appellative
nouns.
converted in this manner
are
'

'

'

'

'

'

these

From

are
adjectives

of -the cardinal

One.

Two

"

the

is

numeral

only essential portionof the roots

probablyas the very roots themselves.

regardedas

numbers, and

the

forms of the cardinal numeral

will appear,

'

'

are

one

think,

to

found in the
be

remotely

first,oru,'is that wlaich is used in all the dialects except

the latter, oka,'is used in the Telugu alone.
'

The

Telugu ;
(1.) The

numeral

be

languages,which

Dravidian

allied.

it is evident that the Dravidian

circumstances
to

'

'

basis of the
'

or,'to

first and

which

'

'

most

is added

commonly used form of

for euphonisation
; and

adjective one,'in all the dialects which

'6r'
Tamil, becomes
of this base,
'or-u,'in colloquial
use
dialect;the essential vowel 'p' being lengthenedto
poetical

this

make

'

constitutes the numeral

this

in the
'

'

to

u.' The adjecof the euphonicaddition

tival
rejection
Behistun
the
with,
which
in Ku
ra;'
form used in Tulu is ori,'
numeral
adjective'irra' or 'ra' may be compared. The Canarese
is identical with the Tamil, though its true chg,numeral
adjective

comperisatefor

'

the

"

'

264

Canarese
obbal-u

('or-b-al ').

former,and

for the

abstract
is in

unity,

'

lam

'

or

which, 'or,'is
'

'

6rvvam'

'6r.'

or

or-u

or
tiling,
nounced
'ondu;' in grammaticalTamil 'ouru' (proin
Tamil
onnu) ;
Malayaondu,'and in vulgar
'onji;'in Gdnd 'nndi;'in Tnda 'vodda/ od,'

neuter

'

ondru

'

uses

latter j the base of

'firval' for the

Canarese

'onna;'

one
'one,'meaning literally

noun

'

'

in Tulu

'vood;' in

'ood,'or

ancient Canarese, however,

The

root, and is identical with the Tamil

the numeral
The

instead of 'orural/ 'wna/

and
'),"
(or-b-an

'obban-u'

has
'

uniis^the

'

Instead of 'oruvan,'Tam.,

concealed.

is somewhat

racter

'

NUMERALS.

THE

Uraon

'unta.'

of this numeral, it claims by rale

form
being the adjectival
of the crude root, as well as the basis of the
to be the representative
which
abstract or neuter nouns
of number
or
unity,'
signifyingone
'

'

or

'

'

used in the various

are

derivation
made

of those

of number

nouns

be

to

from

whether

seen

'or'

be

can

the

clearly

out.

At
'

of each

It remains

dialects.

'

first'sight the

onna,' appear

resemble

to

European numeral
in Greek
oin-os '),

'

'

'

dialect,there

is

Canarese

one,'which

most

in Gothic
Iv,'

'

for

form

common

is in Latin

'

'

'

'

form

to be allied to the first numeral

Even
has

Indo-

older form

:' and

'

emu.'

the

Koibal, a SamoTede

one,'viz., unem
'

of

(in an

un-us

ain'-s.' In the

Tungusian um,' in the Manchu

'eka' is invariablyused
for one,

the

the Malayala
especially

ondu,' and

the

similar word

'

in

find in

we

Sanscrit,
though
noticed

been

which

viz.,
languages,
to
is prefixedto some
of the higher numerals
'una-s,'less,which
like the corresponding
hy one {e.g.,unavimshati,'
nineteen),
express diminution
in
the
Latin
It
would
'un'
be
an
prefix
nndeviginti.'
if
the
circumstance
un-us'
and the Latin
interesting
Malayala onn-a
be
found
to
is altogether
allied;but the resemblance
were
illusory,
and vanishes on the derivation of
from
onna
or
being proved.
It is reasonable to suppose that the numeral
of the Tamil,
adjective
appears

of the Western

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

oru,'and

its numeral

it is

whilst

'

noun

'

somehow

onau,' must

impossibleon Dravidian

'

'

be related.

to derive
principles

onRU,' it will be shown that the derivation of onRU

with Dr^vidian
in perfectaccordance
rules : and
if
be simply an
onna
euphonised form of the Tamil
is,every idea of the existence of a connection
certainly
'

'

and

of these forms
It

was

the Latin

shown

in

the

'

'

un-us

section

on

languagesdelightto euphonisecertain
to them.
manner

'

'

If the

into

'

'

'

of

'

'

oru

is found

nr,'the point under

must
'

Now,

'oru'

from
the
'

'

from
'

oru

is

Malayala

onRu,' as
between

it

any

be abandoned.

Sounds

that

'

consonants
to have

the

Dravidian

by prefixingnasals

been converted in this

discussion will be

settled.

What

266
'

THE

one
orutt-au,'

'

'

one
orutt-i,'

is derived from

and

Noun.'

'

man,

as,'the crude root, seems

mus,' the crude root of
'

form

close

as

'

is

of which

'

mative,
forThe

of which
'or-a'

as

for tkree,undoubtedly

latter

If in the

See

'asit,'
one,
analogy to

an

Brahui

musit,'the

mur-u.'

tt

of the third person.

with the Brahui

to, bear
'

'

the

woman;

the pronoun

Compare also this

does to the Canarese

NUMEKALS.

the

case

'

'

and

'

r'

be considered improbable that

mntnally convertible,it cannot
and
asit and
or,' bear a similar
art,'and consequently as

are
'

'

relation

'

one

'

'

'

to the other.

to be
ow"
seems
(2.) The basis of the Telugu numeral; signifying
is used in the other Dravidian
different from, that which
essentially
is nothing extraordinaryin the discoveryin any
dialects. There
This would
language or familyof languagesof two roots for one.
naturallyarise from the very concrete character of this numeral, and
find both
in Sanscrit we
the varietyof uses
it is put. Even
to which
also is representedin Latin by 'duo,'
'eka' and 'prathama,' Two
'

ambo,'

and

'

secnndas.'

of number
Telugu neuter noun
form is
thing,of which the adjectival

for

The

'

is

one

oka.'

'

one
okati,'literally
'

okati

'

is formed

from

'oka'

by the addition of the neuter and inflexional formative, 'ti:'

feminine
and
and
sufBxes, the
by annexing the usual masculine
okaradu or
okadu,'one man, and okate,'one woman.
Telugusform
oka
being found to be the crude root of this numeral, we have now
into its aflSnities.
to inquire
been supposed,
Is the Telugu 'oka'
derived,as has sometimes
not
from
the Sanscrit
eka,' one 1 It seems
improbable that the
ulterior connexion
with the Sanscrit one, to
Telugu word has some
but it is impossible
which it bears so great a resemblance:
to suppose
derived
from
been
the
like
the Bengali
it to have
Sanscrit,
directly
Persian
the
yak ; for the Tieluguhas borrowed and
ok,' or even
the Sanscrit numeral
'eka,'in addition to its own
uses
occasionally
confounds
'oka' with
'eka,' which
'oka;' and it never
Telugu
It will
independentone of another.
grammariansregardas altogether
also that words closely
be seen
analogous to oka.'' are used in the
be supposed to
whole of the Finnish languagesyby which they cannot
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

have

been. borrowed

from

theSanscrit.

the

Thus

numeral

owe

is in

og,' odyg ; in Samoiede

okur,' ockur,' ookur ; in
nish
Vogoul ak,' 'aku;' in Magyar 'egy;' in Lappish 'akt;' in Fin'ik;''ikta; in the Scythian of
'yxi' Cykrsi)]'in Tcheremiss
ir.' In the Sub-Himalayan languages,
the iBehistun tablets
find
we
'ako' in Miri, 'akhet' in Naga, and 'ikatba' in Kiiki.
oka
to the Telugu
These remarkable analogies
prove that it has
Wotiak

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

267

ONE,

or
necessarily,

not

eka

'

and

'

if the two

be in consequence
Dravidian
The

probably,been

even

in one, all

earlier form of

an

infinitive

and
together,

all, (withwhich

'

or-u,' in

from

which

followed by

abbreviation either from

Can

'

oka

and

to mean
adverbially
ordinaryMalayalaword for

verbal root

be

'okkannanu'

the

'

o,'to

be

one.

'

a
('o-(k)kannan'),

this, that

that it must

the Tamil
'

Lappo-

wok,' all),is supposed by

from

j and

consonant

the

Canarese instead of
an
adjectivally
doubles the succeeding consonant
; e.g.,

It is evident

man.

be, it must

to

is used

the obsolete

one
head;
'ottaleyu'('o-(t)tale'),

one-eyed

they appear

Sanscrit

used

it

case

'

the

speech.

the

Mordwin

compare

is sometimes

'o'

root

forms

which

from

the Sanscrit and

okka,' which

'

grammarians to be derived
This

allied,as

are

of the relation of both

families to

Tamil

roots

derived

'

'

originally
by

was

been

have

or,' or the Telugu

'

derived

ok'.'

in

It appears
allied J
very
any way
there
is any
them
doubtful whether
relation between
; and yet
be discovered.
few traces of affinity
On examining the
some
may
'

Telugu word

for

numeral
notice.

or

eleven,'padakondu,'the

exppctedto

j instead of which

addition

of

'

'

is here

If the
'

okatl

kondu,'

is formed

nouns

formative.

some

find

find

we

'kondu'

compound alone,
number, and like all such
in this

latter

part

which
peculiarities

presents some

should have

We

connexion

'

'k'

'

are

of

this

deservingof

used for

one

used

as

from

neuter

crude

is euphonic and

in this
is found

form which

pound
com-

noiin

base

by

intended

of
the
to

teen,
sevenpadihedu ('padi-(h)-edu,')
ondu ';is allied to the
'kondu'
is identical with
k^ondu,'and
Canarese
likely,
ondu,' from the root or : but if,as appears more
derived
form from which it was
is radical,the crude,adjectival
k
the
kor : and if we
to adopt this supposi-:
are. at liberty
may have been
the originalform of
conclude that 'kor' was
tion,we may at once
for the initial k
the Tamil-Canarese
might eapilybe softened
or;
initial
off (and there are several instances of the disappearanceof an
k'),whilst it could not have been prefixedto or,'if it had not. stood

prevent hiatus, like

the

'

of

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

before it

originally.

Supposing
suppose
a

common

kor

'

'

'oka'

'kor' and
root.

to be

If the

an

older form

of

'

or,'it

is not

difiicultto

to be

allied,by the corruptionof both from

old Scythianword foj:
ome
was
responding
'okor,'cor-

both 'kor' and 'or,'and also

oknr;,'
be derived from it. A change analogousto this
'oka,' would natujrally
in
find that the numeral for
appears in ilaeBehistun tablets, which we
which is used in the oldest exjtantspecimen of the language of the
one
to our
'kir' (corresponding
supposititious
ancient Scythians was
to

Sjamoiede

the

'

268

NUMERALS.

THE

Teliigu kor '),and

'

'irra'

'ra.'

or

Here

both of the existence

have

we

of

for

containingboth

one

from it was

authentic

and

ancient

an

word

derived
adjective

numeral

that the

illustration
k

'

'

and

'

r/

adjectivefrom which the k had been

softened off: and it deserves specialnotice that 'ra/ the Behistun
of the
numeral
is identical with
ra,'the numeral adjective
adjective,
is representedby
Ku, a Dravidian dialect. In the Turkish, one
and

of

derived

'

numeral

'

'

bir,'which

'

to be allied rather

seems

once

to
(and ulteriorly

The

Caucasian

the Sanscrit

numerals

for

Dravidian, viz., Lazian

and
so

'

'

the Persian

to

var,'time),than

exhibit

one

'

bar

in

'

'

bari,'

to the Tamil

closer resemblance

'

to

ar,'Mingrelian arti,'Georgian
'

"

or.'
the

erthi

it may
be noticed that as in the Dravidian
or,'one, and ' ir,'
two,
'
'
in those Caucasian dialects,
essential
of
hoth
those
forms
r
an
part
'

numerals.

article. The
indefinite

Dravidian
'

'

oru

and

"

oka,'are

'

numeral

Dravidian

used like similar numerals

The

sort of indefinite article.

Turkish

in most
'

uses

bir,'one,

adjectives,
as
languages,
in

similar

correspondingusage prevailsin the modern European

India.
dialects of Northern
languages,as well as in the colloquial
The only thingwhich may be considered as distinctive or peculiar
in the use
numeral
of the Dravidian
adjectiveone, as an indefinite
that it is not used in the loose generalway
is the circumstance
article,
in which
in Englishwe
speak of a man, or a tree,but only in those
in which the singularity
of the objectrequires
to be emphasized,
cases
when
it takes the meaning of a certain man,
a particularhind
of tree,
in
the
native
make
in
t
ree.
or
a single
Europeans
speaking
languages
generaltoo largeand indiscriminate a use of this prefixednumeral,
that the Dravidian
neuter
without
forgetting
prefixor addition,
noun,
becomes
singularor plural,definite or indefinite,
according as the
connexion requires.
manner;

Two.

and

The

"

abstract

neuter

or

noun

of number

signifying
two, or

in Telugu rendu,'
is in Canarese
eradu,'in Tamil
irandu,'dmility,
in Tulu
erad-u,''raddha,' or 'randu;' in Malayalam 'renda;' in
'rend' orj'rann;'in Seoni G6nd
Gond
'aed' or
'rund;' in Tuda
'

'

'

'

'

yeda.'

The

Singhaleseword

for double

is

'

iruntata.'

In

all the

is ir,'with
correspondingnumeral adjective
such minor modifications only as euphony dictates. This numeral
is in||Tamiliru ;' in the higher dialect ir,'the increase in
adjective
of the radical i,'compensatingfor the rejection
of the
the quantity
Dravidian

dialects the

'

'

'

'

final euphonic u.'

'

The

'

'

which

constitutes the radical consonant

269

TWO.

of

ir,'is the soft medial semi-vowel

'

of its softness

in Canarese
especially
persons,

the modern

and

Telugu

the

of

hundred,
innuRu

'

of

iddar-u.'

the

Tamil,

the

'

and

the

instead

of 'i'

stands

Telugu

the

the

i'

'

Tamil

and

irandu

'

(ancientdialect

'),

irunuRu,'two

the Canarese

have

'

is

twenty

of number

'eradu,'two,

but

vowel;

it not

'ir,'we

'

irvar

'

iruvei.'

in

for the

in the Canarese*

even

existence

of

of the

obsolete

Canarese

root, but

the

the

might naturallysuppose
'

is used

'e'

point the Canarese

this

numerals,

compound

Were

or

'

iruvar,'Tarn., two

instead
jppattu,'
correspondencewith the Tamil
for

in

noun

in all the

adjective'ir-u'

'

Telugu and

word

initial

re-appears.

'

ibbar-u

the

be
'

neuter

as

alone,and

both

would

In the Canarese

for

Instead,also,of the correct

Canarese

which
'irupattu,'

'

uses

succeedingconsonant,

the

Telugu. Thus,

Canarese

'

;' and

irubadu

'

and

in consequence

it evinces

coalesce with

tendencyto

j and

iradu

'

numeral

'i' of the

to

be,

not

intended
to
euphonic prefix,
facilitatepronunciation. i is very commonly so prefixedin Tamil;
rS.tri'),becomes
ira,'and by a
ra,'niglit
(from the Sanscrit
e,g.,
further change iravu.' This supposition
with respect to the euphonic
character of the
i of
irandu,'might appear to be confirmed by the
from the numeral
of the
circumstance that it disappears
nouns
altogether
however,
Telugu,the Malayalam,and several other dialects. The( existence,
in every one of the Dravidian
of the numeral adjectiveira or ir,'
and its use in all the compound numbers
dialects,
(such as
twenty
i of the Tamilhundred
and
two
'),suflBce to prove that the
irada
numeral
is not merely euphonic,but is a part
Canarese
noun
element

component

of the

an

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

of the
been

that

and
itself,

root

from

formed

'

forms

primitiveform
only to inquireinto
the

iru,'was

have

now

Canarese

The

'

eradu

is

irandu,'

there is

Though
Tamil

'

'

nasal

the

neuter
a

of

noun

number,
A

formative sufiBx.

clearlythat

of the numeral

'

form

'

adjectivetwo

iradu,'as

of the

it must

word

The

Canarese.

to

is

now

the

nasal,and
Tam.

we

noun.

been

of number.

noun

which

witness

bears

parison
com-

and

have

changed
having been euphonically
in the Tamil

word

The
to

in use, the

existence of
which
'

must

'

du

is

very

common

'

'

'

termination

iratt-u,'
double,

'

of neuter

nouns,

an

have

is

directlyfrom
'

'

nd.'

'

by the doublingof the 'd,'as

'irad-u,'
and
is converted into an
adjective;
usuallydone when a noun
du
enphonic change of dd into t* is according to rule.
is formed

has

ir,'
euphonisedinto

the characteristics of the numeral

destitute of the

was

identical with

shows

extant

double
noun-adjective

earlier form,which
been

'

iradu,'the

(or rather

'

is the earliest
originally)
Tamil

'

the addition of

by

ir'

of the various
'

'

'

'

the
'

or

of
especially

270

NUMERALS.

THE

neuters, in
appellative

'kira,'Tam., old,

root

'kiradu, that

is formed

from

languages. Thus,

Drividian

all the

the

is old.'

which
'

The

is

evidently
euphonic,and is in perfectaccordance with the ordinaryphonetic
languages. In Telugu every word ending in
usages of the Dravidian
obscure nasal,whether it has a place
an
du,'receives in pronunciation
instances in
in the written
language or not; and there are many
"

'

which

is inserted before

'

'

the Tamil

in

'

irandu

'

Tamil

also of the

nasal before

of this

insertion

it is

nasal

in which

when
euphonisation,
in the word
originally

'indu,'here,and

'

yandu,'where

final

'

that there

quitecertain

sake of

'

du

for the
no

was

such

e.g., 'andu,' there,

euphonised forms of ' adu,'

it is found
are

karandi,'a spoon, Tamil, with the

yadu.' Compare
of number, signifying
more
primitiveTelugu garite.'The Tamil noun
In
the
Gond
iradu
have been
originally.
two, must, therefore,
irandu
has disappearedaltogether
change
; a
rann,'the d of
which is in accordance
with the Malayala corruptionof
ondu,' one,
word
for two,
dian.
into
onna.'
The Uraon
enotan,'is probably DraviIn Ur"on
otan
(from the Hindi
gotan ') is a suflSx of each
the
of the first three numerals; consequently'en* is to beregai^dcd
as
er.'
to be analogousto the Dravidian
Uraon
root,and this seems
There
are
no
two, in any of the Indo-European
analogiesto ir,'
doubtful whether
real analogiesto it are
and I am
languages,
any
discoverable
in the Scythian group,
even
except perhaps in the
'

tdu,'and

also

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Caucasian.
Brahui

The

vindicates

at least

or

of its second
affinity

the close

tongues.

compared with
that

of

Brahui

the Brahui

Canareise

is

and

the

'

element,by

to those

'irat;' and

asit,'
one,

when

of the Dravidian

this

word

musit,'three,it is

final 'it'

'

;'in

'

ori

the

or

is

evident

'at,'is a formative

'

'
afiinities; e.g., compare
irat'
with the
erada,' and especially

double.
iratt-u,'
the

tongues,are

;' in

the

Lazian

also the Armenian

Dravidian

of number

analogiesto

nearest

Georgian
ieru

third numerals

'

noun

in other families of

'

Dr"vidian

has been

derivative

The

ancient

an

in part Dravidian,

regarded as

'

'

the

Tamil

and

instances

the Brahui formative evinces

with

of

two
'

to be

appended to the root. Consequently ir,'the

identical with the Dravidian
is absolutely
ir.' Even
ir-at,'

suffix which
root

In

of these

each

in

inheritor

the

as

its claim

'

In the Samoiede
bear at firstsightsome

'

Suanian
zur

;'and

Drividian

'

ir

'

in the Caucasian

I have

which

noticed

dialects;
e.g.,

in the

(a dialect of the Georgian) eru

or
in the Mingrelian shiri :' compare
'

ergov.'
familyof tongues,several words
resemblance

'

'

to the Dr"vidiau

are
'

found

ir.'

which

These

are

271

THREE.

'sit,''side,'and

especially'sire'

siri.' It

improbable,
ir' arose
from the softening
off of the
however, that the Dravidian
initial 's' of these words; for in the Finnish family this same
's'
dialects of that family 'kit;'in
k;' whence two is in some
appears as
Magyar ket,' ketto- ;'and in Lappish quekt.' It has also been
shown
that an initial 'k' is a radical element
in the majorityof the
Scythian words for two ; and hence, though the Mongolian kur-in
in Turkish
(for'kuyar-in'),
or-in,'
'igirtwenty, becomes in Manchu
'

or

seems

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

mi

;' we

vidian

cannot
'

ir

by 'k,'or

'

venture
'

or

;'for

er

'

it is certain that the latter

other consonant,

any

this Manchu

to compare

far back

so

with the Dri-

'

or

preceded
languages

never

was

the Dravidian

as

be traced.

can

Three.

The

three or a triad,is
signifying
in Canarese
muru
;'in Telugu mudu ;'in ancient Telugu,as quoted
by Pliny,and testified to by native grammarians modoga ;'in Tamil
'munRu'
munu
(pronounced mundru,' mundu,' and
'); in Malayalam
mund
mud' ;'
munna
;' in Tulu
j'in Tuda
miiji;' in Gond
"

neuter

of number

noun

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in Uraon

'

'

'man-otan.'

The

numeral

adjectivethree,which is employedin three persons,

three hundred, and similar compounds, is either
'mu.'
mu
or
thirty,
The long mil
is found
in the Tamil
and modern
Canarese
epicene
'

'

'

'

'

nouns,
'

muvar,'

mupattu,'thirty. The

which
see

and

in every

shorter form

of the

one

three

and

persons,
'

Dravidian

mu,'

Canarese

the

in

is used in three hundred

dialects

; and

is 'miinnuru

we

it also in the Tamil

in the

'muppattu,'and the Telugu fmupphei,'thirty,

muggar-u,'three persons.

Telugu
The primitiveand

number
clear

is
that

'

into

'

Jt
often

"characteristic form

most

evidentlythat
the Tamil

of the

of the neuter

'mur-u/ from

Canarese

of

noun

it is

which

('mundr-u ')has been derived,by the

that by which
converted
obu,'one, was

'muuB-u'

nasalizingprocess

same

'

as

oDBu.'
was

in the section

shown

changed into

identical ; and
'

muvar-u/

'

mur^n,' than

'

'

'

'

Sounds,' that the Tamil

mur-u
Telugu : hence
probablethat niud-u

in

it is more

that

on

'

'

'

'

mur-u

was

altered from

'

and

'

'

is

'

mud-u/

are

has been altered from

'

mud-u.

'

'

and

'

r,'

languagesa tendency to interchange,

generallyby the
mus' ('mus-it'),
hardening of 's' into r ;'consequentlythe Brahui
'' niur'
it was
ginal
the ori(possibly
three,is closelyallied to the Canarese
form of the word), and still more
to the Tulu
closely
muji.'
evince in many

'

'

"

'

It is doubtful whether

formative,or

as

the 'r' of

part of

the

should
'niur-u,'

ancient root.

On

be considered

the

as

whole,it seems

272

probablethat

'

tbe

instance of the
of

NUMERALS.

THE

'

of

use

is

of those

roots

three oi

of

numerals;

'

not

in 'r-u.'

reliable

with any

met

The

final consonants

to
exn,"seven, belong unquestionably

and

Brahui

in the

existence

the

to
's,'corresponding

?iw

I have

final formative

aRu/ Tam., six,and

'

ladical,for

the Tamil-Canarese

'

word

r,' would

to decide the question,

especially
seeingthat this 'e' is followed

particleit/which
'

three

mun-nuRu,'

Moreover, when

is itselfa formative.

'

hundred

in

all the

we

the

for
seem

by the
compare

dialects),with

(the
hundred,
Telugu and Canarese ; and when it is
remembered
that the latter has certainly
been softened from
ir-nuRu
has
to be probablethat 'raun-nuRu'
(in Tamil 'iru-nuRu '),it seems
from
been formed in a similar manner
mur-nuRu,' and consequently
that
root of this numeral.
The same
mur,' not 'mu,' was the original
conclusion is indicated by a comparison of the Telugu iddaru,'two
muggaru,'three persons.
persons, and
It seems
that 'mu' originally
followed by
was
probable,therefore,
would naturally
a consonant
; and the softeningoff of this consonant
for the occasional lengtheningof 'mu'
into 'mu.'
account
I have
been
able to discover any
not
analogy to this numeral,
either in the Scythianor in the Indo-Europeantongues.The only Extra'in-nuRu,'two

same

in

'

'

'

'

'

'

Indian

resemblance

to it is that

is

this circumstance

which

is found

strikingproof of the

Dravidian
distinctively
the Dravidian
'mur,'in

element.

The

other

families

been

derived

in the Brahui

existence

in the

total absence
of

of

leads
languages,

; and

Brahui

of

analogy to
me

to

pose
sup-

Dravidian
directlyfrom some
Latin 'secundus,' is undoubtedly derived from
verbal
The
root.
the Indo-European tri,'
three,with the
sequor ;' and Bopp connects
that which 'goes
to pass over, to go beyond,signifying
Sanscrit root tri,'
beyond^two. If this derivation of 'tri' be not regardedas too fanciful,
that

it must

have

'

'

'

similar derivation

be discovered.

present some

beyond,to

In

of

'mur,'from

those

pointsof

Dravidian

languages there

is

two

easily

root, may

verbal

resemblance,viz.,'miR-u,'Tam.

and

which

roots

Can.,to

go

exceed,to transgress;and rauR,'to turn, an obsolete

contained in 'muR-ei,'Tam., order, sticcession,
a turn

pass, to

root, which

are

verbal

'

'idu un muRei,' this is your turn). maR-u,' Tam., Tel.,

and Can.
{e.g.,
to change,and the Tel. noun
to be cormar-u,'a time,a course, seem
relative
'

'

roots.

Four.

"

The

Dravidian

is in Canarese
in

Tuda

otan.'

'uonku'

or

of number

noun

signifying
four, or

ternion,
qua-

'nalku;'in Telugu 'n"lugu;'in Tamil 'nan-gu;'

'

nonk

'

in G6nd

'n"lu;'

in

Uraon

'

nakh-

274

NUMEEALS.

THE

four,which in the
languagewhich contains a numeral signifying
Here the Brahui also
nal'
smallest degreeresembles the Dravidian
failsus ; for it is only in the firstthree Brahui numerals that we find
one

'

and
influences,

of Dr"vidian

traces

languagefrom /owr

the

the Sanscrit.

derived from

are
inclusive,

to ten

of that

of the numerals

rest

analogiesfail us, in this instance Ugrian afiinities

the Finnish
than usually
distinct. The resemblance between
are
more
with respectto the numeral four,amounts
tongues and the Dravidian,
vidian
and cannot
have been accidental. Compare with the Drato identity,
Though

nal,'the

'

Vogul

other

;' the Ostiak

nila

'

Tcheremiss
'

nil

'

;'the Mordwin

'

nile,' nilen ;'the

'

niil,'nel,' njedla,'nieda,' njeda;'the

'

'

'

'

nelja;' the Lappish nielj,'nelje,' nella ;' the

rals
Magyar 'negy' (pronounced neidj'). The root of all these numeis evidently
'nil' or 'nel,'
the analogy of which to the Dravidian
nal
The
nal,'is very remarkable.
or
Magyar negy,'has lost
the original1,'through the tendency,inherent in the Finnish idioms^;
to
regard '1' and 'd' as interchangeable.The Ostiak 'njedla'or

Jinuish

'

'

proper

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

nedla,'in

'

the

'

of

'

'

middle

the
'

which

'

and

'

1 ' form

but
A

point of agreement.
in the

nal,'appears

constitutes
a
cerebral,
letter,

one

Tulu, in

softeningdown of
is
fourteen (ten-four)

similar
which

pad'naji.'

'

five,is in Canarese and

and colloquial
in Tamil 'eind-u;'
in the poetical
dialects
Telugu 'eid-u;'
of the Tamil
'anj-u;'in Malayalara 'anjcha;'in Tuln 'ein-u' or
ein-i ;' in Tuda
'utsh' or 'uj.'The Gond has 'seighan'
or
'seiyan,
Five.

"

The

Dravidian

which

is derived

numeral

noun

'

word

"

euphonicprefix:

'

The

numeral.

G6nd

eiyan
'

like

sarun,'dx,

is to be

Uraon,

exhibit
family,

'

from

regardedas

and

other

rude

the

use

of

the correct

'

s'

form

as

an

of the

dialects of the North-

rals
analogy to any of the Dravidian numeabove /oMr. In Telugu compounds,the word ior fiveis not 'eid-u,'
h6n-u ;'e.g., padihen-u,'
but
^liecw. In this case the initial 'h'is
purely euphonic,and used for the preventionof hiatus,as in the
instances of 'pada(h)aKu,'
and 'padi(h)edu,'
seventeen.
sixteerl,
parallel
two forms of fve, eid-u
The Telugu possesses, therefore,
and:' en-u.;'

Dravidian

'

no

'

'

and the Tamil

by
to

the

insertion of

an

'eidu'

converted

was

euphonicnasal and

the

into

'enu,'viz.,

assimilation
subsequent

it of the dental.
The

'

'eindu' shows how

'

numeral

ei,'in Telugu

adjective
five,is
'

in most

e.' In Tamil, and also

is in combination

converted into

euphonicnasal.

Thus

'

ein

'

or

of the Dravidian

dialects

in Canarese,
'ei'
gcoasionally
elm,'by the addition of an
'

Jifli/
(fivetens)is in Canarese

in
'eivatt-u;'

273

FIVE.

Tamil

eimbad-u

'

hundred

'

/ in Telugu
('ei-m-pad-u)

is in Canarese

'e-nuR-u.' We

also

in

Five
('e-bhei).'
ein-njuKu/in Telugu

'

of number
^"e,and the noun
adjective
times Jive. ei
Tamil
ei-(y)-eind-u,'^i;e

the numeral

see

in the
five,in juxta-position
remains

Tamil

in
'ein-nuB-u,'

6bhei'

'

'

umiasalised form

its pure,

'

'

in

Tamil

the

'

eivar

'

{'ei-{v)-a,T'),
fivepersons. The nasal 'n' or 'm,' which follows ei,'
in the compounds eimbad-u,'
and
einSjuB-u,'
fivehundred, is
fifti/,
'

'

'

not

be

to

confounded

with

the

'

'

Telugu en-u,'but proceedsfrom

is added

; and

adjective ei,'five,but

to

'

by

rule,not

similar

many

It is an

only

words

the

eind-u,'or

'

differentsource.

'

increment
adjectival

of the Tamil

euphonic

this numeral

to

consist of

which

such

of which
the
singlesyllable,
long open
words are used adjectivally.
Thus, we find in Tamil not only such
and 'eimpulan'
the five
conditions,
compounds as eintinei' ('ei-n-tinei'),
('kei-n-nodi '),a
'),the fivesenses ; but also keinnodi
{'ei-m-pulan
mangkai ('ma-ng-kai'),a mangoe, literally
snap
of the finger,and
the fruit of the ma.'
This adjectival,
euphonicaddition is an abbreviation of 'am' (or
flexional
and is probablyfrom the same
before a dental),
an
originas the infinal is a

vowel, when

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

increment

in

'

'

or

an.'

be doubted whether

It may
'

'

See

the section

the Tamil-Canarese

'

'

on

or
ei,'

resemblance

remarkable

been

have

must

Telugu

the

but

numeral ;
of the original
representative
in favour of
various dialects preponderates

e' is the better

of the

Nouns.'

'

the evidence

ei.'

noticed between the

panja'),and the true Tamil

panchan,'fiive(in Tamil
The resemblance is so great that
and the Malayala atijcha.'
anju,'
derived
that the Dravidian word
was
it has been supposedby some
from the Sanscrit ; but instead of this supposition
beingconfirmed by

Sanscrit

'

'

'

'

comparison of

the

this numeral

under which

forms

analogywhich
onna,'one,

appears,

idioms, and
as

of the various

would be the

if the

case

like the
by comparison,
real,it is utterly'dissipated

analogywere
'

various Dravidian

has

and the Latin

'

between

observed

alreadybeen

the

rent
appa-

Malayala

un-us.'
'

radical form
primitive,

The
or
or

'

6,'as appears

neuter

by

from

of number

noun

the addition of

added to

its

some

use

of the
a

as

Dravidian

numeral

fiveis

The
adjective.

formed from
is generally
formative.

numeral

the numeral

The formative

'

ei

abstract

tive
adjec-

suffix which is

a corresponding
ir-u,'
two, is du ;'and by the addition of d-u,'
or fiveIkings;which
ei-Axi,
five,
formative,'ei' becomes
'

'

'

'

is

though,like all such nouns, it is capableof

being used without change as an adjective.This formative suffix

in itselfa neuter

'd-u'

is

an

noun,

common
exceedingly

formative

of neuter

appellative
t2

276

NUMERALS.

THE

in the

nouns

singularof
of both

noun

i^

from, or allied to, the termination of ad-u,'it,the

'eid-u,'the numeral
the demonstrative pronoun,
'

doubtless borrowed
neuter

; and

in the Tamil
particularly
languages,

Dravidian

and the

Canarese

the

Telugu, is evidentlythe original

'eid-u' could not have been

regularform of this word,
from
eind-u,'but the corruptionof
even
or
anj-u,'
corruptedfrom
eind-u
and
anj-u from an original eid-u will be shown to be in
accordance
with usage.
perfect
from
eid-u to
The first change was
eind-u,'
by the insertion of
an
euphonicnasal,as in the former instances of irad-u,'two, changed

and

most

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

into
so

'

irand-u.'
in

common

euphonicinsertion

This

of

'n,'after certain vowels,is

regarded as a rule of the

which end in Canarese in
participles
preterite
n-du ;'e.ff.,compare
Tamil
in
aled-u,'Can.,.

Tamil, that

almost be

it may

language; and hence

ed-u,'always end in
eid-u had been
aleind-u,'Tarn. When
having wandered, with
necessitated a
changed into 'eind-u,'Tamil usages of pronunciation
further change into 'einj-u'
or
'anj-u.'It is a rule of the colloquial
i it is changed in jprond
is precededby ei or
Tamil that when
and uniformly
nunciation
into
nj.' This change is systematically
dialect ; and it has found its way into' the
in the colloquial
practised
dialect also.
classicaland poetical
there is a further change
Moreover, in changing eind into einj,'
ei to
becomes
of the vowel from
a,'in consequence of which
einj'
anj.' This change is almost always apparent in the Malayalam,and
of the mass
of the peoplein Tamil.
also in the pronunciation
Thus,
Tam., having spoken,becomes in Malayalam 'paKaSnju.
paReindu,'
;'
illustrated the change both of ei into 'a,'
and in this instance we
see
:' consequentlythe perfectregularity
into 'fij
nd
and of
of the
_^^",into 'anj-u' and 'anjch-a'is established.
change of eind-u,'
it changesit into
the Malayalam does not change nd' into nnj,'
Where
"nn ;'e.g., 'nadandu,'Tam.
having walked,is in Malayalam'natannu.'
eind-u' became
ein-u in Tulu,
This illustrates the process by which
and 'en-u' in the Telugu compound, padi(h)en-u,'^/!"ew.
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

It is thus evident

that the

the Sanscrit

apparent resemblance

of the Dravidian

panchan is illusory.It entirely

disappears
and
the
resemblance
which
does
exist is
examination,
slight
on
found to arise from the operationof Dravidian
of sound.
principles
'ei'
or
e,'must be regardedas the sole representative;
Consequently
of the Dravidian numeral,and with this it is evident that neither 'panchan,'
other
form
has
nor
Indo-European
whatever.
any
any analogy
'anju' to

'

'

'

In

some

of the Finnish tongues the word

resemblance to the neuter

Dravidian numeral

for Jivehas
'

eid-u.'

The

some

slight

VogoUlis-

'

277-

SIX.

'

"

;' the Ostiak

at

somewhat

like 'et.' I

is not
for

'wet;'

or

is simply a
number, eid-u,'
be compared with
ma;y,perhaps,'
'

'of

Magyar

final

'

(prbnounoed
this

whether

doubtful,however,

am

to be radical ; whereas

of

'

the

merely accidental ; for the

fiveappears

noun

'u

'uut'

'

the final

Ugrian words

of the
'

'

of the Dra vidian

The Chinese

formative.

neuter

numeral

the Dravidian

blance
resem-

adjective

^ei.'
In

the
languages

word

used

a
signify
five properlymeans
hand,or is derived from a word which has that meaning, the number
of fingers
in each hand being five. In Lepsius's
the word for
opinion,
ten which is used
in all the Indo-European dialects,
in
had its origin
the Maeso-Gothic
to
hands.
two
'tai-hun,'
Applyingthis principle
the Dravidian languages, ei,'
five,might be presumed to be derived
from 'kei,'
Tarn.,a hand, by the very common
process of the softening
some

to

"

'

away

of the

initialconsonant.

'kei,'a hand,

the other hand, I do

On

consider

not

I have
underived word.
primitive,
littledoubt but that it is derived from 'ki,'
to do,
or
'ge,'
'gey,'
'chey,'
like the corresponding
Sanscrit word
kara,'a hand, from 'kri' to do ;,
and in accordance
with this opinion,I find that
kei,'Tarn.,a hand,
has in Telugu become
the
to do, has
Canarese 'gey,'
che,'just as
in both Tamil and Telugu.
become
chey,'
to

be itself a

'

'

'

'

the derivation

Hence

of

'

ei,'
five,from

'

kei,'a hand,

becomes

peded
im-

'

is not
kei itselfa derivative?
previousquestion,
'ei' may be more
Possibly
nearlyallied to the High Tamil abstract

by

'

the

'ei-mei,'
closeness,
nearness,

noun

crowd, from

an

obsolete verbal

root

'

together.In this case the use of ei as a numeral,

and relation of the
would
take its originfrom the close juxta-position
five fingers
of the hand.
'

to
eij'

he close

Six.
to

'

the difierence which

dialects,

In all the Dravidian

"

exist between

the

neuter

noun

of number

six and

is found

the

numeral

The
numeral
is 'aRu'
in
noun
adjectiveis extremely small.
in Malayalam ; and
ar
or
or
Tamil, Telugu,and Canarese ; ana
form which bears the
in Tudaj in G6nd 's-arun.' In Tulu it is 'aji,'
a
does to the Canarese
relation to
that * muji,'Tulu, three,
same
aRU
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

miiru.'

The

numeral

respectto
even
'

'

'

of
quantity

is used

dicti/.The

from

is short

whilst it
'SLRMvei,'
siocty;

is

in

the

long in

noun

Can.
the

of

alone ; and

In all Tamil

it is shortened
adjectivally,

vowel

the

the initialvowel

that difference does not exist.

'

aK-u

the

adjectivediffers

to

'

aR-u

number
in

some

compounds

with
cases

in which

;' e.g., aRubadu/

'

'aravattu,'and the Telugu

highercompound

'arunuru.

278

NUMERALS.

THE

it is short in tue
In Tamil
aRnuRu/ Tel.,six hundred.
in six thousand.
Probably
hundred, but long,as in the other dialects,

Can., and
'

'

'

"R-U

numeral, the initialTowel of

euphonipersonal
pronouns, was

of this

primitiveform

the

was

like the included vowel of the

"which,
callyshortened in composition.
be traced between
No
can
analogy whatever
numeral

and any

languages
; and

am

discoverable.

are

is contained in the

for six that

word

doubtful whether

very

In

six is

Magyar

Dravidian

this

'

hat

Indo-European
Sojrthiananalogies

any

;'in

Turkish

the

languages

that
It Tnay be supposed to be possible
of the latter word, ' al,'
is allied to the Dravidian
syllable
'

the first

alty,'alte,'"c.
'

interchangeof

virtue of that

'

'

and

'

r,'which

is

so

aR','in

'

in the

common

alt,
Scythiantongues. It may be conceived also,that the Turkish
I
in
these
hat
allied.
have no
and the Magyar
faith,
however,
are
indistinct resemblances of sound; for the Magyar at' seems
originally
kot
is the corresponding
numeral
to have had an initialconsonant.
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Lappish, and

in

there is
with

consonant;

in Finnish

do

nor

another

one

numerals above /owr

Seven.
'

'

in

er-a

The

"

Malayalam, el-u

numeral

The

numbers

rude

analogywith the Dravidian

is

seven

and

Tulu,

or

'

'

'

er-n
'

ed-u

in

in

Tamil,

Telugu.
deep,

the rule that the Tamil

'

1,'in

in Mahadeo
'iid;'

which

is used

hundred, "e.,exhibits

Canarese.

Gond

'y-enu'

In

Tamil

in the

compound

few trivial differences

'er-u'

is shortened

like kn-u,'six,which
adjectivally,
'

is

to

'er-u'

shortened
similarly

aR-u.'

'

In Canarese

"

in the

ero.'

of number.

noun

used

when

'

commenced

cognate dialects

of

d,' in Telugu, and

adjectiveseven,

seventy,seven

the

from

'

is 'er'

y-etu;'in Seoni Gond

'

in Canarese

becomes

this numeral

In the Tnda

to

'

;'whereas,

ever

likelythat

of number

in accordance with

are
'

'

kut

be discoverable.

noun

'

semi-vowel
liquid,

to

Jivewould

Dravidian

These differences

or

or

real

'

'aR'

the numerals

even

widely,
any

so

Tcheremiss

it very

I suppose

Scythian tongues, in which

differ from

; in

that the Dravidian

to suppose

reason

no

'

kusi

'

e,' but

seventy is

in
'eppattn,'

radical consonant

the

r,'has been assimilated

which
'

only is 'e' shortened

1,'answering to the Tamil
not

the initial consonant

to

of the

succeeding

word.
In

hundred, this assimilation has

'filnuru,'
Can., seven

place.

In

Telugu, the

In
persistent.

'

'

'

elnuRu,'seven

Canarese; and in

'

of

"

ed-u

'

does

hundred,

'

not
'

'

taken

be very

to

appear

becomes

not

'

as

in the

the initialvowel 'e'

debhei,'
seventy(for'edubhei'),

279

EIGHT.

has been

to
diaplaiced,
according

in the
eisplained

was

This

aection

of
displacement

suppositiousednbhei
Canarese

the Tamil

'

'

of the

'

and

Tamil
corresponding

'

'

which of the three

perfectcertainty
in
this numeral; but
d,'or 1/ was
one
primitive
d/ than either of
easilyinto 1 or
changesmore
into r,'and could also be changed more
easilythan
the

'

'

'

the 'n

'el-u'

'

'

of the

Gond, probably'er-n,'as

regarded as the primitiveform

No

that the

with

'

consonants

they into
and

in the

short,as

was

be determined

consonants, 'r/

those

shows

the initial vowel

compounds.

It cannot

as

'Sounds.'

on

'

'

peculiarusage of the Telugu,which

in

Tamil,

is to be

of this numeral ; from which

ed-u

'

'

derived.

were

resemblance

Dravidian

to this

numeral

is to be found

of

in any

the

Indo-European languages;and the slightapparent resemblances

which may perhapsbe traced in some
of the Scythian
tongues,are not
I fear,trustworthy. Compare with the Telugu 'ed-u,'
the Turkish
yedi;'the Turkish of Yarkand
yettah (theroot of which appears
in the
Ottoman
Turkish
yet-mish,'seventy);and the Magyar
'

'

'

'

'

het.'
In

Armenian,

Magyar
both

numeral

and

the

'

Magyar
Finnish
corresponding
The

Eight.
"

resemblance

'

het
'

with

the

been

has

'ettu'

bears
'ettu,'
eijrAi,

noun

derivative

though so

'

atta.'

close

as

of

or

it is

Indo-European
to
especially

nounced
propounds;
com-

that the Tamil

some,

is identical

to

and

used in
occasionally

this Sanscrit

with,

found, however, that

almost

to amount

paring
com-

remarkable

is written
ashman,'Sans, eight,

from,

It will be

the

'ahtau; and

been supposedby
naturally

derived

on

and with the

Lappish kietya,'

in classical Tamil, in which

hence it has

of the

'

'octo,'in Gothic
'

will appear

sound, as

correspondingnumeral

in which

'h'

be identical;but

to

seem

The

seitzeman.'

'

numeral

is in Latin

manner

harder

in
seit,'

Tamil

the

to

which
family,

atta,'the

'

Tahitian 'hetu.'

of the Turkish

y'

been derived from

have
the

'

in
'yotn,'

is

seven

this

resemblance,

of sound, is accidental ;
identity

and comparison,like the

investigation
and
between
resemblance
onna
unus,' anju and pancha.'
is in Tamil
of number eight
The Dravidian noun
ettu,'in Malayin
alam
ent-u,'in Telugu enimidi or enmidi,'
ett-a/in Canarese
in Tuda
or
armiir,'
Tulu
etthu,'vet,'
enuma,' in trond anumar
that

and

it

disappearson

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'oet'

or

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'yeta.'

which should by rule

numeral adjective,
corresponding
form of the word, is generallyen.' In Tamil
primitive

The
the

'

'

exhibit
'

'

en

is

280

TSrUMEKALS.

THE

used

for eightin
adjectiyally

all

compound numerals;

e.g.,

enbadu,

'

eighty,en-nuRu/ eighthundred, as also in miscellaneous compounds,

is used
form
such as 'en-kanan,'
he who has eighteyes. The same
In Canarese,in which the
in
en-ern,'eighttimes seven.
adverbially
is used as the numeral
adjectivein
numeral noun
is entu/ en
'n' is changed
'envar-u/eightpersons; whilst in 'embattn/ eighty,
'

'

'

into

'm/ through the

of the

member

is used

noun

Tamil
when

the

'

ettu,'and

hwndred, the numeral

entu-nuru/ eight
of

adjective.The

numeral

the

the Canarese

'

the

adjectivesare compared.
is 'ena^'which
'enabhei/eighty,

the Tamil-Canarese

'

In

en.'

The

Telugu numeral

is

identical
obviously

enamandru,' or

'

diminishes

the difference

;'but

entu

numeral
in

second'

from
differs considerably
'enimidi,'eight,

of number

used
adjective
with

compound. In

initial of the

labial

of the

influence

instead
adjectivally

Telugu noun
'

'

'

'

yenamannuRU,'",ghthundred, the
the place of an
tendencyto assume

enamandugur-u/
'm'

of

'

enimidi/

eightpersons,
evinces
eight,

and

the root.

is not a part of the

shown, however, that midi
'en'
or
'en,'
numeral, but a suflBx;and consequently

It will be

of this

root

'

without the addition of

and also the
adjective

'

be concluded

m,' may

'

atta

'

to be

the true numeral

itself.

root

Thus, the apparent resemblance

derivative

essential part of

'

'

from
(euphonised

of the Tamil
'

ashta

it is found

various forms under which

are

'ettu' to the Sanscrit

as
'),disappears
compared.

soon

the

as

form of the neuter

of number
derived from 'en/noun
primitive
is evidently
that which
the Canarese has retained,
viz
entu/ which
is directly
formed
from
en
by the addition of tu,'the phonetic
'
formative
of neuter
of
common
a
equivalentof du
nouns, and one
which we
have alreadyseen
The Tamil
a
specimen in eradn,' two.
has been derived from 'entu' by a process which is in accordance
'-ettu'
with many
precedents.It is true that in general,the Tamil refrains
from assimilating
the nasal of such words
and oftentimesit
as
'entu,'
The

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

inserts

two,
not

nasal where

compared with
and
universal,

there is
the Can.

in

none

'

is sometimes

Canarese;

e.g.,

'

irandu/ Tam.,

eradu :' stillthis

reversed.

rule,thoughgeneral,is
Thus, pente,'Can.,a hen,
'

has in Tamil
become
(in modern Canarese 'henteyu,')
'pettei' a
that
of
into
to
ettu.'
change exactlyparallel
entu
is
Some
diflSculty involved in the explanationof enimidi/ the
of number
which corresponds
entu/
to
eni or
Telugu noun
ena
enabhei,'eighty),is evidentlyidentical with the Tamil(as in
Canarese
but what
is the originof the suffix 'midi?'
'en:'
This
"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

midi

'

persons;

becomes

'

'

ma

and tbe Tulu

in
noun

instances ; e.g., enama-ndru/ eight

of number, eigM, is enuma.'
Shall we
*

some

'

282

THE

used

as

verb

in Canarese

'

or

aa

We

hook

have

'

of its use

instance

an

en/ in Telugu enn-u,'

'

it is

In Tamil

noun.

en-usu.'

Tani.,a
en-suvadi,'

'

NUMERALS.

in

noun

as

After
a nuTiiberhook.
literally
ofArithmetic,

of the first age had learned to count

seven, they found
a highernumeral, which
they required
they placedimmediatelyabove
the Dravidians

and

seven

called

'

en,' a

numhei

which

perhaps the highestnumber

appropriateenough

an

"

they

then

were

for

term

accustomed

to

reckon.
a
seizingupon a word which denotes properly
to denote
numher
some
one
or any
number, and using it restrictively
is
in particular"
number
generallya newly invented,high number
found in other languagesbesides the Dravidian.
Thus, in Lappish,
lokket,'to count.
lokke,'ten, means
a numher, from
literally,

similar mode

of

"

'

'

Nine.

"

in all the Dravidian

is used

word, which
of number

noun

second

The

with,

it and

it is

in
tomraidi,'
bot,'in Kota
member

as

which

this numeral

Canarese

ornibo,' orambu,' or
'

'

'

'

patt-u;

nine is

'

the

in

worpatthu: in each of which

compound plainlyrepresentsten.

ten is

by

following:
ombhatt-u,'
Telugu
are

worambu,'

'

for

dialects.

assumes
'

differences

accounted

be

can

pound
com-

is identical

nine

ten, the

numeral

being such

onbad-u,' in
'

the

of the various Dravidian

'

of the

In Tamil

'

Tulu

'

from,

that numeral

forms
principal

Tamil

adjective.
compound numeral

numeral
of the

member

phonetictendencies
The

in

as

change, as

and without
indifferently,

evidentlyderived

or

between
the

and

nine is

the numeral

idioms

'

yen-

the second

instances

'

onbad-u

in Tuda

('on-pad-u,'
euphoni-

cally, on-badu '): and not only is it evident that

patt-u and
becomes
allied,but the resemblance
'pad-u' are
identitywhen
of onbad-u,'is compared with the reprepad-u,'the second member
sentative
of ten
in
twice ten
and
irubad-u,'twenty
literally
onbad-u
itself becomes
Moreover
similar compound numerals.
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

"

'

'

'

onbatt-u

'

when

In ancient

used

adverbially,
e.g.,

Canarese

'

onbatt'

"

er-u,'nine

times

In modern
as in Tamil.
'patt-u,'
Canarese it changes by rule into 'hatt-uj'nevertheless the original
labial retains its place in the compounds
ombhatt-u,'nine, and
it is evident that in Canarese nine is
'embatt-u,'eighty
; from which
of an
formed from ten, by means
in Tamil.
In
as
auxiliary
prefix,
Telugu alone there is some differencebetween the word which separately
the second member
of 'tommidi,'the compound
tm, and
signifies
numeral nine. Ten is in Telugu padi,'
whilst nine is not
or
tompadi,'
but 'tommidi j'and nine persons is 'toramandugur-u.'
It can
'tombadl,'

seven.^

ten was

'

'

'

283

NINE.

be doubted,
scarcely
however, that

'tommidi' has been

'

tompadi.' In the other compound

thirty,
"c.,)in which
padi forms
the corruption
of
padi into bhei
'

'

the instances
certain

'

before

now

that the

nine is identical with

We

ten.

be

Canarese

'

concluded

it to be derived from

'

ondru,'one

with

pr"fixof
to

'

'

that

the

'

this

other idioms

'

of

than

'

Tulu

of the

identical with
evidently

'

Miiller,naturallyenough,

on,'the first

'

have

been

softened away

'

om,' or

'

the

a differentprefix
preferred
;

have

to

on.'

'

orambu'
or
expressedin that languageby wormbu
and
is probablyidentical with the Kota
worpatthu,'
'

'

'

'

or

wor

'

or

to

seems

be allied

'

to

nine

being
which

word

"

'

first member

in

'

appears

'

the

added
arbitrarily
by the Telugu,it seems
probable,
form
of
this
numeral
in
as
torn,'
original
prefixwas

priorithat the
Telugu,rather than
The

only
inquire

to

compound.
prefixby which
auxiliary

Max

should

'

tom

for

torn,'which is undoubtedly
equivalent
in Tamil; and as it is more
'on'
likely

Canarese,and
t

is

words

portionof the Tamil

is inconsistent
derivation,
though plausible,
In Telugu the auxiliary
will be adduced.

tommidi,'nine,is

in

om

ombhatt-u.'

facts which

many
'

but

'

is stillgreaterthan in

as
regarded,consequently,

the

'

'

'

first member

'

'

in

vei

now
have, therefore,

of the
originand signification
In the Tamil
is
onbad-u,' on
and this 'on'
'padu is specialised;

om,'

'

or

into the

the
necessity

of the various Dravidian

member

second

of
'

It may

us.

of the

numerals

'

'

euphonisedfrom
Telugu (twenty,
second member,

of which

or,'one,

the

so

to

as

meaning of one from ten.

nine enters, and the
the various compounds into which
When
it presentsitself in the differentDravidian
various shapes in which
of the Telugu
idioms are compared,it is evident that the firstmember
and of the Tamil
ombhatt-u,'
compound tommidi,'of the Canarese
with 't.' Though this
have
commenced
'onbad-u,'must originally
't' is not found in the Tamil 'ombadu,' yet it has retained its place
and
in the higher and less used members, viz., tonnuR-u,'ninety,
In Telugu it is found not only in nine,
nine hundred.
tol-ayiram,'
give the compound

the

'

'

'

'

compound numerals into which

from nine and
though it has disappeared

nine

but in all

enters

nine

and

in

Canarese,

hundred,it retains

its

ninety.
placein 'tombatt-u,'
Additional

lightis

thrown

nine hundred, in which

ayiram,'

upon
'

this

prefixby the

'

tol is used

as

the

Tamil

of
equivalent

'

'

tol-

ton

'

the most
primitiveshape in which
'torn;'and this is evidently
Even in the Tamil
the prefix
the prefixappears.
tonnuR-u,'
ninety,
but is really'tol,'
is not 'torn' or 'ton,'
as
to 'nuRU
every Tamil
or

'

scholar knows.

The

'

'

is assimilated to the

'

'

of

'

nuR-u,'and

284

NUMERALS.

THE

both nasals

law of sound.

Tamil
recognized

apparent in the trite word

ney,'the

ml

'1

consonants

Seeingthat
thus resolves

'

and

the

'

'ton'

itself into

'

operationof the

The

enney,'Tam., oil; which

'

ghee of the

or

of the cerebral row,

nasals

changed into the

are

el

'

and

'

sesame,

or

'

is

converted

law

same

is

properly el
'

in which

the

rule into

by

rent
concur-

nn.'

by
of the Tamil
compound 'tonnuRU,' ninety,
in accordance with the higher number
tol,'
n

'

nine hundred,
tol-ayiram,'

'

ton,'are

are

on,' om,' torn,'and

word ; and that
tol,'
being

it is evident

of the

but different forms

'

that

'

'

'

'

same

be the parent of the rest,and the

form, must
In composition tol will become
of the root.
truest representative
of those forms can
be
but none
'ton,'or 'tom,' without difficulty;

distinctive

the most

'

'

converted into

'

tol ' under

any circumstances

whatever.

final

'

'

euphonisedin Tamil,through the influence

regularly
of the succeeding
word ; and this
or
of the initial consonant
syllable
rule especially
pounds.
appliesto the final 1 of the first syllableof comWhen
1 is followed by
d,'it is chailged
by rule into n,'
in Tamil ; and
kondu
this
having taken, becomes
e.g., kol-du,'
form of Id occupiesin the Telugu konu
the position
euphonised
When
'1' is followed by 'p' or 'b,'it is
of the root of the verb.
changed into the cerebral 't;' and this is the consonant
ordinarily
should expect to find in the compound numeral nine,viz.,
which we
instead of
and
tomonbad-u,' ombhatt-u,'
totpad-u,'
otpad-u or
.The
true
midi.'
explanationof the change of 'tolpad-u'into
is furnished by the poetical
dialect of the Tamil, in which
tonbad-u
of the existence of a system of euphonicchanges,
traces
there are
in use.
somewhat differentfrom those which are now
ThusJfrom
nal,'
and
is constantly

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

verbal root, the

friendship
; but
a

rarer

we

ordinaryTamil
also

in the

meet
occasionally

older form ; and

and

of the

even

this shows

poets forms

'

poets with

the

'

natpu,'
nanbu,'

of
tolpad-u
possibility
tonbad-u.' The possibility
'

'

becoming,by the earlier euphonicprocess,

find in the Tamil
when
classics a word
becomes a certainty
we
for
not
nine of which the basis is actually
on,'but ton,'viz., tondu,'
and directly
derived from 'tol,'
nine, a word which is unquestionably
'

'

'

muiSt originally
have been
shows, not onlythat onbadu
is
the
basis
the
of
first member
of
tonbadu,'but also that tol
every
'

and which
'

'

'

'

'

Pravidian form of this compound numeral.

When

"e.,are

the Tel ugu

and

compared with
Telugu and

in
nine tens),
(literally

nine hundred,
compounds ninety,
.

their

be struck with the great

In

Canarese

in
equivalents

Tamil, we

and regularity
of
simplicity

Canarese,ninetyis
each

of which

'

tombei

'

fail to

cannot

the Tamil

and

'

oompouud numerals

pounds.
com-

tombattu
'

tom

'

'

is

285

NINE.

(ised to
is

it
nine, though properly
signify

only the first member

In

Canarese

like

nine,which

of the numeral

is in

nine hundred

manner

does not representnine,but

is itself a

pound.
com-

Telugii tommannuRu,'
'

in

'

ombaynuBu ; compounds which are formed on the same

of both parts of the
plan as ninety,though with a fuller representation
In Tamil,
compound nine,which tbey adopt as their first member.
the other hand, the compositenumeral nine is altogether
lost sight
on
of in the construction of the compounds ninetyand nine hundred; and
of the same
those compounds are formed
it is
(by means
expedient,
of it)by prefixing tol to the word
true, as nine,but independently
hundred
in order to form ninety,
and the same
tol to a thousand
a
'

'

'

'

'

in

order

to

form

nine

hundred.

In

these instances

'tol' must

be

not signifying
numeral in particular,
regardedas an adjective,
any one
but having some
such generalsignification
as
defect,
diminution,or

minus;
the

and thus

arrive at the conclusion

we

that

it must

had

have

also. As 'tonnuB-u'
meaning in "me
('tol-rma-xi'),
ninety^
"Ae 'tol' {ovdefective)
nine hundred,
means
hundred,s,\ida,s tol-ayiram,'
the 'tol '.(ordefective)
means
thousand; so 'onbad-u' ('tonbadu '),
nine must
the tol (ordefective)
ten.
mean
have here,doubtless,
We
the primitive
Dravidian mode
of forming
the highercompounds of which nine is the firstmember.
The absence
of this idiom
in tbe higher compound numerals
of the Telugu and
illustration of the greater antiquityof the Tamil;
Canarase
is an
whilst the formation of nine on this peculiar
plan in both Telugu and
same

'

'

'

Canarese shows

that

it was
originally

the

common

property of

all the

forming the higher compounds correspondsto

of forming eightand nine,as has alreadybeen
the Scythianmode
pointedout. The higheras well as the lower compounds are formed
in Ostiak ; e.g.,from
and
in this manner
a
nit,'
sot,'
hundred,
eight,
not
is formed
nit sot,'
responds
only eighthundred, but also eighty. It coralso to the use of 'un' to denote diminution hy one
in the
and the parallel
Latin
Sanscrit
unaviwshati,'
nineteen,
undeviginti.'
It only remains to inquireinto the originand meaning of the
the '1'
prefix'tol.' It is not to be confounded with 'tol,'ancient,
of which belongsto a different varga:'and yet that '1' also supplies
us with several good derivations.
Though ancient is the meaning of
tol in Tamil,it is used to signify
firstin Telugu; e.g., 'toli-varam,'
the first
flow
day of the week,and the meaning,first,
might naturally
earlier meaning, one, of which
however no trace remains.
from
an
Tel. and Can.,a hit,or
Another
tol-a,'
possiblederivation is from
stillis toladivision (asin an orange or jack-fruit)
; and a better one
dialects. Its mode

of

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ga,'Tel.,an

which
infinitive,

is used

to signify
adverbially
off;e.g.,

286

NUMERALS.

THE

to all these derivations is that

of. The objection
the Tamil numeral
sonants
tol/ but tol;' and that those conprefixis not
dictionaries.
discriminated in all Tamil
most
are
carefully
1 in Tamil, viz.,
There are
two
similar roots containingthe surd
to hollow,to
tol-ei (Can., toll-u'),
tul-ei or
tol/ loo"e,
lax, and
as
an
perforate;
adjective,
perforated;
e.g., 'tolleikadu,' a long,pendent,

'tolaga
tiyu/to

take

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

meanings do not harmonize

very well
with the use of
tol as a diminuent
prefixto the higher numerals,
and yet it appears probablethat the word is the same.
We
must,
'tol conveyed
take refugein the supposition
that originally
therefore,
the meaning of deficient
diminished.
or
that there is no afiinity
It seems
to add
scarcelynecessary now
have surmised,between the initial portionof the
whatever,as some
Tamil
onbadu
and the Greek
iwea.'
The Manchu
onyan,'nine,
has not only some
to be
resemblance to the Dravidian word, but seems
a
compound formed on similar principles.Nevertheless the ultir
mate component elements of the Manchu
word
'emu,' one, and 'Juan,*
These

perforatedear.
'

'

'

"

'

'

'

"

ten

"

have

no

to the Dravidian.

resemblance whatever

languagesthe words used for ten are

the same;
in Tamil
in Canarese 'hatt-u,'
in Telugu
virtually
'patt-u,'
in Tuda 'pota,'
in Gond
'padi,'
'pudth.'
In those Tamil
in which
is the second
ten
compound numerals
member; e.g., irubadu,'twenty, pattu becomes padu' (euphonically
badu '),which is apparentlythe oldest extant form of this numeral,
and in close agreement with the Telugu padi.'
In the Tamil compound numerals under twenty, in which
fen constitutes
the firstnumber, e.g., 'padin-aRu/sixteen,
literally
"e?i-|-"ia;/
becomes
converted
into
the
in
of
which
I
consider
pad-u
pad-in,'
formative used as an euphonic augment, or
to be either an adjectival
formative.
In 'pattonan
euphonic augment used as an adjectival
which
I regard as
badu,' nineteen,'pattu,'
an
adjectivalform of
padu,'is used instead of padin the prefixof all the rest of the
twelve.
That is simplya corteens in Tamil, except
pannirandu,'
ruption
of padin-irandu.'
The
Telugu 'padi,'ten, is evidentlyidentical with the Tamil
adi,'Tel.,it,is identical with the Tamil
adu.' The
padu ;' as
in
than its equiTelugu 'padi'undergoesmore
changes composition
valents
in the other idioms.
In the compounds under twenty, in
which
ten is representedby 'pad/ 'padi/ 'pada/ or
padd/ the
the principal
changesare trifling;
beingin pandhommidi ('pan/for
'padin/ ten, and 'tommidi/ nine),nineteen;but in the compounds

^en.

In all the Dravidian

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

287

TEN.

from twe-niyupwards, in which

and

is

numeral

is the second

t"n

member

of the

pound
com-

'padi' is materially
changed. In
sixtyit ia altered to 'vei;'in thirtyto 'phei;'in seventyto
bbhei ;'and, in the other numbers to bhei.' This change is effected
of the 'd' of 'padi,'after which
by the softening
'pa-i'or 'ba-i'
a

noun,

twenty and
'

'

would

become
naturally

In

Canarese,ten

is usual
is

is

'

in the modern

patt-u.'In

bei,'and

'

then

hatt-u,'by
dialect

in

vei.'

'

the

change of p into h,'which

the ancient dialect,
in Tamil, it
as
'

'

'

the

in
compounds from eleven to nineteen inclusive,
which ten is used adjectivally,
and is the first portionof the word,
hatt-u
is represented
by hadin,'as patt-u in Tamil by padin.'
In the compounds in which
and is used as a noun
ten is placed last,
of number
(from twenty and upwards), patt-u is found in twenty
and seventy, batt-u' in eightyand
in all the
vatt-u
ninety,and
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

remainder.
The

Tulu

'

'

of number, and
patt' for the noun
pad' as the
numeral
adjective.
The vocabularyof the Dravidian
throws no lighton the
languages
derivation of 'pad','
the normal
form
of this numeral.
It is quite
unconnected with
to receive,
the
paRRu,'Tam. (pronounced pattru'),
of
which
is
and connected with
to catch.
R
radical,
paRi,'
Etythe nearest Tamil
root to
mologically,
pad-u is padi,'to he fixed
in,to he imprinted. The noun
padi'hence may mean
anythingthat is
noted down, imprinted,
ten might have
or
recorded; and the numeral
received this name
from the use to which it has always been put in
decimal
Another
calculation.
possiblederivation is the Telugu
kukka
a collection,
a crowd; e.g.,
padu-vu or
padu-pu,'
padu-pu,'
This word, however, is not recognisedby the
a
pack of hounds.
The
Tamil.
only analogy or resemblance to this numeral which I
have
observed in any other language,is in the Koibal,'
a Samoi'ede
in which ten is bet.' It seems
improbable,however, that the
dialect,
of the other
is other than accidental,seeingthat none
resemblance
numerals of that language,with the exceptionof 'okur,'one, bears
It is only in the lower numerals,
any resemblance to the Dravidian.
is to be found or looked for in
from one to four,that any real affinity
that rude and distant Scythian dialect.
'

uses

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Hundred.

to
requires

of

word

'

I have

The

In

only

cardinal

number

above

ten

which

Dravidian

is that
Comparative Grammar
without exception,
all the Dravidian dialects,
this

be noticed in

hundred.
is

"

muR-u.'
not

been able to discover any

resemblance

to this numeral

288

NUMERALS.

THE

in any

the

other

word

same

such

familyof tongues.

One and the

word

same

for

we

find

indeed amongst

nor

to find it otherwise.

expect

we

do

Scythianstems

two

no

this high number

used to express

rude tribes could

In

is used
modified,
hundred, slightly

in

languageof the Indo-European family,a remarkable proofof

the unityand ancient intellectualculture of the race; and the Finnish
like some
other Finnish
word
for a hundred, sata,'
has evidently,
words, been borrowed from that familyof tongues.

erery

'

Tbe

Tamil

in sound

has

with

'

verbal root

'

is identical

which
nuRu,' to destroy,
and

nuRu,' a hundred;

is also

there

related root

powder; but it cannot be supposed

of
these
that the numeral
from
either
roots.
'nuR-u'
proceeded
A word which may be supposedto be the originof it is nur,'to heap
verbal root of nuril,'
Tamil,a heap.
up, the suppositious
'

niit-u

'

(inTel.,

'

'),to

nur-u

reduce to

'

'

Thousand.

Tarn, and

Mala.;

The

"

'

Dravidian

savira,'and
sara,'Tulu.

words

also 'sa

for thousand

Can.;
vara,'

'ayiram,'

are
'

velu,'softened

Tel. ;
savira or
are
savara/ and sara,'
veyyi,'
evidentlyidentical;and we may safelyderive both from the Sans.
dsira-ra'
sahasra.' Probablyalso the Tam
ayira-m was originally
of the Sans.
A prioriwe
asra-m,'and therefore an old corruption
or
might have expected to find the Dravidian languagesborrowingfrom
The
for expressingthis very high numeral.
the Sanscrit a word
Telugu word for thousand, vel-u,'is a purely Dravidian word, and is
the pluralof veyi or
veyyi ('veyu-lu'). The originof veyi
but I am
does not appear;
inclined to connect
it ultimately
with the
Tamil root
to he hot,harsh,"c.
ve,'to he excessive,
into

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Ordinal
much

Numbers.

attention

seeingthat
manner,

to

they

from

the

"

the
are

It is unnecessary

Ordinal
formed

cardinal

numbers

in this work

of the

and
directly,

numbers, by

to devote

Dravidian

in the

languages,

simplestpossible

of suifixed

means

verbal

forms.
or participial
participles
The
only exceptionis that of the first ordinal,viz.,the word
which in most of the Dravidian languages,
in the
signifying
first,
as
Indo-European,is formed, not from the cardinal number
owe, but
In the Canarese
from
root.
and
a
prepositional
Malayalam, the
numeral
The

one

is the basis of the word

base of the first ordinal

in Tamil

verbal noun, signifying

priority"m
This,like all other Dravidian nouns,
any

addition

or

used for

first.

and

Teluguis mudal/

time

or

may

be used

'

place,or

heginning.

out
withadjectivally

change; and therefore 'mudal'

alone,though

290

THE

times,however,adverbial

numerals

signifying
succession,
"c.,to

NUMEEAL8.

the cardinal

muRei,'Tam. twice,
two
literally

or

addition of

by the

formed

are

nouns

ordinal numbers; e.g., 'iru-

times.

The

multiplicative
numbers, as has alreadybeen stated,are the
same
as the numeral
adjectives.
It only remains to inquire
the aflSliation
what evidence respecting
of the Dravidian familyof tongues is furnished by the precedinginvestigation
of the numerals
of that family.
The evidence is not onlydecidedly
that
opposedto the supposition
the Dravidian languagesare derived from the Sanscrit,
but is equally
inconsistent with the supposition
of those languages
of the connexion
with the familyto which the Sanscrit belongs,
of
either as a member
that

or
family,

even

as

oflFshoot.

remote

Not the smallest trace of resemblance has been discovered between

the Dravidian numerals

with
Indo-Europeanlanguage,
the exceptionof the resemblance of the Telugu oka,'one, to the Sanscrit
okur ;'and in
eka,'as well as to the Ugrian og,' ak,' and
and those of any

'

'

that instance I have

doubt

no

i"c,beingderived
All the

other

and

one

from

the

exceptionof
in the Dravidian

'

that the Sanscrit itself has

Scythiannumeral, the numeral

from

'

'

for

of the

one

compelledto

differentbase.

numerals

of the

Indo-European languagesspring
with the solitary
identical;
root,and are virtually
for jfive
Gaelic word
find
we
; and hence, when

same

the

numerals

no

conclude

differentstock from

Greek, Gothic, Celtic,

to those of the

resemblance

tongues, with the exceptionof the abnormal

are

inherited

the

On the other hand, a

that

the

Dravidian

pean
Indo-Euro-

Sanscrit

'

eka,'we

languagesbelong to

Indo-European.
comparisonof

the Dravidian

numerals

with

those of the

tence
Scythiantongues appears to establish the fact of the exisand especially
of Ugrian, or Finnish,analogies
in
Scythian,
the Dravidian family. The resemblance between
the Dravidian one
and four,and the corresponding
numerals
in the Ugrian languagesis
so
complete,that we may justlyregard,and cannot but regard,those
of

numerals

The
the
The

as

identical.

same

statement

Scythianversion

appliesto the

of Darins's

word

Cuneiform

for one, which

at Behistun.
inscriptions

and the other numerals above one,

numeral /oMT*,

in that

and in

is found in

are

not

contained

uniquerelic of the ancient Scythianspeech of Central

this case
the negativeargument concludes nothing.

It may

perhapsbe thoughtthat

(one and

four)out

the resemblance of

rals
nume-

be considered to prove much ;

that this resemblance is all,
or nearly
all.

of ten, cannot

but it is to be borne in mind

onlytwo

Asia ;

291

AFFILIATION.

that is observed
numerals

of

to
belonging

one

the

in tbe

Scythianlanguagesthemselves

languageof

family and those

between

of other

the

languages

family.

same

Thus,it cannot be doubted that the Magyar and the Finnish are
sistertongues,
allied j and yet with respect
and very closely
essentially
to four numerals,
blance
nine,and ten, no distincttrace of resemseven, eight,
between them survives ; and it is only in the case of the numerals
be said,without hesitation,
that the
owe, two, and /owr,that it can
same

root

numerals

appears
are

those of th"

to

in both

be used

therefore almost

as

languages.The Dravidian
allied to the Finnish as are
-closely

Magyaj itself.

to 2

V.

SECTION

THE

PRONOUN.

of languages
pronouns on the relationship
and families of languages; for the personalpronouns, and especially
of the
those of the first and second
singular,evince more
person
Much

lightis

qualityof

to

permanent

yet

than

even
:

and

any

other

parts of speech,and

rally
gene-

are

lapseof ages. They are more

than the numerals,the signsof icase, and the verbal
though,like every thingelse,
they are liable to change,

change but

their connexions

all the

by the

permanence

found

inflexions

thrown

and

little in the

ramifications

languagesof mankind, how

may

be

traced

widelysoever

amongst

sundered

by

nearly
time

or

place.
In

instances

personalpronouns constitute the onlyappreciable

between languages
pointof contact or feature of relationship
but which, in
which belongedoriginally
and the same
to one
family,
the lapse-of
have become
time,and throughthe progress of corruption,
difierent.
generically
This remark
appliesto the pronoun of the firstperson,
especially
which of all parts of speechis the most persistent.
some

the

I." Personal
1.

Pronoun

of

First

the

Comparisonof dialects. Our

primitiveform of this pronoun in
"

Pronouns.
Person

Singular.

first inquiry
must

be 'What

the

was

the Dravidian

languagesl'
dialect is 'nka,'
colloquial
the inflexion of which is not 'nan,' as might have been expected,
but
indicates the originalexistence of a
en
;'and this inflexion en
in 'gn.' Though '^n'
nominative
is no longerfound in a separate
shape,it survives in the inflexions of verbs; in which the signof the
is '6n,'sometimes poetically
firstperson singular
shortened into en.'
In Tamil

'

the form which

'

is used in the

'

'

FIRST

In the
'

PERSON

higherdialect of the

Tamil

nan,'the inflexion of which

293

SINGULAR.

'

'yan

is not

'

is more

commonly used

yan,'but

'

than

quial
en,'as in the collo-

dialqct.*
From

the

examples which

that thete

appear

have

three forms

are

been

of the

adduced

above, it would
of the first person

pronoun

singularrecognizedin Tamil, viz.,nan,' yan,'and en.' The firstof

these forms,though the most common,
was
one:
probablythe primitive
'

Its

initial

I think, softened
first,

'

'

was

It ia
this pronoun

not

so

easy

to

determine

'a'
originally

was

into

'

whether

'e.'

or

abandoned.
y,'and finally

the included vowel

'

ponding
comparisonof the corresand
(the.inflexion of em '),

'

'

leads to the conclusion that

In the

'a'

was

of

plurals nam,' yam,'and em

the plural terminations of the verb, 6m,' am,'
'

'

of

'

'

'

'

'

probablythe

most

'

and

am

'

em,'

vowel.
original

'en' is the
singular,

of this pronoun
which is
only inflexion
in Tamil; but in the plural
extant
find not only em,' but also 'nam'
we
and
used as the inflectedform
yam.' Though nam' is most frequently
of the isolated pronoun
{e.g.,namar,'theywho are ours, nostrates '),
the initial n has altogether
form
disappearedfrom the corresponding
in the pronominal terminations
of the verb.
At firstsightwe
might
'nam'
and
the
terminations
of
the
to
be
nem
pronominal
suppose
nadandanam,'or
High Tamil
nadandanem,'we walked ; but the 'n'
of these terminations
is merely euphonic,and is used to prevent
hiatus.
it is omitted,
the vowels which it had kept separate
When
and
immediately coalesce; e.g., 'nadanda-am' becomes 'nadandam'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

nadanda-em

of which, but
word

could

becomes
not

not

wejlhave

that
'

correct, is

so

from

naturallyenough
into

nadandem

'

'

'

'

am

6m.'

;'a

more

nadanddm.'

;'and

of this

form

common

The final

corruptedfrom

been
am

'

we

'

than either
6m

'

em,'but would
have a proofin
'

of this

spring
the circumstance

verted
(from agum,' it is,yes) is also sometimes conMoreover,whilst there are many instances of the
'

'

It
change of 'a' into e or 'ei,'there is not any of the converse.
is deservingof notice also,that in this change from the heavier
fo
a
the lighter e,'the Dravidian dialects exhibit the counterpartof the
Sanscrit pronominalroot 'ma' into 'e'/te','
change of the corresponding
'

'

'

'

In

explanationof

the

abbreviated

form

of the

pronoun

called

'the

flexion,'
in-

above,it may here be repeated that in the

personaland reflexive pronouns of the Tamil, Canarese,MalayMam, and Tulu,
of the Telugu, the
or basis of the oblique
and in the reflexive pronoun
inflexion,'
cases
(which by itself denotes the genitive,and to which the signsof all other
is formed by simply shorteningthe longincluded vowel of the
are
cases
suffixed),
The
included
vowel of each of the personal pronouns
is naturally
nominative.
if
in
has
and
instance
the
the
nominative
w
hilst
inflexion
disappeared
long ;
any
the
short
vowel
of
the
in
have
to
only
inflexion,' order to
lengthen
remains,we
which

has

been

referred to

'

'

discover the nominative

from

which

it was

derived.

294
Tne,

PKONOUN.

THE

other dialects of the

"c.,In

that '"'

is the

Tamil

of

pronoun

form of the
nan,' the ordinarycolloquial
of the primitive
Tamil /.
faithful representative

the firstperson, and

pronoun,

conclude,
therefore,

of the

included vowel

the
originally

was

family,

same

that

most

it will be
comparisonof the various dialects,
found that the evidence is cumulativeand gathersstrength
as we
proceed.
older form
It might appear, indeed,at first sightthat
an
was
yan
shall be conthan 'nan ;'but before our investigation
is concluded,
vinced,
we
is known
I think, that the
is radical.
to change into
n
n
evinces no tendencyto be changedinto n.'
y ;' but
y
is 'nj4n' ('ny,''jfi,'
In Malayalam,the nominative
or
'nj,'the
like the
is to be pronouncedas one
nasal of the palatal varga,'
letter,
is 'en
in Tamils
ni' of onion);but the obliqueform, or inflexion,
as
As

proceed in

we

our

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

except in

the dative

'

inikka,'in

'en'

is altered to 'in.'

The

is destitute of

ordinaryMalayalaverb

personalendings: but in theof the verb is occasionally

used,in which the
of the first person singular
is 'Sn,'
asprecisely

inflected form

poetry an

which

pronominaltermination
in Tamil.

'

'

compound sound of nj or
ny,'in the Malayala, njan or
nyan,'is a middle pointbetween the n of nan,'and the y of
'y"n.' It is a softened and nasalized form of n,' from which the
In like manner,
nin,'the original
change to y is easilymade.
form of the pronoun
of the second person singuliar
in all the Dravidian
has become in Tamil, first 'niy,'
then 'ni;'and in the verbal
dialects,
The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

terminations
In

'

and
'i,'
'aiy,'

Canarese,the nominative

coUoquialdialect
seen

'ei.'

in

'

is

'

is

inflexion of which

is

nan.'

'

en

from

evidentlysoftened

'

Tamil, the

in

nan-u,'as

nanna,' my)
'

of this pronoun

The

ancient

which

is used in the-

inflexion of which

dialect

uses

'

an,'the-

identical with that of the Tamil.

"

the

(as

'

'

an

is

Tamil

'ySn,'as 'yan' from 'nyan,'or

and that from
nSln';and the same
softeningis apparent in the
njan,'
of yam
Canarese plural am
The crudeor
nam
(instead
'),we.
form
of this pronoun
('na') is sometimes used in Canarese as a
nominative,instead of nanu;' e.g., na bandenu,'/cawey and in thein Tamil, 'ni,'
the crude form of 'nin,'
same
manner
thou,has altogether
superseded nin.' The pronominal terminations of the first person
of the Canarese verb are 'en' in the ancient dialect,
and 'Sne,?
singular
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

enu,'and

'

Tulu

'

euu

in the modern.

nominative

is

yin,'the inflexion yan,'the pronominalendingof the verb e,'which is probablysoftened from en.'
The Tuda nominative is 6n
is the
(plural6m '),of which
en
The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the singular
terminations of the verb
inflexion;

'

'

are

'

'

en

and

'

ini.'

PERSON

riKST

295

SINGULAE.

In the dialect of the

J^otasthe nominative i$ aue,' the iuflezion

in Tulu.
the pronominalending of the verb 'e,'
as

'en,'and
In

Telugu

'

of

nominative

the

this pronoun

is

higher dialect en-u

(answering to en,' the
en,' the
ending of the verb, and
Canarese inflexion)
this preferenceof e
; and
'

Tamil

'

'

'

in
ne

and

'

to

nominal
pro-

Ancient

and
'

appears

also

higher dialect em-u.'

like na' in Canarese;
be used at pleasureinstead of nen-u,'
may
in the higher dialect
is sometimes
eu-u
representedby e '
plural,which

the
'

'

;' in the

nen-u

Tamil-Canarese

'

'

'

is

mem-u,' and

'

"

in the

'

'

'

'

'

'

alone.

"

of
Telugu, use only the final syllable
the nominative of each of the pronouns, viz., nu
(from nenu,'/),
du
vu
(from nivu,'thau),and
(from vadu,'he). The most
importantand essential part of each pronoun has thus been omitted;
and the fragmentswhich have been retained are merelyformatives,
or

verbal inflexions of the

The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

signsof genderand number.

'nenu,'/, takes 'na' for its inflexion
the
shows that
e
not
a
was
originally

at most

'

'

well

as

in Tamil

as

Canarese.

and

in

of this pronoun

accusative

This

vowel

included

Telugu,
corroborated by the

view is

Telugu,which

is

'

'

'

or

nanu

(compare the Canarese accusative 'nanna' or

evidentlybeen derived from a nominative, nan

nannu,'me,

The
Ancient

is

nominative

Ku

In the

Canarese.

or

is identical with

an-u,'which

which
inflexion,

is

'

'

which

h:^

'na.'

'

'

this

in

'nannu'),and

'

and

obliqueform;

or

'

'

as

na

in

that of the

Telugu,the

old initial'n' retains its place.

The

tense, and
In Gond

Telugu and

'

'

in the

past;

the nominative
Ku.

rarely
'

more

of the Ku

verbal terminations

na.'

In

the
The

'

e.g.,
is

'

'

are

main,'I

in

or
'

am,

ana,'and

'

in,'in

masse,'/
'

an

nominative

Gond

'

the

present

was.

n4,'as in
is commonly found,
is
is nak,' which
is

inflexion

the

verbal inflexions
Seoni

'

'

'

properlya dative.
In the

nominative

Brahui
'

Rajmahalithe

kane,'me,

to

is ' i;'but in the

me), the

unconnected
totally
rather with

nominative

base
personal

The
en;'in Uraon 'enan.'
{e.g.,kana,'ofm^;
obliquecases
is

'

'

is

with the Dravidian

ka

'

'

'

or

'

kan,'a

na,'and which

root

which

is to be

Babylonian,and
the Cuneiform, Scythian,

is

pared
com-

Gujarathi

'ku,' 'hu,'"c.

comparison the weight of evidence appears to be in

favour of our
regarding nan,'the Tamil nominative,as the best
of the old Dravidian nominative of this pronoun,
representative
existing
unmodified
and
na,'the crude form of the Canarese, as the primitive,
From

this

'

'

296

THE

PRONOUN.

This Conclusion will be found

root.

of

Each
The

'

'

of

consonant

but
yi,'

'

or

'

'

nan

though the more

softened first into
dnj or
ny,'then
'

in

'

tendencyto

has disappeared
y,'and finally
it,or any relic of it,been

into

of the dialects has

none

will

be softened away.
essential of the two, has been
a

initial n,'

; and

which

ni.'

evinces

'

'

'

tigation
the inves-

gain strengthfrom

of the second person, the root of

the pronoun

to be not

appear

to

'

personalterminations of the verb.

The final n,'though not a part of the root, has shown
in the verbal terminations; but in
persistent,
especially

the

and Ku

'na,'and

retained

in the

itselfmore

'

the

inflexion

na,'in the Canarese

'

crude nominative

Telugu.
in

correspondingTelugu ne,'it has disappearedaltogether.

'

'

is doubtful ; but whatever

origin6f the final n of nan
its origin,it does not appear
to belong to the root.
In. the
were
which
is
and
m,' the signof plurality
plural,it is uniformlyrejected,
is not added
to it,but
used in connexion
with the personalpronouns,
the plural na-m
substituted for it. In Tamil the singularis na-ii,'
;'
in the singularto
m' in the plural,
and a similar change from
n

The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

placein

takes

alone forms
the

'

the other dialects also.

first person;

it denotes

that

of
or
singularity
plurality

This

of both

pronominal base

the

'

either

the suffixed

to

appears

numbers
/

or

we

prote that 'na'

of the pronoun

of

accordingto

the

1 alone,'na-m,'
particle('na-n,'

7s); and that the final 'n' of 'nan,'no less than the final 'm' of 'nam,'
but merelyof number.
is a sign,not of personality,
of nan
well as of number
Is the final n
1
a sign of gender as
and connected with
Is it a signof the masculine singular,
an
or
n,'
suffix of the Tamil?
of
the ordinarymasculine singular
The pronouns
the firstand second persons are naturally
epicene;but it is not unusual
to find them
Thus,
assumingthe grammaticalforms of the masculine.
t
he
terminations
of
the
in Sanscrit,
of the pronouns
of
obliquecases
'

'

'

'

"

'

the first and

second

are

persons

those which

'

'

characteristic of the

are

analogy of the Scythianpronouns, however,

that the final n
to the supposition
of the Dravidian
inclines me
not in its origina signof gender or a means
of grammatical
was
nan
but was
merely euphonic,like the final nasal of the Tartar
expression,
its origin,
have had a placein the
Whatever
it must
were
man,' /.
masculine

gender.

The

'

'

'

'

'

from
reflexive pronouns
a
very early period,for we
find it in the Brahui 'ten,'self(Compare Tarn, 'tan'),and in the

personaland

'nyn,'thou (Compare Old Dravidian 'nin).'

is to be regarded as the primitiveform
na
If,as we have seen,

Ostiak

'

of the Dravidian

pronoun

'

of

the first person, and

the final 'n'

as

298

PRONOUN.

THE

obliquecases.

to investigate
thoroughly the
order,therefore,

In

afSliation of the Dravidian

necessary to extend

over
inquiries

our

(1.) Semitic analogies.

remarkable
analogiesto the
Hebrew

Dravidian

'ani;' with

Egyptian anuk,'

presents

pronoun

will appear

This

Dravidian.

on

some
paring
com-

(Gond. ana,')with the corresponding

'anoki,'of the
prefix'an' of the Hebrew
'

'

'

na

the
and

'

Semitic

The

"

the

of the first person, it will be

than usual.
a wider area

pronoun

Babylonian anaku,'

of the

'

anaka,'

'

or

with the Jewish-Syriac'ana,'the Christianespecially

ana.' The pluralof the
and Arabic
Syriac eno,'and the ^Ethiopic
of
Aramaic
'n'
'ana' is formed by suffixing
(the final consonant
'in' or 'an'): we
the Tamil
therefore compare
'nam,' we,
may
with the Aramaic
plural anan,'and also with the Egyptian plural

'ankn;'

and

'

'

'

'

anen.'

Notwithstandingthis remarkable resemblance between the Semitic

and the Dravidian,
it is doubtful whether the resemblance
ia
pronoun
not
merely accidental. The Semitic initial syllable an,' in which
'

the resemblance resides,

is not

from
the

'

find it not

We

person.

'

person

the

both

good a

as

Old Hebrew

'

again
'

anta

'

cases, the

prefix

of the

pronoun

and

second

claim to it as that of the first. It does

'

second

'

an

is removed

aku,' or

'

from
rejected

'

persons

of the

'

to the Sanscrit

'

tva

"

to

pronouns

Indo-European comes
prefixis laid aside. When
of the firstperson,

'

ah,' the

equallyevident
of the second

'

'

and the Latin

sort

the Semitic

and

the

ta,' ti,' te,'or

been

It has sometimes

simply euphonic

'

Sanscrit

it is

the pronouns

'

this

Chald.

out

the

cannot

we

'ah,''ah,''uk,'
remainingsyllable
('oki,'

the

eg :' and

the
entek,' enta,')

with

from the pronoun

ak,')with

the

'

enhu,'he. Moreover, the alliance of

the connexion

admitted

an

distinct relief when

more
'

to be

'

Greek-Latin

'

and

Egyptian entuf,'he, entus,'she,and

first and

initial

'

in

same

moreover,

suffix

of the

doubt

that

'

first

essential part of either pronoun ; for we

similar prefix
in the third person in some
of the Semitic dialects,

e.g., in

into

of the

pronouns

(from anah,' and

ana

'

to have

seems

seem,

Heb.

'

the

to

ant,'thou, (Egyptian en-tek,' en-ta '). The

the
being precisely

find

onlyin

'

anah,')1 ; but also in the Arabic

Aramaic

not

confined

'

that when

person
'

Gothic

'

'

ik,' and
'

an

'

or
'

is

t,'which

remains

'

is allied

tu.'

initial nunnation

'

an

is

like that which

is

'

exist in the Talmudic

'

en

('anta,' anti,' ant,'

supposed that this Semitic prefix

of

the

/te,when
'Inhu,'

compared with

ancient Hebrew
'hu.' On this
ordinaryand undoubtedlymore
in nature and origin,
it is allied,
to the euphonicsuffixes
supposition,
the

FIRST

nunnations

or

Finnish

/, and

'

'

which

mi-nA,'
1, and
'

tain

'

or

If this be the
be unconnected

'

in the final nasal

am,' the

'

originof the Semitic prefix an,'it must

certainly

'

with the Diavidian

'

supposes

of definitearticle; and

sort

in the
i"^ui-vt],'
of the North-Indian
main,'
'

tuM,'thou.

Colonel Rawlinson
a

in the Greek

be observed

may

299

SINGULAR.

PERSON

termination

'

'

na
'

an

'

or

to be

an^.'
of specifieation,
particle

he also considers it to be identical with

ah-am,'/
personalpronouns
'
The
tv-am,'thou, va-y-am,'we, yu-y-am,'you.
only difference,
he says, is that the particle
is prefixed
in the one
familyof languages,
and suffixed in the other,
with a change of m
into its equivalent
nasal
n.' I am
and
unable, however, to adopt this supposition,
the ordinary
am
as
prefer to regard the Sanscrit termination
termination
of the nominative of the neuter
and as used
singular,
instead of the masculine and feminine,
simplybecause of the intense
which is inherent in the firstand second personal
personality
pronouns,
in their nominatives, and which
renders the terminations
especially
of those gendersunnecessary.
be adduced in favour of
The onlyremaining argument which
can
as
ultimately
regarding the Dra vidian n" and the Semitic an
second
first
and
In
the
the
i
s
the
Semitic languages
allied,
following.
the prefix an.' In
have one
element in common,
personal
pronouns
the Dravidian
when
like manner,
ni,'thou,
we
na,'/, and
compare
of the Sanscrit

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

we

find that
base

ultimate

denotes
vowel

'

have

If it

n.'

supposed that

be

can

inform

to

an

Dravidian

whether

us

the

in common,

element

one

the initial and

this initial consonant

that it is the office of the

and
in general,
personality

second,then
the

they also

person

referred

to is

succeeding

the first or the

may be conceived to exist between

have
Semitic 'an:' for whatever may

ultimate connexion
and

'n'

the

it appears to be used like the

particle,
and to constitute
in general,
Dravidian
n,' as a sign of personality
the basis to which
ah,'the sign of person No. 1, and 'ta,'the sign
of person No. 2, are suffixed. Probably,
however, the resemblance
between
the Semitic and the Dravidian languagesin this point,
though
accidental.
remarkable,is altogether

been

originof

the

the

latter

'

'

'

(2.)Indo'European analogies.It
"

already been remarked

first person singular
to"
known
has

pronouns of the
the Indo-Europeanfamilyof tongues, as to the Semitic and

that there

one

are

of which

but two

appears

the other
languages,

pronoun

is

'

ah-am

'

of the older

in the nominative

Scythiany

Indo-European'

The nominative of thisobliquecases.

in Old Persian, az-em
\xk
in Sanscrit,ad-am
in the

'

'

'

'

300

PRONOUN.

THE

ih in the Old
Zend, eg-0 in Latin and Greek, ik in Gothic,'
Gennan, 'az' in the Old Sclayonic,'asz' in Lithuanian, and 'ga'
root in the Semitic
in Bohemian.
the same
find substantially
We
ah,'.ah,' uk,' aku,' oki,'"c., and in several languages of the
aku,' Tagala aco,'Tahitian
Malayo-Polynesian
group ; e.g., Malay
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

au.'

that there is not the smallest resemblance

It is evident

a,ny of these and

nominative

has

the Dravidian

'

connexion

no

Dravidian

the

with

the Dravidian

pronoun

and

the

base

between

though the Indo-European

But

na.'

able to establish the existence of

probablybe

'

of the

pronoun,

connexion

some

cases
oblique

we

shall

between

in the Indo-

European languages.
in the Indo-Europeanfamilyare
The oblique
of this pronoun
cases
different base from that of the nominative ; and
formed from a totally
ma.'
m
is the Sanscrit
of this oblique
base the best representative
forms the most
prominent and essential portionof 'ma;' and this
to
vowel
which appears
is followed either by a
m
or
by some
have been derived from it. In the obliquecases of the Sanscrit,this
of the succeeding
has the form of
ma,' whenever the nature
pronoun
syllableallows 'a' to remain unchangedj e.g., ma-yi,' in me,
In the secondaryforms of the dative and the genitive
ma-ma,'of me.
Old Persian, ma
ma.'
In Zend and
it becomes
preponderates
;
in
the
Zend
vowels
dativewhilst compounded and abbreviated
appear
genitives'm6,' 'm6i;' and a pronominalbase in *ama' is found in
of the Old Persian prepositional
compounds. In the Greek ';"','
some
"c.,the vowel which is employed librates between
/ao(,'
/tot),'
e/te','
each of which is naturally
derived from 'a;' whilst the
'e' and ,'o,'
of 'ifie is in accordance with the tendencyof the Greek to
initial e
prefixa vowel to certain words beginningwith a consonant, e.g.,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ovofia'for

is

'

'

mihi.'

'

vwfia.'The

The

Gothic

Latin

has

'

mi

has
'

'me,'except in

and

the basis of its obliqueoases

'

mei.'

The

the

dative,which

Lithuanian

uses
'

though possiblythe final n

of this form belongs
to the signof the genitive.
properly
In the pronominal terminations of the verb in the Indo-European
the first person singular almost
invariablymakes use of
languages,
this obliquepronominalbase,in preference
to the base of the nominative,
with such modifications as euphony may require. The termination
is mi 'ior
in Sanscrit and Zend,
of the firstperson singular
m
in all primary and secondaryverbs. We
have the same
ending in
of the middle voice; in the
Greek verbs in fu,'and in the
/lai''
"m' of the Latin 'sum' and 'inquam;' in the Lithuanian 'mi;' in
the Polish 'am;' in the Armenian
'em;' in the New Persian 'am,'
'm'
in the Old High German
It becomes
I do;
'gam,'I go; ' tuora,'
'

'

man

as

'

'

'

'

'

'

FIRST

and 'bim'
German

SINGl/LAE.

PERSON

converted

/ am;
'pirn'
(Sansc.'bhavami'),

or

301
in Modern

'bin.'

to

On

comparing the pronominal terminations which have now been

it is evident that the preponderanceof use
is in
and authority
cited,
favour of

mi

'

;' and that

It is
derived

from

evinces

change from

'ma'

'

'

sa

'

or

We

have

o;' whereas

no

to

be

to

now

'

'na

from

is derived

'

viation.
abbre-

by

'

into

converted

illustration of the

'mi' is that which

each
other

weaker

some

instance is adducible of the opposite

of this
regularity
by the Esthonian,

is furnished

of the

personalpronouns has two

euphonised;e.g., 'ma' or 'minna,'

inquirewhether anyanalogyisdiscoverable between

and the ultimate Indo-Europeanbase 'ma.'

inclined to believe that these forms

am

'mi

sinna,'thou.

the Dravidian
I

tendencyto

in which
dialect,
the
one
primitive,

forms,the
1;

'

Perhaps the best

process.

Finnish

has been derived from

'

vowel, 'i,''e,'or

'

mi
itself has been
equally clear,however, that
ma,' the normal base of the obliquecases ; for in all

'

languages'a'

'

'

ma.'

nasal into the weaker

change of

are

'

'

into

and
allied,
'

'

of the

Dravidian

is in accordance both with

"

"

that

'

'

na

stronger

and Indo-

European precedents. Thus 'am,' the accusative case-signof the

is weakened into 'an'
Ancient
Canarese
('annu'),in the modern
of the Tamil, is
dialect ; um,' the conjunctive
or
copulative
particle
in Tamil itself,
nation
in Telugu ; and even
nu
am,' the formative termiconverted
into 'an ;'
of a large class of nouns, is optionally
In the
is used by the poetsrinstead
of 'uram.'
e.g., 'uran,'strength,
in like manner,
the change of mama,' Sans.,
Indo-Europeanfamily,
in Zend, and 'mene' in Old Slavonian,has already
my, into 'mana'
been noticed;but proofsexist also of the special
change of the m of
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'ma'

of
and

"

the

first person

of

of
representative
into

and

radical part of

itself the most

'

'

'

in Greek

'

Latin
corresponding

the

'

'

ma

"

into

'

The

u.'

final 'm'

(the abbreviation
instances degeneor
ma
') has in some
rated
the
Sanscrit
asam,'/ was,
e.g., compare

Sanscrit and
mi

'

Latin verbs

'

'

'eram,'

iSi'-Siu-v.' We

with

Greek

the

'

into
change of m
n," on comparing the Irish chanaiM,' I sing,with the Breton
'biN,' / am, with the Old High
'kanaNN;' the modern German
I dm, with the
biM
German
or
piM ;'and the Persian 'hastaM,'
Beluchi
haatjaN.'Compare also the Laghmani p4kaN,'7 go.
'

adadS.-m

with

'

see

similar

''^v;'and
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

The

'n'

'

which alternates with

'v,'as

the initialand

radical

nant
conso-

pluralof the pronoun of the firstperson in many of thfe

I conceive,from the same
has been derived,
Indo-Europeanlanguages,
in the section on
that the Dravidian
shown
m.' It was
Sounds,'
of the

'

'

302
"

PRONOUN.

THE

m'

is sometimes

and

that

whenever

of

'va'

the

manner

'n'

and

consider both

to

reason

either into

d^raded
euphonically
to

'v'

found

are

derived from

be

n'

into

or

older

an

the

and

In like

pluralof

is that which

this pronoun

is

of

'na'
to

form of the same

nas,'the secondary,
oblique
pronoun, appear
derived from
been
mutuallyconnected; and both have probably
of the

;'

have

m.'

'

'

The oldest form

'

alternate,we

to

'va-(y)-am,'
we,

the Sanscrit

'

be

'ma.

employed

'mas,'in Latin *mus,*

in Greek
correct .diolic ^^9')
ancient and more
:
uev
(forthe more
the most
of which pronominal
natural explanation
endingis to consider
it as derived from 'ma,'the old firstperson singular,
by the addition of
of this primeval mas
The
times
somem
s,'the sign of plurality.
in the verbal

and whitih in
inflexions,

Sanscrit is

'

'

'

'

'

'

becomes
and the Gothic
Latin

'

v,' e.^.

'

veis

in the Sanscrit

;' and

nos,'the Welsh

'

secondaryforms,
Slavonic

'

the

This

nas.'

'

nas

n'

'

of
personality

the idea of number

ni,'the Greek

vayam,'the
i"wi

'

'n,'e.g.

;'and

'

Zend

vaim,'
in the

also in the Sanscrit

no,' and the Old

is evidently
m,' and reprea weakening of
sents
'

'

'

also it becomes

sometimes

'

'

and

nau,' the Zend

'

'

'

the prononn

; which

is

of
irrespective
subsequentportionof

of the first person,

expressedby

the

ing
to be warranted in considerbeingthe case, we seem
with the
na' (asapof the Dravidian
it as identical in origin
n
parent
in the singular na-n,'and the plural na-m').
It has been suggestedby Col. Rawlinson that the Sanscrit nas,'

the word.

This

'

'

'

'

'

'

the Latin

"

nos,'and

the Greek

'

'
vwi

the
(like

'

'

nu

of

the Hebrew

which
have made
originally
'), were
signsof plurality,
themselves independentof the bases to which they were
attached. I
of these forms
am
unable,however, to adopt this view : for the n
with
m,' and evidentlyconveys the idea of
interchanges
naturally
and the 's' of the Latin 'nos' (as of the correspondpersonality;
ing
than an abbreviation
vos
likelyto be a signof plurality
') is more
it to be) of the syllablesma.'
(asBopp conjectures
confirmation of the supposition
It may here be mentioned, as some
na' is derived from an older ma,' that in Telngu
that the Dravidian
of n,'and as the representative
is used as the equivalent
of the
m
of the pronoun
of the first person in the plural'mem-u,'
personality
'

anachnu

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

we.

'

The

second

'

m'

the
more

On
has

is

'

'

'

'

'

been
'

mas

of this word

a signof plurality
undoubtedly
;
be derived from
m
n,' through
may possibly
attraction of m,' the sign of the plural,
yet this changewould
had originally
take place,if an initial m
been used.
naturally
'mto-u' corresponds
to the Sanscrit ' mas
this supposition
;'and

and though the first

'

'

weakened

has been

into

weakened

'

'

nem-u

into

in the same
nfi,m,'
manner
as
nas.' On the whole, therefore,
I
or

'

'

'

think
'

'

na

we

are

and

303

PEESON-^INGULAR.

FIRST

coming to the conclusion that the Dravidian

are
allied,
and, if so, that the
Indo-European ma

warranted

the old

in

'

'

former has been derived from

the latter.

(3.)Scythiananalogies.When we examine the personal

pronouns
the Scythiangroup of tongues,the views which have been expressed
"

of

above

found

are

and

to be corroborated

in addition to

the Dravidian

analogiesto
interesting

very

pendent
inde-

which,some

are

pronoun

broughtto light.
pronominal root which constitutes the basis of the oblique
in the Indo-Europeanlanguagesis adopted in the languagesof
cases
the Scythianfamily,not
only in the obliquecases, but also in the
in both families the obliquecases
stantially
subnominative itself. Whilst
are
the same, the Indo-Europeanuses
its nominative
the base
as
in
ah ;' the Scythian,
the base in
ma.'
There are a few languages
in the Indo-European familyin which
has found its way
ma
even
The

'

'

'

'

vernaculars

the North-Indian
in

each

of these

operation. The

'mi,'the New Persian 'man,'

It is observeable,
however, that

; e.g., the Celtic has

into the nominative

'

maim.'

Scythian influences

exceptionalcases
New

Persian

Turkish, the Celtic by

the

influenced

has been

Finnish,and

the idioms

by

have

of Northern-India

Scythianvernacular which precededthe Sanscrit.

in the later dialects of this family,
the
also,especially

cases

has

in

the Oriental and

In

the

by

been

some

accusative

in violation of existing
nominative,
mami,'
Thus, the Singhalese mama,' the Kawi

to be used instead of the

come

rules.
grammatical

'

Persian

and the later Cuneiform

'mam,'

'

are

probablyaccusatives

in

like the Italian 'mi' and the French 'moi.' On the other
origin,
in the Scythian
case
hand, we are met by one, and onlyone, exceptional
of
makes
use
Inscriptions
tongues. The Scythianof the Behistun
its nominative ; but in mi,' the correspondingpossessive
hu
as
the ordinaryScythianbase re-appears.
suffix,
of the firstpersonal
The nominative (aswell as the oblique
cases)
in all existinglanguagesof the Scythiangroup, is derived
pronoun
their

'

'

from

'

base in

quentlycomes

'

;' and

ma

into

it will be

shown

that this

'

'

ma

perfectaccordance with the Dravidian

changinginto na.'
In those languages

not

unfre-

pronoun,

by

'

by

the addition of

'

ma

final

'

euphonisedor nasalised
generally
of an obscure nasal resembling
the

is very

n,'or

:' in consequence of which,not ' ma,' but ' man,'

Sanscrit ; anusvara
and
normal form of the Scythian
pronoun,
may be stated to be the
'

this bears

closer resemblance

The addition of this

than

'

'

ma

euphonicnasal

to the Dravidian

is not

unknown

even

'

nan.'
to the

304

PRONOUN.

THE

Indo-Europeanlanguages.It
Sindhian man,' and

and
'Tvvri'
and

'

'mam'

Turkish.

Ottoman
mina

Mordwin

and

'men').

The

the

In
'

Votiak

'e^tuv'and

'

mon

family,the
Esthonian

have

'

Finnish
'

'

or

ma

') in

proper

has

'

rainna

;'the

(dual 'min,' plural

'ma'

;'the Ostiak
dialects

Samoi'ede

examining the

On

('m' degradedto

; 'ben'

;' the

mon

howev^er,

common,

more

in

also
as
i'^un/rj'

in Oriental Turkish ; 'min

find 'men'

Finnish

'

man,' the

'

tion
addiinorganic

similar

Scythiantongues.

in Khivan

Lappish

;'the

menik ;'and

Greek

familyof tongues, we

Turkoman;

in the Persian

seen

first nasal is much

The

'tovv.'

'

characteristic in the

more

Turkish
in

the Beluohi

apparent in the Old

is

be

may

'man,'

In

'mani.'

both*

is 'hi ;'but
of this pronoun
the nominative
Mongolianand Manchu
'ben' from
this is evidently
corruptedfrom 'mi' (likethe Ottoman
the Uigur men
nasal,which forms the
'); and it is 'mi,' with a.final
is mini :'
In both languagesthe genitive
basis of the obliquecases.
The
and the dative is 'men-dou'
in Mongolian,'min-de' in Manchu.
doubtless with
Tibetan pronoun
is 'gnya,''gna,'or 'nga' (identical
Avan
ma
'); the Chinese
ngo ;' the sub-Himalayan gna ;'the
'nga;' the Mikir 'ne;' the Corean 'nai.'
from the above
It is evident
comparison (1),that the true and
in the Scythian
of the personal
of this pronoun
essential representative
has been euphonisedin the
tongues is 'ma;' and (2) that as 'ma'
families of that group into man,' so it also evinces a tendency
Western
'

'

'

'

'

'

of those
In many
na.'
or
change into nga
be
still retains its placeunchanged,or may
idioms
ma
optionally
The
used instead of the later 'man.'
Mingrelian has 'ma,' the
Suanian
ma,' the Georgian me.' The Finnish has
mi,' the Lasian
in the eastern

to

stems

'

'

'

min

'

'

'

'

'

both

'

'

'

or

me

and

'

'

ma

and

'

'

mina,'

and

also

'

mia

:' the

Ostiak

both

ma.'

'

'

constitutes the
languagesin which 'man
is used as its equivalent
in the personalterminations
isolated pronoun, that m
of the verbs,
and generally
in all inflexionalcompounds. We
this usage illustratedin the colloquial
see
languagesof Northern India
For example,whilst
and in the Persian.
is the nominative
of
man
is not
the Persian pronoun, the basis of the obliquecases
but
man
'ma'
(e.g.,raa-ra,'me, of me); and the pronominal ending of the
is 'm.'
In a similar manner,
verb in the first person singular
in the
of
is used in compositionas the equiTurkish family languages,m
valent
of 'man'
'men.'
or
whilst 'men'
Thus, in Oriental Turkish,
is retained in the presenttense ; e.g., b61a-men,'
Z am
; the preterite
is contented with 'm'
Jwas.
alone; e.g^, 'h6\d.i-ra,'
It is found

also in those
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

The

same

suffix is used to

denote the first person

singularin

the

306
'

PRONOUN.

THE

to
na-da,'

'

me,

na-da^edze,'
from

We

me.
and also 'na-mai','

me,

Ler?

derived
pronominalbase in 'na' (probably
from 'ma'),which
is in perfect
agreement with the Dr"vidian.
In a few of the Scythianlanguagesthe isolated pronoun, including
identical with that of the Draits nominative, seems
to be absolutely
in the Quasi Qumuk, a Caucasian dialect,
vidian family; e.g., na
discover the existence of

'

'

and

'

'

in

ne

forms

East-Asian

dialect,

'

Motor,

Avan,

; e.g.,

;' Corean,

ne

SamoTede.

dialect of the

'

nai

'

"

'

or

na

nga

;' Tibetan,

'

Compare
;' Tetenge,an

also the

Assam

;' Chinese, ngo.' I

'

nga

identical
'nga,'/, and 'nge,'
we, of the Tibetan,are
with the 'ma
and
me'
of the other languagesof High Asia ; and
is plainlyidentical with
as
ma,' the supna,'as well as with
position
nga
that the Dravidian
from the Indo-European
'na' is derived
and
is confirmed.
We
here
also compare
Scythian 'ma'
may
the Australian pronouns
of the first person, viz.,'nga,''nganya,'//
its dual 'ngalee,'
and
the plurals'ngadlu' and
we
nadju,*
two;
doubt not that the
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

we.

On
various

the

whole

forms

we

have

to

appear

of the pronoun

conclude

to

reason

that

singularwhich

of the first person

the

have

compared,'ma,' 'nga,'and 'na,'are identical j and that this

of
word was
the common
priorto the separation
property of mankind
the Indo-Europeantribes from the rest of the Japheticfamily.
been

now

Pronoun

2.

of

Second

the

Comparison of dialects.

In

"

is

pronoun
vowel

of

'

differs from
'

:' it may

matives
into
out

of

'

nin

nin

'

the

'

or

is shortened

by
singularonly in

in

rule
the

therefore be concluded

number, not

certainty
by

of

that in the pronoun

In Canarese

of the

bases of the pronouns

used also
occasionally

only

'

'

that those finalsare

which

pluralinto
are

of the
as

obliquecases the included

; e.g., ninna,'thy. The plural
of
instead of
m
as
a
use
final,
the

has

first person

'

'

na

'

and

marks

for^

or

is converted

alreadybeen pointed

also the

final

'

'

of the

m.'
'

'

ni

first and second

nominatives

of this

nominative

conclusion which
a
personality;

in the

not

the

'

the circumstance

is converted
singular

'

Canarese

;' and

nin-u

'

Singular.

Person

the crude

regarded as
persons, but

of verbs instead of

'

they are
'

nan

and

nin.'
In

the

changed in

personalterminations
all the Dravidian

of the

verb, this

dialects. It not

pronoun

is much

only loses its initial'n,'

like the pronoun

of the firstperson ; but its final n' also disappears.

Generallynothing remains in the verbal inflexions but the included,

vowel, and

that also is

'

more

or

less modified

by

use.

In the Cana-

SECOND

verb

it appears

PERSON

i,' i,' lye,'and

the Canarese it is ay,'as in Tamil.

rese

of

'

as

'

'

307

SINGULAR.

'

:' in the ancient dialect

'

In Tamil
used

'

ni,

'

which

the
properly

is

crude base, is

the isolated nominative,instead of 'nin'

as

would

invariably

the form

"

which

correspondby rule to nan,' the nominative of the first person

in
singular. That 'nin' originally
constituted the nominative even
Tamil,appears from this that the obliquecases in the higherdialect
'

agree in
which

using

the

'

'y'
'

by

in the

"

'

(shortenedby

case-suffixesare

used
to

nin

'

manner

in which
'niy,'
as

'

base
is

form which
'

the final 'n

to

sionally
occa-

is softened

of 'nan.'

initial 'n'

the

the

') as

uin

Another

attached.

the poets is

same

rule from

The

final

of this pronoun,
retained in the

lost in the nominative,

is invariably
though totally
obliquecases; in which it is the initial 'n' that
becomes liable to alteration. In the colloquial
the initial n'
obliques
and does not leave even
behind it,as the
entirely
disappears,
a
y
n

'

'

initial

'

'

of the first personalpronoun

initial is

the
discarded,

however,constitutes
the initial

'

'

is

included

vowel

'

changesfrom

the iucluded vowel

When

does.
generally
'

of this pronoun,

'

'

to

u.'

the
'

u,''

onlywhen

not

ieven when
higherdialect,
used as the basis
severally

but sometimes,in
lost,

the

it is retained,

'nin,'nun,' and 'un' are

of the oblique
In the personal
terminations of the Tamil verb,
cases.
this pronoun
is represented
by the suffixes 'ay,''ei,'or 'i:' from
has disapeach of which suffixes the final 'n,'as well as the initial,
peared.
In the poetical
at
dialect of the language the initial n
nadanfirst sightappears to have retained its placein such forms as
thou didst walk,and in the corresponding
danei,'
plural, nadandanir,'
but
terminations
the
these
walked:'
of
'n'
('nei'and
pronominal
ye
and is inserted for the purpose of keeping
nir ') is merely euphonic,
and nadandanir. Iii
vowels of nadanda-ei
separatethe contiguous
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the

same

manner,

in the

first person,

'

'

nadandanen, / walked,is used

when
its vowels are
nadanda-en ; and
coalesce,instead of being kept separate,they become

for
poetically
which

is the

The
person
even

the
""

'

to

nadanden,'

form.
ordinary
used in Tamil
the second
as
root of the verb is regularly
without any pronominalsuffix,
and
singularof the imperative,
more

any euphonicaddition: but the second person pluralof

dialect is formed by the addition of
imperativein the colloquial
without

'

um

allowed

'

'

(theordinary
pluralbase

derived from

form
singular

in

of the
'

obliquecases); which

un,' one

'

of the bases of the

higher dialect

'

um

is

oblique

'ky'
ir,'the
of these pronouns in the verbal inflexions,
are
ordinaryrepresentatives
and
the
singular
oftfenadded to the root to form
pluralimperative
;
cases

alreadyreferred to.

In

the

and

'

308

PRONOUN.

THE

hear ye.
kelay,'hear thou, k^lir,'
[Theseforms are apparently
hut
identical with 'kel4y,'
thou hearest not, and
kelir,'
ye hear not:
for it will he shown
Beschi supposed,
as
they are not reallyidentical,
in the Section on the
that
a,'a relic of al,'not,
Negative Verb
other
is an element in all negativeforms ; though in these and in some
instances it has been absorbed in the succeedinglong vowel.]
e.g.,

'

'

'

'

'

With
second

respect

person, there

initial and

final

to be

seems

preponderatesin
that ; but

'

converted
converse

that

ei

'

with
of

favour

and

are

constituted

the

'

of the

that

latter formative

ranks

of the

pronoun

they consisted

the included

also found.

'

respectto
'i;' 'u'

pronunciationinto
takes place. It

in
never

'

'

the
essential,

former

doubt

some

to doubt

is little room

'n,'the

elements

consonantal

the

to

'

vowel.

next, and

Sometimes

in

in

an

but there

Authority

'a'

next

Tamil,

to
'

'

is

sound

resembling'u;' whilst the

therefore perhaps be concluded
may
of the originalbase of this
included vowel
a

pronoun.

Beschi,in

of the

his grammar

High Tamil, represents'di' as being

used

occasionally
by the Tamil poets as a suffix of the second person
were
correct, it
singularof the imperative;and if this representation
the fragment
would be necessary to regard di
as
a
or
as
pronoun,
of a pronoun, of the second person singular. It is founded, however,
mistake : for the word which Beschi cites in proof ('adi,'
become
on
a
into
thou, from
agu,'abbreviated
a,'to become ') is not reallyan
but is the second person singular
of the preterite
di
imperative,
; and
is compounded of
d,' the sign of the preterite
i,'the
tense, and
usual fragmentof ni,'thou.
Adi
means
properlythou hast become,
and
it is used as an
imperativeby the poets alone to convey an
of a result which is regarded as alreadycertain.
emphatic prediction
find the same
suffix in such poeticalpreterites
We
varu-di
as
(for
''
kedu-di
thou
and
thou
ruined.
art
earnest,
vanday ')
(for kettay')
In Malayalam the nominative
of this pronoun
is 'nj/ but
nin
is used,as in classical Tamil, in the obliquecases.
The dative has
if from a nominative
as
'nan,' instead of nin; e.g., nanikka,'to thee
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

""

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

in

'nan,' with

'a'

is in accordance with

the

as

the

included vowel.

This

use

of 'a'

Tamil
colloquial
personaltermination of
the verb,which is ay,'instead of iy.'
In Tulu the nominative is 'i;'but the obliquecases
formeid
are
of
ni
nin.' In the personalterminations of the
or
upon the base
verb the second person singularis representedby a.' The Tulu
'

'

'

'

'

'

nominative

'j' illustratesthe

nasals of 'nin'
sometimes

been

(both the
worn

fact

alreadystated

radical initialand

oflF.

that each

the formative

of the

has
final)

SECOND

The

Tuda

has

'

PERSON

'

309

SINGULAR.

its

'

nominative, nin as the hase of its

i as the personal
oblique
termination of the verb.
cases, and
The Telugu nominative
is 'nivu,'expanded from
'ni' by the
addition of the euphonicparticle
'vu:' 'nivu,'Tel., thou,is identical
m
form,though not in meaning,with the modern Canarese pluralof
the same
In the obliquecases
the Telugu
viz.,'nivu,'you.
pronoun,
the euphonicaddition of vu,' and uses
rejects
ni as its inflexional
base,and also as its possessive.The objectivealone follows the
ni

as

'

'

'

'

exampleof

the other dialects in

appending
and

is

final nasal.

formed
evidently

dialect of the
with

The
'mi'

'mimu'

formed

indicate

by

relation
of the

to the

ni

'

'

first person,

the head

of

In the

'

'

in

has
the

from

'

'

to

The

Plurals.'

the

as

placewill

Both

'mini'

have

'mi' bears the

the

ma,'
be

nominative,

they

ordinaryDravidian

has taken

'^n

the

higher
tical
is iden-

nivu.'

which

'

the

i,'which

accusative.

and
signsof plurality;

to

In

'

'

'miru'

of the other dialects that

does

nin-u.'

'

instead of

'mi'

'nin-nu,'

'

been
same

Telugu plural

na.'

How

inquiredinto

this
under

personalterminations of the verb,the Telugu rejects

every
the pronominal root, and employsonly the euphonicaddition

portionof
vu

base

the addition of

change from

'

an

used
occasionally

ni-nu,' nin-u,'or
'

old nominative

Telugupluralof this pronoun

the inflexion,
and 'mimu'
as

as

and

'

nominative

Telugu, ivu,'from
Tulu, is

is

case

'

the

included vowel, and

the
abbreviating

That
from

'

'

'

or

In Gond

'

vi.'

the nominative

'ima;' but 'ni' is used in the oblique

i in the personalterminations of the verbs.
n
or
cases,
The Ku corresponds
the whole
to the Telugu. Its nominative
on
is 'inn;' its inflexion 'ni;' the personaltermination of its verb 'i.'
The Rajmahal nominative
is 'nin;'the Uraon, nien.'
Brahui
The
nominative is
of the Dravidian
ni,'as in most
form which is much
a
languages;and its nominative pluralis 'num'
'
used in the higherdialect of the Tamil.
dialects we arrive at the
On a comparisonof the various Dravidian
form of this pronoun
conclusion that the primitive
-was
'ni,''nu,' or
of
the
first.
the pronoun
The
essential
only
'na;' most probably
part
'n;'just as in the Indo-European
appears to be the initial consonant
languages t' is the only essential part of the corresponding
pronoun.
is
In each familythe vowel by the help of which the initialconsonant
enunciated varies considerably,
but evinces,on the whole,a preference
for
in the Indo-European.
u
for i in the Dravidian languages,
Supposing"-ni' to be the primitiveform of the Dravidian pronoun
of the second person, and comparing it with
na,'which we have seen
'

'

'

is

'

'

'

"

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

310

PRONOUK.

THE

to be the

form
primitive

of the Dravidian

it is deserving
of notice that the

difference between

the two

vowels,

'

the two

between

onlydifference

included

of the first person,

pronoun

and

'

'

is the

i.' The

nant
conso-

signof
is expressed;
both pronouns, and the means
by which their personality
whilst the annexed
restricts the signification
to the first person,
a
to the second person, or that of the person
or that of the speaker; i,'
addressed.
The only resemblance to this arrangement with which I
am
acquaintedis that which is found in the personalpronouns of the
into
Hebrew, in which / is an-dki ;'thou, an-ta (corrupted
at-ta').
The, method
adopted by the Dravidian languagesof expressingthe
of the
difference between the first person and the second by means
'

'

be tbe

to

seems

property and

common

the

common

'

'

'

'

vowels

'

and

'

'

result of accident.

though it may
is.
principle
If

'

be

and

'

'

i,'used

as

'

does
auxiliaries,

It is

probablyfounded on
difiicult or impossible
now

i ' be considered

not
some

to

identical with

ultimate

the

be

to

appear

principle;

discover what

that

the

demonstratives,
and which is corroborated by
idea which would suit the signification,
an
is also a demonstrative,
the circumstance
that
met
u
we
are
by the
that in all the Dravidian
apparentlyinsurmountable difficulty
tongues,
and (asfar as the use
of these demonstrative
vowels
extends)in all
the tongues of the Indo-Europeanfamily, a
is not the proximate,
and 'i' is not the remote, but the
but the remote, demonstrative;
proximate; whilst u is used in Tamil as an intermediate between
'

'

'

as

'

'

'

'

'

those two.

weight to be attributed
naturallythe first place in all

Is
has

any

to

the

circumstance

lists of

vowels, and

that
'

'

i'

'

the

second 1

It
relationship.

Uxtra-Drdi)idian

"

of the firstperson

pronoun

has been

shown

has affinities
with

that the Dravidian

each

of the

great

Japheticgroups, with some

specialScythian affinities. It will be
found that the relationship
of the pronoun
of the second person is less
distinctive: it is specifically
extensive,but more
Scythian.
Throughout the Scythianas well as the Indo-Europeangroup, the
most prevalent
form of the pronoun of the second person singular
is that
which is formed from the consonant
t
tu '),
or its euphonised
{e.ff.,
equivalent's' {e.ff.,
av');and the onlyother form which is found to
'

'

'

'

be used in any
from

familyof

the consonant

Dravidian
These

'

ni

roots

'

'

either of those groups is that which is formed

and the
n,'and of which the Cuneiform-Scythian

is the best
appear

representative.

to have been

alwaysperfectly
independent.I

SECOND

discover

cannot

of

PERSON

any
order to placethis

In

of

any reliable trace

gradualchangein

311

SINGULAE.

instance of the

pointin

form

one

clear

between

connexion

them,

or

into the other.

in the
it is desirable,
light,
alliances of the pronominal

first place,
to trace out the connexions and
'tu.'

root

It has

been

in the
conjecturedthat this pronoun had its origin
demonstrative base 'tj' but the investigation
of this pointis beyond
our
purpose^ which is merelythat of tracingits relationship.
In Sanscrit the
is 'tva-m;'
pronoun of the second pierson-singular
in Zend
included in the accusative 'thwa,'
as
'tu-m, and also 'thw"
iltee. Connected with the Sanscrit tva,'there is a simplter
form, ta,'
which
is apparent in
and
have
to
tava,'thy;
we
analogies this in
the Kawi
ta
and the Semitic ta
thou '). The
(includedin anta,'
Semitic
ta
is changed in the inflexions to
'kk' a change which
'

'

'

'

'

resembles

common

that

'

of the

that

va,'the base

Latin

'

Kawi,

which

has

vos,'is

derived
tuva-m

'

tv

ta

from
'

in

derived
'

'

the

'

than

base of the most

'yu,'the

is derived from

secondaryplural vas
'tva.'
'v,'however, is more

from

from

'

other letter.

any

Old

'

from

'

tu

'

and

its nominative

as

of the Sanscrit

Persian ; and
')proceedsthe Sanscrit dative

'

'

its possessive:Bopp supposes that

form of the pluralof this pronoun,

as

'

'

'

'

'ko'

'

'

'

'

'

tu,'and

and of the

frequently

tva-m

'

becomes

derived
(itself

from

base of which

tu-bhayam:' the

allied to, or identical with, the

is

tu;' the
Latin,Armenian, and Pehlvi
^olic and Doric 'tv;'the Persian,
Afghan,and Singhalese'to;' and
thu.' The
th of the Gothic and Zend pointsout the
the Gothic
av.'
converted into
tv
was
path by which the Old Greek
of the verbs, in Sanscrit and most
In the personalterminations
the earlier t of this pronoun
other languages of the same
family,
been weakened
into
s' in the singular,
whilst in
has very generally
of the pluralterminations,t,'with some
trivial modifications,
most
and with a sign of plurality
annexed, has succeeded in retainingits
of the pronoun
of the firstperson it was
place. In our investigation
converted, in the personalterminations of the
found that
was
ma
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

(for

'

su

and

'mi'

into 'mi,' and

verb

'

si

'

') generallybecomes

in like

In the
which

tu

European
"

but in the

general use

si

is

'

the
substantially

Scythiantongues the

also

of the second person

same

'

'

as

in the Indogroups

has obtained wider prevalence

t;'and the vowel by which

u' or 'a.'
than
'i' or 'e,'
frequently
'

so

s.'

of both
primevalidentity

weaker

'

into 'm:'

in the verbal terminations ;

of tongues, the pronoun

another evidence of the

than the older

more

'

'

afterwards becomes

manner

Scythiangroup

is in

still further weakened

'

s' is enunciated is

312

PRONOUN.

THE

The

with which

we

'ti'
singular,

'te' in the

Magyar has

'tu,'
thou,and

the Armenian

compare

may

'tik' in the

or

'

pluralt
tuk,'you.
'

Mongolian tchi or dzi,'th(m,exhibits the progress of ti

towards
into
si.' In Finnish proper, the isolated pronoun
softening
of the second person singular,
is se
or
'sina;'but 't' retains its
in
placein the plural;and the personaltermination of the verb even
the singular
is t.''
The chief peculiarity
noun
apparent in the Scythianform of this prothe
addition of a
is,that it has generallybeen euphonisedby
the
final nasal
the consonant
in the same
manner
as
n,' precisely
of the first person singular.
pronoun
In the older Greek
and
tojJv,'
correspondto er^ivvr/ and
tuvt)
and in like manner,
in the languageswhich
belong to the
'er/iiv;'
Scythianfamily,or which have been subjectto Scythianinfluences,
The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

where

of the first person

the pronoun

'

'

'

is found

nasalised,the

be

to

exhibits the same

feature.
of the second person generally
pronoun
In the vernaculars of Northern
India,we see this euphonicaddition
of the second

to the pronoun
'

tun,' and

in
idioms, especially
in the

appears

also

the

in the nominative

alternates with

'

'

or

Samoi'ede

Mordwin
'

'

is lost in

'

and

sin

'ton'

siz

'

'

'

the
'

tan,'

tani

and
se,' sia,'

second

person, and

'

ma

'

or

minna

its

;'the Lappish
the Finnish

in the

'

'

'

retains

'sie.'

'

dialect

'

and
(plural'tin');

'

'

'

'

plural. Compare

euphonicoriginof this n is most evident

of the Finnish,
which uses
sa
indifferently

The

is the usual form

sen

singular.The

person

obliquecases, but
Georgian shen ;' the

more

alone.
'

the

which
sina,'

in the nominative, but

as

familyof tongues,

'don;' the Votiak

'

well

as

of the second

of the pronoun

'

and

obliquecases

In the Turkish

place in

the

it is found

commonly

and Sindhi,
Hindi, Panjabi,

of those
Gujarathi turn.' In some
Gujarathiand Panjabi,the euphonic nasal

Marathi

in the

in the

person

or

'

Esthonian

sinna

'

for the

for the first.

Manchu,
n
Mongolian
appears in the obliquecases
In
the
nominative is tchi,'
in Manchu
si ;' but the
Mongol
only.
in the former is tchini,'
in the latter sini,'
and the corresgenitive
ponding
In

the

and

'

'

'

'

'

datives
In Calmuck
dative

'

are

'

tehim-dou

the nominative

dzimadou,' accusative

languagewe

may

'

and

'

'

sin-de.'

is 'dzi'
'

observe several

instead of
euphonic,

'

or

dziraai.'

'dzima,'genitive'dzini/
In

instances of

the
'

pronouns
'

being used

of

this

as

an

n.'

It is evident that there is no

resemblauce whatever

between

any

of

the pronouns compared above and the Dravidian 'ni.' The final'na'
and its equivalent,
of the Finnish sina,'
the final ' vr/'of the Greek
'

314

PKONOUN.

THE

of the

Scythiangroup,

represented
by

is

the first personalpronoun

by 'n ;'e.g., ime-m,'my

languages,
another Finnish idiom, the
vdfe,'ime-n,'
thy wife. In the Syrianian,
second person of the verb,both singular
and plural,
is formed by annexing
thou
of which 'n' is the initial and radical;
a pronoun
e.g.,'kery-n,'
In
hast done (from kery,'
to do), kery(n)nyd,'
nyd,'
you have done.
indication of a singular
see
'ny,'thou, which has been pluyou, we
'

m;' the second,as

'

ralised,
as

'

in the Dravidian

'

'

is usual in these

to
by suflSxing
langiiages,

it

Ugrian tongues several

of the second

pronoun

allied to the Dravidian.

Ostiak which

is used

which

person

as

Ugro-Ostiak,or

In the

isolated

the

is plainly

nominative

dialect of the

that

thou is
grammar,
plural)'nen.' Here 'ne' or
(indefinitely

is treated of in Castren's

two, 'nin;'you

't.'

or

which

in

instances

'

compounds,we

In addition to the allied forms discoverable in these

find in the

'

'

;'you

nen
'

ni

'

stitutes
con-

pronominalbase ; and the final n of the singular nen,'

is a formative or euphonicaddition like that which has converted the
Dravidian
ni
into
of this Ostiak
nin.' The strong pronunciation
the

'

'

'

'

'

'

final

'

'

as

reappears,

dialects

find 'num

shall see, in the Turkish.

we
'

and

'ma,'and

also

In other Ostiak

(whichis

desersnngof
notice)nyn,'with a plural nynt.' In the Vogoul we find analogies
which are no less remarkable than the above ; e.g., nei,' ny,' nan,'
nank.'
and
Compare also the Vogoul plurals nen
nyngi,'and
we

'

more

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

non.'
of this pronoun
which, but for the existence of such express

In the Finnish

observe is

one

the

proper,

of the

only trace

which

we

in
analogies

should

probably have overlooked.

In the pluralof the second person of the Finnish verb {e.g.,
'olette,'
ye
the
suflBxed
from
thou
olet,'
art),
are, pluralised
corresponds
pronoun
the
initial
but
is
in
the
that
of
t
which
s
to
or
pounds,
com;
possessive
the same
should expect to find precisely
in which we
form, we
of
of
the
which
find instead
it a pluralpossessive)
initialand radical is
*n.' Thus, the expression
should expect to
we
thy hand, being'kates,'
other

members

family,we

'

'

find your

'

'

'

hand, 'katesse,'
or,

more

like
primitively,
'katette,'

correspondingMagyar kezetek,'(from 'tek,'you,

the form actuallyused in Finnish
te '); whereas
'

another
is

'

that two

thus appears
in the

Finnish;one, the
te ;'and

plural
pluralof which
'

the

must

pronouns

have been
Even

is
'

in the

similar pronoun.

of the second person

singularof which

another,hidden

'ne,'and

of

is

or
'si,'

'

form

of

katenne.' It

retain their
more

the

place

'ti,'
properly

in the ancient

compounds, the
which, by dialectic rules,the singular

ni.'

Turkish,we shall find traces of the existence of a

In the possessive
compounds, the second person

SECOND

is
singular
'

not

sen,'as the

PERSON

as
represented,

first person

315

SINGULAR.

expectedit

should have

we

is by
singular

'

;'but

'

'

"

or

'

be, by

to

is used

'

ng

instead

nen
(a nasal which correspondsto that of the Ostiak
');
of 'baba-m' is derived
e.g., 'baba-re,'
thyfather; and as the final m
from 'mi' or 'me,'/, we seem
to be obligedto deduce also the final
'w' of baba-TO,'
from an obsolete 'wi' or 'we,'ihow,which is allied to
the corresponding
forms that have been pointedout in other Scythian
'w' or 'ng' not onlyin the Osmanli
tongues. We find this possessive
Turkish,but even in the Yakute, the Turkish of Siberia.
The same
makes its appearance
in the personalterminations
n
of the Turkish
is more
verb.
sen
commonly used than n ;' but
'n' is found as the representative
of the second person in those verbal
forms which must be considered as of greatestantiqnity
; e.g.,in the
of
the
substantive verbs,'idum,'I was, 'iduw,'
thou
preterite
auxiliary
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

wast,

'

idi,'he

these

to

'

In the Oriental Turkish

was.

the

forms

corresponding

termination of
boldJm,' bdldum,' boldi ;'and the same
the second person singular the nasal 'n'
appears in all the preterites
of that language. We
also the pluralforms of this pronominal
may
compare
suflBx. The Turkish pronouns
are
pluralised
by changingthe
final formative
into
n
z,'or rather by adding z to the crude
base.
Thus, we is biz (for miz '),and you is siz.' In possessive
compounds 'i' changes into 'u;' and hence our fatheris 'baba-muz.'
In the same
a suppositious,
indicating
manner,
your fatheris 'baba-wuz,'
isolated pronoun,
Whilst
to
u
miz,'you, corresponding
miz,'we.
is used instead of i in Osmanli
Turkish,the older and more
regular
i retains its placein the Oriental Turkish ; e.g., uzu-wiz,'
you yourselves
in
is
"iiz
and
from
when
which
or
which,
z,'the
ngiz,'
;
you
is rejected,
deduce the singular'"i' or 'ngi.'
we
sign of plurality,
The same
termination
of the second person
mode of forming the plural
'k6rkdu-wuz,'
ye
appears in all regularTurkish verbs j e.g., compare
thou fearedst.
We see it also in the imperative
feared,with 'korkdu'W,'
I consider the Turkish 'w'
'korkn-wuz,'
/ear ye. In all these instances,
or
equivalentto the Finnish 'n;' and the
'ng' to be dialectically
pronominalroot which is thus found to underlie so many Turkish and
Ugrian compounds of the second person may, I think,be regardedas
'

'

are

'

"

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

identical with

the Dravidian

libration between

'

'

'

'

the

'

'

and

and

'

'

Even
Behistun-Scythian
pronoun.
n,'which we noticed in considering

the Dravidian forms- of this pronoun, meets us again in the Turkish,

In
the Himalayan dialects,
though Tibetan or Indo Chinese
-

influences generally
seem
Dravidian

fail to

see

in the

Garo

'

naa

to

over
preponderate

analogiesin

;'and

in the

'

the Dhimal
'

which

Dravidian,we
'

na,' in

the

Miri

forms the first and

cannot
'

no,'

most

316

PRONOUN.

THE

Still more

remarkable

identical both

with

also is the

so

nomades.

Compare

Australian
'

dialects:

e.g.,
the

been adduced

t'he

of

'

ninna,'
'

the various

above, it must

Horpa,

Tibetan

dialect of

of the second person in various

nginnee/' nginte;' the duals

'

nimedoo.'

plural

comparisonof

'ni'

also the pronouns

niwa,''nura;' and
On

'ni,'which is absolutely
and with the Behistun-Scythian

Chinese

is the

the Dravidian

pronoun:

in all the rest of

of the second person

essentialradical of the pronoun

the Lohitic dialects.

forms

which

of this pronoun

have

dian
that the affinitiesof the Dravi-

be evident

wholly Scythian; and this important circumstance,

taken in conjunction
with the predominanceof Scythianinfluences over
tributes
Indo-European iu the formation of the first personalpronoun, conof
of
the
Scythian relationship
largelyto the establishment
ni

'

'

are

the Dravidian

family.

3. The

The

Reflexive

Dravidian

under
investigated
which

is

under

now

consideration

in the same
precisely
the Sanscrit
svayam,' and
'

sui,' sibi,'se ;' with

'

than

'

It

manner.

of

The

pronoun,

placeamongst

sonal
per-

and
characteristics,

is

iu meaning to
corresponds

defective Greek

to the

range

head.

is entitled to

it possesses all their

declined

'

properlyspeaking,
they will,therefore,be
are,

personalpronouns ; and
a
subsequentand separate

because

pronouns,

of the third person

pronouns

demonstratives,not

'Self.'

Pronoun

'

'

and

which
application

is

the

Latin

extensive

more

theirs.
In

Tamil

the

nominative

singularof this pronoun is 'tan;'the

pluralof which (by the usual pronominalchange of n' into 'm') is
:'and the inflexion,
tam
or basis of the oblique
cases
(which,taken by
has the force of a possessive),
is formed, as in the case
of the
itself,
other personalpronouns,
by simply shorteningthe included vowel ;
or
'suum.'
In
(adjectivally)
suus,''sua,''
e.g., 'tan,'of self '"sui,'
'

'

'

all its

cases

and

than any
persistent
Canarese

The

included

'n')

and
'

nan-u

In
more

and

nominative

'

is found

to

be

regularand

more

is

and

'

tan

'

in the

'

ancient,

formed,as usual,by

the crude root

'ta'

the

tan-u

'

in the

of
shortening

the
(without

formative

used

'ni,' of
'

tan

other pronoun.

vowel;

is sometimes

person,
'

'

dialect : the inflexion is

modern
the

connexions

instead of 'tan-u,'
just as 'na,'of the first
the second, are
used instead of
occasionally

nin-u.'

Telugu the reflexive pronoun

in accordance

with the

is

more

and
declined,
regularly

than any other

Tamil-Canarese,

pronoun

is

REFLEXIVE

THE

317

PRONOUN.

of the

personalclass. The nominative is tan-u ;'the inflexion and

possessivetSn-a ;'the pluralnominative 'tam-u' or 'tar-u :' ta' may
be used at pleasure,
tan-u.'
as in Canarese,for
'

'

'

'

A similar

and of declension is apparent in all

of formation
regularity

the Dravidian

so that further comparisonof

dialects,

The

to be unnecessary.

the forms

of this

evidently ta,'
The
of the singular,
final n
self.
though probablyonly a formative
addition (likethe final 'n' of na-n,'
/, and
ni-n,'thnu),is one of
pronoun

seems

root

'

'

'

'

for
greatantiquity,

singularis

base is

or

we

'

in the Brahui

find it even

tenat'

eg., the nominative

fixed
(comparewith this the inorganic t,'which is sufin Gond) ; gen, 'tena;'dat. 'tene.'
to the personal
pronouns
'tan,' self(\x\e 'nan,'/, and 'nin,'thou),is of no gender,and is
used in connexion
with each personalgenderindiscriminately;
that
so
this final 'n' has evidently
different originfrom the 'n' or 'an,'
a
which constitutes the signof the masculine
of rationals.
of
The
n
the singular
of the personalpronouns
has nothingto do with gender,
and is a signof the singular
number
alone.
of the corresponding
The use of this pronoun
agrees with the use
tive
nominaIndo-Europeanreflexive. It always agrees with the principal
of the sentence, and with the governing verb,or that which is in
It is also used as
an
agreement with the principalnominative.
and
demonstrative
emphatic addition to each of the personal
pronouns,
like the Englishself,
in the compounds myself,
like the Latin
or
ipse,'
thou
"c. : e.g., we
nan-tan,'/ myself; ni-tan,'
yourself,
say in Tamil
she herself
adu-tan,'
;
thyself;'avan-tan,'he himself; 'aval-tan,'
that itself
: and
'tam,'the pluralof 'tan' (or,in the colloquial
01
itself
is in like manner
its double plural'tang-gal'),
appended to the
dialect,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

pluralsof

each

of those pronouns

and

demonstratives.

signification
by the addition of the
usual adverbial formatives ; e.g., tanay'(for tan-agi'),
Tam., of myself,
of
of yourselfor spontaneously: and when appended to nouns
qualityor relation its use correspondsto that of our adverbs really,
quite,"c. ; e.g., 'raey tan,'Tam., it is reallytrue, 'sari tan,'quite
right.
One use to which the reflexive is put is peculiar
to these languages,
'

adverbial

acquiresalso an

tan'

'

'

"

viz.,as

and

honorific substitute for the pronoun

an

in this connexion

pluralmay
shown.

be

used,accordingto

When

used

with, the
and

either the

though,when

the third person,

the plural,
or
singular,

the amount

in this maimer,

it stands

yet when

person;

the double

of respect intended to be

it is not

of the second

pronoun

of the second

annexed

person, but

to, or

pounded
com-

is used alone

denotes
alone,it generallyand naturally

thus used

for the
honorifically

second person.

318

PRONOUN.

THE

the verb with which it is connected receives the

honorific pronoun
the

not

demonstrative

'

tan,'as

if
possibility,
'

Indo-Europeanpronoun

tu,'

base.

class of
interesting

very

the

of

use

person, illustrates the

of the second

of the origin
of
probability,

thou,from

This

but of the second.

not of the third person

an

tions
pronominal termina-

words, the

Tamil

nature

of which

has

from the honorific use of the

generallybeen overlooked,has originated
reflexive pronoun.
Its injlenAon,
has been prefixed
honoor
possessive,
words which denote parents and
to most of the pure Drividian
rifically
other

in
relations,

near

Her
periphrasis

which

manner

resembles ourmodern

somewhat

worship,"o.

general the plural

tam
has been used in this connexion
instead of the singular tan,'
instances these compound
of greater honour, but in some
as
a prefix
words have become
so
corruptedthat their constituent elements can
be recognized.The Tamil
is formed from
scarcely
'tagappan,'/a"Aer,
tam-appan,'their (honorifically
his)father,meaning,as it were, his
tam -ayi,'
her maternity; and
paternity. tammei,' mother,is from
from
common
mother,the more
word, is in like manner
tay,'
ta-ayi,'
for
in which we
find the crude
ta
tam.'
brother
elid,er
tamayan,'
and
structor,
or
(Tel.,'tammudu'), is from 'tam'
eiyan,'an inayan
is from
sister,
meaning his tutorship. tang-gei,'
younger
a
kei,'a handmaid
tam,'and
hand),meaning her hand(literally
and 'tandei'
maidenship.* 'tambi' (Tel.,'tammu'),yoww^er JroiAer,
honorific prefix
'tandri'),
father,evidentlyinclude the same
('Tel.,
Majesty,your

In

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'tan;'but

'tam'

or

are

changed

so

title of

God,

Hindu

abbots

the

that

which

which

nouns

form

the

basis of these words

be recognized. 'tambiran,'
now
they cannot
a
is commonly applied to a particular
class of

is formed

from

the

'tam'

and

'piran'(probably
his
or
lordGod, meaning
and
this
is
his-godsMp:
perhapsthe only word of this
literally
i/iip,!
class the derivation of which has commonly been admitted by lexicographers.
from

Lord
'pra,'Sans.,before,
first).

remarkable

Another

of the reflexive pronoun

use

inflexional base,
its possessive,
or
abstract

the

'

noun

tan-mei

selfness
; 'mei'

is the

Englishness,

the Latin

with the

or

Sanscrit

'

'

'

or

'

tan,'
of selfor

'

is the

adoptionof
as the base of
self's,

tanam,' qualityor

regularformative

of Tamil

tas.' This word

of

'

nature, literally

like
abstracts,

is identical in

tatvam,'nature, property,which

Compare with thia meaning

which is appliedby ourselves to
*

same

our

meaning

is derived from

the name
a younger
sister,'
unmarried
females; and also

of

'

'

spinster

the derivation
which is attributed to 'duhtri' ('duhitar'),
Sans.,daughter,viz.,u, milk-maid
from ' duh,' to milk.
(oras Bopp regardsit,a auchlinff),

'

tad

'

'

or

and
tat,'
that,

is

319

PRONOUN.

REFLEXIVE

THE

in
it (though indirectly)

allied to
possibly

origin.
'ta/the base of the Dravidian reflexive pronoun, has no connexion
with, or resemblance to,any other pronoun of this familyof languages;

thoughit

Dravidian

a
unquestionably
pure

and

meaning
from

is

of

range

If

root.

it must,
application

look at its

we

think,have originated

emphatic demonstrative base ; and it will be found that

there is no lack either in the Indo-Europeanor in the Scythianfamily
of demonstratives closely
resembling ta or ta-n.' We see examples
some

'

'

of this resemblance
and

in the Sanscrit

ta-d,'that (from ta,'the

strative,
demon-

'

singular)
; in

the neuter

d,'the signof

'

'

'

'

'

tada,'then,at

into
s ') in
sah,'he.
(with the t weakened
The reflexive pronouns of this family, sva,'"c.,are probablyderived
from the same
altered. Compare also the
base, though considerably

that time

and

also

'

'

'

'

Old
'

Greek

which
article,

TjJ,' ;' and

the

'

TO

find the

same

or

the Dravidian
from

was

and

is

'

'

tan

word

which

(withan

annexed

nasal,as

in

by which

'ta'). The
:

may

not
a

this Dravidian
of the

pronoun

politeaddress,viz.,'rav

which

others from

'

curious,indeclinable Greek

form of

"c.,and
goodfriend,

't^v-o?,'
by

and

that

pronominal
between
t^v'

resemblance

as
honorifically

lighton
as

the Hebrew

has been
an

derived

by

obsolete vocative

or

some

of 'to'

TVVTH ?'

with a similar final n,'appears also in

demonstrative,
'tan's' (for 'tana-s'),
Prussian
he; and in the Scythian

The
the

that

is used

used

is sometimes

from
etymologists
'

some

We

der,' die,* das.'

'

'

certainlyremarkable

person, throw

'to'?,'

pronoun,

'

'

from

which

'

Doric, t^v-os,'
he,that,which is the form
and the later Greek
was
i-xiiv-os,''
k^v-o^,'

the
'

derived

''toTBI/,'
Sir, My

or

') in

jEolian

reflexive pronoun,
second

similar demonstrative

(by a change similar to

suffix 'ka'

demonstrative

properlya

correspondingGerman

tan

the

which

derived

'

is

same

Old

find it, either nasalised

tongues,we

pure, in the Finnish

remote

proximate 'tama;' in the Lappish 'tat'

he, 'tan,'
of him (root'ta');and in the Ostiak remote demonstrative
toma,'and proximate tema.'
is used by the Seoni G6nd both as a reflexive
The reflexive pronoun
and as a demonstrative.
Thus, in the Song of Sandsumjee, in
Dr. Manger's paper ('Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society
'), ten,'
Amu (not 'se,'but 'illvmi^);
Aer and
'tunna,'his; and tane,'
means

demonstrative

'tuo,'and

or

'

the

'

'

'

also appears
in "the same
signification
song in
'tun wa
(Tam. tan'),suus-a-um.^ This seems to prove that ta was
a demonstrative.
originally
the Dravidian 'ta'
The strongestargument, perhaps,for considering

it.

The
'

reflexive
'

'

'

'

320

or

PKONOUN.

THE

to be allied to the
'tan,'self,

the circumstance

that

'

preciselythe

same

the basis of the

The

ness.

'tanmei'

manner

as

or

word

may

have

word

word.

It

it cannot

seems

if they are

so

period: for

have

been

'

'

thattatvam,' quality,

been, and probablywas, framed

in imitation of the Sanscrit(forso abstract

but
origin),

of

Sanscrit 'tad,'that; which forms

the

Sanscrit
corresponding

Dravidian

tan,'is used in,

in
selfness,
'tanam,' quality,

tan,'the inflexional base

the formation of the word

'ta' is.

demonstrative
Scytho-Sanscrit

term

is

of
necessarily
from

derived
directly

late

the Sanscrit

and
probablethat both bases are remotelyallied,
their alliance carries us back to a very remote
allied,
very

whilst the Dravidian

demonstrative 't,'
the

reflexive pronoun

original

retains the

reflexive in every
corresponding

one

of the Indo-

already allowed

European tongues 'sva,''se,'"c.) had

into 's,'
weakened
before those tongues separatedfrom

't'
the

to

be

parent

stem.
4.

Plurals

op

Personal

the

Reflexive

and

Pronouns.

I class the

pluralsof these pronouns togetherbecause they are

formed from the same
pronominalbases as their singulars
(which have
and because theyare all formed on one and
alreadybeen investigated),
the same
particle
plan,viz.,either by the addition of a pluralising
to
the
the
substitution
of that
(generally m ')
pronominalbase, or by
for the singular
formative. Exceptionsexist,
but they are few
particle
'

and

trivial.

Comparisonof dialects. In the classical dialect of the Tamil, the

/,'ni,'
pluralsof the personaland reflexive pronouns ('nan,'
thou,'tan,'
'nivir' (instead of
or
self)are 'nam' or 'yam,'we; 'nir,''niyir,'
the more
regular nim'),you; and 'tarn,'selves. In the colloquial
dialect a double pluralhas got into extensive use, which is formed by
the addition to the classical pluralsof gal,'
the sign of plurality
which especially
belongsto the class of ii~rationals. In consequence of
the' existence of these two sets of plurals,
and
a difference in their use
has graduallyestablished itself.
application
The classical or pure and simpleplurals
used in the colloquial
are
now
dialect as honorific singulars
; whilst the double plurals nangand 'tanggal'
('nim-gal'),
gal'('nam-gal'),
(tamwe; 'ninggal'
you;
used
the
as
gal'),selves are
ordinaryplurals.A double pluralhas
the
Telugu also; e.g., 'mirulu' (for 'miru'), you, and
crept into
'varulu' (for'varu^),
they. Another pointof difference between 'nam'
the two
Tamil
and 'nanggal,'
pluralsof the first personalpronoun,
head. The formation of these
will be inquiredinto under a subsequent
secondary,double pluralsof the Tamil and Telugu is in harmony with
"

'

'

'

"

"

322

THE

PBONOUN.

be seen, however,in the sequelthat there

that this use of r is abnormal.
'

In Canarese

indications in

are

Telugu

'

pluralsof all the personalpronouns are formed

and beautiful regularity
perfect
j e.g., an,'

the

in the ancient dialect with

'

I, 'am,'we;

'

cases
oblique

the included vowel

other

nin,'"Aom, 'nim,'yoM/

changewhich

radical

'

placeis in

takes

the

weakening (asin Tamil) of

the

of the first person into e,'e.g., ' emma,'

In this particular,
namma,' the form which has survived in the
'

of the nominative

'

'

our.

dialect
colloquial
modem

final
'

is

'ikm' selves. In the

'tan,'s(sZf,
shortened as usual; and the only

is

ancient.

and evidentlymore
regular,

more

The

dialect

substantially
agrees with the ancient,the chief
in the softening,
in the nominatives alone,of
consisting
'

'

into

nim,'and
In

'

;'e.g., navu,' nivu,'and

'

'

vu

instead of
tavu,'

'

'

ference
difthe

nam/

tarn.'

'

the

personalterminations of the verb,the modern dialect uses

the 'e' of
of 'navu,'we;
'eve,' evu,'and 'evu,'as representatives
which
gular.
forms correspondsto
en,'the termination of the Tamil sinThis final vu
of the modem
Canarese is not euphonic,like
the
of the Telugu singular,ni-vu,'thou; but is softened from,
vu
and is the representative
is the true
of,an older m.' Though m
signof the pluralof the second person, as of the other personalpronouns,
is used instead in all the Canarese verbal terminations,
r
as
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in those of all the other dialects.

modem

'

In

'

iri and

pluralof
emu,'

the

'

ru

the

of

'

is

person

;' of

'

verb, as
;'and

emu

which

'

The

Canarese

ancient

the
'ir,'

uses

iri.'
'

softened

influence

second
'

'

Telugu the
is not

'

'

'

which

into

'

constitutes the
'

vu

pronominalsignof plurality

in the termination

in Canarese.

That

of the first person

termination
is ' amu,' ' amu,'

in the

it takes the shape of imi,'

preterite
through
formative.
The
ti,'the preterite
plural of the
representedby 'aru,''iri,'eru,''eru,' uru,'and
'

'

suffix
r,'the plnralising

of

'

miru,' you, is

'

the

only

essential element.
The
'

tar-u

Telugu
'

difi"ersfrom

instead of

'

the Tamil-Canarese

tam-u,'as

the

nominative

in

occasionally
using
pluralof the reflexive

This

irregularity,
however, like that of the pluralisation
of the second personalpronoun by means
of r' instead of 'm,' disappears
in the obliquecases
of this
; the pluralinflexion or possessive
in
in
the other dialects.
being tam-a,' Telugu,as
tamar-u,'
pronoun
sometimes used instead of 'tam-u,'is properlya possessive
noun.
The Telugu plurals ra^m-u,'
we, and 'mir-u
(or miru-lu'),
yow,
which
some
to
be
peculiarities
require
present
separatelyinquired
pronoun.

'

'

'

'

into.

'

'

PLURALISATION

In

with

common

OF

323

PRONOUNS.

their

the inflexions of these pronouns

singulars,
and
final consonant
the sign of numher

the
altogether
retain the long included

reject

the inflexion

PERSONAL

"

"

vowel

Thus,

unaltered.

of the nominative

'

of
is ma,' and that of mira
memu
possessive
mi
inflexions
ni.' The
to the singular
and
na
ooriesponding
objectivecase, however,follows the rule of the Tamil and Canarese;
'

'

or

'

'

'

'

'

e.g.,

'

mama

'

or

mamma,'

be concluded
therefore,
and

'

'

"

'

'

or

that the mode

mimmu,'

in which

It may,

you.

'

the inflexions

'

mi

and of late origin

irregular
; and that in
received
is to be regardedas tfie
Telugu,as in the other dialects,m
and regular
of
the
sign
pluralof the personalpronouns.
The chief peculiarity
of these pronouns
and
mir-u
')
('mem-u
in Telugu,is the change of the initial n
into
m.'
It has been
'

ma

formed

'

mimu

'

us,

'

are

is

"

'

'

'

'

that

seen

'

'

is the root of the

na

first person

singular,and
essential portionof those
that the normal

method

of the

of the

pronoun

second; that

the

most

;'and
is by
those singulars

is the initialconsonant

pronouns

of

'

Dravidian
primitive

'ni' that

'

formingpluralsfrom

'

annexing to them a final m.' How then is it to be accounted for

their initial and radical,
instead
that the Telugu plurals
have
m
as
of 'nV
'mem-u'
and 'nim-u'
and 'mir-u,'
instead of nem-n
or
'

'

'

'

'

"

"'nir-u?'
I believe that this
of
of the
of

an

older

euphonicattraction
:

is not

be considered

to

pronominalroot;

I have
plurality,

reasons

'

'

but

of the final

been

the tative
representhat it is merely the result

'

m,' which

as

constitutes the

led to this conclusion

by

the

sign

following

"

ancient dialect of the Telugu,

(i.) In the higher and more
is used in that
as
enu
memu,' we, is replacedby ' ^mu ;'precisely
dialect instead of nSnu,'
and em-n,'are
/. These older forms, en-u
in perfect
accordance with the Ancient Canarese
and
an
am,' and
and
with the personal
terminations of the Tamil verb, en
especially
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

that the Canarese 'an'

It is demonstrable

'em.'

softened from
'

'

'

'

yan

and

'

yam,' of

which

'am'

and

another

form

is the

Malaysia
derived by the

njan and fijam;'and I believe that these are

changeof n into nj and y,'from the Tamil
ordinary
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

nan

and

nam.'

'

We

thus

pluralis
an
'

'

have been

older
'

na

abnormal,and
'

nem-u

that

as
;'and if,

itself is allied to, and

Sanscrit
of

arrive at the conclusion that

the

'

ma,' the

fact,would

remembrance

tend

'

'

mem-u

I have

must

the

'

have

'

of the

Telugu

been formed

from

supposed,the normal Dravidian

from, a still older Scythoof this,or the survivinginfluence

weakened

to- facilitate a

return

of

'n'
Y

to
2

'm'

in

324

Telugn; though I
which

is used

as

PRONOUN.

THE

euphonicattraction of the m
the immediate
is to be regarded
as
signof plurality,

doubt

that the

not

'

'

of that return.

cause

(ii.)If the pluralof the Telugu first person alone bad 'm' for
its basis,
to be radical and priwe
might possiblysuppose that m
Scythomitivcjon account of m
beingthe basis of the corresponding
'

'

'

'

Sanscrit pronoun ; but we

find the same
of the Telugu second person also. Now,
'

ni/ the singularof that

pronoun

initial

'

'

be doubted

it cannot

as

it does

agreeing as

"

plural

in the

that

with

the

of the
and
the Chinese, as well as with many
Behistun-Scythian
Finnish forms
Dravidian pronoun
faithfully
representsthe primitive
of the second person, it seems
certain that mim
(thesupposititious
"

'

'

nominative

objective mim-mu

the
'

nim.'

We

derived)

been

conclude that
therefore,

may,

of the first person also.

process took placein the pronoun
The Telugu is more
addicted to harmonic
changesthan any
(iii.)
Dravidian

harmonic

reasons

mem-u,'

and

so

from

tive in Tamil

'

nim-u

'

'

to

second

the

but

termination of the

'

min

of

'

in the

is an

nim

'

imperar

has not been accounted for.

which

poets we

find also

hear,)hear ye, instead

kel,'to
'

'

'

of the
pronoun
weakened
form of

the

'

'num;'

for

consonants

to
nem-n
change from
mim-u,' would be thoughtby Telugu

that
frequently,

of the pluralof
ordinaryrepresentative
imperativesis um,' a
person in Tamil

The

this

and

dialect. It alters both vowels

peoplea very natural and trivial one.

Possiblythis change throws lighton

'

has

'

'

same

other

'

which

have been altered from

must

the

from

of the

'

min,' e.ff.,'kfin-min'

colloquialkel-um.'

of
euphonicdisplacement

which

we

'

(theme

Possibly

tion
nim,' that very abbreviaof
should expect to find used (instead
um
')
'

'

in the older dialect.

The

Telugu,in the main, as to the mode in

the personalpronouns.
Its nominatives are 'am-u,'
which it pluralizes
and

we,
'

Ku

'

agrees with

The

inflexions of the

the

personalterminations

annexes

person

; but

ir-u,'
you

In the

mi.'

the

'amu';

same

of the verb the

that of the second

'eru'

'

'

ma

pluralof the
'

or

Malayalapluralsare nearlyidentical with

are

and
first

aru.'

those of the Tamil,

The

only difference deservingof notice is that the included vowel

is abbreviated in the nominative plural,
as well as in the oblique
cases;
and
of
instead
njangal,'
we, instead of
ningal,'
e.g.,
ninggal,
you,
the initial n
is not lost,
and
ninggal
; and that in the obliquecases
' i
in the first person and
i to
in the second,
a
changed to
u
'

as

'

'

'

'

'

'

in

'

'

Tamil, but the nominatives

the bases of the

cases.
oblique

'

themselves

'

are

'

'

used

'

unchangedas

PLUEALISATION

325

PRONOUNS.

PERSONAL

OF

In Tulu the

pluralof the firstperson is 'namma,' instead of 'n"m,'

the inflexion of which is nama,' as in High Tamil.
The onlyrepresentative
of this pluralin the verbal terminations is va.'
There are
two forms of the pluralof the second
person, as in Tamil ; viz., ir,'
nir,'and the double plural ninggal.'
correspondingto the Tamil
in the personalterminations of the verb.
ar
represents this plural
The Tuda pluralof the first person is '6m,' as in the personal
of
termination of the verb in colloquial
Tamil.
The representative
this pluralin the verbal inflexions is
imi,'as in the Telugu preterite.
The pluralof the second person is nima.'
The Kota pluralof the flrstperson is 'n^me,'
which in the personal
terminations of the verb becomes
emme.'
The nominative pluralof
of which the inflexion is nima,' and the
the second person is niye,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

verbal

ending

In

Gond

'

'

irri.'

the

pluralof

the

first person

is

'

amat,' of the second

'imat;' the final 't' of which forms is inorganicand abnormal.

The
like that of the Telugu,is ma
for the first person
inflexion,
and
for the second.
The personaltermination of the first
mi
plural,
'6m ;'of the second,'rit or
it.'
or
person pluralof the verb is am
and Rajmahaldialects form the plurals
The Uraon
of their personal
regularly
by changing the final 'n' into m.' Compare
pronouns
the Uraon
em,' we, with
enan,'/; i\e Rajmahal nam,' om,' we
with
en,'/, and
nim,'the base of the possessivenira-ki,'
your,
nominative
with the singular
nin,'thou.
In Brahui the pluralof the firstperson is nan;' that of the second
num,' which is identical with one of the Tamil plurals.In the verbal
of nan,'we, representsthe pluralof the first
inflexions the final n
person;'e.g.', aren,'we are: in the second person the final 'm' of
in the true
ri is used instead,precisely
and
as
num
disappears,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Dravidian
The
forms

'

'

dialects ; e.g.,

result of the

'

areri,'
you

foregoingcomparisonis,that

its pluralin all the Drividian

of the

are.

idioms

Brahui)by changing the

the

first person

(withthe solitary
tion
excep-

final formative

'n'

into

'mj'

formed its pluralin the same

manner
originally
'm'
for 'n,' though the
without exception,viz.,by substituting
are
now
verbal endingsand the nominative of the isolated pronoun
and trivial
found to prefer'rj' and that there is but one
solitary
that of an
Telugu nominative) to the rule
optional
exception(viz.,
and
also forms its pluralby discarding
n
that the reflexive pronoun
that the second person

'

'

annexing m.'
'

the

and
regular

entitled to regard m
as
now
are
we
Consequeutly
dian
which is used by the Draviancient sign of plurality

personal
pronouns.

'

'

326

PEONOtJN.

THE

'

or
ar,' ir,'
'

r,'is the pluralof all rationals

'

'

'

Dravidian

in the

exceptionof the three personalpronouns ; and the

existence of this exceptionconstitutes
r
a signof the pluralof the
to the
third person.
How
then has a termination which is peoaliar
with
languages,

the

'

'

third person

found

I apprehend:

In this manner,

into the second 1

its way

thou +
means
literally
or
more
'nir,'
(ni-(y)-ir,)
fully'niyir'
they; and this compound would necessarily
bringout the signification
The Sanscrit ynshme ('yu+sme'),you, is supposedto have a
you.
similar origin.
"

'

'

We now
proceedto inquirewhether
relationship.
final m,' the distinctive Dravidian
pluralof the personalpronouns,
forms the plural
of this class of words in any other familyof languages.
m
having a tendencyto be weakened into n (of which there
and
are
examplesin the terminations of Tamil nouns),and m
many
n
nasals,the use of a final n as a sign
being generallyequivalent
of the pluralof pronouns, may possibly
be equivalent
m.'
to that of
If 80, we may
allied to the Dravidian
adduce as examples of plurals

Extra-Drdvidian

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the

Brahui

also the Persian

as

Chaldee

'nan,'the

anan,'and

'

the Ostiak

trace of the
tan,'you.' A slight

'

be

noticed

in

'men,' we;
of

use

Belnchi

'

'

as

mimiken,'we,
pluralmay
In
Finnish
when
/.
the
the Ostiak,
a
dialect,
compared with 'menik,'
first person pluralof the verb terminates in
m,' whilst the"pluralof
terminates
in
n.' On comparing the
the correspondingpronoun
signof the

the

'

'

'

Finnish

proper

'

olen,'/

'

olemme,'

to the DrSvidian

their resemblance

with

with

am,

is

of the Finnish
m
illusory
; for the
of plurality. me,' we, is the
not
Finnish I; of which
na
(from which the
I have shown, an euphonic modification.
as

expect to

find in the pronouns

of the

we

are

struck

ever,
howresemblance,
is a sign of perme
sonality,
of
the
old
plural
ma,'
'

'

'

'

are,

rule. The

'

'

we

'

'

'

'

of

We

'

olen

'

is,
arises)

indeed
scarcely
Scythianlanguagesany sign of
can

to that of the Dravidian

corresponding
perfectly
plurality
'm;' for
in those languagesthe personalpronouns
are
generallypluralized
by
of
addition
a change of the final vowel, not
by any change or
nants:
consoManehu
bi,'/, 'be,'we; Magyar te,'thou,'ti,'
e.g.,
you;
Ostiak and Finnish
ma,' /, me
(or men '),we.
'

'

'

I have

reserved till

now

which run
analogies
familyof languages,and

'

'

vernaculars.

In

'

the consideration of

remarkable

Indian

'

those

throughthe
which

are

whole

found

series of close and

of the Indo-European

also in the

North-

of
languageswe find very frequent
use
of the personalpronouns, in which it either conin the plurals
stitutes
the final consonant, or occupies
a placeof evident importance
;

PLUEALISATION

and this
which

'

is used

In

the

instances

in

'

the

327

PRONOUNS.

to

a
replace

final

'

'

'

or

n'

corresponding
singulars.

vernaculars

of the

PERSONAL

instances appears

some

by

OF

of

use

Northern

of

'

'

'

or

India
in the

n'

find

we

following

the

singularand

'

'

in the

plural. Hindi

'mai",' /, 'ham,' we; 'tu,''tun,' or 'taim,'tliaii,

'turn,'you: Gujarathi " hura/I, 'hame/ w";
thou, 'tame,'
turn,'
Mar"thi
:
In
you
tan,'thou, tumhi/ you.
Bengaliand Uriya n
from the terminations of the singulars,
'm'
but in the plural
disappears
retains its place as in the other dialects : e.g., Bengali toma
or
tumi,'the inflexional base of the pluralof the second person ; and
distinctive
The
same
Uriya tumbha,' the base of tumbhamani.'
m
tumhe,' you, amhe,' we.
Compare
appears in the Pali-Pr4krit
also the New
of
Persian
final
and
the
m
hastem,'
shum4,'you,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

we

'

'

'

are.

Similar and very

strikinganalogiesmeet us in Greek.
Compare
the singulars'ir^wv' and
the
with
-rovv,'i^wvrj'and '"tovvrj'
too is strengthened
plurals Tjiieliand
bfiets.'This resemblance
when
the vowels of the Greek plurals
of the
are
compared with some
with the Telugu
Dravidian ones : e.g.,compare
corresponding
r/fi-eis
with 'um,' which is the base of the oblique
em-u,'we;' and
ti/i-ecs''
of the Tamil pluralof the second person, and is used to represent
cases
that pronoun
in the pluralof the imperative.
It also deserves to be noticed,
that in the Greek,Persian,Gaurian,
is not used indiscriminately
"c., m
by all nouns, or even
by all
in general,
but is invariably
restricted
as
a signof plurality
pronouns,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

to the

second

of the firstand

pronouns

accords with that of the Dravidian

A strong case
as

'

for

the
regarding

plural

allied to the

'

'

'

'

which

person-rrra usage

cisely
pre-

languages.
Indo-Europeanidioms

of the

of the Drividian

familyhas

doubtless

now

been established ; and

yet this resemblance,though so exact and conwill be found on investigation

to be entirely
fiistent,
illusory!On a
and at last it disappears.
extended comparison it diminishes,
more
Perhaps,indeed,no better illustrationcan be found than that which
will now
in apparent resembe adduced, of the danger of confiding
blances,
and of the value of comparisonin philology.
resemblance

The

of the final

to the
Greek singulars

final

'

n
'

'

'

of the North-Indian

of the

singularsof

and

the

some

Dravidian

is
pronouns, though probably accidental, to be classed in a
diflferent
categoryfrom that of the plural m.' The final 'w'
'

of

rather
of the

euphonic and purelyinorganic

nasal,
which adds nothing to the grammaticalexpression
: this is also the
and 'Toiiv;'
and the origin
v' of the Greek
ir/iiv'
character of the
Hindi

'

maiw,' tun,'"o, is
'

'

an

'

328

PRONOUir.

THE

which the final

as

and

'

'

tva-m.'

men

'

'

sen

proceeded
; not,

neuter

'

'

On

is not

pronouns

and

'

'

'ah-am'
termination of the Sanscrit pronouns
of the Dravidian
the other hand, the final n

think,to the
'

of the Tartar

euphonic influences from

the

of those nasals is to be attributed to

but is used
euphonicaddition,
of the dialects
and in most
singular,

inorganicor

mere

as
a
distinctively
sign of

the

evinces greater persistency

than the initialand radical n
is a sign of the
n
Though, however, in actual use
'

'

'

'

itself.

it
singular,
euphonicorigin; and

from an
have proceeded
originally
may possibly
this view is confirmed by the circumstance that

in Canarese

it is

is optionally
and accordingly
with,
dispensed
regardedas a formative,
is occasionally
and the crude,unformed
this addition,
root, without
used as the nominative singular. This
after all,
n
therefore,
may,
have some
ulterior connexion with the final n of the Graeco-Ganrian,
'

'

'

as

well

'

Scythiansingulars.
element being eliminated,
This disturbing
we
the

as

come

to the

now

semblance
re-

which is found to subsist between the Graeco-Gaurian

'

'

and the final

'

of the Dr"vidian

'

plural
extendingour

plurals. On

comparisona few stages,so as to include those dialects which exhibit

the original
character of the Indo-Europeanpronouns, no trace of a
and the other, will be found to
connexion
between
the ong
m
'

'

survive.
and
vfieh'are not the oldest forms of the Greek plurals.
rjfjLeh
'
For '^fj,eis,'
the Doric and jEolic dialects have
and
a/ie^,'
a/tfies,'
:' for
and
;' of which
d/j,/j.6
I'/x/te
v/iei^ vfi/ies,'
vjneTs they have
its
forms, the oldest and most reliable appear to be 'a/t/tcs,'
or
uninfiected type
and
When
or
'ilfifie.'
v/i/j^s'
a/j,fie,'
ufifie,'
we, is
Prakrit
now
compared with the corresponding
amhe,' with the
Gujarathi'hame,'with the Zend (supposititious)
'ahme,'from which
to the Prakrit
proceeds the possessive'ahmakeni' (corresponding
with the Vedic-Sanscrit
'amhakam'), our; and finally
asme,' we, it
'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

is evident
from

that the lastrmentioned form,

all the rest

which

derived.

'

asme,' is the

normal

type

The

is very clear-^
progression
asmS,' ahm^,' amhe,' a/ifie,'
a/j,/jiA'E^,'
hame,' ham.'
rj/iett,'
In like manner
on
or
comparing 'vfifies'
'S/i/ie,'
you, with the
New
Persian " shum",' with the Zend
cases
yushem' (inthe oblique
with
and
the Vedic-Sanscrit
yushmi (for yusmg '),it is
yusma '),
obvious
that
equally
'yusme'is the root of the whole, 'yusmfi,'
you,
the pluralof tu,'
thou,has probablybeen softened from
tusme,'
from
masmS
tu-sme
ma-sme
5=
(as asme
'): and this supposititious
tusmS
into
like
into
asme
ahme
(weakened
tuhmS,'
')
'

'

are

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

becomes

'

when
reality,

'

we

turn

to the Prakrit

'

'

'

'

turahe,'
you,

"

-from

330

PRONOUN.

THE

all,literally
MalayS,lam,
wideningtheir application
; e.g.,. ella-(v)-um,'
'

ail and

from

"

'

in Tamil
as

into

ellam

'

plural;and

This form is abbreviated

um/ and.
;'which is regardedand treated by grammarians

all,and
ella,'

'

addition of 'um,' abbreviated

if the

to

'm,'

constitutes pronominaldistributives and universals,

may
the

which
signof plurality

abbreviation of the

an

in which

the

derived

signof

?' A

um

the dual number

Gastrin from

by

'

same

'

ka

the

employed by

is

'

'

or

personalpronouns

doubtedly
un-

not

be

case
parallel
appears in Ostiak,
('ga,' ka,' gai,' gan,'"c.)is
'

ki/

'

'

also.

Twofoldpluralof the Drdvidian pronoun of the firstperson. The

is constantly
ordinarypluralof the Dravidian firstpersonalpronoun
but also as an honorific singular,
used,not only as a plural,
precisely
and
the
the
in
and
Editorial
is
used
as
we
pluralof
English;
Royal
be used as an honorific
every other Dravidian pronoun may optionally
in the same
It is not, however, this twofold signifimanner.
cation
singular
"

or

of the

use

of two
another

same

in

all the Dravidian

and the

higherdialect

of

of the first person,

much

as

ence
refer ; but the exist-

exceptionof the Canarese

the Tamil, there are two plurals
of the pronoun
of which one
denotes,not only the party of
the

with
dialects,

speaker,but also the party addressed,and

the

now

which differ from one

plural,
the pluraland the dual of
as

of the firstperson

pronouns

almost
signification
other languages.
In

to which

pronoun

may

be called the plural

and denotes onlythe

inclusive; the other excludes the party addressed,
party of the speaker,and may be called the plural exclusive. Thus, if
a

said

person

those who
or

mortal,he would

are

we

spoken to, as

are

well

the pluralinclusive: whilst he would

excludes

which

Hindus

'

'

There

are

you

the

is

party

use
naturally
as

use

the

which

we

cludes
in-

the

speakerand his party,

the pluralexclusive,
or that

addressed,if he

wanted

to

say, 'we'

are

Europeans.

similar

distinction between

the two

pluralsof the first

person which are used in the Marathi and the Gujarathi: e.g., 'hame'
in Gujarathi,
the party speaking
we
means
we
; whilst 'dpane'means
the party speaking,
and you also who are addressed. There is no connexion
between the particular
themes
which
used for this
are
pronominal
India
in
in
Northern
the
and
languagesof the South; but the
purpose
a

"

"

existence of
well

as

so

in the

familyof an

remarkable

idiom

Southern,demonstrates

ancient under-current of

influences. The idiom in

is one

an

in the North-Indian
the

family,as

existence in the Northern

or
Dravidian,

at least of

Scythian

questionis a distinctively
Scythianone, and
of those pointswhich seem
to connect
the Dravidian familywitji

the

Scythian group.

331

PRONOUNS.

DEMONSTRATIVE

trace of this twofold

pluralin the
of the Indo-Europeanfamily,but
Sanscrit,or in any of the languages
it is found everywhere in Central Asia, in the language?which are
has 'mu,'
nomadic tribes. Thus the Manchu
spoken by the primitive,
the whole company.
The Mongowe
be,'we
of the one party, and
lian
There is

'

no

'

"

"

has

guages,
lansimilar idiom ; and it is found also in the Polynesian
in many
of the languagesof America,and also in those of the
a

Australian tribes.
All the Dravidian

the same
pluralprolanguagesdo not use precisely
nouns
Tamil (with
exclusive plurals. The colloquial
as inclusive and
which the Malayalam and Tulu agree)forms the pluralexclusive from
the ordinary
and regular
which is
'nS.m,'
plural,
by the addition of 'gal,'
nam' becomes
properlya neuter signof plurality
; by which addition
nanggal in Tamil ; njangal or njangngal in Malayalam ; and
engngal in Tulu.
The Telugu,on the other hand, uses
mgm-u
(answeringnot to
the Tamil
nanggal,'but to nam ') as its pluralexclusive ; and as
this is the simplest
form of the pronoun, it seems
better suited to |this
form. The Telugu,thoughdiffering
restricted use than the reduplicated
from the Tamil in this pointagrees with the Tamil in using memu'
as
and
this
its honorific singular
of
the
exclusive
in
use
plural
Telugu
;
honorific
is
with
in accordance
an
more
as
philosophical
propriety
of the pluralinclusive for this purpose :
than
the Tamilian
use
it is evidently
for when a superioraddresses inferiors,
natural
more
for him
of a pluralwhich
excludes
those whom
to make
he
use
addresses,than one in which they would be included togetherwith
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

himself.
in
Telugu, and uses 'am-u' (identical
nam
') to express the restricted signification
originwith the Tamil
the
which the Tamil givesto
nanggal.' Its pluralinclusive is 'aju,'
;'and the Telugu pluralwhich corresponds
obliqueform of which is amma
to
aju (but which in meaning correspondsto nam ')is
is
manam-u
manam-u,'the base and inflexion of which is mana.'
;'with an
probably derived from ma,' the inflexional base of memu
with a weakened
or
reduplication.
euphonicaddition,
possibly
The

Ku

agrees

with

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

II." Demonstrative

'

Pronouns.

DrS.vidig,nlanguages,like most, if not

all,other primitive,
so called)
uncompounded tongues,are destitute of pronouns (properly
instead
demonstratives
third
and
the
this or
use
of
signifying
person,
In these
tiuU,with the addition of suffixes of gender and number.
The

332

PRONOUN.

THE

languages he,'means
those persons
they,'
'

that
literally

'

The

words which

definiteness of their
of masculine and
but

; and

she,'tluii woman

things.

or

lost the
gradually
and shrunk into the position
original
signification,
and

man
signify

signsof

or

with the demonstrative

bases

have

woman

tives,
longersubstanincorporated
gender; and are so closely
that it requires
some
knowledge of

feminine terminations.

suffixes

mere

'

man

They

no

are

In
of the languageto enable us to separate them.
principles
in which
with the Turkish and Ugrianlanguages,
therefore,
comparison,
there is but one pronoun of the third person, the Dravidian languages,
which possess three,appear to considerable advantage. Nevertheless,
the speechof the Dr"vidians
richer than the other
was
no
originally
Scythianidioms ; and it has at lengthsurpassedthem only by the
into
Aryanisticdevice of fusing that-man,.that-woman,that-thing,
single,
euphoniouswords.
The signification
of Tnan
still shines throughin the
and woman

the

masculine

and

words

which

by

feminine

terminations

; but

trace

no

remains

of the

thing and thingswere

originally
expressed,and
which are
gular,
now
representedonly by d,'the sign of the neuter sinand
that
of
the
neuter plural.
a,'
Four demonstrative bases are
recognised
by one or another of the
Dravidian
each of which
is a pure vowel ; viz., a,' the
dialects,
i,'the proximate, and
u,' the medial demonstrative
remote,
of the
e,'which is the suffix of emphasis in most
togetherwith
a

'

'

'

'

'

',

'

but
dialects,

remote, and

is
'

demonstrative

in Ku.

The

first two,

i,'the proximatedemonstrative,
are

viz.,'a,'the

the most

widelyand

used.
frequently

The medial 'u' is occasionally

used

Canarese,and

in

between

Tulu, to denote
and

the remote

suffix of

however

is used
emphasis,
'

and

'

as

the Tamil

poets,in Ancient

objectwhich
proximate; and it will
or

person

the

that it has ulterior affinities of its

by

own.

'

demonstrative

is intermediate
be

found

Dravidian
e,'the ordinary
in Ku

alone,
"

in addition

i ;'e.g., '

ev"ru,'they. It appears also in the

Uraon
'Sdah,'this,the correlative of 'hudah,'that. The use of '6'
beingchiefly
emphatic,I refer the reader,for an account of it,to a
subsequenthead.
The ordinaryremote
and proximate demonstratives of the Dravidian
dialects are the simple,
short vowels
i ;' and it will be
and
a
to

'

'

found
some

that every other form which

they assume

'

'

is derived from this by

euphonicprocess.
1. Demonstrative

pronouns.

"

The

character of the demonoriginal

DEMONSTRATIVE

strative bases is best exhibited

suffix of which

does not

by the

singular
; the formative

neuter

with

commence

the masculine and feminine

333

PRONOUNS.

vowel,like

but consistsin
suffixes,

'

'

an

and

'

al,'

consonant
single
an
it. The remote and proximate
euphonicvowel following
neuter singulars
in Tamil
are
adu,'that (thmg), idu,'this (thing)
;
in Telugu adi,' idi ;' in Canarese
adu,' idu ;'in Malayalam ata,'
a

d,'with

'

'

'

ita

'

'

'

;'in G6nd

'

'

and

Tuda

'

ad,' id.'
'

'

'd'

havingalreadybeen shown to be the signof the neuter singular

which is used by pronominals
and there beingno
and appellatives,
hiatus between
i
and
for
a
or
d,'and therefore no necessity
it is evident that the
and
i of the neuter
a
euphonicinsertions,
cited above constitute the purest form of the demonstrative
singulars
and
bases. In addition to
adu
idu,'the High Tamil sometimes
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

uses

adan

'

annexation

and

to

'

idan.'

'ad'

and

convertible into

aR-am.')

'

'

'

am

is

'

These forms

are

an.'^ (^.^r.,
ib identicalwith
'aR-an,'virtue,

formative

probablyderived from the

and ordinarily
'am,'which is dialectically

'id' of
'

'

'

not added

was

'

'

to

and

; and I conceive

nouns

that

tillit had ceased to be known

id-u,'
d
itself a sign of the neuter
and felt that
was
singular. dan,'
and
idan
is sometimes used in the high
the final portionof adan
of the third
instead of du,' as the pronominaltermination
dialect,
in the dative;
of the participial
noun, especially
person neuter singular
'),instead of
seygiRadan-ku (euphonically seygiRadaR-ku
e.g.,
for or to the doing.
seygiRadu-kku,'

it

ad-u'

of neuter
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

The
'

1,'for

suffixes which
the purpose

and the epiceneand

to the

annexed

demonstrative bases

forming the masculine

neuter

and feminine
with

commence
plurals,

'

a' and

singulars

vowel.

Those

for the feminine;

'ar,'
'an,'for the masculine ; 'al,'
'ei'
the
and
'v'
for
and
neuter
or
'a,'
plural;
epiceneplural;

suffixes are
for the

of

are

in Tamil

which is most

is the consonant

commonlyused

to

The

preventhiatus.

the demonstrative pronouns of the Tamil,viz.,

are
therefore,
following,
'ilia;''ival,'
'hcBC;''aVar,' illi;'
'ille;'ivan,''hie;''aval,'
'avan,'
I
'ilia;'
'ivei,' hwc'
'ivar,'
'hi;''avei,'
quote examples from the
Tamil
alone,because, though different formatives of number and
those differences
genderare sometimes annexed in the other dialects,
'

'

'

do

not

affect the

demonstrative bases.

in
been investigated
genderhave already

The mode

in which

they are annexed

to
onlypointwhich requires

to

All the above suffixes of

the section on

'The Noun.'

the demonstrative bases is the

be examined

here.

and all the suffixes,

with
beingvocalic,
commencing with a vowel,the
the exceptionof the neuter singular,
euphonicconsonant 'v' had to be used,to keep the concurrent vowels
The

demonstrative

and pure.
separate

bases

334

PRONOUN.

THE

'

prevent hiatus,'is not the

The Ku being but
that is employed for this purpose.
with the
to euphony,it sometimes dispenses
altogether

V,'though

onlyconsonant
littleattentive

used
frequently

most

'

to

euphonic v,'and leaves the contiguousvowels uncombined ; e.g.,

is sometimes substituted for
aanju,'
he, aalu,'she. In Tulu
y
in the corresponding
v,' e.g., aye,'he : and even this y' disappears
vowels
feminine,'al' (for'aval'),
she; in which the two contiguous
'

'

'

'

'

'

combined.

are

instead of

Even

into

'

yar

dialect.
colloquial
higherdialect of

In the

the Tamil,

Thus, instead
say
form

which

'

of

irundan

irundanan

(for

expect

is often used

'

'

monly
com-

'

of the

verbs.

times
poets some-

irundava,'the^ (neuter)
wia'e,

to find

used, irundana
'

'

'ar,'

euphonically

'),he was, th"

irundavan

for

I is

yavar,'who

personalterminations
'

j'and

should

we

'

e.g.,

this is stillfurther softened to

;'and

instead of 'v,'especially
in the
'

'

vowels

those

combines

sometimes

Tamil

the

them
separating
euphonically

abbreviated
in the

'

'

is

the

univ"rsally

used instead.
This

an

instances
euphonic v has in some
integral
part of the demonstrative itself.

of the G6nd

to

come

In the

final and characteristicvowel

the
demonstrative,

neuter

be

regardedas
nominative
plural

'

'

'a'

without leavingany representative

disappeared
altogether,
; e.g.,
is
a
av,' those {things),
iv,'these (things).In the obliquecases
represented
by e.' In Telugu,though the nominatives of the neuter
use
v
pluraldemonstratives, avi and ivi,'
merelyas an euphonic,
monstrativ
and
va
vi,'the deyet in the obliquecases, the bases of which are
v' stands at the beginning
vowels have got displaced
; and
of the word, as if it were
and had a right
a demonstrative,
per se to be
'vadu,''ille,'
'vidu,''hie;'
represented.In the masculine singulars
the
and in
epiceneplurals varu,' ilU,' viru,' hi,' v euphonichas
the position
of a demonstrative
advanced a step further,and assumed
in the nominative,as well as in the inflexion. That this v,'however,
is not a demonstrative,
and that the use
to which it is put in
the
Telugu is abnormal, is shown by the fact that in dS. and
di,'
inflexions of
adi
and
idi,' illud and
hoc,'the neuter singular
demonstratives
of the Telugu, 'd,'though certainly
not a demoanor
even
strative,
euphonic,bat simply a sign or suffix of neuter
has been advanced to as prominenta position
singularity,
(by a similar
as if it belongedto the root.
euphonicdisplacement)
In Tulu
avu,' which is properlythe pluralneuter, is used for the
adu '),is used to signify
to
singOlar
atu,'(corresponding
; whilst
yes. A similar use of a pluralform for the singular
appears in the Old
has

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Persian

'

ava,'it,which

appears

to be derived from

'

ava,'those.

'

DEMONSTRATIVE

2.
and

'

Demonstrative adjectives.
When

the

"

'

335

PEONOClSrS.

demonstrative

simplyprefixedto substantives,
they convey

bases 'a'
the

signification
that and this. When
adjectives
prefixed,
they are indeclinable ; but on thus prefixingthem to substantives,
either the initialconsonant
of the sufestantiveis euphonically
doubled,
'annal'
that
if
this
e.c/.,
('a-(n)nal
euphonicdoubling
'),Tam.,
day ; or
IS not resorted to,the demonstrative
vowels are lengthened.The Tamil
in the
common
invariably
adoptsthe former plan: the latter is more
are

of the demonstrative

Malayalam and
vowel,and

'

Canarese.

dialectic rule of

it becomes
The
which

e.g., when

originof

this

which

demonstrative.
not

of

is

if it

v,'as

hiatus,the Tamil, by

regardedas

were

receives
'ur,'Tam., a village,

doublingof

the demonstrative

emphasis

this

'

with

commences

this

an

prefix,

but 'avvur.'
('a-(v)-ur'),

'avur'

not

usual to prevent

as

sound,doubles

initialconsonant

the substantive

Where

is inserted

'

vowel

is

is
prefixed,

included
necessarily

Through

this

of the word

the initial consonant

in the

emphasis 'a'

ordinaryformatives,but

to

of

and

be

ascribed to the

of
signification
'i'

to

the

racter,
the cha-

assume

words
qualifying

; and

the

which

of the
they acquire influences the initial consonant
which
is no longeran
isolated word, but the
substantive,
following
second member
of a compound.

energy

In

the

words

same

which

and

manner

from

with

'

similar cause, when

privativeare borrowed

Sanscrit

by the
'a' is prefixedis often doubled,at
to which
Tamil, the consonant
least in the colloquial
dialect;e.g., 'afinjanam'('ar(nj)-njanam,'
commence

'

ignorance.

lengtheningof the demonstrative vowels, when

used adjectivally,
in Malayalam, Canarese,and
the other dialects
is merely another
(withoutthe doublingof the succeedingconsonant),
the same
method of effecting
result. The emphasiswhich is imparted
in this manner
to that which
the
to the demonstrative,is equivalent
doubled consonant
gives; and hence when the demonstrative vowels
from
and
and
to
a
i
a
are
consonant
i,'the succeeding
lengthened,
alwaysremains single. The fact that the demonstrative vowels
The

occasional

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

short in the pronouns of the third person in each of the Dravidian

shows that those vowels could not originally
dialectswithout exception,

are

have

been

long,and

that
'

the

use

of

long

'

'

and

'

i'

as

adjectival

'

i is owing to emphasis. Some

instead of a
and
curious
prefixes,
of a vowel throughemphasisalone,
illustrationsof the lengthening
are
furnished by the common
speechof the Tamil people;e.g., adigam,'
wMch, large a word which is borrowed by the Tamil from the Sanscrit
when it is intended to signify
pronounced
very much, is colloquially
'

'

'

"

"

336
'

THE

PRONOUN.

adigam.' Similar instances might be adduced

from

each

of the

dialects.
colloquial
In addition to the
'a'
equivalents

much

and

also of

use

and their
simplevowels 'a' and 'i,'
the Tamil makes
'1/ as demonstrative prefixes,
pair of derived demonstrative adjectives,
viz.,
of the

use

and 'inda,'
'anda,'that,
this;e.g., 'anda maram,' that tree,'inda nilam,'
this pieceofland.

These demonstrative

unknown
to the
are
adjectives
other dialects of the family;and in the higher dialect of the Tamil
Their bases
itselfthey are unused.
tical
are
and',' ind','
evidentlyidenwith those of the Telugu adverbial nouns
that or
and-u,' ind-u,'
this {place
in this,
or
thing);e.g., 'indu-16,'
'andu-ku,'to that. I have
doubt that these Telugu words,. andu
and
no
'indu,'are either
derived by euphonization
from the Tamil demonstrative
pronouns
'adu' and 'idu,'
is
from
which
the
addition
to the
more
probable,
or,
demonstrative bases of the formative 'du,'nasalized to ndu;' in the
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

same

manner

will be found

for the

in Tamil

as

'gu

been

to have

and

'

annexed

of

du,'nasalized

'

the

to

similar

same

and

'ndu,'

demonstrative

bases,

to

'ngu

adverbial

'

these
nouns.
forming
add 'a,'the formative of the
adverbial nouns, 'and-u,'
we
now
'ind-u,'
relative participle,
are
by annexingwhich so many adjectives
formed,
t
he
Tamil
and inda,'
arrive at anda
demonstrative adjectives.
we
purpose

'

'

If to

'

Demonstrative

3.

languagesform
adverbs

their

use

as

adverbs.

place,time, and relation

adverbs in

used
frequently

most

and

and

now;

demonstrative vowels

"

time:
signifies

which

use

only,but

The

"

Dravidian

into demonstrative

nouns

in

form)by

fixing
pre-

the demonstrative bases.

to them

then
signify

of

nouns

(whichare

The

nouns

'a'

words

they

are

of this class
formed

and
(remote)

'i'

those which

are

the
by simply prefixing

(proximate)to
"

noun

any

e.g., from

'porudu,'iime, the Tamil forms

'),then,that time,and ipporudu,'
apporudu ('a-(p)porudu
now, this
the Telugu forms 'appudu,'
noun
time; from the corresponding
'pudu,'
and
p61 the Malayalam forms
ippudu;'and from
appol and
of a noun
in the
ippol.'Each of these adverbs has the signification
locative case; so that the expressions,
that time,this time,signify,
im
that time,in this time,"c; but the case-signification,
though understood,
In
the
Dr"vidian
is not expressed.
of
languagesindeed,not nouns
be used' as adverbs, with or
time and placeonly,but all nouns
may
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

without

the

either nouns
A

the

addition of the sufiSxes of cases;

or

and

all adverbs

are

verbs.

class of words which

compounds referred

to

adverbs
than
nearlyresemble our
above, are formed by annexing to the

more

'

'

338

PBONOUN.

THE

In the

and

'd'

'i'),the cerebral

dental ; and
have

it is nasalised

doubt

no

the
precisely

demonstrative
usual dental
'

'

'

'

has

;'but

is used for

and

source,

same

'

Telugu in a similar
adverb,which is properly a

the dental suffix. In

adjectiveand

andu,'in Tamil, means

This word

n,'instead of

cerebral

'

instead of the

'

more

nd.'

'

or

'

'a'

instead of the

formative

the

is from

exhibits the

noun,

as

accordingly
by
as

purpose,

same

is suflSxed

du

'

attu,'that,an

'

manner,

that this

for
('a'and 'i,'

and 'indu'

adverbs,'andu'

Tamil

High

apparent

some

there,but also

and

only then

not

resemblance

to

which

words

year.

a
signify

an-nus,'
ans,'Latin
languages;e.g., Ossete
ania,'Tungusian 'anyan;'but the resemblance
Mongol 'on,'Manchu
for the Tamil 'andu'
on
disappears
investigation,
(Tel.'6ndu')isa
modern
from
word
which
is
used for year in
corruption
yandu,'the
the poetry and in all ancient inscriptions
yandu is derived
; and
from the interrogative
base
and the formative
du,' nasalised to
ya
ndu
properly
(like iradu,'two, nasalised to irandu '),and means
a time,and lastly
a year.
when, secondarily
in various

year

other

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Affiliation
of the demonstrative hoses: Extra-Dravidian
affinities.
and indistinct resemblance between
the remote
There is only a partial
'a,' proximate 'i,'and medial
u,'which constitute the bases of the
Dravidian
demonstratives,and the demonstratives which are used by
the languagesof Northern
India.
In Bengali and Singhalese,
'e' is used as a demonstrative; in
"

'

Marathi

this;but
to

ha,' hi,' hen

'

this.

'

in the
'

'

obliqueoases

is used

languagesmore

vowel

is used

hither; Mar.
idhar,'

'

'

vuh,'that,'yih,'

increases;
e.g.,'is-ko,'

proximate demonstrative

remote

itake,'
so

generalresemblance

find

we

resemblance

than
systematically

the

as

the

the

as

Indian

'

:' in the Hindustani

'

to

'

in the North-

'

; e.g., Marathi

or
'

corresponding

any

ikade,'here;

Hindi

much.
the

Dravidian

demonstrative

bases

is

apparent in several of the Himalayan languages;

'imbe,'
e.(/.,Bodo
this,'hobe,'that; Dhimal
'i,' 'li;'Uraon 'edah,' 'hudah.'
The

Kajmahal

'

6h

'

and

and
demonstratives,
of

'

4h

form

'

are

identical with
perfectly

the

another evidence of the Dravidian

Drividian

character

portionof that idiom.

The

medial

connexion

which

demonstrative

'

appears
'

and

the

to
'

subsist between
'

Ci

of the Uraon

the Dravidian
and

Dhimal

is

deservingof notice. Perhapsthe Dravidian medial

u
(Dhimal u,'
hudah ') may be compared with the Old Hebrew
Uraon
masoulinefominine
of
the
third
pronoun
person, 'hu;' and thus with the Old
'

'

'

'

339

DEMONSTRATIVES.

Persian

demonstrative

hauva,'of which the first portion

to be
forms the
appears
ha,'and the second ava,' which ava
base of the oblique
It may also be compared with the u
cases.
or
'o'
which forms the remote
demonstrative
in some
of the Scythian
languages:e.g., Finnish 'tuo,'that,'tania,'this; Ostiak 'toma,'
thai, tema,' this.' Compare also the Hind.
vuh,' that ; Bodo
remote

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

hobe.'
The

Magyar

Dravidian

'a'

demonstratives

and

are

in accordance

more

'i;' e.g., 'a.z^that,'ez,'this.

the

with

The

stratives
demon-

of the other

the
languagesof the Scythianfamily{e.g.,
are
'bou,'that,'ol,'this'')
blance.
altogetherdestitute of resem-

Turkish

When
in

appear

to the

languagesof the Indo-Europeanfamily,

they
be
allied
Dravidian.
t
o
to the
particular
closely

turn

we

this

Throughoutthat familyboth a and

though not to so largean extent,nor
'

'

discrimination between the remote

family.
'i' in most
of this
'

is

In Sanscrit

of the

'

'

word, adas,'means

the

is used
'

used

are

with

and

of

obliquecases

'

i'

'

and
perfect
as
proximate,

constant

so

instead of the

vidian
in the Dra-

regular

more

the correlative

idam,'this;and

onlythat,but

not

demonstratives ;

as

also this.

Nevertheless,
'

than a proximate,and
i more
generallya remote
In derived
demonstrative.
generallya proximate than a remote
i has always a proximateforce ; but
adverbial words
sonantal
ta,'the con'

'

more

'

'

'

used
generally

is more
demonstrative,

examples of each vowel

are
'

'
"

than

'

i-ha/ here;

then : also 'i-ti,'

iSrAkmva,'
so, this much,

a.' The following

i-danim,'
now;
that
in
'a-tha,'
so, thus,
'

manner.

in that
avada,'thither,
in this direction.
hither,
proximate'i-da,'
direction;and the corresponding
the
The resemblance between these forms, notwithstanding

We

may

the

also compare

Old

Persian

'

and the Dravidian remote and proxof their application,

imate
irregularity
to identity.
demonstrative bases,amounts
All irregularity
Persian,which in this
disappearsin the New
with the Dravidian languages
as if it were
pointaccords as perfectly
itselfa Dravidian idiom.

Its demonstratives

are

'

an,'that, in,'this.
'

and naturally
destitute
adjectival
prefixes,
of number; but when
pluralterminatiohs are suffixed,
theyacquirea
these(persons).
'inan,'
pluralsignification;
e.g., 'anan,'those (persons),
used in the modern Turkish,by
demonstratives are largely
The same
and
an
in
are
which they have been borrowed from the Persian.
These

demonstratives

are

'

Aryan demonstratives.
undoubtedly
'an

'

with

the

Zend

'

'

This is apparent when

aem,' that; and

that

'

'

we

pare
com-

again with
z

the

340

PRONOUN.

THE

Sanscrit

'ayam;' but

'im,'this. The

Zend

with

(and is also identical

singularof the Old Persian,and
is the

'im'

form

the

Persian

but
Sanscrit);

and
accusative,

in

it is to this

allied.
closely

is most

however, to
(withoutbeingrestricted,
is and
id,'and in
proximatesignification)
appears in the Latin
demonstrative

The

base

i'

'

Gothic

the

is;' and

of
signification
Englishthsbtand ihis.

our

Whilst

'

the New

Sanscrit and

contrary,the

from

the

an

in

still purer

than

the

has
i,'

the

are

not

re-developed

Persian

other.

the

or

have

borrowed

Persian,from

demonstrative

vowels

which
demonstratives,

their

the Sanscrit

reasonable

more

retain and

"

e.g.,
with
the

the

evaru

irregular

to

that

suppose

exhibit the

'

'

is not used

is

of

annexed, and

that in Ku

seen

'

'

e
'

as

of the

aetat.'
a

Sanscrit
In

the

'

of all other

as

strative;
demon-

this may
be compared
and
etat,'this (neuter),

other

demonstrative,but

Dr"vidian

dialects,
is post-fixed
to words

renderingthem
the

the

primeval bases

'e' is used

('e-(v)-ar'),
"Aey/ and

correspondingZend

for the purpose

6

'

demonstrative

however,
'

It has been

are

(which are

primarydemonstratives
Indo-Europeantongues have been derived.
the

'

between

that it has retained

of the Sanscrit and

Emphatic 'e.'

the

teristics
languagesthe primitivecharacspeech. If so, instead of supposingthe

it is
greatlycorrupted),

which

On

discriminates

to conclude

me

been

connected with
closely
follow that they are

'

tongue

distinction

Persian

either of those

dialects to

from

'

one

leads
proximate,

Dravidian

Dravidian

that of

and

which

of the Pre-Sanscritic

and

'

'

with

than
faithfully

more

aud

either the

exactness

and

'

demonstratives, it does

Zend

derived
directly

the remote

Persian

'

New

and

Dravidian

the

the

between
in

'

'

'

'

'

the

masculine-feminine

the

the feminine of the

nominative, not

that the New

'iyam/

with

accusative in Vedic

'ira' constitutes the

same

Sanscrit

Zend

clearlyidentical

is still more

'in'

emphatic. The manner

diflTerentshades of emphasiswhich

in which
it

nicates,
commu-

the same
in the various dialects,
and will he
precisely
illustratedby the followingexamples from Tamil.
When
suiRciently
'6' is post-fixed
to the subjectof a proposition,
it sets it forth as
the sole depositary
of the qualitypredicated;
selvam,'
e.g.,'kalvi-(y)-e
when
fixed
to the
it
learning{aloneis) wealth;
predicate,
postintensifies its signification
is wealth
; e.g., kalvi lelvam-e,'
learning
when
it is equivalent
to a verb or verbal,
:
to the
(indeed)
post-fixed
addition of the adverb trulif,
ceiiainly;
{certainly)
e.g., alla-'(v)-e,'
In the colloquial
i
t
has
not.
often
been
annexed
to the
dialect,
are

'

'

case-terminations of

nouns

without

so that
necessity,

it has sometimes

3-41

DEMONSTRATIVES.

become

in that

of
connexion,a mere
expletive
; in consequence
which, in such instances,
when emphasisis reallyrequiredby a sign
of case, the 'e' has to be doubled;
('ennal-g-(y)-e'),
e.g., ennaleyfe'
throughme {alone).
'

The
sign
more

vocative case-signof emphasis forms the most common

in the various Dravidian
the vocative being nothing
dialects,
than an emphaticenunciation of the nominative.
Compare with
same

this the
as

use

of the nominative

the vocative

in Hebrew

supplicationmay
'

Some

also be

resemblance

be discovered in
to
according

the

of

the addition of the definite article

in Attic Greek.

compared with
of

'

The

Persian

'

^ of

it.

'

of emphasismay
particle
the Hebrew
he paragogic (pronounced eh
or
ah,'
is
w
hich
the
to
connexion),
supposed
fication
intensify signias

'

'

to which

languageis also,and

same

mark

and

to the use

of the words

the

with

emphasis;and

it is annexed.
not

without

'

'

The

'

he directive

'

'

of

supposed to be

reason,

its

connected with that of

originis possibly
the definitearticle. A stillcloser resemblance to the emphatic 6 of
the Dravidian languages
is apparent in Chaldee,in which
sufiixed
a
to nouns
constitutes their emphatic state,'
and is equivalentto the
definite article of many
other languages. The Persian
e of particularity,'
of greatness,'
the i of ascription
in
addition
to
the
e of
"c.,
which has already
been referred to, probably
supplication,'
springfrom
and
Chaldaic
Cuthite origin
a
able
; though each of them bears a remarkresemblance to the Dr"vidian emphatic'e.'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

I have deferred till now

the
Honorificdemonstrative pronouns.
consideration of a peculiarclass of honorific demonstratives,
which are
found
only in Telugu and Canarese, and in which, I think,direct
Aryan influences may be detected.
the pluralis used as an houorific
{].) In all the Dravidian dialects,
when
the highestdegreeof respect is meant
to be expressed
singular
;
but when a somewhat
inferior degree of respect is intended,
the pronouns
which are used by the Telugu are
he, ille' and ame,'
'ayana,'
she,'ilia;'with their correspondingproximates iyana,''hie,'and
ime,' hcec.' These pronouns are destitute of plurals.
"

'

'

'

'

'

is to be attributed
Aryan origin
would
for the circumstance
to these words; and this supposition
account
that they are
found in the Telugu only,and not in any other
dialect of the family(exceptthe Tulu
aye,'he, is to be regarded
connected form): it would
also harmonise
with their use as
a
as
It

can

be
scarcely

doubted

that

an

'

honorifics.

Compare

'

'

ayana

with the Sanscrit masculine

'

and
ayam,' ille,'
'

342

PRONOUN.

THE

'

'

feminine

Old

the

the Sanscrit feminine,and

with

lyana

masculine-

Persian

'iyam,''hie,''hoec'

feminine
and 'ime,''hcec,'
the corresponding
'ame,''ilia,'
of the

of the Sanscrit
compared not onlywith the plurals
of the third person ('ime,'mas.,
nent.),
imah,'fern.,imtoi,'

Telugu,may

be

'

'

pronoun

but also with 'amum'

and

pronouns

from

which

'imam,'him, which

and

it is eyident that the

'

'

singulars,

accusative

are

pluralforms is not

of the

but is either a part of the pronominalbase, or an

signof plurality,
euphonicaddition. Bopp considers it to be the former, but Dr"vidian
be
incline me
to adopt the latter view; for it can
scarcely
analogies

doubted

that

another

'

'

and

ame

ime

'

are

pair of Telugu pronouns

intended);and

the 'v'

'

'),and

not

part of

identical with

(used when

of these

euphonic'v' of the Dravidian

with

'

forms

'

'

and

are

the

be

to

seems

ive,'

respect is

little less

'

ordinary
alternates

languages(which sometimes

the base.

than is
little less respect is meant
to be shown
a
(2.) When
and 'ime,'the
and of ame
impliedin the use of ayana and lyana,'
with their corresponding
Telugumakes use of atadu,''ille,'
ave,''ilia,'
proximates'itadu' and ive.' Here the Canarese substantially
agrees
with the TeluguJ e.ff., atanu,''ille,'
C
an.
'
Aic
'atam,'
'itanu,' '(Ancient
the
formative
of the
'nu'
The
of
is
final
the
Canarese
'itam').
masculine
stratives
to the Telugu 'du;'and the demoncorresponding
singular,
a' and 'i' are often lengthened(ashas alreadybeen shown)
in Canarese.
The Canarese feminines 'ake,''ilia,'
do not
'hcec,'
'ike,'
the Telugu ave,' ive ;'the only
to accord with
so
perfectly
appear
real difference,
is purelyeuphonic,
however, is that the Telugu v
k
is a formative,
whilst the Canarese
the use of which
constitutes
ake
and
ike abstract pronominalnouns.
Both the above sets of Telugu pronouns
destitute of plurals,
are
but both are pluralised
in Canarese;e.g., 'atagalu,'
thoseand
'itagalu,'
these (men)
those
and
these (women).
akeyar,' ikeyar,'
;
I do not think that the Tuda
adam,' he, she,it,is allied to any
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

of the pronouns

now

referred to.

which

is synonymous
with
Canarese,and which is used

as

well

instead
'

adu

'

for the- neuter.

as

of

in

When

I consider

'adu,'the
The

use

of

'

adam
the

neuter

of
singular

neuter

corruptlyfor the

to
'adu,'exactlycorresponds

High

it to be

masculine
'

as
use

the Tamil-

and

neuter

of 'adan'

singular
feminine,

siilgulai',
instead of

Tamil.

the

and the
Telugu masculine of respect ata-du,'ita-du,'
Canarese honorifics ata-nu,' ita-nu,'
corresponding
it
are
scrutinised,
'

'

'

'

is evident

that in addition to the vocalic demonstrative

which
'i,'

are

found in

'

bases, a
Dravidian demonstratives of
every kind,the
'

and
'ta'

343

INTEEEOGATIVES.

which

is subjoined
to

'

'

and

'

'

possesses also somewhat

of

strative
demon-

It cannot
be regardedlike v
pronominalsignification.
as
merelyeuphonic;and its restriction to masculines shows that it is
not merelyan abstract formatire,
k
of the feminine ake.
like the
It can
be doubted,I think,that the originof this ta is
scarcely
Aryan ; for we find in all the Aryan languagesmuch use made of a
similar 'ta,'
both as an independent
and as an auxiliary
demonstrative,
'

or

'

'

'

'

to the vocalic demonstrative,

'

'ta-d,'Sans, that,is

'

instance of the

an

former; whilst the secondaryor auxiliary

placewhich 'ta' or 'da'
adam,' adas,'
occupiesin the Sanscrit etad ('e-ta-d '),this,and
('a-da-m,'
this,or that,is in perfectagreement with the
'a-da-s'),
'a-ta-du.'
Telugu and Canarese 'a-ta-nu,'
'

'

The

'

'

is
final 'e' of 'ave,''ive,'
'ake,''ike,'
'ame,''ime,'

to the Tamil

in these

'

ei.'

'

'

or

and
languages,

'

equivalent

ordinarytermination of abstracts
suitable one, accordingto Dravidian notions,
'

ei

is

an

for feminine honorific pronouns.

Literrogatives.

III."

in the Dravidian languages,

interrogatives
such as,
all others,viz.,interrogative
or
adjectives
pronouns
such as, is it? is
what?
and syntactic
which?
interrogatives,

There
as

in

who?

are

two

classes of

there?
^

resolve themselves in the

and adjectives
Interrogative
pronouns
strative
Dravidian
resemblingthe demonprefixes,
tongues into interrogative
to which the formaalreadyconsidered,by suffixing
prefixes
The
form interrogative
and gender we
tives of number
pronouns.
when
simplyprefixedto a substantive,
itself,
particle
interrogative
what ?
constitutes the interrogative
adjective
prefixis the vowel
(1.) The first and simplestinterrogative

'e,'
In all the Dravidian

dialects this

the
in precisely
pronominals,
'a' and

which

'i.' It forms
occupy

one

difl'eronly in

and

one

of

same

prefixis used

manner

as

the

set of three vocalic

in the formation of

demonstrative bases

'i,'
'e'),
('a,'
prefixes

obey one and the same law,

position,
which
is expressedby
signification
the particular

and the

same

each.

pervadingthese prefixeswill be clearly

unityof principle
comparativeview. The forms which are
apparentfrom the subjoined
all
here exhibited are those of the Tamil alone; but in this particular
The

with the Tamil, and

perfectly
examples.
it is unnecessary to multiply

the dialects agree

that

so

with

one

another,

344

PRONOUN.

THE

The

vowel
interrogative
adverbs

'

'

forms

rogative
the basis also of various inter-

adverbial nouns, in the same

demonstrative adverbs
adverbial
or

from

manner

or

as

nouns

the

responding
cor-

formed

are

engu/ where? with *angu/ iheret

and
ingu/ here; endru/ which day ? with andru,'that dap, and
indra/ to-day. A few adverbs of this kind are peculiarto the
which side ? 'elli,'
on
Canarese; a.^r., entha,'of which Jcind? 'ettalu,'
Tamil
in which place? where ?
The
has also a regularlydeclined
noun
ennam,' wliat t which is derived from en
interrogative
monly
(com?
to
en '),
lengthened
why
is
also
in the same
to substantives,
e
ner
manprefixedadjectivally
a' and 'ij'and (aswas
observed
in the case
of those preas
fixes)
'a'

and

i :' e.g., compare

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

it doubles

prefixed:
with

'

the initial consonant

'

e.g., compare

avvari,'that

way,

evvari
and

'

of the

'

substantive to which

(from vari,'a way),which

'

this way.
ivvari,'

In addition

it is
way

to this

a
adjectival
prefix,
regularinterrogative
adjective('enda,' what ?
which ?) is formed
the
or
to
strative
Tamil,
by
correspondwith the demon'anda,' tJiat,
adjectives,
'inda,'this,which are peculiarto
that dialect. It is chiefiy,
dialect that
however,in the colloquial
these forms are
used.
The higherand more
ancient dialect prefers
the simplevowels
and which ?
a,' i,' e,'to express that,this,
'

need

'

'

call attention to

not

the

beautiful and

philosophical

of this triple
and proximate demonstratives
set of remote
regularity
and interrogatives.
In no other language or familyof languages
in
the world

which, the

shall

we

find its

circumstance

used in these

equalor

even

its second.

that the demonstrative

with
languages

an

In addition to

vowels

invariable and exact

are

not

only

discrimination

meaning which is not found in the Indo-European

tongues(with
the solitary
but
exceptionof the New
also
associated
Persian), are

of

with

vowel
corresponding
interrogative

of which

the

Indo-European

346

Compare with
of

PKONOUN.

THE

the

Hebrew

here)
; and
Under
which

; e.g.,

also

'

'

the head

of the

subsists between

emphasiswill
found

be

'ya'

'

hmu

or

resemblance

'a,'a
interrogative
Syntactic

this

'

interrogativee
:

in that

and

'

'

'

or

'

and the

'

'

of

it will be

also
particular

agrees with the Dravidian.

other interrogative
of this class is 'ya.'

is not

Canarese

inquiredinto

that the Hebrew

(2.)The

'

'

epo,

eka,'where

'

the interrogative
e
interrogative
and
of
where 1 (compounded
e
p6/

this Dravidian

and

usage

used

all in

at

somewhat

more

Telugu; but
rarelyin Tamil.

it is
In

largelyused in
High Tamil 'ya'

to substantives
only prefixedadjectivally
(likea,' e,'and
what time; but it is even
used by itself as a
e'),e.g., ya-(k)kalam,'
It forms the basis
what hast thou done?
e.g., ya-(s)seyday,'
pronoun;
adverbial noun,
of only one
viz., yandu,'Tam., when ? a year, a

is not

'

'

'

'

'

'

correlative of
'

andu/ then,and

'

'

The

indu,'now.

to which

only use

in the

dialect of the Tamil,is that of forming

colloquial
the basis of interrogative
a
complete set of which, in
pronouns;
Tamil as well as in Canarese,are
formed
from 'ya;' e.g., 'yavan,'
'yavei,'
'quisV 'yaval,'
'qui?''qucel'
^quce?''yadn,''quidV 'yavar,'
The
Canarese
with
accord
?'
these,with
interrogative
pronouns
qucB
a
singleunimportantexception. The neuters, singularand plural,
'

is

ya

put

'

of

the

Canarese

formed

are

from

'

yava,'instead

'quid?'(for'yadu'),and 'yavavu,'
'yavadu,'
derived
is evidently
This additional
va
by
'

'

'

of

quce ?'

'

ya ;

e.g.,

(for'yava').

imitation

from

the

euphonic 'v' of 'yavanu,'he, and its related forms; but it is out

with the neuter, and is to be regardedas a
of place in connexion

corruption.
of the
peculiarusage with respect to the application
epiceneplural'yavar,''qui?' 'quae?' has obtained ground. It is
dialect with the signification
of the
largelyused in the colloquial
well as that of the plural,
as
though itself a pluralonly and
singular,
is abbreviated
without distinction of gender; and when thus used, yavar
he w/io?);
into 'yar;'e.g., 'avan
yar,'who is he? (literally
has also been still further corrupted
who is she ?
aval yar,'
yar
in compounds.
into
ar,'especially
and
bo
Gond
ba
The
to have
been
interrogatives
appear
hardened from
ya.'
In

Tamil

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Extra- Dravidian
either 'e'

or

relationship.There is no analogy between

bases of the Indo'ya'and any of the interrogative
"

European family. Both in that familyand in the Scythiangroup the

is the guttural k ;'e.g., Sanscrit,
ordinarybase of the interrogative
'

347

INTEEEOGATIVES.
'

kim,'what

The

base appears in the Sanscrit interrogative

initial syllables ka-','
'ku-','which correspondto the Latin
'ki-','
?

same

'

qu-,'the Gothic hva-,'and the English wh-.' We find the same

base again in the Turkish
kim
or
kim/ wJw i what ? in the Magyar
'ki/ who? plural'kik;'and in the Finnish 'kuka' (root'ku').
'

'

'

'

'

In the absence of

the

is used
interrogative
the Scythianlanguages.The base of the
'ya' ('yas/ 'ya/ 'yat'),bears a close

real relative pronoun,

relative in many
of
Sanscrit relative pronoun

as

'

The

apparent resemblance to the Dravidian interrogativeya.'

Sanscrit ya/ however, like the derived North-Indian
'jo,'and
'

the

'

Finnish

used as a relative,
whereas the
exclusively
is exclusively
and distinctively
an
interrogative.

'

'

'

ya

'

yo

It has

is

been

conjecturedthat

Sanscrit

Dravidian

a
ya,' though now
and if (aswe shall see that
relative,
was
a demonstrative
originally;
for supposing)
there is some
the Dravidian
reason
e
interrogatives
and 'a' were
demonstratives,it may be supposed that
originally
also a demonstrative,though of this no
direct evidence
was
ya
If 'ya' were
the
whatever now
remains.
a denionstrative,
originally

the

'

'

'

'

'

connexion

which

would

then appear to exist between it and the Sanscrit

a
requireto be removed
step further back ; for it is

relative would

in Sanscrit that the relative ' ya

not

but in other and

and

more

in the Slavonian

'

'

has the force of

demonstrative,
in the Lithuanian 'yis,'
distant tongues,viz.,
he;
him.
yira,'
yam,' and the Zend
a

'

'a'
interrogatives,
Syntactic
and
ya,'are equivalentto

and

'6.'

The

interrogative
prefixes
and
interrogative
tives,
adjecpronouns
who ? which ? what i "c.
for
Another interrogative
is required
of putting such inquiries
the purpose
as
are
expressedin Englishby
from
a
change of construction ; e.g., is there ? is it ? by transposition
is efiected in all the Dravidian
there is,it is. This speciesof interrogation
to
a
viz.,by suffixing
languagesin one and the same
manner,
rogation
the noun, verb,or sentence which forms the principal
subjectof interin these languagesit is by the suffix of
a
alone,
; and
in
the
of
collocation
without any syntactic
change^or change
words,
'

'

'

"

the

'

'

'

that

verb
interrogative

an

the affirmative

e.ff.,compare

tandan-a?'
compare

did he

also

'

adu

'

an

affirmative

he gave, with
?' was
it he that

tandan,'Tam.,

avan

giveI and avan-atandan

with
adu
ur,'that is a village,
'

'

ur-a

f is that

one

'avan

gave?
a

lage
vil-

to nouns
is never
or
prefixed
pronominals,
interrogative
like an enunciated
post-fixed,
adjectivally
; but is invariably

or

used

or

audible Tiofe of
6

difiers from

sentence

This

'

or

'

'

is not

interrogation.

used
unfrequently

like

'

'

as

simpleinterrogative
;

348

THE

PRONOUN.

but its special

and distinctive use

Thus, whilst avan-a

lam
doubtfulwhether
'

the

'

is

as

is it he ?

means

it is he

or

'

not.

a,'and

of doubt.
expressive
particle

a
'

'

avan-6

means

it be he?

can

or

to words
6' is post-fixed

in cisely
preweakened
form

is

probablyonly a
of it,
has become merged in the
in which, by usage, the interrogation
of doubt.
It has acquired,
however, as a suffix of doubt a
expression
and force of its own, quiteindependentof '";'in consequence
position
of which it is often annexed
to interrogative
even
pronouns ; e.ff.,
evan-6,'Tam., / wonder who he can be ; ennam-6,'what it may be I
but
know not
compound forms which are not double interrogatives,
which consist of a question evan,'who 1 or 'ennam,' what t and an
There is room
answer
6,'I am
for further
doubtful./ Tenow not.
inquiry.
in meaning to '6,'
is used as a prefix
to correspond
ko,'which seems
of uncertainty
anta,'
by some
Telugu pronominals: e.g., compare
same

manner

as

'

'

'

"

'

'

"

"

'

'

thus
as

this much,
much, inta,'
'

if

'

much

enta,'how

? with

'

konta,'som^,

or,

should

say, I know not how much.

This prefix
is rare in Telugu,unknown
one

in

Tamil, and

is

possibly

derived from the Sanscrit

The
any

of

use

'

a'

as

an

languageeither of

It is

interrogative.
suffix has not been derived from
interrogative
the Scythianor of the Indo-European family.

altogetherunknown

to the Sanscrit ; and

the Cashmirian

is the

onlyNon-Drdvidian
I

am

derived
of the
or

tongue in which it is found.

inclined to consider 'a,'the Dravidian

from,or

leastas allied to, 'a'

family. The quantityof

same

short

at

or

'a,'the

as
interrogative,

demonstrative

remote

that demonstrative

'

'

is

long

euphonic considerations may

as

'

determine ; and though the

is alwayslong,yet in consequence
of its beingused

a
interrogative
it
of position,
as
a post-fix, is pronouncedlong by necessity
whatever
it may have been originally.
Hence
the question
of quantitymay, in
this inquiry,
be left altogether
The onlyreal difference
out of account.
between them is the difference in location ; a demonstrative being
placedat the beginningof a word, a interrogative
at the
invariably
end of it. If the interrogative
'a' were
reallyconnected with 'a,'the
should expect to find a similar connection subsisting
we
demonstrative,
between
and some
e
or
'",'the adjectival
tive
demonstrainterrogative,
with a similar interchange
of places
this is
particle,
; accordingly
found to be the case, for S is not only the ordinarysign of
emphasis
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in all the Dravidian

'

tongues,but

it is used in Ku

as

an

adjectival

and it is curious that in this instance also,

demonstrative;
there is a
change of location,e emphaticbeingplacedat the end of a word, 'e'
at the beginning.
interrogative
'

'

349

DISTRIBUTES.

similar
with

Thus

position
'

the

that

the

exists

is

post-fixed

merely

Distributive

of

um,'

viz.,

'

always,

literally

though

not

always
to

in

the

'

everyone,

besides

of

by

section

meaning
examination

on

or

have

relative

English
'

The
in
to

nu

use

be

the

nouns,

e.g.,

')

e.g.,

(' eppudu-(n)-nu'),

now

grammarians

to

have
been

All

no

relative

is

Tamil

is
and

-and);

forms

particle
in

used

addition

'epporudum,'

evvadunu

which

the
'

found,

are

('yi-agal-u'),

'yavagalu'

answers

same

manner

('evvadu-nu

'),

always.

properly

pronouns

of

forms

participles

other

formed

verbal

use

words

other

regularly

the

of

to

so-called

examined.

they

pronouns

particle
the

by

manner

copulative
'

who

similar

'

pronouns,

Verb.'

(the

distributive

conjunctive

same

when

prefixed.

particle

Canarese

Tamil

word

{liteiedly who?

the

Canarese

languages

which

Instead

'

distributives

eppudunnu

those

in

as

the

in
In

'

'

Dravidian

The

called

of

formed

and-.

used

and

'

um

formation

the

Telugu

'

whosoever

and

difierence

tongues

evan,'

'

borative
corro-

one

any

to

when

the

copulative

or

and

same,

Dravidian

from

Thus,

is

the

more

one

hing,

Hebrew,

emphasis

annexing

everyone,

when

in

Tamil

simply

in

interrogative

all

conjunctive

largely

and

In

when?

that

and

other
in

sense

konge,'

en

remarkable,

the

pond
corres-

in

definite

'

and

or

unknown

e.g.,

imparts

an

denote

to

not

has

more

one

"

evsmum,'

so

it is

pronoun.

'epporudu,'

from

(for

'

en

advanced,

now

constitutes

the

and,

formed,

it is still

by

is

'

another

euphonic),

formed

interrogative
'

in

pronouns.

are

pronouns
the

'he

it, and

to

'

article

the

But

particles,

signification,

supposition

particle,

same

in

indefinite

king.

of

position

Danish,

an

of
the

in

and

kongen,'

the

change

some

tongues.

in

change

which

which

see

correspond

languages
and

which

declined.

will

be

are

in

either

found

the
in

on

VI.

SECTION

THE
The

objectin

VERB.
the nature,
investigate

in this section is to

view

I
and relations of the Dravidian
verb.
aiFections,
some
generalpreliminaryremarks upon its structure.
roots
(1.) A large proportionof Dravidian
either

as

verbs

or

as

with

commence

used

are

criminately,
indis-

nouns.

attached to a root, or when, without the

are
case-signs
of a verb, it is
addition of case-signs,
it is used as the nominative
verb without
root becomes
a
regarded as a noun : the same
any
when
the signs of tense (or
internal change or formative addition,
time) and the pronouns or their terminal fragments are suffixed to
it. Though, abstractedly
speaking,every Dravidian root is capable
whether
of this two-fold use, it depends upon
circumstances
any
it often happens, as in
root is actuallythus used; and
particular
that of three given roots one
shall be used solely
other languages,
or
generallyas a verbal theme, another solelyor generallyas the theme
When

of
as

a
a

noun

as

or

differ ; and
in

one

alone

shall be used

either
indiscriminately

verb.

loquendiof the various dialects is

which is used solelyas
not
a root
unfrequently
in another.
dialect,is used solelyas a noun

also the

Herein

theme

the third

and

noun,

usus

found
a

to

verbal

is not
(2.)The inflexional theme of a Dravidian verb or noun
always identical with the crude root or ultimate base. In many
instances formative or euphonicparticles
(suchas vu,' ku,' gu or
bu
mbu
du
to the root, not
or
or
ndu,'
')are annexed
nga,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

added

like isolated

on

with
one

of those

root

to which

as

noun,

it.

but so
post-positions,

(See the

formative

section

on

suffixes does

it is suffixed

though

'

it may

verb

be

annexed

Roots.') But

not

it is

admitted

porated
to be incor-

as

the

addition of

constitute the
necessarily
still capableof being used
that

roots

to

which

those

351

STRUCTURE.

suffixeshave been annexed

are

more

used
frequently

as

verbs than

as

nouns.

(3.)Tbe

of the Dravidian verb

structure

is

agglutinative.
strictly

The

which express the ideas of mood and tense,transition,

particles
causation,and negation,togetherwith the pronominal
intransition,
fragmentsby which person, number, and gender are denoted, are
annexed
to the root in so regulara series and by so
or
agglutinated
no
change whatever, or at most only a
quieta process, that generally
slight
euphonicchange, is effected either in the root or in any of the
suffixed particles.
[Seethis illustratedin the section on
Roots.']
of the' imperativemay
(4.)The second person singular
perhaps
be considered as an exception
to the foregoing
rule. The crude theme
'

of the

the

verb,or

shortest

form

which

the root assumes,

and

which

capableof being used also as the theme of a noun, is used in the

Dravidian
as in most
others,as the second person singular
languages,
of the imperative
and person and of the
; and the ideas of number
which
included in that part of speech,
are
conveyance of a command,
but are generally
not expressedby the addition of any particles,
are
the context
alone.
left to be inferred from
Thus, in the Tamil,
the stroke fell;'ennei adi-ttan,'
'adi virundadu,'
he struck me;
sentences
and
idei adi,'strike thou this;the theme, 'adi,'
is
or a stroke,
strike,

is

'

the

same

any

of the

in each

and
instance,

addition,and

in the third illustrationit is used without

in its crude state,as

tbe second

person

singular

imperative.

(5.)As

the Dravidian

verb has

noun

has but

one

the
so
declension,

vidian
Dra-

and but,
forms.
conjugation
very few irregular
have
the
Dravidian verbs in
Some
arranged
European grammarians
those
classes conjugations;
and have styled
but the differences
classes,
which this classificationis founded, are generally
of a trivialand
on
The structure of the verb,its signs
character.
of tense,and
superficial
in which the pronouns
remain
the mode
the
are
suffixed,
invariably

onlyone

changesonly as euphony appears to have dictated.

though class-differencesexist,they are not of sufficient
Consequently,
importanceto constitute different conjugations.
of the structure
Such is the simplicity
of the Dravidian verb,that
the infinitive,
the only moods it has are the indicative,
the imperative,
and
it
the
that
has
and
negative,
only three tenses,the past,the
same,

with

such

present,and
in
expressed

the aorist

or

indefinite future.

other families of

languagesby

the

The

ideas which

are

and optasubjunctive
tive
of suffixed
moods,are expressedin the Dravidian familyby means
and the imperfeijt,
and
pluperfect,
perfect,
particles;
future-perfect,
of auxiliary
other compound tenses,are expressed
verbs.
by means

352

THE

VERB.

In these respectsthe Dravidian

verh imitates,though it does

not

The
modern
of the ancient Scythian verb.
equal,the simplicity
of moods
Turkish has, it is true, an extraordinarynumber
ditionals,
con"c.,
impossibles,
negatives,
potentials,
inceptives,
reciprocals,
of
with
their
and
also
a
compound tenses;
together
largearray
passive,
"

but this

paratively
appeats to be a refinement of a comage, and is not in accordance with the geniusof the

complexityof
modern

structure

properlyso called. Remusat conjectures

time
that intercourse with nations of the Indo-European race, some
after the Christian era, was
into the Turkish
the occasion of introducing
From
verbs and of compound tenses.
languagethe use of auxiliary
the extremityof Asia,'he says, the art of conjugating
verbs is unknown.'
Oriental

Turkish,or

Tartar

'

'

The

Oriental Turks

first oSev.

traces

some

of this; but the

to attest the prethey make of it seems

simplemethod.'
All the Dravidian
idioms conjugatetheir verbs,with the partial
exceptionof the modem
Malayalam,which has retained the use of the
theless,
Neversignsof tense, but has rejectedthe pronominalterminations.
the system of conjugationon
which
the Dravidian
idioms
proceed,is one of primitiveand remarkable
simplicity.The Gond is
the only Dravidian
dialect which has adopted a complicatedsystem;
and it has probablydone so through the influence of its Kole or
Himalayan neighbours.
(6.)The Dravidian verb is more
rarelycompounded than the
is
Indo-Europeanone; and the compound of a verb with a preposition
An
inexhaustible
rare.
especially
varietyof shades of meaning is
with which, in those
secured in Sanscrit and Greek by the facility
verbs are compounded with prepositions;
and the beautyof
languages,
of those compounds is as remarkable
the facility
with which
as
many
In the Scythiantongues,properlyso called,
there is
they are made.
trace of compounds of this kind; and though they are not unknown
no

very sparinguse
existence of a more

in the
purer

Dravidian

idiom; and

which

'

family,
yet
when

the

their

is not

use

component elements

are

it is found
scrutinised,
carefully

are

compoundeddifllers
widelyfrom that of

The

Dravidian

with verbs

are

which
prepositions
those which

illustrated by the

that the

over
signify

Tamil

common

and

verbs

'

harmony with

of such

the

compounds

on
principle
they
Indo-Eurcpeancompounds.

which

frequently
compounded

most

are

in

under,the use of which is

meR-kol,'to overcome, and

however (orrather,
to obey.Drftvidian prepositions,
'kir-(p)padi,'
postpositions)
are
'mel,'
properlynouns; e.g.,
means
over, literally
over-ness,
and
mfil-kol
m^B-kol
superiority/;
(euphonically
'),to overcome,
take
to
the
T
hese
and similar verbal
signifies
superiority.
literally
'

'

'

354

THE

VERB.

expressed or implied,e.g., szeretem,'I love (some person

or
thing);whilst the Hungarian indeterminate verba, like the Brkvidian intransitives,
neither express nor imply an object,
e.g., 'szeretek,'
in love.
/ love,i.e.,
I am
In a largenumber
of instances in each of the Dravidian
dialects,
includingentire classes of verbs, there is no diiference between tran-

accusative

'

either
intransitives,

sitives and

in formative

additions

to the

theme, or

consists
the only difference is that which
peculiarity,
take
in the signification.
Thus in Tamil, all verbs of the class which
i or
in
the sign of the past participle
are
as
conjugatedalike,
whether
they are transitives or intransitives ; e.g., from
pann-u,'
formed
three
the
tenses
singular)
(first
trans., to make, are
person
and
1
/ make,
made,
pannu-v-en,'
pannu-giR-eu,'
pann-i-(n)-6n,'
to talk,are
and in like manner
from
/ will make:
p"s-u,'intrans.,
the corresponding tenses
formed, preciselyin the same
manner,
/ vdll
/ talk, p6s-i-(n)-6n,'
/ talked,and
pesn-v-en,'
pesu-giR-en,'
in any

'

structural

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

talk.
In
from

still largernumber

however, transitive verbs differ

and
force,but also in
signification

of cases,

only in
grammatical form, notwithstandingthat they
The

not
intransitives,

of the

nature

difference that exists and

are

its

conjugated alike.
rationale,are

more

in any other Dravidian

dialect;my
be drawn
from the Tamil.
illustrationswill,therefore,chiefly

clearlyapparent
There

are

in Tamil

than

three modes

in which

intransitive

verbs

Tamil

are

verted
con-

into transitives.

transitive,
(1.) Intransitive themes become
by the hardeningand
of the appended formative ; e.g., pern-gu,'
doublingof the consonant
becomes
to abound, by this process
to
peru-kku,'to increase (actively),
'

'

to

cause

abound.

intransitives

Transitives

in actual use,

well entitled to

be

called

of this
often

are

by

that

kind,
called

name

as

which

are

eausals, and
many

causal

formed

from

they are

as

verbs in the

verbs
Indo-European tongues; but as there is a class of Dravidian
which are distinctively
causal (and which are formed by the annexing
of
to the transitive theme
vi,'a causal particle
pannu-vi,'
; e.g.,
it
to cause
to make, from
to
will
contribute to perspipannu,' make),
cuity
whole
of
the
the
of
which
to regard
verbs
we
are
now
treating,
and to reserve
the name
of causal verbs for the
simply as transitives,
'

'

'

double

transitives in

When
consonant

that the

tense,

or

'

transitives

vi.'
are

formed

from

intransitives

of the formative,it is in the theme

change takes place: there is no

in

the

mode

in

which

or

by doubling the

inflexional base itself

change in any of the signsof

those signs are
added; and the

TKANSITIVES

hardened

parts of

formative appears in the

355

INTRANSITIVES.

well
as
imperative,

in the other

as

the verb.

The nature
section

AND

Roots ;' and

'

on

of these formatives
it has

has

in the
alreadybeen investigated

been

shown

that

they

euphonic

are

accretions,
which,though permanentlyannexed to the base,are not
be confounded with it. I subjoina few illustrationsof this mode
formingtransitives by the doublingand hardeningof the consonant

to

of
of

the formative.

(i.)'gu,'or its nasalised equivalent,ngu,'becomes 'kkuj' e.g.,

from
p6-gu,'to go (in the imperativesoftened into p6 '),comes
from 'ni-ngu,'
to quit,comes
'p6-kku,'to drive away;
'ni-kku,'to put
'

'

'

away.

(ii.)su becomes
ssu
adei-su,'
(prouounced chu '); e.g.,from
take r^wge,comes
adei-chu,'to inclose.
tiruttu ;' e.g.,from
(iii.)du,'euphonisedinto ndu,' becomes
'

to

'

'

'

'

'

'

ndu,'

to

'

become

the cerebral
'

'

*o
ti-ttu,'

to
'tiru-ttu,'

correct, comes

'ndu'

becomes

'

'

in like

correct:

'ttu;'e.g.,from

manner

to tottch,
comes
ti-ndu,'

'

whet.

(iv.) bu,'euphonisedinto mbu,' becomes

to Jill.
mbu,' to be full,comes
nira-ppu,'
'

'

'

;'e.g.,from

ppu

'

nira-

'

When

Telugu,

in

'

'

'

or

gu

converted

are
'

ngu

difference whicli

"

intransitives

becomes, not

is in accordance

'

into transitives in this manner

'

kku

with

in

'

as

Tamil,but

'

chu,'

dialectic rules of sound.

or
comes
tu-gu,'
or
tu-ngu,'to hang, to sleep,
tu-chu,'
to
to
to
hang.
euphonically tu-"ujhu,' weigh, cause
The Telugu also occasionally
the
intransitive formative
changes
of 'kku,'but into 'pu;'e.g., from
'gu,'uot into 'chu,'the equivalent
in Tamil
is
mey,' to graze, comes
ml-pu,'to feed : and as ppu
bu
or
invariablyhardened from
mbu,' the corresponding
Telugu

Thus

from

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

pu

indicates that

hardening of
laws

'

of sound.

'

bu

'

alternated
originally

'

into

'

'

with

'

;'

gu
accordaiice with

'

for

the

it not in
Dravidian
pu
This view is confirmed by the circumstances that in
'

gu

'

'

'

instead of
chu
instead of
(and of mpu
Telugu the use of pu
nchu ') is in most
and that in the higherdialect
instances optional,
of the Tamil the formative 'pp' soriietimessupersedes
'kk;' e.g., the
'

'

'

'

'

infinitiveof the verb

or

'

nada^ppa.' It
are

is

mutual

in that dialect be either 'nada-kka*

walk, may

to

that
obvious,therefore,

all these formative terminations

equivalents.

If the transitive or

m^-pu,'Tel.,to

causal

'
'

of such verbs
known

as

to be

'

Tam,,
nira-ppu,'
derived from

the
feed,
fll,
hardeningof an intransitive formative,we might be inclined to affiliate
which is characteristicof a certain class of causal verbs
it with the 'p,'
to

'

were

not

35^
in

VEEB,

THE

I cause
Sansierit;
e.g^, 'jiva-p-ayami,'

/ maTce
live, jna-p-ayimi,'
'

to

dental,
It is evident,however, that the resemblance is merely acciin the
for etymologically
there is nothingof a causal nature

to Jcnow.

Dravidian

of the formative
other
'

'

It has
various

the real

and

verbs

signof

formatives

in Sanscrit is

the causal

e.g.,

referred to

now

that when

of the formative
of

the

on

'

'

verbal

of nouns,

hardenmg

transition;and

of

force

the

conveys

the

aya,' and the

precedesit is considered to be only an euphonicfulcrum.
Roots')that the
already been shown (in the section on

hand,
which

which

but
itself,

the formative

fo-rmatives ; it is not

such

is doubled

nouns

are

marattu/ medicinal,

'

also

formatives

as

the consonant
adjectivally
in the transitives
as
precisely

used

hardened

and

used

are

from

snake.

'

marundu/

medicine

used

When

to
from
nouns
are
pappu,'serpentine,
pambu,' a
qualifyother sounds,as well as in the use of transitive verbs, there
other object; and
is a transition in the meaning of the theme to some
the idea ef transition is expressedby the doubling and hardeningo-t
the consonant
of the formative,or rather by the forcible and emphatic
enunciation
of the verb which
that hardeningof the formative necessitates.
'

'

(2.) The second class of intransitive verbs become transitives by

of the signsof tense.
doublingand hardeningthe initial consonant
Verbs of this class are generally
destitute of formatives,
properlyso
called ; or, if they have any, they are such as are
incapableof change.
The signof the present tense is in Tamil
'gin';'that of the preterite
d,'ordinarily
euphonisedinto nd ;'and that of the future b' or v.'
used by intransitive verbs of
These are the signs of tense
which
are
hereafter that they are the normal
this class ; and it will be shown
verbs of this class become
verb.
When
of the Dravidian
tense-signs
kkiR ;' 'd'
'nd' into
is changed into
or
tt ;'
transitives,
'giii''
and 'b' or 'v' into 'pp.' Thus, the root
ser,'to join, is capable
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

both

of

an

intransitive sense, e.g., to

of

transitive

of the
separate).The tense-signs
in their natural condition; e.g., 'ser-gJR'-en/
/
I will join: but when
I joined,'ier-v-en,'
the signifijoin,'^er-nd-en,'
cation
is active or transitive,
the
corresponding
e.g., to join (planks),
sense, eg., to join
"intransitive remain

parts of the verb

pp-en,'I
The

will

{thingsthat

and
join (a societ}/),

were

I join, seT-tt-^n,'
I joined,
'ser-kkiR-en,'
'

are

'

ser-

join.

rationale of this

doublingof

the

is evident.
case-sign

emphasized,hardened

enunciation

of the verb ; and

forcible enunciation thus

the

of the force of transition

oVerflo'wsand passes

on

by

which

to the

of the

the

intransitive

or

It is

an

natural form

produced is symbolical

meaning of the transitive theme

objectindicated by the accusative.

TBANSITIVES

AND

Ib verbs of this class the

and it is the
t^an

intransitive

an

It should here

357

imperativeremains alwaysunchangedj

alone

connexion

INTEANSITIVES.

that determines

it to

transitive rather

signification.

be mentioned

the initialconsonant

that

few

intransitive verbs double

of the

and that a few transitive verbs

tense-sign,
leave the tense-sign
in its original,
unemphasized condition. Thus,
is"
t
o
to
intransitive verb ; nevertheless,
iru,' sit, be, necessarily
in
an
the present tense
/
and
in the future 'iru-pp-en,'
iru-kkiR-en,'am,
/
shall be,it has made
of the ordinarycharacteristics of the transiuse
tive
: so also
doubles the initial
padu,'to lie,though an intransitive,
of all the tenses ; e.g., padu-kkiR-en,'
consonant
/ li-e,padu-tt-en,'
/
lay, padu-pp-en,'l shall lie. On the other hand, 'i,'to give, to
bestow,though necessarily
the simple,unhardened,unuses
transitive,
which are ordinarily
characteristic of the intransiemphatic case-signs
tive
/
I will give.
i-giR-en,' give, i-nd-en,'1 gave, i-v-en,'
; e.g.,
'

'

'

'

'

"

'

These

'

instances

'

the result of dialectic rules of sound, and

they are
not in reality
exceptionsto the method described above of distinguishing
transitive and intransitive verbs by means
of the hardeningor
of the initial consonant
of the case-signs,
softening
(3.)A third mode of convertingintransitives into transitives is by
of transition to the theme or root.
This particle
is
adding a particle
du
in Canarese, and
ttu
du ')in Tamil ;
(incomposition tu or
and may
be regarded as a real transitive suffix,
or
sign of activity.
We
have an instance of the use
of this particle
in the Can.
to
tal-du,'
to be low, and the corresponding
Tarn, 'tar- ttu,'
to
lower,from 't"l-u,'
are

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

lower,from

'tar'

theme

in

ends

or

to
'tar-u,'

vowel

which

be low.

When

is radical and

the

intransitive
be

cannot

Tamil

elided,the

sitive
tran-

to lay down, from

particleis invariablyttu,'e.g., padu-ttu,'
padu,'to lie. It might, therefore,be supposedthat ttu is the primitive
of
this
but
those
instances in
on
particle
shape
examining
;
of the intransitive
which
it is compounded with the final consonant
'

'

'

'

'

it appears
in Canarese, into 'du.'
It is
to resolve itself,
as
always thus compounded when the final cousonant of the theme is ' 1

theme

"

or

'1,' d"
'

placedin

j'and in
with
juxta-position
'

or

is assimilated

r'

to

it, or

such

cases

the

the consonant

both

consonants

'

'

of

to which
are

'

du

'

is not

merely

it is attached,
but

changed,
euphonically
'

'

I and
du
accordingto the phoneticrules of the language. Thus
become
to be
rb-u
sural,'
intrans.,
(pronounced ttr-u '),e.g., from
1' and 'du'
suraRR-u
whirled,comes
('surattr-u '),trans.,to whirl,
become
mi^t-u,'to cause to
ttu,'e.g., from
mil,'to return, Comes
'

'

'

'

'

return,
is to be

to

'

redeem.

'

'

'

From

these instances

'

'

'

it is clear that

'du,'not 'ttu,'

form of this transitive suffix.

regardedas the primitive

358

THE

What
'

ttu

is the

or

originof

this transitive

or
particle,
signof aotivitjr,

I believe it to be identical with the

du f

'

'

VEKB.

or
inflexion,

jectival
ad-

iu the
fullyinvestigated
section on
'The
the
Noun,' and of which the Canarese form is 'ad','
Tel. ti or
is
ti.' There is a transition of meaning when
a noun
used adjectivally
to qualifyanother
noun), as well as when a
(i.e.,
verb is used transitively
to govern
an
objectexpressedby some
{i.e.,
in the accusative)
the Dravidian languagesuse
noun
; and in both cases
of expressing
(withrespect to this class of verbs)one and the same means
which was
demonstrative.
transition,
a neuter
viz.,a particle
origina,lly
Nor
is this the only case
the Tamil
in which
transitive verb
exhibits the characteristics of the noun
used adjectivally,
for it was
also that the doubling and hardening of the consonant
shown
of the

formative, attu
'

'

'

'

'

or

ttu,'which

was

'

formative of the first class of transitiveverbs

accordance

terminatingin those formatives

double and harden the initial consonant
when
they are used to qualify
other nouns.
Another
illustrationof this principle
follows.
sitive
Tamil) mode of convertingintran(4.)The fourth (a distinctively
verbs into transit!ves consists in doublingand hardening
the final
b.'
This rule appliesgenerally,though not
or
consonant, if d
it
invariably,to verbs which terminate in those consonants
; and
nd-u
d-u
final
to
from
applies a
(euphonised
'),as well as to d-u
The
of
this
rule will appear on comparing vad-n,'to
itself.
operation
with

the

which

is in exact

in

manner

'

'

nouns

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

to
vatt-n,'to cause
vnther,with
drive ;
tind-u,'to touch,with
'

wilher ;

'

changed,with

'

'

maBB-u

transitives in
'chu

'

to

'

which

nouns

6d-u,'to

to
titt-u,'

whet ;

run,
'

with

to
'6tt-u,'

maK-u,'

to

become

(pronounced m"ttr-u '),to change. The

usual way
Telugu are formed in the more
'

the intransitive theme, e.g.,

adding
change, vadu-chu,'to
Tamil

'

'

cause

end

'

maRu-chu,'to cause

responding
cor-

by
to

to uAthtr.

in

'd-u,''nd-u,'or 'b-u,'double

when

and harden

they are
or
adjectivally,
placedin an
to a succeedingnoun
; e.g., compare
kad-u,'a
irand-u,'two, with 'iratt-u
jungle,with katt-uvari,'a jungle-path
;
nul,'double thread ; 'aB-u,'a river,vrith 'aBBU
(pronounced'attru')
Thus we
furnished by words of this class with
are
manal, river sand.
the final consonant

used

relation
adjectival

'

'

'

'

another
the

remarkable

and

Dravidian

illustration of the

languages between

analogywhich

transitive verbs

and

subsists in
nouns

used

adjectivally.
II. Causal

There is

Verbs.

of
clajss

included
generally

verbs

in the Dravidian

under the head

of

languages
which, though

claim
transitives,

to be

regarded

359

CAUSALS.

caiisals. They
as
distinctively

by

have

been classed with transitives both

native

grammarians and by Europeans. Beschi alone placesthem

in a class by themselves,
verbs of command,
and calls them
eval vinei,'
verbs which implythat a thingis commanded
i.e.,
by one person to be
'

done

by

another.

Causals differ from

ordinarycharacter,as well
and in form.
signification

transitivesof the

from

as

both in
intransitives,
The signification
of intransitive verbs is confined to the person or
thingwhich constitutes the nominative,and does not pass outward or
onward
I go.
The significato any extrinsic object; e.g., p6-giR-en,'
tion
of transitive or active verbs, or, as they are called in Tamil, outward
native,
to some
action-words,
objectexterior to the nomipasses outwards
and which
is generallyput in the accusative ; e.g., unnei
of
I send thee : and as to send is to cause
to go, verbs
anuppu-gia-en,'
this class,when
formed
from
in some
are
intransitives,
languages^
appropriatelyenough, termed causals. Hitherto the Indo-European
with the Dravidian
languagesproceed paripassu
; but at this point
they fail and fall behind : for if we take a verb which is transitive of
the idea of
like this one, to send, and endeavour
to express
necessity,
causing one person to send another,we cannot by
causingto send,i.e.,
modification of structure
get any singleIndo-Europeanverb to
any
'

'

'

'

the full force of this idea

express

phrase instead

a
as

in the Turkish

and

of the verb

form

of

'

Transitives
causals
to

are

will express
to

cause

of the
in

love,from

to
'atch,'

sev,'to

the entire

of

use

particle vi
'

similar

love ;

and

'

to

from

the theme

'

anuppu,'to

the theme.

converted

manner

'

idea,viz.,tftecausal

is formed

send,which

by suffixinga particleto
'

to make

be content

must

we

singleverb j whereas in the Dravidian languages,

other languagesof the Scythianstock,there is

which

anuppu-vi,'to
send, by the addition
e.g.,

; e.g.,

atch-our,'to

'

in Turkish

into

to
sev-dur,'

catise

to

cause

work,

from

work.

and use of Dravidian

signification
should
here be noticed. Indo-Europeancausals
causal verbs which
that of the person and that of the object; e.g_
two accusatives,
govern
Dravidian
causals
I caused him (ace.)
to build the house (ace.)
: whereas
govern the objectalone, and either leave the person to be understood
vittei.(k)kattuvitten,'
Tarn,,I caused to build the house,(it as
(e.^'.j
should
we
preferto say, I caused the house to be built)
; or else the
is

There

in
peculiarity

the

'

person
'

is

avanale

in the

put

'

or

'

avanei

instrumental; e.g.,

caused

caused

to

build the house

throughhim, or employinghim;
(k)kondu,'

by him.
Though the Dravidian languagesare

is,I

that

the Jtouse to be built

in

of
possession

true

causal

360

VKRB.

THE

"^formed

particle,yet they sometimes

resort
to the less convenient
Indo-Europeanmethod of annexing an
verb which signifies
and
tb make
tb do, such as
or
auxiliary
sey
in Tamil, mad-n,'in Can., and
chey-u,'in Tel. These
pann-u
with Sans, derivaused in connexion
tives,
auxiliaries,
however, are chiefly
it being contrary to the Dravidian idiom to combine
indigenous
with foreignthemes.
The
is annexed
to the infinitive
particles
auxiliary
of the principal
verb.
Tamil
idiom
and
the analogy of the other dialects requirethat
causals should
be formed, not from neuter
intransitive verbs,but
or
from transitives alone; but sometimes
this rule is found to be neglected.
Even in Tamil, vi,'the signof the causal,is in some
instances found
to be annexed
to intransitive verbs.
This usage is not only at variance
with theory,
but it is unclassioal and unidiomatical.
In each of those
the addition of

by

causal

"

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

cases

is in

manner,

vi,'Tam.,
'

derived
transitive,

true

The

to cause

exist,is not
that

to
nada-ppi,'

of the

opposed

Tamil.

The

'

is

well

as

Thus,

less

of the

form

one

'

active,where
of the other
rather

'

varu-

than
elegant,

walk, to guide,than

to the idiom

of

use

as

instead.

ordinary

nada-ttu.'

both

forms

as
dialects,

than

to

another

is

Canarese ; and in some

instances the active
the causal alone is used.
Thus
rappinchu,'or

Telugu
and
disappeared,

ravinchu,'to

used

in the

and

optionalin
has

to

cause

causal,instead

much

so

be

intransitive

is less proper,

to come,
'

of the

use

the

and ought to
existence,

;' and

varu-ttu

from

'

to

cause

the

come,

equivalentof

the

Tamil

'

varu-vi.'

the

Telugu to a form which would

correspond to
varu-ttu :' and instead of
to become,to make,
akk-u,'Tam., to cause
which
is the active of
ag-u,'and is formed
by the process of
doublingand hardeningwhich has alreadybeen described,the Telugu
preferredby

'

'

'

the

uses

causal

'

ka-vinchu,'and

tlie Canarese

the

corresponding

ag-isu.'
which is most commonly used in Tamil
The
particle
to cause
to male, from
pannu,' to make; and
e.g., pannu-vi,'
causal

'

causal

'

is

'

vi,'to

sometimes

build, from

to

cause

find

'

bi

'

'

ka^tu,'to

build.

Instead

of

'

'

'vi;'

kattu-

vi

'

we

ppi,'accordingto the euphonicrequirements

of the precedingsyllable.When
the theme ends in a nasal,
which it
is added to form the causal ;
does but rarely, bi
e.g., kan-bi,'to
'

'

transitive of
theme

the

bi

'

'

[A

idiomatic word,

more

however, is

the proper

kan,' see; viz., katt-u,'

i.e.,kan-ttu,'
to "A,ow.JWhen

ends

'

in

vowel

'

which

is of such

follows it it will

be hardened
necessarily
into ppi;' e.g., from
changes dialectically

sonant
'

'

to see, to show.

cause

'

or

formed the causal

character that

and

'

'

to cause
edu-ppi,'

to

take up.

'

'

doubled,
edu,'to take

vi

'

'

is

vi

if

'

or

up, is

undoubtedly

362

VEEB.

THE

softeningprocess by which
resisted ;

and

TelugUjas

in Tamil

to rescue, to came

nchu,' to
lost

those

in

to
to

cause

vi

'

'

; e.g., compare

'

'

vida-vi-nchu

the Tamil

leave,with

'

'

was

instances

become,has

been
i
has
changed into
is the sign of the casual in

'

vi

'

vidu-vi.'

'

'

or

vidi-vi-nchu/
Tel.

The

'

ki-vi-

particle
; whilst it has been
find the
occasionally
ag-i-su.'We

retained

this

correspondingCan.
causal formed by 'pi/ and even
'ppi' in Telugu as in Tamil; and
though the use of these hardened forms is rare, yet their existence in
still further to identify i with the Tamil
vi,' bi,'
Telugu serves
and
to open, is an
example of the
Tel.,to cause
ppi.' teRa-pi-nchu,'
to bring,from
of
use
pi;'and
'),to cause
teppinchu ('te-ppi-nchu
te-chu,'to bring,illustrates the use of ppi.' The Telugu verbs
the

by

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in

'

chu,' nchu,' pu,' mpu,' "c., which

'

'

'

destitute of this causal

are

and
vidu-pu,'to cause to
(e.g.,vidu-chu
to be regarded
are
vanohu,' to bend; lepu,'to raise)
quit,to rescue;
not as causals.
as
transitives,
They are formed, not by annexing vi
or
i,'but by the doubling and hardening of the final consonant
of the formative (e.g.,
lepu,'to raise,with the corresponding
compare
Tamil
'eruppu,'the transitive of 'erumbu'); and the verbs from
fore,
which
Instead,therethey are so formed are not actives,but neuters.
tir-chu
of sayingthat
to end, forms its causal either in
tir-n,'
and more
in accordance
it would
be more
accurate
or
tir-pinchu,'
the neuter,
tir-chu
with Tamil analogies,
to represent tir-n
as
as
and
the transitive,
tlr-pi-nchuas the causal. It is of the essence
of the true causal that its theme is a transitive verb; e.g., katt-inchu,'

particleunder

any

form

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

to cause

In
'

'

to

build,from

Canarese, causal

to
i-su,'

the

mad-i-su,'to

dialect

'

'

i-chu

build.

katt-u,'to
verbs

transitive theme
cause

to do.

') is

annexed

; e.g., from

This
to

by suffixing'is-u,'or rather

formed

are

causal
the

'

mad-u,' to do, is

particle i-su (inthe

'

theme

itself before

the

formed
ancient

'

addition

signsof tense, so that it is found in every part of the causal

verb, like the correspondingTelugu particle i-nohu,'with which it
that the Telugu i-nchu
is evidentlyidentical. It has been shown
have
been
nasalised
from
must
i-ohu
(the phoneticequivalentof
the Tamil
find this very
i-chu
i-kku,'for vi-kkn'); and now
we
in Canarese.
The change in modern
Canarese
from
i-su
i-chu
to
is easy and natural, '"' being phonetically
equivalentto 'ch,'and
'chu'
being pronounced like 'tsu' in Telugu.
An
additional proof, if proof were
wanting, of the identity
of the Can.
'i-su' with
the Tel. 'i-nchu,'is furnished
by the

of the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

class of

Sans,

derivative

verbs, or

derivative verbs

'

'

'

are

verbs

made

to

borrowed
end

in

from
'

'

in

the
the

'

'

Sanscrit.
Dravidian

363

CAUSALS.

take in
djalects(e.g.,jay-i,'
conquer); and those verba invariably
Telugu, as has been said,the formative termination
nchu,' e.g.,
verbs
in
'jayi-nchu.'The same
invariablytake 'i-su,'or 'y-isu,'
Thus
Canarese.
from the Sans, derivative theme, dhari,'to assume,
the Telugu forms the verb
dhari-nchu,'the Canarese
equivalentof
'

'

'

'

which

is

dhari-su.'

'

These

verbs

formative

and

end

with

in

vi,' bi,'
'

them

or

the

'

'

'

ppi,'is

Tamil

vikku.'
and

the Tamil

into

'

in Tamil

with

Telugu,but

original

the

the Tel.

Tamil,

Sans,

the

'i-nehu,'

derivative

causal

particle

it is desired to

added, except

never

Hence

i,' illustrates
In

of the

they make

convert

founding
danger of conthe true
causal with the Sans, derivative. Generally the
older and harsher sounds of the Canarese have been softened by the
'k' has often been softened
the Canarese
Tamil; and in particular,

by

into causals.

'

particle'i-su'
'

in Canarese

as

which

use

su,' preceded by

'

or

the Canarese causal

of both

verbs
'

nchu

'

of
identity

'

the

causals ; but

not

are

'

is in any

one

in the

ch :' but

'

or

no

instance

of the causative

of this has happened-;the

particle,
exactlythe reverse
vi
having been softened by the Canarese into i,'and
'

'

Tamil

'

'kk'

into

the

Telugu,does

transitive and causal verbs

between

or

the formative

's.'

Canarese, like

The

'hi'

not

discriminate
carefully

so

the Tamil

as

to do.

transitive

themes ; but
Canarese, notwithstandingits possessionof transitive particles,

The

ca-usalof the Tamil

true

the

is restricted to

has been fpund

to
nera-hu,'to fillwith 'neri,'
(e.g.,
compare
with
tiru-pu,' to turn
to turn
he full,and
tiru-gu,'
(actively),
(of
the causal particle
to intransitive themes;
itself),
yet it often annexes
to run
to cause
(Tam. '6tt-u'),from '6d-u,'to run;
e.g., '6d-i-su,'
from
to cause
to walk
and
nadi,'to
(Tam. 'nada-ttu'),
nad-i-su,'

like those of the Tamil

'

'

'

'

'

walk.
The

and

oldest

purest

is supposedto
particle
a

root

in

'

"..'

'aya'

aya,'proves
The

other

Tulu

the

Dravidian

'

'

vi

viz.,by
dialects,

'

Old

'

is

its causal verbs

Indo-European causative
prefixedafter
aya,'with
p

'i'

Telugu

that the resemblance

forms

the

'i' in

becomes

the derivation of the latter from

'

of

be the Sanscrit

this aud

between

form

or

'

'

Slavonic; and

the

blance
resem-

close:;nevertheless,,

is very
bi ' and

of the former from

purelyaccidental.
in

difierent manner

suffixing'a'

from

to the verbal

the

theme,

adding the signs of tense : e.g., from marp-u,'to make, is

This greatlyresembles the
to make.
formed
marp^a-vu,'to cause
to go, from 'chal-na,'
to cause
to
Hindustani causals;e.g., chal-wa-n",'
and as the Hind, causative particle'wa' has probablybeen
go;
and

'

then

'

'

364

THK

derived

the Sanscrit

from

supposedto proceedfrom
In Gond

ha

'

'

or

'

'

the

'

VKKB.

'

or

aya
same

or

is the

similar

causal

Passive

'

be

'

may

source.

and
particle,

is added

to the

to the theme.

of transitive verbs,not
present participle

III. The

Tulu

p-aya,'the

'

Voice.

primitiveIndo-European languages has a regular

passivevoice, regularlyconjugated. The Sanscrit passiveis formed
by annexing the particle
'ya' (derivedfrom 'yS,'to go), to the verbal
theme, and adding the personalterminations peculiarto the middle
Each

of

the

voice.

Scythian family also form

of annexed
particles. To the verbal
passivesby means
the passive, il or
Turkish
suffixes in order
to form
the
the Finnish
et ;' the
Hungarian 'at,' et,' tet ;' and to
are
appended in the
particlesthe pronominal terminations
Most

of

languages of

the

the

'

'

'

'

'

their
theme
'

il/

these
usual

manner.

Drividian

The

verb

is

entirelydestitute of

passivevoice,properly

is there any reason

that it ever
had a
to suppose
passive.None of the Dravidian dialects possesses any passiveparticle
of expressingpassivityby direct inflexional
or
or
suffix,
any means
so

called,nor

of the passivevoice is,nevertheless,

capable
changes: the signification
of
in
We
have
to
of being expressed
a
now
variety ways.
inquire
which
the
Dravidian
into the means
are
adopted by
languages for
it will be found that they correspond
conveying a passivesignification
; and
used for this purpose
in a considerable
degree to the means
India
by the vernaculars of Northern
regularpassivevoice.
that follow all
In the particulars
is said of

what

(1.)The
the

use

every

holds

one

placeof

of the

neuter

dialect of the

true

also

Dravidian

the

destitute of

are

dialects agree:

of all.

passivevoice
intransitive

or

which

"

is to

form

largeextent
of tbe

familythe most idiomatic and

passive;and wherever it can

verb.

suppliedby
This

characteristic

is in

mode

be used,it is always
expressingthe
Thus, it was
broken, is ordinarily
preferredby classical writers.
gular
expressedin Tamil by udeindadu,'the preterite
(thirdperson sinof

'

neuter)of

'

to
udei,'intransitive,

break

oi-

become

broketi;and

and
though this is a neuter, rather than a passiveproperlyso called,
be rendered it has come
into a brohen condition,
might literally
yet it
is evident that for all practicalpurposes
than this is
nothing more
of the
requiredto express the force of the passive. The passivity
the instrumental case of the
expression
may be increased by prefixing

THE

PASSIVE

365

TOICE,

it came
agent,e.g., ennal udeindadn,'it was hroken hy me, or literally
into a broken condition throughme.
mode
of forming the passive ia by means
of
(2.)A very common
the preterite
verbal participle
of any neuter
active verb, followed
or
by the preterite
(thirdperson singularneuter)of the verbs to become,
'

to
'

be, to

go,

to end.
(occasionally)

or

mugindadu,' it is

or
finished,

This
finishedit is become.
of passivity:not only is
completed.

Transitive

forms, may

or

in this

Thus,

we

may

either

say

mugind' ayittru,'
literally
having
form
adds the idea of completionto that
the thing done, but the doing of it is
'

active verbs

which

are

destitute of

intransitive

acquirea passivesigniiication.
transitive verb,
or
a
build,is necessarily
and is without a corresponding
intransitive; but in the phrase k6vil
the temple is built,
the templehaving built has
katti ayittru,'
literally
is acquiredby the active voice,without
become,a passivesignification
the assistance of any passive-forming
it has gone,
particle. poyittru,'
it is
generallybe used in such phrases instead of 'ayittru,'
may
Thus

'

manner

to
katt-u,'

bind

'

'

become.
'

the verbal in
dal or
al,'are often
especially
instead of the preterite
verbal participle,
tion
used in Tamil
in the formait is
of this constructive passive;e.g., instead of 'seyd'ayittru,'
done, literally
having done it has become,we may say aeydal ayittru,'
which though it is used to express the same
signifies
meaning,literally
it has become a fact,the doingof it is completed.
the doing has become,i.e.,
of the active as a passive(with the
In these instances the use
Persian rule of using the
substantive verb) correspondsto the New
and
it stands unsupported,
form of the verb as an active when
same

Verbal

'

'

nouns,

'

as

followed

passivewhen

by

the substantive verb.

referred to requirethe
passivesnow
verb.
The force of the passive
of the auxiliary
third person
neuter
voice will not be brought out by the use of the masculine or feminine,
employed,
or
by the epiceneplural. If those persons of the verb were
would
in the idea of personality
which
is inherent
the activity
sitate
necesThe

an

to a

Dravidian

active

constructive

signification
; it would

tie down

the

transitive

theme

the intransitive relation is naturally

transitive meaning ; whereas

implied in the use of the neuter gender,and therefore the expression

of the passive(viz.,
of the signification
by the intransitive officiating
for the passive)is facilitated by the use of the third person neuter.
A somewhat
similar mode of formingthe passivehas been pointed
and Bengali;e.g., 'j"nayay,'Beng.,it is known,
out in the Hindustani
to be a
it goes to be known.
j4na'- is representedby some
literally
'

366

THE

verbal noun,
there is

terind-u

to be

: but, whatever
passiveparticiple

correspondingTamil
'

is

and

this idiom

difference between

some

for in the
'

by others

VEKB.

'

terind'

the

Dr"vidian

it

be,

one

it is known,
ayittru,'

phrase
of an
preteriteverbal participle
it is
means
having known
phrase literally

unquestionablythe

intransitive verb, and

the

veys
having known it is gone, conpoyittrn,'literally
that a verb signifying
the same
It is remarkable
signification.
to go should
be used in the Dravidian
languagesas a passive-making
India.
well as in the languagesof Northern
as
auxiliary,

become.

'

terindu

Dravidian
Occasionally

active

verbs

transitive

or

themselves

are

sitive
without
the addition of any intranpassivesignification,
and relative participial
Relative participles
auxiliarywhatever.
the parts of the verb which
most
are
are
frequentlyused in this

used

with

nouns

e.g., 'erudina

manner;

Tam., /
both

'

have got

suvadi

of
participles

that wrote;

yet

to that is

'

pustagam vendum,'
In this

printed one.

ach'-aditta,'
printed, are

transitive themes.

former

The

the
means

phrase
preterite
literally

and the
passivelyto signifywritten,,

it is used

that printed or
literally

means

ach' aditta

written hook; I want

erudina,'written,and

relative

undu;

off,but

struck

is used

latter

as
valent
equipassively

printed.

the preteriteneuter, is
especially
oftentimes used in the same
podum,' Tarn.,
manner;
e.g., in 'ionnadu
what was
that which said;
said is sufficient,
means
sonnadu,'literally
but the connexion
and
the usage
of the language determine
it to
in this case
signifypassivelythat which was said; and so distinctively
is the passivesense
alone,that the use of
expressedby the connexion
the more
formal
modern
sound
would
passive solla-(p)pattadu,'
awkward
and foreign, 'endra,'Tani., 'anede,' Tel., that is called,
that spoke,
instance of the same
is another very common
rule,
literally
Jesus
he who speaks; but
'lyesu enbavar,'Tarn., signifies
literally,

The

relative

participial
noun,
'

'

"

usage

determines

it

to

mean

he who

is called Jesus.

used in the Dravidian

un,' to eat, is occasionally
(3.)The verb
languages as an auxiliaryin the formation of passives. It is invaverbal nouns),and is never
or
ably appended to nouns
(substantives
compounded with any part of the verb; e.g., 'adi undan,'he was beaten,
Ae ate a beating;'padeipp'und6n,' l was
or
literally
got a beating,
/ ate a creating.
created,
literally
The
same
naculars.
versingularidiom prevailsalso in the North-Indian
The particular
verb signifying
is used in those
to eat which
un
indeed, from the Dravidian
;'but the idiom is
languagesdiffers,
identical,and the existence of so singularan idiom in both the
and the southern familyis deserving
of notice. It is remarknorthern
'

'

THE

able that the

PASSIVE

367

VOICE.

peculiarcontrivance for expressingthe passiveis

in the Chinese,in which also to eat a beating,means
to be

found

same

beaten.

(4.) The mode

in each
means

forming the passivewhich is most largelyused

of the modern
dialects of the Dravidian family,
is by
colloquial
of the auxiliary
verb 'pad-u,'to suffer,
which is
to experience,

annexed

of

the infinitive of the

to

Tam., he
e.g., 'kolla-(p)pattan,'
or

to kill.

e.g.,

shame.

The

of the infinitive

which

case

verbal

or

the base

is

base of

'verb is sometimes

in construction with

noun

regarded as

idiomatic than the

It is evident

that

use

this

suffered ;

nouns

used instead

this

in
auxiliary,

e.g., instead of 'adikka-

noun;

(p)pattan,'we may say 'adi pattan,'he

where this form can
a beating;and
suffered
more

action

denotingqualityor condition;
he suffered
or
ashamed, literally
rienced
expeto

was

ultimate

the
signifying

he suffered
a killing
Tailed,
literally,

was

It is also annexed

he
vetka-(p)pattan,'

'

verb

beaten,or

was

he
literally

used, it is considered

be

of the infinitive.

pad-u,'to suffer,with an
of quality,
is rather a phrase than a passivevoice.
infinitive or noun
It is rarelyfound in the classics ; and idiomatic speakerspreferthe
other modes of forming the passive. pad-u is often added, not only
compound

of

'

to

active,but

also to neuter

by

expresses
necessary,

the

itselfas

addition

or

of

the

'

intransitive verbs ; but

of

much

'

the intransitive

as

as is ordinarily
passivesignification
passiveauxiliarydoes not alter the
a

sitive
difference in Tamil between the intransignification;
e.g., there is no
will appear, and
it appears,
or
teriya(p)padum ;'or
teriyum,'
in Telugu between
teliyunu and teliyabadunu,'the corresponding
In ordinaryuse
forms.
pad-u conveys the meaning of continuous
action or being,rather than that of passivityj
e.g., 'irukkar(p)patta,
'

'

'

'

'

'

Tam.,

is

Tamilian

'

vulgarly used for irukkiRa,'that is; and I have heard a

Tam., meaning
nandr"y sappida-(p)pattavan,'
say, 'nan

thereby,not

'

/ have

been well eaten, but /

have

been accustomed^

to

ea"

well.

indeed,are destitute of passivesproperly

languages,
so
they resist every efibrt to bring'pad-u'into
called;and, therefore,
Such efforts are constantlybeing made
by foreigners,
general use.
accustomed to passivesin their own
who
tongues,and fancythat
are
barbarous
they cannot get on without them ; but nothing sounds more
of padu as a passive
than the unnecessary
use
ear
to the Dravidian
with
that its use
is
combined
nouns
auxiliary. It is only when
thoroughlyallowable.
of the Dravidian dialects is there a middle voice,properly
In none
called. The force of the middle or reflectivevoice is expressed
so
The

Dravidian

'

'

368

THE

VERB.

Tarn.,to
by 'kol,'
it for myself,
/ made
take (Tel.'kon-u'); e.ff., 'panni-(k)kondgn;
This auxiliarysometimes
I made
and took it.
conveys a
literally,

by the
constructively

of

use

an

auxiliaryverb, viz

voice; e.g 'pesi-(k)

force rather than that of the middle
reciprocal
theyheat
'adittu-(k)kondargal,'
Tam., they talhed together;
kondargal,'
,

one

another.
IV.

The

same

The

usage

Negative

appears

in the other dialects also.

Voice.

Properly speaking,the Dravidian negativeis rather a mood or

affirmative,
voice than a conjugation. All verbal themes are naturally
of inflexional
and
the negativesignification
is expressedby means
to
additions or changes. Nevertheless,it will conduce to perspicuity
into the negativemood
voice,before enteringupon the
or
inquirenow
consideration of the pronominalterminations and tenses.
is a
The regularcombination
of a negativewith a verbal theme
of the Scythianfamilyof tongues. Negation is generally
peculiarity
of a separate particle
expressedin the Indo-Europeanfamilyby means
like the Sanscrit 'nasti,'
and instances of combination
adverbially;
"U is not, the negativeof asti,'
it is,are very rare, and are found
only
with
in connexion
substantive or auxiliaryverbs: whereas, in the
Scythian languages,every verb has a negativevoice or mood as well
afiirmative.
The
as
an
Scythiannegativevoice is generallyformed
and the
of negationbetween
the theme
by the insertion of a particle
pronominalsuffixes ; and this is as distinctive of the Dravidian as of
it is true,
the Turkish
and Finnish languages. Different particles
are.
used in the different languages to express negation;but the mode
in
which such particles
used is substantially
the same
in all.
are
In general,
the Dravidian
negativeverb has but one tense, which
is an aorist,
is indeterminate in point of time ; e.g., pogen,'Tam.
or
either 7 did not, I do
('povanu,'Tel., pogenu,'Can.),7 go not, means
The
time is generallydetermined
text.
not, or I will not go.
by the conThe only exceptionis in the Ku, in which there is a negative
well as a negativeaorist. In most
of the dialects there is
as
preterite,
only one mood of the negativein ordinaryuse, viz.,the indicative. If
infinitive and imperative
an
exist,it is only in classical compositions
that they appear;
and they are
formed
ordinarily
by the help of the
infinitive and imperativeof the substantive verb, which
suffixed as
are
auxiliaries to the negativeverbal participle
Tam.,
Seyy"d'-iru,'
; e.g.,
do not thou,literally
be thou doing not.
In the Telugu alone,a negativeinfinitive,
and
a
or
prohibitive
in ordinary
in the colloquial
are
dialect,
negativeimperative,
use
even
used

'

'

'

'

In the Dravidian

negativevoice,as

in the

the verbal
affirmative,

370
we

miss

'

'a'

a'

is

is inserted

between

a-mal,'without living.
The

without

The

relative

in Tam.,
'bal-a-da,'

it contributes
It will be

find

'

in Tamil

noun

lived

is

'

'

mei,' the

var-a"

lives not, is in Can.,

or

In these

alone
have

therefore,be concluded that

:' it may,

'

'

if euphony
instances,
ordinaryenunciative vowel, would

'

this

and

that
participle

had been considered, u,' the

appearedwhere we
'a'
(euphonically

formative,and

the

long in Tamil ; e.g., 'bal-a-de,'

or
varliving; Tam., var-adu

verbal

var-a-da.'

'

and

the theme

in Canarese

short
invariably

living.

pronominal

instead of the Tamil

'bal-adu,'
invariably
in both languagesthe
and relative participles

Can., not having lived,or

not

of the

find

var-adu.' In the verbal

vowel

initial vowel

this lengthening
of the

even

terminations;e.g., we
'

VERB.

THE

'

'

and that
been inserted,
Tamil) has intentionally
in some
to grammatical
manner
expression.
found that much
lightis thrown upon this subjectby the
of the negativevoice of the
pronominal terminations
in

Telugn. The
Telugu are identical

with

those of the

present tense of

the affirmative.

mence
pronominalterminations of the verb comis represented
with a vowel; but in Telugu verbs the pronoun
commences
invariably
by the final syllablealone, and that syllable
used
in the
with a consonant.
of negationwere
Hence, if no particle
conjugationof the Telugu negativevoice,the pronominalsuffix would
be appended directly
to the verbal theme, and as every Telugu theme

In Tamil

and

terminates
would

Canarese

the

in the enunciative

remain.
invariably

u,'that

'

What

then

'

'

would

not

be

elided,but

is the fact 1

a
examining the Telugn negative,it is found that the vowel
intervenes between
the theme
and the pronominal suffix
invariably

On

and

as

'

the final enunciative

way

for this

but

is

'a,'it is

'

'

evident

of the theme

that

'a

'

has been

elided

'

make

to

euphonic insertion,
Tel.,I do not,
chey-a-nu,'

is not

an

particleof negation. Compare

with
Tam.,
iey('y)-Sn
;' chey-a-vu,'thou dost not, with Tam.,
;' cheysey(y)-ay;' chey-a-mu,'we do not, with Tam., sey(y)-6m
From
this comparison it
a-ru,'you do not, with Tam., sey(y)-ir.'
be doubted that
is regularly
used in Telugu as a particle
cannot
a
of negation. We
find the same
'a' used in Telugu,as in Canarese
and Tamil, in the negativeverbal participle
withouf
chey-a-ka,'
; e.g
in
that does not; and in
doing; the relative participle,
e.g., 'ohey-a-ni,'
the verbal noun, e.ff., chey-a-mi,'
the not doing. In each of these parmanner
a
ticipialsa is used in the same
by the Canarese,and
by the Tamil : and that those vowels are not euphoniesor conjunctives,
but signsof negation,
in Tamil-Canarese,
is now
even
proved
clearly
the
evidence
of
in
similar
the
a'
is
which
not
a
by
only
Telugu,
used,
but
all
the
the
f
orms
of
the
verb.
participles, by
by
personal
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

THE

The Tel. verb

any

thou goest not.

to go,

This,however,is only an

is certain that the

with

the

instead of 'ak-a-nu'
have

thus

negationwhich

or

are

the included

apparent

for it
irregularity,

'p6v-a-nu' and
a' of

'

'p6v-a-vu.'

'kanu,' /

become not, is in

Telugu law of displacement,'kanu'

the equivalent
of the Tamil
ag-a-nu,'
'

arrived

at

the

conclusion

that 'a'

is the

being
'agen.'

signof

is

the formation of
from

forms

correct

of
lengthening

accordance

We

371

VOICE.

forms its ordinary

it is true, without
negative,
of this vowel of negation: e.g., 'ponu,'I go not, 'p6vu,'

trace

The

NEGATIVE

used by the Dravidian language in

systematically
the negativevoice of the verb.
It has,it is true, disappeared

the

conjugatedforms of the Tamil and Canarese ; but

the analogynot onlyof the Telugu personalforms,but also of the
Tamil and Canarese participles,
have
originally
proves that it must
been the

property of

all the dialects.

The

negative'a,'being
and Canarese by the initialvowel of the pronominal
with it : and an evisuffix,
dence
to have got incorporated
appears gradually
of this incorporation
survives in the euphoniclengtheningof the
pronominalvowel in Tamil and Tulu.
It is desirable now
and imperative
to inquireinto the participial
formatives of the negativeverb.
The negative
verbal participle
of the Tamil is formed by suffixing
a-du
a-mal ;'e.g., sey(y)-a-duor
not doing,or
or
iey(y)-a-mal,'
without doing. In the highestand lowest Tamil
mei
is used as the
formative of this participle
instead of mal,'e.g., varnv-a-mei,'
withconstitutes the ordinarytermination of abstract
oiji slipping. mei
and is added both to crude roots and to the relative participles
nouns,
of verbs ; e.g., tar-mei,'
a being
humility; iru-kkindr-a-mei,'
lowness,
the
termination
verbal
of
is
or
nouns
being. The formative
negative
the
tive,
formaidentical with this abstract mei ;'and
mal,'
participial
the
is evidently
form : for
original
equivalentto it,and probably
it is more
likelythat a final '1' should have been softened away than
The verbal noun
added by use.
of the Telugu negativeverb ends in
mei.'
the same
The other Tamil termination
as
mi,' which is virtually
verbal participles,
of negative
formative of
'du,'is an ordinary
of quality.The
neuter
nouns
correspondingCanarese termination is
de ;'and in Tamil
emphatic e,'is commonly
du,'with a subsequent
used as a negativeimperativeor prohibitive
do
; e.g., ^ey(y)-a-d-6,'
in 'du' or 'de'
verbal participle
not ihoUf"a,proof that the negative
of the negative
The relative participle
is properly a verbal noun.
verb in each of the dialects,
except the Telugu,is formed by suffixing
in
to the verbal participle
d-u,'eliding
a,'the signof the relative,
usual the enunciative
Tam., giy-a-da,'
u ;' e.g.,
as
sey(y)-a-da,'

succeeded

'

'

common

in Tamil

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

372

THE

Can,,that does or

did

VKRB.

Many additional

not.

the addition of the various tenses

verb,and
and

it is

negativeinfinitive in

formed.

The

adding ni/ instead

does

inflexional increments,and
will be

under

seen

The

negative

verbal

substantive

negativeimperative

Tamil

and

This

is also used

the head

the

by

ordinarily

are

is formed

by
Telugu
negativeparticle;
of the^ Telugu
ni
is one
of conjunction,
as
particle

relative 'a,'to the

did not.

constructed

of the
participle

of the usual

that
'chey-a-ni,'

that

Canarese

negativerelative

'

e.g.,

both

are

of the
participles

and

that verb

by the help of

forms

as

'

'

of the relative

participles.
negative imperative of

and
participle

the

Telugu requireto be separately

investigated.
Mr. A. D. Campbell,in his Telngu Grammar, states that the negative
verbal particle
is formed
'ka' to the infinitive of the
by suffixing
affirmative voice ; and that the prohibitive
Is formed
in like manner
with the ordinaryaddition
by sufiixingku or ka to the infinitive,
of 'mu' or 'mo.'
In consequence
of this representation.
Dr. Stevenson
has been led to consider
ku
as
a
Telugu sign of negation,and to
search for allied or
in other Indian
equivalentparticles
languages.
The comparisonof the negativeverbs in the various Dravidian
dialects
which has justbeen made, proves that this representation
is inaccurate,
'

'

'

'

'

'

and

that the 'a'

is not

the

'

'

particle a.'

to

which
forms

which
The

the

'ka'

the

signof

suffixes of the

and

'ku'

the

forms

aforesaid

are

suffixed

but
infinitive,

the

negative

in

not
are
therefore,
question,
'ku'
or
'ka,'but 'a-kn' and 'a-ka,'or 'a-ka;' and thus 'ch"y-aka,'without doing,or not having done, and 'chey-a-ku or
chey-a-ka,'
do not, come
into harmony with the other Telugu forms, viz.,'chSy-athe not doing; and also with the negative
ni,'thai does not, 'chey-a-mi,'
and verbals of the other dialects.
participles
The
of the Telugu imperativeand negativeverbal participle
a
it only remains
to inquireinto
beingundoubtedlythe signof negation,
the originof the 'ka' or 'ku' which is suffixed to it.
The
suffix
is evidently used in Telugu for the
ka
participial
'

'

'

'

'

same

Can.,

de.'
to

'ka'

as

purposes
'

also

'

the

Those

'

Tamil

suffixes

'du,''mal,' and

suffixes,
though used by

be

formatives

regarded as
proceeding from

verbal

of verbal

similar

'mei,'and

are
participles,
nouns.

the
doubtedly
un-

I consider

origin;for in Telugu many

verbal nouns
formed
in this very manner
are
by adding 'ka' to the
from
root: e.g., 'nammi-ka,'confidence,
to confide;and 'k6rinammn/
is kkei,'in Tamil
ka
korn,'to hope. This
ka,'hope,from
{e.g.,
and
in
Canarese
'nambi-kkei,'confidence),
it
is
or
:
ke/
a very
ge
formative
of
verbal
and
is
in
common
matives
equivalent use to the fornouns,
d or
of which
b
or
t,'
p,'is the initial. When
we
as

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

THE

NEGATIVE

Telugu derivative

373

VOICE.

ending in 'ka' {e.g.,

'teliyi-ka,'
the negativeverbal partisemblance,from
to appear) with
teliyu,'
ciples
of the same
end in
ka
language, "which invariably
{e.g.,
it is evident that the particle
'ka' is not that
not seeming),
teliy-a-ka,'
by which the difference in meaning is expressed. The vowel
a
which precedes ka
is evidentlythe seat of the difference. In those
in which
the derivative noun
cases
and the negativeparticiple
are
identical in sound
and appearance,
the negative a
has
absolutely
been absorbed by the precedinglong 'a' of the root.
This is the
of the similarity
between
cause
raka/ a coming,and
raka,'not or
without coming,the latter of which is for r"-a-ka.'
compare

nouns

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

In the dialect of the Kotas

of the

Nilgherryhills, p' is used as

the formative suffix of the negativeverbal participle
instead of the
d ;' e.g.,
Telugu k and the Tamil-Canarese
hogi-pe,'wiihoiit
going,correspondingto the Can. hdgade,'and the Tel. p6vaka.'
The Teluguprohibitive
suffix 'ku,' or more
commonly 'ka,' is,I
identical with 'ka,'the suffix of the verbal participle,
believe,
justas
d of de,'the vulgarTamil prohibitive,
the
is identical with the
d'
of
in the same
dialect.
da,' the negativeverbal participle
Dravidian imperativesare
in generalnothing but verbal nouns
do nst
pronounced emphatically.Hence, the Tamil
sey(y)-a-de,'
thou, is simply sey(y)-a-du,'
phatic
doing not, with the addition of the emdo not thou,
g :' and the Telugu chey-a-ku,'
or
chSy-a-ka,'
is in like manner,
I conceive,identical with the verbal participle
'cheywithout
with
understood.
an
a-ka,'doing not, or
emphasis
doing,
There
is iu classical Tamil
which
a
ponds
corresprohibitive
particle
to this Telugu prohibitive,
do
viz., anka;' e.g., sey(y)-auka,'
with both numbers
The Tamil
is used in connexion
not.
prohibitive
and every gender; and I believe that it is by usage only that the corresponding
Telugu form is restricted to the second person singular;
"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

for when

aka,'we

we

the

compare
doubt

Tarn.

that

they

'

'

sey(y)-aRka and
identical.

What

the

Tel.
is the

'chfiy-

origin
'al' (pronounced
'an' before 'k'),the particleof negation,and 'ka,'which
ka
is identical with
or
ga,'a sign of the Tamil infinitive,
tive,
optain
such
words
as
or
politeimperative,
apparent
'v8r-ga,'
(he,
may
All
in
verbal
end
in
nouns
thou, you, they,"c.)flourish.
Malayalam
'ka'
or
'ga,'and each of those verbals is used also as a polite
imperative;e.g., wari-ka' or wari-ga,'is either a coming or mayest
thou
accordingto the context : so that the infinitival,
come,
ticipial,
parthe
or
imperativeformative appears to have been originally
cannot

of this Tamil

'

'

'

formative of

are

suffix 'ankaf
prohibitive

verbal

'

'

noun.

it is derived

from

374
We
'

VERB.

THE

mani

minni.'

'

or

suffixed

is not

This

the G6nd, viz.,

of
particle
prohibitive

should here notice the

'

verb, but prefixed,

the

to

closelyresembles the Tamil suffix

do not ye: but the resemsuch words
blance
as
iey(y)an-min,'
particleof 'sey(y)purely accidental;for the prohibitive

like the Latin

"min,' in

'noli.'

'minni'
'

is

'

is not, as
min
al '), and
(euphonised from
but is a si^ of the second
Beschi supposes, a prohibitive
particle,
used in
and as such is systematically
person pluralof the imperative,
the higherdialect by the imperativeof the affirmative voice,as well
the Gond
as
Possibly
by the prohibitive;
e.g., 'poBu-min,'hear ye.
and
mat
mani,'is connected rather with the Hindustani
prohibitive,
of negation,
the Sanscrit ma,' and remotelywith the Turkish particle
'

an-min

is

'

'

'

'

an

'

'

'

'

'

'

me

"

or

which

ma;'

is used

like the Dravidian

in the formation

a'

minni
also closelyresembles
negativevoice of the verb.
the prohibitive
of the Scythiantablets of Behistun.
inni,'
particle

of the
'

'

Origin of
that

'

'

'

the theme

the

have
seen
negativeparticle. We
signof negation,and that it is inserted
signsof personalityand other suffixes to

the Dravidian

a'

is the Dravidian

between
form

'

'

and

the

negativevoice of the

"

verb.

alpha privative of the Indonatural

European tongues ? I think not, though this would be a more
of the
use
alpha privative than that of forming the temporal
augment in Sanscrit and Greek, accordingto Bopp'stheory. There
is no trace of
alphaprivative or any equivalentprivative
^'efixin
the Dravidian
languages; and its placeis suppliedby some
post-fixed
relative participle
verbal noun
formed from 'il' or 'al;'e.g., from
or
is formed
ner-inmei
or
ner,'Tam., straight
straightness,
('il-mei
want
crookedness,
of straightness.
euphonised),
The
of
the
Dravidian
'a'
negative
negativeverb is,I have no
al
the ordinaryisolated particleof
or
doubt, softened from
il,'
negation. This very signof negationis sometimes used by the Tamil
classics instead of 'a' in verbal combinations;e.g., aRJg-il-Jr,
you
know not, takes the placeof the more
:'
common
aRi-(y)-ircompare
also
not
considering
nine\-{y)-a.]iL,'
ieyg'-al-adar,'
theywho will not
;
do or they will not do.
In all these examples the ' al
is,I conceive,
the negativeparticle al,'not the
al
of the verbal noun.
There
be any doubt whatever of the negativeforce of al in the negacannot
tive
which are formed from
al-an or
he is not,
appellatives,
il-an,'
combined with verbal roots; e.g., 'pes-al-^m,'
we
speak not, 'und-il-ei,'
Is this

'

'

connected

the

with

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

thou

hast

eatest

not

voice

by suffixinghalle

or

not
'

The

eaten.
'

or

'

G6nd

'

'

'

forms
regularly

barbarous
hille,'
a

its negative

euphonisation

375

APPELLATIVES.

of the

'al'

'il;'and the dialect of the K6tas makes

of the particleilia,'This particle
a Himilar use
is also systematically
used in formingthe prohibitive,
of the High
or
negativeimperative,
Tamilj in which connexion
al is ordinarily
lengthenedto al or
be not angry.
But it is also
'el;'e.g., 'sel-el,'
go not, muni-(y)-el,'
correct

more

or

'

'

'

'

'

'

often retained

'

'

for al '),do not,

unchanged ; e.g., sey(y)-aR-ka('aB
and
sey(y)-an-min('an' for 'al'),do not ye. In modern vulgar
Tamil 'illei' (for'ilia')is commonly subjoined
to the infinitive of
the affirmative verb to form an aoristic negative;
e.g., vara"-(v)-illei
This form, though
(i,thou,he,"c.) did not, do not, or will not come.
'

'

'

'

'

is not

very common,

compounds evince

and
classical,

to break

has arisen from

up in process

the

tendencywhich

of time into their component

elements.
'

al

'

'

il

of negation in the oldest

being the isolated particle
Tamil dialect,
and being still used in various verbal combinations,I
conclude that
the verbal signof the negative,
has been softened
a
from
al.' Several parallelexamples of the softeningaway
of a
'

or

'

'

'

final

'

'

be adduced.

can

Tamil,has become
Tam.,
'

is in

muri-ta.'

of the

appears

dal,'the formative

of many

verbal

and

in

nouns

Telugu ; e.g., sey-dal,'

doing,
Tel. 'che-ta;' muRi-dal,'Taxa.,breaking,
is in Oanarese
It will also be shown
to be probable that
a,' the suflSx
'

ta

in Oanarese

'

'

'

has
infinitive,

alreadyseen

'

'

that

'

mei,' the

been

to have

from

weakened

been

another

suffix of the

Tamil

softened from

'

mal,' the

'al;'and

have

we

negativeverbal
suffix of the

noun

negative

verbal

participle.
Whatever
opinionwe

from

'

entertain

widely extended

al,' the

respectingthe derivation

aflBnities of

'

al,' al,'or
'

'

of 'a'

el,'the

are
prohibitiveor negativeimperativeparticle,
deservingof notice.
The
prohibitive
particleof the Santal, a K61 dialect,is 'ala;'the
also is 'ala;'the Ostiak
Finnish prohibitive
'ila;'and we find a
la.'
in the Hebrew, viz., al ;'Chaldee
similar prohibitive
even
particle
'

V.
In

Appellative

'

Verbs.

languagesof the Scythian group, verbal terminations,or

those pronominal fragments in which
verbs terminate,are
suffixed
which nouns
become by that addition denominative
to nouns;
directly
or
appellativeverbs, and are regularlyconjugatedthrough every
number
and person;
paz,'the Lord, the Mordwin
e.g., from the noun
some

'

forms

/
'paz-an,'

Lord's, it forms

merelynouns
appliesto

of
nouns

am

the

Lord;

'paz-an-an,'I

qualityin

the

appliesto

and
am

from
the

the

possessive'paz-an,'
Lord's.
Adjectivesbeing

Scythianlanguages,
every rule which
also. In the New
adjectives
Persian,

376

VERB.

THE

probably through
there is

influence of the

the

similar

of

compound

noun

or

the verbal terminations;e.g., 'merd-em/ I-am

and

man,

'

em,'

the contracted form

guages,
Scythian lan-

conterminous

with
adjective,
from
merd/ a

an

'

man,

verb /

of the substantive

am.

languagesand those of the

verbs
Scythian familywith respect to the formation of appellative
of this character is complete. Any Dravidian
and any adjective
noun
The

the Dravidian

between

agreement

be converted
may
of the Dravidian

into

verb

in the

dialects of each

ancient

more

in the
connexions
even
languages,and in some
to it the usual pronominal
dialects,
colloquial
by simply suffixing
be thus
in the nominative
case
fragments: and not only may nouns
the obliquecase-basis,
old genitive,
or
conjugatedas verbs,but even
in High Tamil, as in Mordwin, be adopted as a verbal theme.
may
Tamil grammarians call these verbs
literally
vinei-(k)kuRippu,'
been styledconjugated
verbal signs;and they have,not inappropriately,
I think the best
: but
nouns
by an Englishwriter on Tamil Grammar
is that which
was
name
given them by Beschi, viz., appellative
'

'

verbs.'

Appellativeverbs
person, but
of

conjugated through

are

number

every

restricted to the present tense ; or rather

tense, for the idea of time is excluded from them.

no

they are

and

they are

kon,' Tarn.,a king,may be formed

Thus, from
kon-en,'1 am a
king; kon-ei,'thou art a king; kon-em,' we are kings; kon-ir,'ye
'

'

'

'

are

kings.

also

So

formative
genitival
the

we
'

may
in,'and

king, or

the

'

to the

annex

then

from

we
king's,

crude

the

base the

obliqueor

constructive

new

base

only form the appellative

he
who
is
the
k6n-in-an,'
king's; kon-in-ar,'
theywho
nouns,
the king's
are
verb,
(eachof which may be used also as an appellative
he
is
the
the
it signifies
when
or
king's,
they are
king's)
; but we
may
verbal
also form the more
/
distinctively
appellatives,kon-in-en,'
the king's,
"c.
This use
the king's, kon-in-em,'we
of the
are
am
obliqueor 'inflexion' as the basis of appellativeverbs is a peculiarity
of High Tamil; but the formation of appellative
verbs from
'

k6n-in,'of

,may

not

'

'

'

'

the nominative

base of

crude

or

'

'

poet:

common

to the whole

vidian
Dra-

in

sevakudu,' a servant, or
vowel), from
verbs
s6vakunda-nu,'/ am
appellative
'

is

Telugu (in which the vowel of the" pronominal

varies by rule in accordance with the preceding

family. Thus,
termination

nouns

sevakunda-vu,'thou

art

'

kavi,'a poet,

we

form

the

/ am
a
'kavi-ni,'
thou art a poet.
servant; 'kavi-vi,'
a

servant;

pluralthe Telugu has allowed the base of the noun

(towhich
the pronominalterminations
to be pluralised,
are
affixed)
apparently
that the pluralsignof the pronominalterrainafrom having forgotten
lu the

378

THE

Tamil

than

in the lower ; and

VERB.

brevityand compressionrender

its

adaptedfor metaphoricaluse.
peculiarly
verbs
Adjectivesare formed into appellative
the Dravidian

as

adjectiveis merely a

the difference is more

in terms

well

as

nouns

but

vally,
qualityused adjecti: e.g.,
oli-(y)-ei,'
reality
of

noun

in

than

as

it

'

iili-(y)-ei,'
brightness
; and
thou art sweet, is thou art sweetness.
Appellativeverbs are formed
from adjectives,
of quality,
not only in the cultivated DrS.vior
nouns
dian dialects,
but even
in the Ku, which
is spoken by a barbarous
race
Ku, / am good, negg-amu,'we are good.
; e.g., negg-S.nu,'
When
verbs
of qualityare
used as the bases of appellative
.nouns
nouns
or
they are generallyadopted in their crude shape,as in the
Tam.,

thou art

is literally
thou
bright,

'

'

which

instances

'

art

have

justbeen

cited ; but

in many
cases
the crude base and the

we

find the

between
pronominal
particle iya'intervening
termination
or signof gender ; e.g., 'kod-iya-n'
(as'a verb),he is cruel;
a strong man
val-iya-n,'
(as a noun) one who is cruel,or a cruel man
;
he is strong,"c.
This is the same
which we have already
or
particle
be used as an
to
formative ; e.g., val-iya,'
seen
adjectival
strong,
'

'

'

'

little,
"c., and
per-iya,'
great, siR-iya,
'

like these

I have

stated that I conceive

be relative

'i' is identical with the

participles,
i of the past verbal participle,
which is often used in Telugu as an
without
formative
adjectival
any addition;and the final 'a' is the
which is kept separate from 'i' by an euphonic'y.'
signof the relative,
and
participle,
'iya'is therefore the formative of the relative preterite
properlythat which was strong. But though
strong,means
val-i-(y)-a,'
is employed,the signification
tense
the form of the preterite
(as
the
of
in
relative
is
case
often happens,especially
participles)aoristic
This
reference to time.
I conceive,
without
as
or
being the origin,
like 'val-iya-n,'
noun
of such forms as
an
a strong
appellative
val-iya,'
he who is strong,and so
a participial
signifying
noun,
man, is in reality
of the other genders; and this explanation
bringssuch forms into perfect
with
other
of
the
Dravidian
conjugational
parts
harmony
system,
u
sed
in
these
for participial
verbs.
nouns
are
regularly
languagesas
the
of
the
relative
In some
is dispensed
instances, a,'
sign
participle,
of
and
the
with,
pronominalsignsor signs gender are elegantly
suffixed to
i,'the sign of the verbal participle,
Tarn.,
e.g., peri-du,'

words
'

to

'

'

'

'

'

'

that which

is great,instead of

peri-(y)-a-du.'
On the other hand, in another class of instances,i disappears,
Words
of this class,
alone remains.
when deprived
of their
and
a
and undoubtedly
it is
signsof gender,are commonly called adjectives,
that theyare used ; but lookingat their construction and
as
adjectives
it is great,or

'

'

'

'

'

force I would

term

them

relativeparticiples
vei-bs.
of appellative

PRONOMINAL

In the words

annexed
directly

referred to,

379

SIGNS.

'a,'the sign of

the relative

to crude substantive roots ; e.g.,

whieh
literally

is the property

'

is
participle
ing
belongudei-(y)-a/
malei-(y)-a,'
hUly,

of.
which is a hill; ti-y-a,'
which is evil. As
udeiliterally
evil,
literally
he
an
(y)-an/considered as a noun, is certainly
appellative,
signifying
who owns, a proprietor,
word
and as the same
is used poetically
as an
when
it
he
is
the
it
evident that
appellative
verb,
owner
seems
signifies
;
the proper light
in which to regard 'iidei-(y)-a'
(and every similar word)
is to consider it as the relative participle
verb used
of an appellative
to,more

'

'

'

adjectivally.

ConjugationalSystem.
Mode

of

Drividian

Pronominal

annexing

verb, includingthe

Signs.

The

"

of the

persons

gender and number,

related ideas of

are

formed

the personalor demonstrative

their
or
by suffixing
pronouns
to the signsof tense.
fragmentaryterminations,
The change which
the pronouns
undergo when they are appended
to verbs as
have alreadybeen exhibited in the
signs of personality
The Pronoun.'
in the softening
section on
They consist chiefly
away
'

of the initial consonant; but in

also been softened away,

Telugu, ni-vu,'the
'

both

and

terminations

of the

verb

few

instances

nothingleftbut
of the

pronoun

its radical initial and

second

its formative

it is

the final consonant

the included

vowel.

has
In

has lost
person singular,
final j and in the personal

represented
only by

vu,' an

'

euphonic

addition.

Indo-Europeanlanguagesthe personalsignsof the verb are

formed
ments
by suffixing
pronominalfragmentsto the root ; and those fragin
the
in
still
than
Dravidian
are
disguised a
greater degree
not
languages,
only by frequencyof use and rapidityof enunciation,
and forming
but also by the love of fusingwords and particles
together,
that familyof
them into euphoniouscompounds,which distinguishes
dialect alone furnishes the key to the explaone
nation
tongues. Sometimes
which
of the inflexional forms
are
apparent in all. Thus, the
or
pluralin the
ant,'the sign of the third person
originof unt
various
Indo-European languages (e.g.,fer-uut,'^ep-ovTi,'bharanti,'"c.)is found in the Welsh alone,in which
hwynt' is a pronoun
of the third person plural.
The
various
changes which the Dravidian pronouns undergo on
beingused as the pronominal signs of verbs have alreadybeen stated
In Telugu,and partlyalso in Canarese,the pronominalterin order.
minations
vary accordingto the tense ; but this arises from the operaIn the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

380
of harmonic

tion of the law

by

VERB.

THE

which

vowel

to harmonise

the mode

with

in which

(see the section

sequences

on

'

Sounds

'),

precedingvowel, and changed so as

is simply
here to be investigated
What
requires
pronominalsignsare attached to the Dravidian

is affected
it.
the

by

verb.

(1.)The pronominalsignsof the Dravidian verb,like those of the

not presuflBxed,
are
primitiveIndo-Europeanand Scythianlanguages,
fixed.
the
verbs
of
most
In the modern
Indo-European vernaculars,
which
and the pronouns
have lost their old pronominal terminations,
used as nominatives
to verbs
are
are
usuallyisolated and placedfirst.
Thus,
learnt

instead
to

say

of
I

with

in accordance
love-I,

love,
"

alteration of

an

change in meaning.
In the Semitic languagesa change
from

the

termination

of the

verb

the ancient

positionwhich

in the

of
position

its commencement

to

'am-o,'we

have

produces no
the

pronoun

produces an
positionof the

: the
important change in grammatical signification
When
the
or
pronominalfragments determines the tense.
pronouns
the tense of the verb is regardedas
pronominalfragmentsare prefixed,
future or aoristic: it is regardedas past when
fixing
they are suffixed. Prethe pronominalfragments denotes that the action of the verb
existence in the mind of the speaker or
has, as yet, only a subjective
it is future j suffixing
them denotes that the action of the
agent," i.e.,
verb has alreadyacquiredan
objectiveexistence,apart from the will
it is past.
wish of the speakeror agent, i.e.,
or
kind
of this
characterises the Dravidian
No peculiarity
languages:
of the positionof the pronouns,
the tenses are formed, not by means
but by particles
or
signsof present, past,and future time suffixed to
in the Turkish and Finnish
the theme ; and the personalsigns,as
suffixed to the signsof tense.
The only exceptionto this
are
families,

rule is that
alara

"

which

forms

languagewhich
but

the most

have

to

appears

which, in

characteristic feature of the

far

been

Malay-

derived
directly

from

its

cerned,
conjugational
system is conhas relapsedinto a condition
nearlyresemblingthat of the
Mongolian, the Manchu, and other rude primitivetongues of High
Asia.
In ancient times, as may
be gathered from Malayala poetry,
from inscriptions
and especially
preservedby the Syrian Christians and
the Jews, the pronouns
suffixed to the Malayala verb, precisely
were
At present, the verb is entirely
as
divested,
they still are in Tamil.
of signsof personality
at least in the colloquial
dialect,
; and with the
and gender also have necessarily
appeared
dispronouns, the signsof number

the

Tamil,
"

be

so

so

that the pronoun

separatelyprefixedto

the

or

verb

as

nominative
to

must

in every instance

and
completethe signification,

PRONOMINAL

it is chiefly
by

381

SIGNS.

of this

prefixedpronoun that a verb, properlyso

is distinguished
from a verbal participle.Though the personal
called,
signshave been abandoned by the Malayala verb, the signsof tense or
time have been retained,and are annexed directly
to the root as in the
other dialects. Even
in madern
of the verb
English some
persons
retain archaic fragmentsof the pronominalsigns {e.g.,
lovest,
loveth)
;
of those signs has disappeared.
but in the Malayalam every trace
/ heat ; 'adittay,'
thou
Thus, whilst we would say in Tamil 'aditten,'
didst heat; adittan,'
he heat; the Malayalam uses
in these and all
similar cases
the verbal participle
'atichu' (for adittu'),
having
heaten,with the prefixedpronouns 1, thou,he,"c. : eg,, njan atichu,'
means

'

'

'

I heat ;

'

ni

thou
atichu,'

didst beat ;

'

avan

he
atichu,'

heat.

Though the pronominalsignshave been lost by the Malayalaverb,

they have been retained even by the Tuda ; and notwithstandingthe
barbarityof the Gronds and Kus, their conjugational
system is peculiarly
elaborate and complete.
in the manner
(2.)Another and distinctively
Scythian peculiarity
the personalsigns are
sufiixed in the Dravidian languages
in which
to the root, as in the Indoconsists in their annexation,not directly
The first suffix to
European family,but to the temporalparticiples.
lows
the root in the affirmative voice is that of the signof tense,then folaffirmative verb
the suffix of personality.Every pure Dravidian
thus arrangedand named
is compounded of three elements,which
are
Sans.) or
by Tamil grammarians, viz.,(i.)the pagudi ('pracriti,'
the
medial
or
i.e., signof tense;
particle,
root; (ii.)the 'idei nilei,'
the 'vigudi'('vicriti,'
and (iii.)
Sans.),the variation or differentia,
'

'

the pronominaltermination.
i.e.,

signsof tense
changes take place (not in
When

which

the

serve,

as

has

been

are

attached to the theme, some

the

shown,

theme, but
to

in the

euphonic

signsthemselves),

transitive verbs from

distinguish

euphonicchanges also take placein accordance

will be inquiredinto when
those
with Dravidian laws of sound, which
The
changeswhich take
signs of tense are one by one examined.
to the signs of
placein the pronominalsignswhen they are annexed
intransitives.

Other

alreadybeen stated in the section on the Pronoun.'

with no instance of the
meet
In the Indo-European languages we
to the comi.e.,
bination
annexation of the pronominalsignsto the participles,
of
tense.
We
have
the
of
instance
no
of the root with
signs
instead of am-o,'to signify/ love.
the use of any form like amant-o,'
employed in the
This, however, is the method which is invariably
and which constitutes an essential element in the
Dravidian languages,
familylikeness by which they are pervaded. It is also distinctive of
tense

'

have

'

'

382

THE

the Turkish.

Thus^

the

VERB.

Turkish

'

61ursen,'thou art,

tlie present participle

of
'61ur,'
beinff,

verb

the

'

is formed

from

ol,'to be, with

the

addition of the pronoun

'sen,'thou. So also the Oriental Turkish
'
and
bol"men,'/ am, is formed from ' b6]a,'heinff
(theme ' b61,'to be),
the

pronominalsuffix men,' /.
An importantdifference which is generally
found to exist between
the Dravidian
languagesand the North Indian vernaculars should here
be stated.
In the languagesof Northern
India the present tense of -a
verb is ordinarily
verb to its
formed by annexing the substantive
I am
present participle,
Beng. ('ka,nte-aehi'),
doinff,
e.g!.,'karitechi,'
'

instead of / do.
In

Telugu, probablythrough the influence of the North-Indian

in the present
vernaculars,a similar usage prevails
; hut it is found
tense only,it may
readilybe dispensedwith, and the simpler usage,
which
accords
with that of all the other Dravidian
is undoubtedly
dialects,
the

more

substantive verb, as
is unknown

ancient.
an

it is used

In

Tamil

and

Canarese

this

use

of the

auxiliaryin the formation of the present tense,

as
an
auxiliaryonlyin the formation of the

and future tenses.

compound preterite
The Malayalam occasionally
the substantive verb in a similar
uses
to the Telugu,but with a somewhat
different signification.
manner
In
Telugu naduchutunnanu,' / walk (from naduchu-tu,'
walking,and
unnanu,' / am), has simply the meaning of the present tense,and is
equivalentto the simplerform naduchutanu,'answeringto the Tamil
"nadakkiEen,' and the Canarese
nadeyuttene;'but in Malayalam,
I walk, fijannatakkunnunta has
whilst njan natakkunnu,' means
generallya progressive
walking or continuingto walk.
sense, e.g., I am
It
o
f
the
is
a peculiarity
(3.)
Telugu that the third person of the
destitute of the signsof time,persou,
is sometimes leftaltogether
preterite
number, and gender; and this peculiarity
appliesalso to the third
'

'

'

'

'

'

person

'

of the aorist.

thou wast,

Thus,

suppliedwith

whilst

'

unditini,'/

'

was,

and

'

unditivi,'

the usual

signsof tense and person, the

third person of the same
tense is simply uude-nn,'
he,she,or it was, or
or
theywere, without distinction of number
gender,and without even
the particle ti,'
which
constitutes the usual sign of the preterite.
The aorist third person, with a similar absence of distinction,
is 'unduin
the
final
is
both cases
nu
nu
;'and
merelya conjunctive
suffix,
like the corresponding
Tamil
'um.'
Sometimes
the aorist foreven
mative
are

'

'

'

'

nu' is discarded,and

'

the root alone is used

as

the third person

either be ' padu-

singular. Thus {he,she,or it)fallsor will fall,may

Tamil occasionally
nu,'or simply'padu.'The usage of poetical
agrees
with that of the Telugu with respectto the neuter
gender, both

Ot

FORMATION

in
singularand plural,
especially

connexion

the verb

not

e.g.,

it will
sey(y)-",'

similar to that of the

usage

"which

'

widely different one

are

383

TENSES.

with

the

do, is often used

negativevoice of
for sey(y)-adu.'

Telugu prevailsin

from

'

languages

many

the other.

of the
for the third person singular
Persian uses
Thus, the New
the contracted infinitive,
as
preterite
grammarians styleit ^an abstract
verbal noun, which
The
be regarded as the theme of the verb.
may
Hebrew
of the preterite
third person masculine
tense is also a verbal
without
We
similar peculiarity
in
see
a
noun,
pronominal addition.
the third person of the present tense of the verb in some
languages;
"

the three

e.g., compare

substantive

of the

persons

of the Turkish

present tense

thou art ; olur,'he is.

olursen,'
kanann,' / sing; kanez,*thou singest;
Compare also the Armorican
kan,' he sings. Compare with these examples the Hungarian
ismer,'he knows.
'ismerek,'I know; 'ismersz,'thou knowest ; 'and
does
(4.) The Dravidian verb,like that of many other languages,
the second,
the genders of either the first person
not
or
distinguish
whether singularor plural; but in the third person it marks all existing
and minuteness.
distinctions of gender with peculiarexplicitness
tions
Thus, without the use of isolated pronouns, and employing the inflecof the verb alone,we
he comes
can
:
varugiRan,'
say in Tamil
it comes
she comes
varugiRadu,'
varugiaar,'
they(men
varugiBal,'
;
;
he comes
and women) com^, or honoriflcally
varugiRargal,'
they(men
;
and women) come
come.
they(things)
varugindrana,'
;

verb,

'

olurum,' /

'

'

am

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Formation

op

tenses.

is therefore

Most

"

forms
participial

from

formed

the

of

Dravidian

the

of the verb ;

inquiryinto

an

preliminaryto

necessary

tenses

the

are

ticiples
par-

inquiry into the

an

of which
one
participles,
of
because they include the signification
(calledrelative participles,
the relative pronoun),will be inquiredinto in a subsequent part of
this section ; the other,commonly called verbal participles
or
gerunds,
Dravidian

tenses.

and which
tenses

are

verbs have

to be

now

formed.

are

The

two

considered,constitute the

forms

into
will be inquired
participles
from

the

consideration of which

myselfhere

with

some

speciesof

which

assumed

are

in connexion

they

general remarks

bases

cannot

with

by

which
the

the

verbal

signsof tense,

be severed.

the

on

the

on

I content

and
signification

force

pf this class of words.

Verbal
and in

Tamil
and force. In ordinary
their significadon
participles:

Malayalam,there

"

is but

one

verbal

tense; in all the other dialects there is

of the past
of the
verbal participle

that
participle,
a

384

VERB.

THE

present

tense

as

well

as

of the

past.

In

this

the
therefore,
particular,

Tamil

(with its daughter,the Malayalam) may be considered as the

dialects.
It partlymakes
poorest of the Dravidian
compensationfor
the deficiency
by the use in the classical idiom of a verbal participle
of the future,
which
of its sister dialects possesses.
Even
the
none
classical idiom, however,
is destitute of a present verbal participle.
are
Properlyspeaking,the words which are called verbal participles
riot participles
at all,
seeingthat they do not participatein the nature
of adjectives,
all the Indo-European participles
do.
as
They have
somewhat
of the signification
of gerunds, inasmuch
in addition to
as
the idea of time, they include more
less of the idea of cause.
or
each of the Indo-European participles
is commonly
as
Nevertheless,
used also as a gerund,without losingthe name
of a participle,
and as
the gerund in do
(to which alone, amongst Latin gerunds, the
have
Dravidian
participles
any resemblance)has a very restricted
advisable after all,to stylethese words
it appears
application,
ticiples
parinstead of gerunds, or more
tinguish
to disfullyverbal participles,
'

'

"

them

from

what

are

followingsentences
verbal participles.
The

in Tamil
in
'

and

Telugu.

will illustratethe force of the Dravidian

is unknown
participle.This verbal participle
Malayalam; but is commonly used both in Canarese and

(1.)Present
I

verbal

called relative participles.

quote the

"

illustration which

Vikramdrha, punishingthe

wicked

follows from

the Canarese.

and

the good,reignedover
protecting
the kingdom.' Here the Englishwords
punishingand protecting,
are
of the present tense, used gerundially;
and the Dravidian
participles
words which they represent,(in Canarese,
sikshisutta and
rakshithe same
force.
In this respect only there is a
sutta)have precisely
difierence between
them,viz.,that the English participles
are
capable
whereas
the Dravidian
of being used also as adjectives,
words,though
be used adjectivally,
cannot
in
called participles,
or
any other way
than that here exemplified.
'

verbal

'

'

participle. Sdlivdhana,having lulled 'Vikramdrka, assumM

supreme power.^ Though the Englishparticiple
having
is here used,is a compound one
killed which
formed
from
(being
the
and
the
participle
having,
passiveparticiple
its signipresent
killed),
fication
is that of a simple,uncompounded participle
of the past tense
and the Dravidian word which it represents ("kondru,'Tam,
kondu,'
verbal
a
ctive
also
a
preterite
Can.) is
participle.In this instance
the Dravidian one
neither the English participle
nor
is capable of
theyare both {)reterite
beingused as an adjective.In reality,
gerunds

(2.)Preterite

'

"

'

386
to

THE

man
a
collof|uial
'),he walked, literally
nadancla(v)an

the

who

'

toalked.
the

VERB.

In

such

force of

verb.

This

verbal

is not

uncommon

an

is used with

noun
participial

or

guages
in other lan-

usage

the third person

Tamil
colloquial
is certainly
a verbal noun
singularand plural,

also; and
verb, bot!i

instances

of the

neuter

in

in its

origin,

though used with the force of a verbj e.g., 'nadandadu,' it walked,

means
a
thing which walked; and the plnral nadanda(n)aj'
literally
of the poetical
The
means
peculiarity
literally
thingswhich walked.
'

of this usage to each person

I walked, literally
/ who walked; '
nadanda(n),en,'

of the

dialect is the extension

'

verb;

e.g.,
'

nadanda(n)am

or

who walked.
we
nadanda(n)em,'we walked, literally
the
This mode
of forming the tenses
has been developed from
Dravidian
of usingparticipial
and verbal nouns
as the conjugacustom
tional bases of verbs,and, so far,is in accordance with the geniusof

'

language; but it has a constructive,artificial look, and it is an

exceptionto the mode which prevailsthroughoutall the other dialects
of the family,whether
classical.
or
colloquial
ticiple,
(2.) The Tamil has, properly speaking,no present verbal parsuffixed
to
which
is
but only a particle
denotingpresent time,
of the verb, and
the pronominalsignsare then
tlie theme
to which

the

suffixed for the

however,

purpose
of the

of
root

forming
and

the

the

The

present tense.

tion,
combina-

particleof present time,

forms

a
virtually
present participle.I think it may, therefore,be assumed
of the present tense at a former
that the Tamil had a verbal participle
with
become
obsolete,except in combination
period,which has now
the personalterminations,
when
it constitutes the present tense of the

verb.

(3.) The signof the present tense in the Ancient Canarese verb,
unconnected
with the formative
of the present verbal
is altogether
of the ancient
dialect is
participle.The present verbal participle
is
identical with that of the modern
one, the temporalsignof which
'tta'
or
utta,'whilst 'dap' or 'p' is the sign of the present tense
of the verb in the ancient dialect ; e.g., baldapeu ('bal-dap-en
),I
'

'

'

live.

Telugu usage of employing the substantive verb in a

modified
form
unnavu,' thou art, "c.)as an
(viz.,unnanu,' lam,
auxiliaryin the formation of the present tense, can scarcelybe called
above ; for this auxiliary
is
an
exceptionto the generalrule specified
which
is closely
annexed
allied to
to the present verbal
participle)
(4.) The

'

that of the

Canarese; and

of the
of the

'

its

grammarians,not

presenttense.

use
a

in this connexion
necessary

element

is

only a

ment
refine-

in the formation

THE

These real

inquireinto

PRESENT

387

TENSE.

being disposedof,it remains

apparent exceptions

or

the formation

of the present verbal

in
participles

to

the

via,rious
dialects.
Formation

of

Present.

the

dialect of the Canarese

In both the ancient and

"

the modern

of the present tense is

participle
formed by suffixing
to the verbal theme, uta/ ute,' utta/ nttCj'
or
utta;'e.g., hkl-Mt-a.,'
living
reading; ond-utta,'joining;
; '6d-ute,'
ili-(y)-utte,'
doing. Of these particlesutta'
descending; mad-utt"l,'
is most
had but one
t origicommonly used. Probably this particle
nally;
and it seems
also probablethat the initial u is euphonic,
and
of the majorityof the verbal
derived from the final eupbonic u
form of this particle
themes.
The primitive
would therefore appear to
the verbal

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

been 'ta'

have

'te.'

Or

of the

the initial vowel

with

it; e.g.,

final

The

'

'a'

vowel,

'

or

e,'is elided before

porated
pronominal signs,or rather perhaps,incor'baluttene' ('bal-utt'-ene'),/ Uve; 'balutti'

thou livest.
('bal'-utt'-i'),
of the Telugu is ordinarily
The presentverbal participle
formed by
sionally
adding 'cbu' (pronounced 'tsu') to the theme of the verb. Occainstead of 'chu.'
'ka' is used to form the present participle
is used instead of
chu ;'and though it
dialect tu
In the colloquial
be the original,
that
chu
and
tu
is possible
(from tsu ')the
may
in accordance
with analogyto derive
corruption,
yet it would be more
from 'tu;' and this 'tu' so nearly resembles the Canarese
chu
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

ta

or

'

te,'that

we

may

safelyconclude

both

forms

to have been

which in most
identical. Probably also
du,'the particle
originally
the verbal theme and
instances is inserted as a signof tense between
the pronominalterminations of the Telugu aorist,
springsfrom the
'

'tu.'

originas

same

'chunnu'
of the

or

'tunnu,'the ordinarytermination

present tense

derived from

'

chu

grammaticalTelugu, is

in

'

or

'

tu,'the real and

of the

participle

compound form

onlysignof

presenttime in

of the substantive verb

participle

undu,'
language,and unnu,'a
to he,used as an auxiliary.
the originof the use of
I cannot offer any opinionrespecting
tu,'
*ta,'or 'te,'as a sign of present time in Telugu-Canarese. We
'

this

'

'

'

at
or
t,'the formative of the
might propose to compare it with
conquering. at,'however,is
Sanscrit priesent
participle,
e.g., jayat,'
'

'

'

'

'nt,'the affinitiesof which lie

besides which, this form is used onlyas
different direction;
softened from

riot also

or

gerund.
might also compare
as

in a
a

widely

participle,

'

formative with
te
Telugu-Canarese
the formative of the Bengalipresent participle,
e.g., 'karite,'
'ite,'
We

or

'ant'

the

'

388

THE

VERB.

doing; but this form is identical with

language,and

same

be the dative

less common

'

te

'

or

locative of

or

'

ite

'

with reason, to
supposed,
ka,' the secondaryand

has been

verbal

infinitive in the

of the

that

'

noun.

Telugu present,may perhapshave been

derived from 'gir' or 'kir,'the signof the present tense in Tamil.
The Tulu signof the participle
of the present tense is v,' which
is identical with the Tamil-Canarese
signof the future or aorist. The
is formed in Ku
pi;'and in
present paryciple
by suffixing i or
Gond by suffixingi,' si (properly
or
kun,'
signsof the preterite),
which is identical with the Malayala 'kunnu.'
The signof present time used by the Tamil and Malayalam, differs
from that of the Telugu-Canarese.
considerably
The
is formed
in Tamil
by suffixing'giR-u,'
present tense
or
gindr-u,'
anindr-u,'to the verbal theme, to one or other of which
formative of the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

particlesthe pronominal signs are

form, which is rarelyused even

'Anindr-u'

annexed.

by

the

poets,and

is
is

pound
com-

derived,I

a-gu,'to he or become (and

which
is not
nnfrequentlyused in this shape in the poets),and
nindr-u,'standing,abiding. The other particlesof present time,
the former;
in common
'giR-u'and 'gindr-u,'
are
use, especially
The only difference
he comes.
varu-gindr'-an,'
e.g., varu-giR-in or
between
them
is that
euphoniousand
gindr-u is considered more
suitable in consequence
for poetry and
elegantthan giR-u,'and more
elevated prose.
I have no doubt that they are identical in origin,
and
that the one
is merely an euphonisedform
of the other.
In some
connexions
'giR-u' and 'gindr-u'are changed by dialectic rules of
and
kkindr-u,'viz.,when
euphony to kkiR-u
they are attached
of two short syllables
to roots consisting
(like padu',to lie, iru,'to
the
final
vowel
of
which
is regarded as a part
be, nada,' to walh)
It is a rule of the
of the root, and
is incapableof being elided.
g,' d,' b,'immediately
languagethat if in such cases the sonants
follow,they shall be hardened, that is,converted into the corresponding
surds
ing
k,' t,'and
p ;' and in Tamil the only method of hardenfor it has already
been shown that
sonants is by doubling them,
is a sonant
when
in this language the same
consonant
singleand a
Hence
/ am,
doubled.
not
surd when
we
iru-gin-en,'
say in Tamil
conceive,from

'

ultimate

a,'the

base of

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

but

'

iru-kkiR-en.'

many
and
cases

similar

class of instances from

numerous

in

result
a

follows

different

in

cause.

another

and

more

It has been shown

part of this section that transitive or active verbs are in

instances made
intransitivesby the hardening
to differ from

former

doublingof the initial consonant

'giR-u'and 'gindr-u'become

of the

signof

(notfor

tense.

the sake

of

In

such

euphony

THE

merely,but
'

as

PKESENT

of

means

389

TENSE.

grammatical expression)'kkiB-u'

and

kkindr-u.'
The

the

Malayalam

the

uses

sign of present time

in

signof
MalayMam is

'

modified

somewhat

tense

same

'

unnu

kkunnu,' suf-

'

or

fixed to the verbal theme.

'

Where

the Tamil

gindru,'the Malayalam has 'unnu;'

and where
the Tamil
has
is used by the
kkindru,'there kkunnu
Malayalam. The Malay"la particleis clearlya softened and euphonised
form of the Tamil one.
is
ndr
The Tamil compound sound
would

'

use

'

'

'

'

'

'

converted
into
in Malayalam ; e.g., ondru,'Tarn.,
nn
constantly
one, is in Malayalam 'onna,' and
'mundru,' Tam., three,is in Malayalam
'

'

munna.'

Even

'

in

Tamil
the same
or
a
vulgar colloquial
similar tendencyappears;
'ondru/ one, being commonly pronounced
and
onnu,'
The
Tam.
mundru,' three, munu.'
gindru and
kkindru
be converted
and dialectically
would, therefore,
naturally
in Malayalam to 'ginnu' and 'kkinnu.'
The
next
point is the
of the 'g' of
cumstance
softening
ginnu.' This has arisen from the ciraway
that in Tamil
is pronounced in the middle of a word
g
so
to be littlemore
than an
as
softly
indistinct,
guttur.nl
breathing:
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in consequence
and

in

the

of which

it is used to represent the

colloquialdialect it is often

'

'

of the

Sanscrit,

discarded

altogether;
e.g.,
he
commonly pronounced
varugiKan,'
vari-Ran
va-Ran.'
Hence
or
comes,
ginnu (from gindru')would
become
in Malayalam 'innu.' The onlyremainingdifference
naturally
is between
the 'i' of 'innu' and the
of 'unnu;' and this preu
sents
for
Tamil
in
i
is
often
no
even
difficulty,
pronouncedas
very
the
of
the
is a middle
aud
the
u
u
by
vulgar,
Malayala unnu
'

/ go, is
pogiBen,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

sound

The

between

'

i'

identityof

of the Tamil,

and
the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

p6-Ren;'and

'

'

u,'

Malayalasignof

be doubted.

the

Sometimes

present

tense

with

that

in

Malayala poetry the

pronominal signsare sufllixedto the signsof tense, as in Tamil; and
in that connexion
of the signsof tense is clearly
the identity
apparent;
he
adikkindran
-wiih
Tam.,
('adi-kkindr-4n'),
heats,
e.g., compare
in poeticMalayalam, atikkunnan
the correspondingform
('atikkunn'-an ').
A prioriit might have been supposed that the Malayala unnu
kkunnu
related to
chunnu
or
or
was
tunnu,' the sign of the
in Telugu. The resemblance,
however, is altogether
presentparticiple
is derived from the Tamil 'gindru'
for the Malayalaparticle
illusory;
is compounded of chu,'
or
kkindru,'whilst the Telugu chunnu
of undu,'to be;
the real signof present time, and 'unnu,'a participle
is in Malayalam
which participle
unta.'
cannot

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

390

VEKB.

THE

I have

'giR-u'and 'tfindru'are
is merelyan euphonised form of
one
gindr-u is the secondaryform,and

T believe the Tamil

Baid that

identical in

and
origin,

the other.

I have

that
doubt

no

the
that

'

'

gia-u.' There are many instances of

words ending in 'ru'
converted euphonicallyinto
ndru,'of which
will suffice as an
one
example, viz., muru,' Can., three,which has
been converted into mundru,'Tam., but per contra there is no instance
of 'ndr' being simplified
into 'r' or
extant
'r;' and the fondness
for nasal sounds which
is inherent
in the Dravidian
languages,forbids
the supposition
of any such change ever
having taken place. If this
that it has

derived

been

'

from

'

'

'

view

of the

case

is correct,it detracts

for
Malayalam to high antiquity,
the

change

of 'kkJR-u'

'

to

from

somewhat
that

it proves

it

the claim

of the

subsequentto

was

kkiudr-u,'i.e.,subsequentto the

mencement
com-

phoneticrefinement of the Tamil language,that the

Malayalam acquireda separate existence and a distinct placeof its
of the

dialects.

amongst the Dravidian

own

The

of 'giR,'as a signof present

originand ulterior relationship
time, is as completelyenvelopedin mystery as that of the corresponding
te,'
Telugu-Canarese chu,' tu,' ta,'
I notice (but it is scarcelydeservingof notice)the slightresemblance
in sound
between
ant,' ent,' and,' ende,'
gindr-u and
of which
"c., the formative of the Indo-Europeanpresent participle,
sometimes
the nasal is discarded,as in the Sanscrit
jayat,'conquering,
and
sometimes
the dental,as in the English singing'
and the
Scotch singin.
No greaterimportanceis to be attributed to the slight
resemblance
of giR
in
to
our
or
ur,'the formative of the present participle
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Turkish j for I have

the

'

no

doubt that this

'

'

ur

is derived from

'

dur,'est,

impersonalsubstantive verb.
The

tense.
preterite
constitutes one
of
preterite,

2.

character,and

"

The
the

mode
most

in which

languageforms

distinctive features

its

in its grammatical

which

mination
materiallycontributes to the deterof the questionof its relationship.
In the Semitic languages past time, or
the objective
realityof
and suffixing
past events, is denoted by placingthe verbal theme first,
to it the sign of the personalagent. In the primitiveIndoEuropean languagesthe preterite
commonly
appears to have been most
of the reduplication
of the root or verbal theme;
formed by means
has in many
instances been so softened and
but this reduplication
that it has
euphonised,
in the preterite
from

one

dwindled

into the

that which

forms

mere

use

of

part of the

different vogivel

root.

The

Indo-

THE

Europeanpreterite
was

PKETERITE

also

391

TENSE.

formed by
frequently

of

meaus

prefixed

temporalaugment; a prefixwhich Bopp

but which is supposed,
with greater proliability,
alpha privative,"
by
be
to
with
of
identical
the auxiliary
verb to have,
Meyer,
'a,'a relic
which is still prefixedto verbs in the Celtic languagesas a temporal
as
a signof past time.
augment, i.e.,
In a largeproportion
of the verbs in the Germanic
tongues, in the
Modern
and Finnish
families of languages,
Persian,in the Turkish
in the vernacular languagesof Northern
India,and, with a few exceptions,
in the Dravidian languages,
is formed
the preterite
by sufiixing
to the verbal theme
a
particle,
only,
generallya singleconsonant
of past time.
which is significant
The Dravidian preterite
tense is ordinarily
formed, like the present,
verbal
the
the
to
by annexing
preterite
pronominalsigns
parIt
that
idea
time
is
in
that
the
of
resides;
ticipie.
participle
by
past
made
when
the
that
it alone that idea is expressed
: the
are
changes
will
be
shown
be
to
euphonicmerely,not
pronominalsignsare added,
structural;and in the MalaySlam (inwhich the pronominalsignsare
not annexed), that part of speech which
correspondsto the Tamil
verbal participle,
preterite
expresses by itself the past tense of the
verb.
tense,
Consequentlyan inquiryinto the Dravidian preterite
the
of
into
the
foimation
resolves itself into an
preterite
inquiry
considers to be identical with

'

participle.
with a wider
is used in Tamil
The
preteriteverbal participle
than in any other dialect,
though its proper and
range of signification
The Tamil
alone.
being
inherent meaning is that of the preterite
verbal
the preterite
uses
destitute of a present verbal participle,

verbal

instead;in consequence of which, in a Tamil sentence, the

participle
by the tense
questionof time is in abeyance till it is determined
This statement
verb.
of the final governing
appliesto the verbal
of the finite verb;
tense
alone, not also to the preterite
participle
of past time,precisely
which is restricted in Tamil to the expression
as

in the other dialects.

methods
into tlie Dravidian
inquireparticularly
into two
(i.)by
of forming the preterite.They divide themselves
and (ii.)
a
of the final consonant;
by suffixing
sign
reduplication
We

have

now

to

"

of

past time.

(1.) The
Final

THE

by

very

Consonant.

"

small number

its existence cannot

as

of

formation

it is remarkable.

the

This mode

Preterite
of

Reduplication

of verbs in each of the Dravidian

the

op

is adopted
formingthe preterite

be doubted, and it is a mode

In

by

which

but
dialects;

is as

interesting

when
Indo-Europeanlanguages,

the pre-

392

THE

terite is formed

by

VERB.

root which

it is the
reduplicatfon,
of the root; but in
firstsyllable
of

means

doubled,or

at least the

dialectsthe

is
reduplication

the Dravidian
The

alone.

final consonant

that of the

is

those
in this manner
are
preterites
which end in 'd-u/ 'g-u,'
or
r-u/ precededby a singleshort vowel,
to
to enter; and
to suffer; pug-u,'
'peR-u,'
e.g., in Tamil, 'pad-u,'
of which are
obtain,the preterites
patt-en,I suffered;pukk-en,'/
/ obtained.
In each of the above examples
entered; and
pettr-en,'
the final consonants
H
are
doubled,and being thus
d,' g,'and
sards 'tt,' kk,'
doubled,are converted by rule into the corresponding
and 'rr'
'ttr'). Whilst the above and similar verbs
(pronounced
in the classical dialect of the
form their preterites
in this manner
of those very verbs have
dialect some
Tamil, in the modern colloquial
of
adoptedthe more
ordinarymethod of denotingpast time by means
Thus
suffixed particle
consonant.
a
or
pukk-en,'I entered,has been
and
nakk-to,' I
supersededin the modern dialect by pugu-nd-en,'
of this
The Canarese forms the preterites
laughed,by nagei-tt-gu.'
verbal

themes which

form

their
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

"

'

'

'

'

'

class of verbs in exact

agreement with the Old Tamil;

e.g.,

'nakk-anu/

laughed,from
nag-u,'to laugh: and the Telugu, though less
rule,
systematicin this point,exhibits the operationof the same
in
the
relative
of
the
especially
participles
preterite.
diflfers
in form from that
This Dravidian
reduplication
materially
of the Indo-Europeanlanguages;but it appears
to proceedfrom a
and it constitutes,
far as it goes, an
similar principle,
so
interesting
of
the
two families.
point resemblance between

he

'

(2.) The
Particle

fobmation

or

sign

op

Past

of

very few verbs included

Preterite

the

Time.

by

This,with

"

the

Suffixing

some

exceptionof

the

in the

ing
previousclass,is the method of formthe
invariablyadopted by the Dravidian
and
be
which
regardedas their characteristic mode.
languages,
may
of
this importantsubject,
For the purpose
it
thoroughlyinvestigating
desirable
i
nto
the practice
will be
to inquire
of each dialect seriatim.
which
preterite

i. The

Canarese

is formed
preterite

verbal theme.

is

preterite. The
by annexing d

This

'

characteristic Canarese

most

"

'

(euphonicallyd-u ') to
'

the

addition constitutes the

verbal parpreterite
ticiple;
havingdescended,
'nudi-d-u,'
e.g., 'ili-d-u,'
havingspoken: to
which the pronominalterminations are suffixed to form the preterite
I descended, nudi-d-i,'
tense ; eg., ili-d-enu,'
thou saidst. All verbal
themes (bothin the ancient and in the modern dialect,
and whether
transitive or intransitive)
which end in i or
o,'form their preterites
in this manner,
with
themes
in
together
u.'
many
ending
'

'

'

'

'

'

394

THli

these instances,' i

from
judge,therefore,

existence

sign of
In

bond

vocalic

'

to have

seems

of

nse

'

as

in

future,both

the
'

bond

of union

Canarese
between

and

in

correct

'

bal-VTcn,'Can.,and

'

var-v-en,'Tam.

certainly
euphonic; though it has
has,to express grammatical relation,or
which it is employed to euphonize.
is

If

had

we

the

to

account

not

Can.,

In this

'i'

the

as

'i'

tbnse

'd'

before

and
and

case

signof

in lieu of the

of

ancient

to be used

come

for the insertion

Tamil,

the verbal root

'

'

'u'

and

preterite.

similar manner,

makes

more

into

come

the root

between

of connexion

modern
V,' the sign of tense ; e.g., bal-u-v-enu,'
var-u-v-6u,'
Tam., / shall live,instead of the
colloquial

and
'

the
a

often

as

VERB.

in

only as have been mentioned, we might be content

with the supposition
of its euphonic origin; but the use
of 'i as a
has a much
wider
All transitive verbs
signof the preterite,
range.
ending in n,'both in the ancient dialect of the Canarese and in the
verbal participles
modern, form their preterite
by suffixingi ;'andthere is nothingto show that those verbs ever
formed their preterites
A very large number
in any
of verbs of this class
bther manner.
in Tamil also by suffixingi;'and in Telugu the
form their preterites
class
preteriteis formed by suffixing i to the root, not of one
with the exception of the small class of
of verbs only,but of all,
verbs.
reduplicative
it is trne,.tothe preterite
This statement
verbal participle
applies,
of the Telugn,not to the preterite
tense of the verb, which
generally
additional
suffixes or inserts,
as
a
consonant
some
or
tense-sign,
ticle
parthe
but
in
verbal
constitutes by
;
Malayalam
preterite
participle
without
the
addition
of any
itself the preterite
tense,
pronominal
signs;and in that dialect 'i' is the only signof past time which is
of verbs.
Thus
which means
used by a largenumber
pad-i,'
having
in Malayalam (he,
signifies
she,or it)sang:
sung, in the other dialects,
in that dialect a distinctive signof the preterite
i is,therefore,
in
such

instances

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the class of verbs

referred

to; and

it is to

be

remembered

that

the

of expresspronominal terminations,though the means

ing
effects no
change in the means
personality,
whereby time is

addition of the

expressed.
extent

and

'

of the use of
i as a sign
therefore,
prevalence,
to forbid our
of the preterite,
seem
supposing it to have been in
may
derived from an
all cases
euphouizationof 'd;' and as 'd,'on the
i,'it might appear proother hand, cannot have been derived from
bable
distinct and independentsigns of past
that 'd' and 'i' are
The

'

'

timel

THE

I have

no

doubt

as

the older and

considered
We
has

'

PKETEEITK

have

i/ the

that of these two

ancient

dialect

signsof past time

'

'

is to be

characteristic.

more

that in many

seen

395

TENSE.

instances in which

and

the

Tamil

the modern

have

instances

d.'

'

Canarese

Not

in those

the Telugu uses

i as the signof the
only,but universally,
of the grammatical forms of the
preterite
; but the greater antiquity
Tamil and the Old Canarese, precludes
the supposition
that their most
characteristic sign of past time has been corruptedfrom that of the
Telugu. In addition to which, it will be shown that in the Telugu
itself there are
traces of the existence of an old signof the preterite
It would,
agreeingwith that of the Tamil and the Ancient Canarese.
therefore,appear that two modes of forming the preterite
being in
older in
d
and a more
in
an
recent
existence,
i,'the modern form
'

'

'

has

in

ancient
to prove

'

in Telugu, supersededthe
instances,
particularly

many
:

'

and

the

that

this

prevalenceof

'

form, whether

'

an

from

more

in

Telugu and G6nd, would seem

derived
or
indigenouscorruption
South-Indian familyof languages

entered the
foreigninfluences,
from the Telugu quarter.
In the Indo-European familyof languageswe
find similar interchanges
instances
amongst the signsof past time; and though in some
form

one

mode

or

been

have

cannot

it

case

been

ancient

more

that the former

mode

derived

been

from

uniformly;e.g., the

certain that

seems

was

the
have

cannot

though

have

may

than

corruptedfrom

weah

strong method

the

weai, and

this
jugations
con-

vice

versd;

of

forming the preterite

though it is also certain
been

instances

many

Germanic

the strong, or

the

has in very

another, yet

superseded'by

the latter.
'

originof the d which is inserted in

and also between
'i and the pronominalterminations,
Canarese between
i and
the signof the relative participle.It appears
to be used
(whatever be its origin)merely for the purpose of preventinghiatus
Z' did, mfid-i-(d)-a,'
between concurrent
vowels; e.g., madi-(d)-enu,'
that did.
Hiatus is generallyprevented in the Dravidian
languages
of
of
of
tlie
theinsertion
a
or
one
nasal,
semi-vowels, y and
by
v;'
t
hat
d
should
be
used
for
and it seems
this
extraordinary
purpose.
It remains

inquireinto

to

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

It is true
'

that

in

mara-d-a,'of a tree,

has

been

remnant

increment

shown

of
:

in
neuter

'

d'

the

the

might
section

inflexions
seem
on

of Canarese

to be used

'The

Noun,'

demonstrative,and

hiatus

that

is used

verb may

merely. Possiblythe

thus be accounted

for :

"

use

nouns,

e.g.,

but
euphonically;

it is not, therefore,
a precedentfor the

preventionof
Canarese

of

some

'

'

as
use

that

'd' is the

an

inflexional

of

of this

consonant

it

'

d
d

'

'

for the

by the
for preventing
'

396

THE

VERB.

and the subsequentsignsof

sign of the preterite
and relation being required,
the Canarese
preferredusing
personality
for this purpose
which
stillsurvived.
old sign of the preterite
an
obsolete
Thiis,'d was not a new
invention,but an old and partially
and placed in a positionin which it
used for a new
particle
purpose,
hiatus between

the

'

would

not

have

appeared,but

for the

which

to

use

alreadybeen

it had

put.
ii. The

in

Tamil, as
'

'

the

to

Tamil

preteriteis ordinarilyformed
either 'd'
ways; viz.,by suffixing

preterite. The
"

Canarese,in

verbal

two

theme.

In

the

former

of
euphonization
rarelyused than some
such secondary
resolve
forms invariably

when

'

case,

it

'

'

itself is

themselves

into

'

'd'

d.'

or

more

; but

related consonant

or

in

Thus,

the

sign
of the preterite,
the compound becomes
'ndr;' e.ff.,the preterite
of
times,
verbal participle
like,is not
p61,'
p61-d-u but p6n-dr-u.'Some'd' follows '1,'the compound becomes
however, when
'kr,'
from
not
to
cornea
'kal,' leaiTi,
kal-d-n,'but
pronounced 'ttrj'e.j'.,
1 followed by
d
comes
bekaRR-u
('kattr-u '),having learned.
nd ;' e.c/., from
mand-u,' having died.
mS.1,'to die, comes
d
follows
Sometimes, however, when
1,'the compound becomes
These
'tt;'e.g., from 'kel,'to hear,comes
'k6tt-n,'
having heard.
and
similar combinations
in
are
merely instances of euphonization,
accordance
with the fixed phoneticrules of the language; and in each
it is in reality d
alone which constitutes the signof past time.
case
In some
verbs the primitive d
still remains
unchanged and
uru,' to plough; or
pure;
e.g., 'uru-d-u,'having ploughed,from
theme

with '1

as

its final letter is followed

'

'

'

by

as

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

with

conversion of the dental

conversion takes

'

;'e.g.,

'kan-

'

'

'

characteristic

most

d' into the cerebral

kan,'to see.
euphonizationof d which

d-u,'having seen,
The

from

'

of the

Tamil, is

and
frequently,

most

occurs

its conversion

into

'

nd.'

placewithout

is

This

and solely
phoneticnecessity,
through
that fondness for nasalisation which is so deeply inherent in the Tamil
and
of which
the formatives
Telugu,and by means
gu,' du,'and
have
bu
so
generallybeen changed to ngu,' ndu,' and 'mbu.'
In the majority
of cases
in Tamil in which
d
(precededby a vowel
formed
semi vowel) once
the sign of the preterite,
it has been
or
nasalised into nd ;' whilst the Canarese
wherever
it has preserved
the primitive d,' has preserved it unnasalised and pure.
Thus
whilst the Tamil preterite
of iru,'
to be,is
/ was, the
iru-nd-en,'
Canarese is 'iddenu' (for iru-d-enu '); and whilst the
corresponding
is
var,' to flourish,
preteriteof the Tamil verb
var-nd-4n,'he
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

THE

PRETERITE

the equivalentin Ancient

flourished,

higher dialect

of

the

Tamil

397

TENSE.

retains

Canarese

is 'bal-d-ara.'
of

traces

some

the

The

primitive,

un-nasalised

purity of this sign of the preterite;e.g., 'viru-nd-u,'

from
written by the poets
havingfallen,
viru,'to fall,is occasionally
vir-d-u.'
('vir is phonetically
equivalentto viru.') It is curious
'

'

'

'

notice the progress of nasalisation,which

comparing the Canarese 'biddu' (for

is

to

virdu,'the modern

"

Another

Tamil

change

'

which

in this verb

apparent

on

the High Tamil

'bil-du'),
virundu,'and the Malayalam vmu.'
d
undergoes in Tamil consists in its
'

'

'

tt,'
being hardened and doubled in certain cases, so as to become
This
happens to nd as well as to d,'a clear proof of the
development of the former from the latter;and when the 'd' of 'nd'
is doubled,the nasal entirelydisappears.Just as
the doubled form
of 'ng' is *kk,' and that of 'mb'
'pp;' so the doubled form of 'nd'
is 'tt." In some
this change is merely euphonic; e.g.,
instances,
not 'padupadu,'to lie,an intransitive verb, takes for its preterite,
d-en or
but
/ lay. Such oases, however,
padu-nd-fen,'
padu-tt-en,'
in general the use
of
tt
are
as
a
rare, and
sign of the preterite
instead of
d
nd
is a means
of distinguishing
transltives or
or
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

active verbs from

'

intransitive

e.g., the

'

tt

'

of

I lowered,
tar-tt-en,'

'

by the doublingand hardeningof the nd' (theequivalent

of 'd') of the corresponding
/ got low.
intransitive 'tar-nd-en,'
See
the further explanation
of this subject
fication
under the head of The Classiis formed

'

'

of Verbs.'
The
is

mode

second

by suffixingi
'

preteritein

this

of which

and

'

of

in Tamil,as
formingthe preterite

to the verbal

manner

The

those which

are

the radical

theme.

themes

which

terminate

portionconsists either in

in

in

Canarese,
form

their

'

euphonic,
or
longsyllable

one

'

whether
short or long. In this connexion, as in
syllables,
is equivalent
to one
which
prosody,a vowel which is long by position
in two

followingare examples of the classesof verbs

which
take 'i' for their preterite: (long syllable)
'padu,'to sing;
to
erud-u,'
(longby position)pann-u,'to make; (two short syllables)
to
short,and one long by position) tirupp-u,'
write; (one syllable
is

The

naturallylong.

"

'

'

'

turn.

AH

verbs

of which

the
'

final consonant

is

liquidserai-vowel
number
of syllables
a

R '),whatever
or
v
('1,' 1,' r,' r,' not
of d' or some
by means
they may contain,form their preterite
to the above
modifications : such verbs are therefore exceptions
'

'

'

'

'

'

Even

in the class of Tamil

verbs which

take

'

'

as

of its
rule.
,

their preterite

'

d
at a more
of the prevalenceof
ancient
traces
there are
suffix,
dialect p6-(n)-ay'
period.Thus, whilst thou didst go is in the ordinary
'

'

398

THE

from
(properly p6g-i-(n)-ay,'
'

VERB.

'

p6/

or

p6-gu,'to go),in the poets

instead of 'a-(n)-ay'
(for'ig-i'

is sometimes used instead: so

'p6-d-i'
from
tJiou becamest,the poets sometimes
use
to become),
(n)-ay,'
a-gu,'
in the colloquial
a-d-i.' In these instances the Canarese also,even
'

'

dialect,
says 'podi' and
Even

'

nd'

'adi.'

is sometimes

'

onlyin

d'

Tamil

poetry;

e.g.,

'

vara-d-i,'
'

'

va-nd-ay (for
exactly
varu-nd-fi.y
'); and it is evident that this form, varu-d-i,'
a-d-i.'
correspondsto the forms quoted above, p6-d-i and
i as a signof the
the prevalenceof
therefore,
Notwithstanding,
preteritein Tamil, as in Canarese (though in a less degree than in
for regarding it as an innovation,
there seems
to he some
reason
Canarese),
and less widely
at least as a less ancient,less characteristic,
or
in Canarese)
used sign than
d.'
is inserted in Tamil (as d
n
of certain
between
the
i which constitutes the sign of the preterite
classes of verbs and the pronominal terminations, and also between
the signof the preterite
and the signof the relative participle
; e.g.,
from
of
v
erbal
pad-i,'
participle pM-u,'
having sung (thepreterite
is formed
thoti didst
I
to sing),
pad-i-(n)-"n,'sang;
pad-i-(n)-ay,'
thou

earnest,is found

of the

instead

modern

more

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

he sang:
sing; pad-i-(n)-an,'
'

that sang.

doubted

be

Whatever

that its

in Tamil

use

also

so

'

the relative
pad.i-(n)-a,'

the

ticiple
par-

n,' it cannot

be
originof this
present wholly euphonic; and this
'n' in the preterite
of the same

is at

'

appliesalso to the use

relative participle
of the Telugu. It in no respectcontributes to the
used by the relative
expressionof grammatical relation ; and when
in Tamil, it may
participle
optionallyand elegantlybe changed into
used for
y,'which is one of the semi- vowels that are systematically
the preventionof hiatus; e.g., instead of 'padi(n)a,'
that sang, we
see
a parallel
use
may write with perfectpropriety padi(y)a.'We
in
of
of
the frequentinsertion
in the Turkish
n
verb,
an
euphonic
and the infinitivalparticle,
and also between
between
the theme
n
and the signof the passive. The
the theme
most
weighty argument
of the euphonicoriginof the Tamilian
iu confirmation
in question,
n
is derived from the use
of
of
n
as
an
euphonic fulcrum,or means
and even
in
preventinghiatus in the Dravidian languagesgenerally,
statement

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

connexion

with

another

'

'

part of

the Tamil

verb.

Thus, in

the classical

pluralneuter of the present tense, varngindrana ('varu-gindr-ana

'),
of
the pronominal termination
is
ana
they{things)come, the n
of the isolated pluralneuter
to the 'v'
avei'
undoubtedlyequivalent
(for 'ava'); and is used merely for the euphonicpreventionof hiatus
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

between
the

the first

signof the

'

a,'or the demonstrative

neuter

vowel, and

the final 'a,'or

or
plural,('a(n)a'
a(V)a'is equivalentto
'

'

a-a.')

THE

If the Tamil

and

PRETERITE

3 99

TENSE.

the

Telagu alone were

concerned,we should
in consideringthe purely euphonicoriginof the
perhaps be justified
in questionto be a settled point;but a diflBculty
n
arises on comparing
'

'

those

Telugu use

languageswith
'

'

the Canarese.

in the formation

of the

Wherever

the Tamil

preteritetense

relative participle,
there the Canarese

d :' e.g.,

'

uses

the

and
'

and
terite
pre-

madi-(d)-

that did, not 'madienu,'I did, not 'madi-(n)-enu;'and 'madi-(d)-a,'

(n)-a.' Now, though this 'd' of the Canarese is certainly
euphonic
in its

it has

present use,

it to

be

derived

that

been shown

from

'

d,' the

old

there

is

sign of

for suspecting

reason

the

preterite
; and

if

this

suppositionbe correct, it would follow that the Tamilian 'n,'

which
to the Canarese
d,' is derived from
correspondsso perfectly
the same
n
source
as
d,' and euphonicallyaltered from it. The
of the Tamil
well as the 'd' of the Canarese,
as
therefore,
preterite,
of the use
of
d' as a sign
to the primitiveuniversality
testify
may
of past time.
'd' (= 'n') was
Whether
originallya sign of the
in this connexion,
preteriteor not, the conversion of d into n
in the preterite
relative
viz.,in the pi-eterite
tense, and especially
da
ta
in the
to
is analogous to the changeof
na
or
participle,
past participleof the Indo-European tongues ; especiallyin the
(such
past participles
German, from which the final n of our own
fallen ')has been derived.
as
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

is substantially
Malayala preterite.The Malayala preterite
the 'I'amil : the only real difference consists in the
the same
as
The
in Malayalam of the pronominal terminations.
disuse
sign
each
with
in
such
the same
of past,time is invariably
language;
only
dialectic and regular. That which conof sound
modifications
stitutes
as
are
in Tamil, is in Malayalam the
verbal participle
the preterite
of the verb; e.g., 'nadandu,' in Tamil signifies
tense
having
preterite
natannu,' means
{he,she,
walked; the correspondingMalayala word
iii. Tlie

"

'

it "r

and

they)walked.
The
only thing which it is necessary
which exists in Malayalam between
the

latter in
'

ference
notice here,is the dif-

to

the

past tense

of the verb

or
gerund,and the agreement of the
past verbal participle
relative participle.By analogy
appearance with the past

been

used

form

used

the

as

instead

past
'

tense

natanna

of the
'

should have
past participle,
is the
'natannu'
verb, whereas

is the

natanna,'having walked, which

is also

the

relative

participlethat

Iked.
How

are

we

to account

I conceive that

'

things1
finiteverb,is an abnormal

for these

natannu,' the

form:

it

400

VERB.

THE

should

have

natanna/ and thus identical with the past verbal

laid aside,it
after the pronominal terminations were

been

participle.But
to have

appears
the past

'

been

felt that

which
participle,

is

something was

from
continuative,

to

necessary
the

distinguish
of the

past tense

feelingthe merely enunciative

half sound
of the 'a' of 'natanna' was
emphasized,and thus gradually
transformed
into
u,'which, though merely an enunciative in
this
distinctive positionin Malayalam. Whilst
Tamil, has a more
of the past participle
a
change was
going on, the- enunciative
remained
unchanged,inasmuch as it was a continuative word, and not
a seat of emphasis.
The explanationof the resemblance
between
natanna,'having
in Malayalam and 'natanna,'that
walked, the past verbal participle
is very easy.
A reference to the
walked,the past relative participle,
Tamil
shows
that the resemblance is only apparent.
natanna,'the
nadand-u,' the final
correspondsto the Tamil
past verbal participle,
'u'
of which
is merely enunciative a.nd euphonic,and is invariably
elided when
followed by another vowel ; and in like manner
the final
It is that
of the Malayala past participle
is merelyenunciative.
a
to the
answers
euphonic,constantlyelided a which dialectically
Tamil
u.' {e.g.,
ad-u,'Tam., it,with the Malayala at-a;'
compare
verb,which

is

final ; and

from

this

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'aR-u,'Tam.,
'

river,with

Hence

onn-a,' Mala.)

to

be

dwelt

in

upon

the final

Whereas
the

'

'

'aR-a,'Mala.; 'ondr-u,'Tam.,

arises the

rule that

but
pronunciation,
'

'

of

'

natanna,'that

this final 'a'

enunciated

with

with

one,

is not

rapidity.

walked, is identical with

in all the Dravidian

signof the relative participle

'

a,'

and
languages,

origin,as I conceive,a signof the genitive. This

and cannot
latter 'a' contributes largelyto grammatical expression,
whilst
the former
is
elided without
be
a
destroying the sense,
inorganicand merely euphonic.
which

was

in its

'

Telugu preterite. In Telugu

'

all

verbal parpreterite
ticiples,
formed
without
are
by adding i to the theme.
exception,
form
their preterites
those verbs which
'd' or
Even
by suffixing
modification of it in Tamil, Canarese,and
some
Malayalam, form
in Telugu by sufiixing
their preterites
'i;'e.g., 'kon-du,'Tam. and
Can., having bought,is in Telugu 'kon-i' and 'kan-du,'Tam. and
iv.

The

"

'

Can., having seen,

'

is 'kan-i.'

of this rule,there are

traces
Notwithstandingthe universality
in Telugu of the use of a particle
correspondingto the 'd' of
even
the other dialects as a signof past time.
Though the preteriteverbal
never
participle

takes any

suflBx but that of 'i,'some

parts of the

402

THE

VERB.

I played, (answering to the Tamil

connexion; e.g., ad-i-(na)-nu,'
ancient and elegant ad-i-ti-ni.'
M-i-(n)-en'),instead of the more
'

'

'

The

Tamil

'

'

used

might therefore be
'

'

ua

'

or

na

'

ti

and

'

na

connexion

and

vowel

than

important use

more

separatestwo

purely euphonic; but

as

between

comes

'

this

considered

'

have
therefore,
'

in

the

that of
of

and

Telugu

consonant, and

alternate in the formation

vowels,

must,

preventinghiatus.

the

Telugu preterite

tense, 'ti'

classical dialect,'na' in the

more

the

of

being preferredin the more

to confirm
vulgar: and this seems

'

na/ like the

Tamil

'

n,'is derived

from

that the
supposition
the old preterited.'

'

'

We

'

examine

when
we
identical,
as
hardlyfail to regard these particles
in all three
instance in wliich they are used as equivalents
an
Tam.
Tel.,I became; 'a-(n)-en,'
'ay-i-(na)-nn,'
e.g., compare
and 'a-(d)-enu,'
Can. (for ag-i-(d)-enu
').
i-(n)-en');
can

dialects ;
for

('ag-

'

On

Telugu
agrees with the other dialects in exhibitingdistinct and deep-seated
traces
of the ancient use of
withstanding
notd
t
or
a
as
signof the preterite,
the universal prevalencein Telugu at present of the use
of
verbal participle.
i,'as the sign of the preterite
I may
here take occasion to guard againstan illusory
resemblance
the

whole, therefore,it
'

'

that

be concluded

may

'

the

'

'

to which

called,viz.,the resemblance which

verbal participle
'veichi,'
having
Telugu preterite

attention

my

subsists between

placed, and

the

the

was

once

'

participle veittu,'which

correspondingTamil

is

The
'tt' of the Tamil
vei-tt-u,'
vulgarly pronounced 'veichi.'
being simply the hardened and doubled form of d,' is the ordinary
and if there were
real alliance between
sign of the preterite;
any
and the Telugu ch-i^'
tt-u,'through its provincial
we
pronunciation,
should undoubtedly have
here an
instance
of the use
of
tt/ i.e.,
of
in
well
in
of
the
modern
d,'
as
Tamil, as a sign
Telugu as
terite
preverbal participle,
and consequentlyof past time.
The resemblance,
is
however,
altogetherillusory. The 'ch' of the Telugu
of the Tamil
not
veichi corresponds,
tt
to the
but to
veittu,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the

'

kk

in Tamil,

'

'

which
'kk'

makes

its appearance

verb, viz., vei-kk-a,'to place, the

kk

'

'

constitutes the formative

'

'

'

is

of

so

verbs and

many

nouns

in the infinitive of this

very
of
which
is
vei-ch-a.'
Telugu
'

'

vulgarlypronounced ch in the southern part of the Tamil

obtains in Telugu.
country; and the same
pronunciationuniversally
The
theme
of
this verb in Telugu is not
imperativeor
vei,'as in
Tamil, but veich-u
(with the addition to vei of the formative
'ch-u,' which is equivalentto the Tamil 'kk-u'); and from this
the preterite
verbal participleveich-i,'
veich-u,'
is regularly
formed,
in this,
in all other cases, by the addition of
as
i.' If the correspond-?
'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

THE

ing Tamil verb

would
participle

formed

PKETERITE

403

TENSE.

its

in the same
its verbal
preterite
manner,
be
A
iu
not
vei-tt-u.'
case
vei-kk-i,'
point in
illustrationof this,is the Tam.
tu-kk-u/ to lift,to weigh (Tel. tuthe
verbal
of which
is 'tu-kk-i' (Tel.
ch-u'),
preterite
participle
'tuch-i').
'

'

'

Preterites

'

racteristic
of minor dialects. In Tulu, 't' constitutes the chamark
of the preterite
insertion
tense, and
ti,'the preterite
of the Telugu verb is the signof the Tulu preterite
verbal participle.
In Gond
'si' or
'ji,'apparently softened from 'ti,'forms the
verbal participle
of the preterite
by
; but the perfecttense is formed
Z"
have
called.
'
tt,'
suffixing
called; kei-si,'
having
e.g., 'kei-tt-an,'
In Seoni G6nd
also the preterite
suffixes si ;'
or
conjunctive
participle
is fffl-medby
e.g., wunk-si/ having spoken: but the past participle
suffixing
'turj'e.g., wunk-tur,'spoken; and the past tense simply
suffixes 't;' ".g., wunk-t-an,'/ spoke, wunk-t-i,'thou didst speak.
An imperfect
in both those dialects by
tense is formed
ot progressive
the root and
jtd,'the substantive verb,between
inserting und or
the pronominalterminations.
These instances tend to eonfirm the supposition
that
d,'or some
characteristic signof the
modification of it, is the oldest and most
Dravidian
and that the use of i is of secoadaj-y
preterite,
origin.
V.

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Origin of

the Dravidian

signsof past

time.

that I can
ofiferrespecting
the
(1.)The most probableconjecture
of its secondary
originof i,'is one which confirms the suppositjon
vowel of conjuncI conceive it to have been orig^naiUy
a
character.
tion,
connectingthe verbal
employed for the purpose of euphouically
'

theme, and

the theme

Where

requiresome
'

the trne

signof past time, 'd'

in

terminated

such vocalic bond

'd-u.'

or

hard

consonant, euphony would

of connexion ; e.g., the Old

harsh

bal-d-en,I lived,is undoubtedly somewhat

attuned to Dravidian
as
softened,
see

it has

phonetics
;
been

and

in modern

it

was

an

Canarese,
that

ear

natural that it should

Canarese,into

similar euphonic insertion

precisely

to

of

'

'

'

bal i-d-enu.'

in the Latin

'

is

be
We

dom-i'

dom-tus '),tamed, and the Sanscrit

of
pid-i-tah(instead
(instead
of pid-tah
'),pressed. Subsequentlywe may suppose the true
'd' to have gradually
droppedoff ; whilst 'i' remained, as
preterite
of the preterite.
being the easier sound, with the adventitious signification
all languagesof euphonicadditions
instances
va
There
are
many
instead of the parts of speechto which tihey
used
be
to
coming
is used to represent the
vu
attached ; e.g., ip the Telugu verb
were
tus

'

'

'

'

'

'

404

instead
singularof the pronoun
only an euphonic addition
originally

second
'

VERB.

THE

person

'

vu

was

converted

was

into

It deserves

'

'

of

'

to

ni,'thou,tbough
ni,'by which it

nivu.'

notice

that wherever

i ' is used

'

in

Cauarese

or

in

'

d
would
the use of
signof the preterite,
in that instance he harsh
and uncouth; and that on comparing the
in
i with those that suffix
Tamil verbs which
form their preterite
suffix should
but euphony can
be allegedwhy the one
d,'no reason
be employed rather than the other: consequentlyeuphonic causes
must
have contributed to the development of i.'
This supposition
of the originof
i from the vocalic conjunction

Tamil,instead

of

'

'

d,' as

'

'

'

'

'

of

'

'

with

the verbal

that wherever

'

theme, would

i ' is followed

by

'

also account
a

vowel

for the circumstance

(whether the

initial v"wel

pronominal terminations,or the 'a' which constitutes the sigp

d
which
it had
of the relative participle),
it picks up again the
either
graduallylost,and uses it as an euphonic bond of- conjunction,
in its original
shape of d,' as in Canarese, or in its nasalised shape
in which
ti is sepaof
n,' as in Tamil and Telugu. The manner
rated
'kon-i-ti-ni'
from
in some
the theme
Telugu preterites,
e.g.,
confirms
this
I
suppositionof the euphonic
'),
('kon-ti-ni
bought,
originof i.'
characteristic signof the Dravidian
(2.) d,' the older and more
has
interestingaffinities with correspondingsigns
preterite,
many
of past time in various Indo-Europeanand Scythianlanguages.
I have no doubt that it has an ulterior,though remote, connexion
with 'na'), the ordinary suffix of the
with 't' or 'ta' (alternating
Sans.,known; Greek
Indo-Europeanpassiveparticle;
e.g., 'jna-ta-h,'
Sans.,5e?ii;Gothic 'bugbhug-na-s,'
r^vw-Tt"-i\Latin '(g)n6-tu-s;'
of the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'"

a-n(a)-s.'In
'

Gothic

this suffix is 'd'

or

't;'in

New

Persian

riably
inva-

d.'

which
is formed
from
is in general
ta
participle
passive; but a few traces exist of a preterite
distinctively
signification,
wIm
only however in connexion with neuter verbs; e.g., 'ga-ta-s,'
one
who
has been.
A
one
bhu-ta-s,'
preterite
went;
signification
dominates
prealso in the active participles
formed
by suffixingtavat
from
,'
ta
the
passive
was
'); e.^r., krii-tavat,'
(derived
mahing; and
indeterminate
in the
or
gerund,which is formed by
past participle,
'tva;' e.g., 'kru-tyk,'
suffixing
having made or throughmaking.
between
Though there is probably an ultimate connexion
the
of the Dravidian
preterite d
languagesand the passive (and
secondarypreterite)t of the Sanscrit,the use of this suffix is too
In Sanscrit

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

essential a characteristic of the Dravidian

and
languages,

too

rare

and

THE

PKETERITE

to admit
exceptionalin Sanscrit,

borrowed
The

it from
'

'

4()5

TKNSE.

of the

the former

euppositiuuthat

the latter.

which

in Bengali,has
preterite
been supposed by Professors Max Miiller and Bopp to be derived from
the past participialt
is
of the Sanscrit; e.g., 'ka,Ti\aia,'
I di"jii
derived by them
from
karita,'Sans.,done, followed by the personal
termination
'am.'
This suppositionis confirmed
by the conformity!,
constitutes

signof

the

the

'

'

'

of

'

karilam

Marathi

of

'

to the New

Persian

'

similar

kardem,'

did, and

the

by

in

use

in
1,'which is supposed to be derived
preterite
iu like manner
from the Sans, passiveparticipial
t ;'e.g., mi kelo-"i,'
/ did, 'mire gel6-w,'
/ went.
The
aud '1' is of
interchance of d
and possiblythe Sanscrit 't'
have become
frequentoccurrence;
may
d
before it was
ever,
corruptedinto 1.' There is no proof of this,howand
the
1 which is used as the equivalent
d
in
of
t
or
the formation
of the Slavonian
preterite,
'byi'(Pers. bud,' Sans.
bhuta-s '),7ie was, shows
that
t
1 immediately,
have passed into
may
without the middle pointof the cerebral d.'
Whether
the preterite 1 of the Bengali and Marathi
is derived
it has
't,'or whether
directlyfrom the Sanscrit passiveparticipial
descended
from the Old Scythian vernacular
of Northern
India, it is
to notice the fact of the conformityin this important parinteresting
ticular,
between
the Dravidian
languages and those of the Gauda
family. We should notice,however, this importantdifference between
the two, that whilst the Gauda
preterite'1,'in so far as it is derived
from the Sanscrit,appears
to be only a secondary constructive
terite,
prea

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

the
with

Dravidian
any

In the New
e.g.,

'd'

'

exhibits

no

trace

of

the verbal

was;

I bore.
'bur-d-em,'

theme

in

Persian, and

either

of

nexion
con-

constructive

or
a
passiveparticiple
forms
Persian,'d' invariably

'bu-d-em,'T

whatever,
the
The

which

origin.
signof the preterite;
which
stitutes
conparticiple
has

formative

that

passive in Sanscrit,has an active as well as a passive-preterite

borne or
either
having borne,
signification;
e.g., 'burdeh,' means
The
in
been
has
Persian
the
tense
context.
to
preterite
according
this appears
to have
pened
hapdevelopedout of a passiveparticiple
; and
influence
of
the
time
which
inherent
the
is
in
the
past
through
perfectpassive.
In the Germanic
tongues, 't' or 'd' not only forms the perfect
in Sanscrit,Latin,and Zend ; but is used also to
as
passiveparticiple,
The Sanscrit 't' of 'gata-s,'
who went,
tense.
form a regularpreterite
forms the preteriteof neuters
only; but the Gothic 't' appears
in the preterites
of a numerous
class of active verbs;
systematically
but in the regularpreterite
and is found not only in the participle,
is

406

THE

VEKB.

/ thought; and
tense; e.g., ' banb-ta,'/ bought; ' thah-ta,'

vanrL-ta,'

'

/ made.
It is not

originof the suffix in

is identical,
I
the
of the passiveparticiple
t
as
question. Whether
it springs
whether
or
conceive,with that of the indicative preterite,
from a different origin, whether
t' or
d,'the sign of the preterite,
objectto endeavour

my

'

the

to trace

'

'

'

"

is derived from

dha,' to set, to make, from

thun,' to do, or from the
demonstrative
ta,' I am not about to inquire.My belief is,that the
real originof this sufBx cannot
be ascertained;it has simplybeen
now
'

'

'

"

objectto point out in various languages of the Indo-European

branches
than in the Sanscrit,the
more
family,and in the western
existence of a mode
of forming the preterite
(viz.,
by suffixingd or
't' to the root)which
teristic
closelyresembles that which forms a characof the Dr"vidian
languages.
The formation of the preterite
by suffixingd,' is not confined to
the Indo-Europeanfamily,
but prevails
also in the Turkish
and Ugrian
my

'

'

'

tongues.
'd'

is the
'

compare

sign of past

sewer-im,'7 love,with

inserted,as

and

in Tamil

signs. Compare
'

i-d-um,'/
In

the

'

'

the

61-d-um,'/

am,

was,

which

'

the

Turkish;

root

with
and

this

and

'

e.g.,
d

'

is

the pronominal

the
the

preterite
equivalent

bol-d-im.'

is regularly
formed
Finnish,the preterite

'

by

/ loved; and
sewer-d-im,'

present 'im,' /

also

Turkish,

from
preterite
participle
"c. ;
in nt,"^yt,' et,'
'

'

is used

Canarese, between

Notice

was.

in Oriental

form

which

time

e.g.,

'

't.'
by suffixing

The

perfecttense is formed terminates

oU-ut,'having been,from the theme
ol,'
the

'

to he.

in a similar manner;
Hungarian forms its preterite
e.g., the
of
to become,is le-tt,'
le-nni,'
participle
preterite
having become; and
formed the perfect le-tt-em,'
I have become.
from this is regularly
deserves
It especially
notice,that these Turkish, Finnish, and
with
the
Hungarian signs of the preteriteare totallyunconnected
They are distinctive signsof past time, and of that
passiveparticiple.
alone ; and as such they are suffixed to all indicatives,
whether
active
in
addition
the
and
to
are
appended,
neutef,
to
or
sign of passivity,
those
passives are also preterites.In this
passiveforms, only when
the analogybetween
the Dravidian preteriteand
therefore,
particular,
distinctive than
the Turko-Ugrian is closer and
more
the IndoEuropean analogieswhich have been pointed out; it may be said
The

'

'

'

indeed

3.

to amount

The

to

identity,

future tense.

"

The

tenses of the Drapresent and preterite

FUTURE

THE

vidian

verb

are

formed

from

407

TENSE.

present and

preteriteparticiples,
by

the pronominal terminations.

suffixing
The future is without a verbal
or
participle
gerund, except in High Tamil, in which there is a rarely
used verbal participle
of the future,endingin
the
van
;'nevertheless,
'

future tense

is formed

in the
virtually

same

manner

the other tenses,

as

to the verbal theme, and adding to

a sign of future time
by suffixing
that sign the pronominal terminations.
In the Dravidian
future formations.
languages there are two
future than the other, is found in
a
One, which is more
distinctly
Canarese
and Telugu alone; the other,which
is contained
in all the
dialects,inclusive of the Calnarese and Telugu, is an indeterminate,
aoristic future,and is called by Telugu grammarians
the aorist.'
'

It should

future is

here be observed

used

than

distinctivefuture. In

more

the

of the

form

other.

of the present for the

use

dialects.

modern

"

second

the

the

in all the Dravidian

common
exceedingly

(1.) The

also,that

future, in

Canarese
of

consequence

It is formed

this

stitutes
con-

being

less

i,'or
by inserting iy,'or
d,'
the theme
and
the pronominal signs,and
between
lengtheningthe
vowel
which immediatelyfollows this future particle,
viz.,the initial
vowel

of the pronoun;

'

'

I will do; or,

e.g., 'mad-iy-enu,'

'

'

/
nudi-d-enu,'

^oillsay.
two-fold
a
form, from
Telugu also,this future assumes
to the
corresponding
iy,'or
optionaluse of two inserted particles,
In

'

and

'

'

One

of the Canarese.

form

inserts

'

'

between

the

the
'

i,'

theme

pronominal terminations;e.g., 'ches-e-nu,'/ will do; which

e' is optionally
changed to 'i,'in the third person neuter plural;e.g.,
The other form of the future,
which
will do.
ches-i-ni,'
they (neuf.')
/ wiZ? tio/
is still more
rarelyused, inserts 'eda;' e.g., ches-eda-nu,'
and the third person neuter
plural,
except in the third person singular,
of
instead
edi is used
in which
'eda;'e.g., ches-edi-ni,'
they{neut.\
and

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

will do.
aoristic future,or

(2.)The

aorist.
"

Of

this future

also there

are

several forms.
In
which

Tamil,
inserts

'

the

most
'

v,' b,'or

/
signs;e.g., ley-v-en,'
'

commonly used form of the future is that

pp,'between the theme and the pronominal

'

will do;
to be

'

the

kan-b-en,'J

will see;

'

nada-pp-Sn,'

form of this
original

for
particle;
v
this supposition
can
we
easilyaccount
'pp.'
on
of the temporal particle,
the initial consonant
In certain cases
or
if composed of a singleconsonant, would requireto
the particle
itself,
/ win

walk.

'

b' appears

both for

be doubled,,e.g., after the vowels

'

a' and

'i,'and

'

'

and

when

the

doubling-

408

VERB.

THE

of the tense

sign is the

method

verb

transitive.

In

into

adopted for convertingan intransitive

used as the signof
find pp
those cases
we
'

'

the future instead of 'v;'

I vMl rear, is the future
e.g., valar-pp-en,'
hence conclude
transitive of ' valar-v-en,'
And we
/ -millgrow.
may
'

that

sitive,
the sign of the future of the intranoriginally
for 'b' when
doubled
becomes
'pp' by rule; and whilst it is
certain that b will readilychange into v,'no instance of the change
of V
into
b
in Tamil can
be adduced.
Notwithstandingthis, b
is now
I will eat;
used only after a final nasal ; e.g., tin-b-eu,'
/ will say.
en-b-en,'
'

b,'not

'

v,'was
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

In

of

consequence

'

'

becoming
invariably

'i,''pp' is the signof the future of all Tamil

pp-Sn,'I

after the vowel

'

'

pp

causals; e.g., 'kattu-vi-

toillbuild.

In classical Tamil

or
gerund,in
participle
hardened
becomes
'van,' which when
'ppan;' e.g., 'sey-van,'being
about to do;
element
The principal
being about to learn.
padi-ppan,'
in this is the future tense-signv ;'and
in
this participle
or
van
'ppan,' constitutes the sign of the infinitive in Malayalamj e.g.,
to be, urukku
iri-ppan,'
-van,'to dissolve.

there

is

future verbal

'

'

'

'

'

'

The

Tamil

from

future formed

and
participle,

'

b,' is

'

'

or

instead the aorist future in

uses

that aorist is used

instead

of the

"

destitute of
um.'

relative

Generallyalso,

distinctive future in the third

more

it will
Thns, whilst he will be is iru-pp-an,'
singularneuter.
is ordinarily iru(kk)-um,'not
be
;' and forms like
iru-pp-adu
In this
nouns.
iru-pp-adu are in generalused only as participial
respect the Tamil is less regular than the Canarese, in which the
ordinarythird person neuter singularof the future tense is 'iru-v-adn.'
formed
The future is sometimes
by the Tamil poets by adding 'g'
(or kk ') to the root, instead of b (or pp '); e.g., ieygSn (for
adeikken
I will do;
(for adeippen'),/ will obtain. I
sey yen '),
often
inclined to think these forms identical in origin,for g
am
'

person

'

'

'

'

"^

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

changes

into

'

v.'

aoristic future, inasmuch

distinct and determinate
to two

forms, the
theme

considered

'

by

the future in

third

defective

This

formed

'

than

by

the future in

person
future

erud-um,'

may

its reference to

as

'

be called the defective

future time

v,'and

as

is still less

it is restricted

singularneuter, and the relative

is formed
to
by suflBxing um
'

'

it will write.

The

future in

'

'

um

participle.
the

is not

grammarians as distinct from, and independentof,

v;' but is strangelyenough considered as a part of it.

Tamil

Its claim,however, to be
confirmed

of the Tamil

future formation

Another

the

regardedas

Malayalam, in which

distinct future formation- is

it is the

only future

in

ordinary

410

VERB.

THE

The

future in
are

be used

'

'

ia

um

added

ever

to

nations
no
pronominal termialtogether
impersonal^
it is well

adapted to
being used alike
participles

it,and

in consequence

the relative
participle,
by all persons, numbers, and genders.
which constitutes the sign of future time, is
The
particle um
identical in form, and is also,I believe,identical in originand force,
with
It is
um,' the conjunctiveor copulative
particleof the Tamil.
also identical with
nu,' the impersonal suflSx of the third person
singularand pluralof each gender of the Telugu aorist,a tense which
'nu' is
under consideration,
perfectly
correspondswith the one now
a
conjunctiveparticlein Telugu also; and it is probable that this
particlehas been chosen, both in Tamil and in Telugu, to be the
because
of its suitableness to express
characteristic sign of the aorist,
the idea of continuity. This tense, it is true, frequently
denotes
the
more
future; but it is much
frequentlyused to express continuous
action,or what is habituallydene.
Thus, mad-u pul tin(n)-um,'
as

relative

'

'

'

'

'

to be

Tarn., is

not
translated,

habitually/
eats}grass,

the

ox

will eat grass, but

the

(i.e.

eats

ox

s food.
grass is the ox''

or

of this aoristic future, coupled to a

participle
time, is followed by a finite preteriteverb, the future
noun
signifying
of the imperfect
in Tamil takes the sense
var-um
porudu,
; e.g., nan
wlien I was
when I shall come),I saw
coming (literally
porei(k)kanden,'
the battle. In respect of this capacityof the aoristic future for becoming
historical preterite,
it resembles
the future tense of the Semitic
a
languages.
The
High Tamil
(and also the Telugu) often uses the formed
When

the relative

'

theme

verbal

or

referred

noun

to, without

instead
aorist;e.g.,'parapp-u,'
will

This form

spread.

of

the

addition

of

'

um,'

as

'parapp-um,' it will spread,or

is rarelyused

an

which

except by the poets, and is

even

aorist than the aorist future in

an
um.'
The
distinctively
does not belong to the particle um,' but is the ordinary
final u
u,'and accordinglyis often elided.
euphonic,enunciative
'

more

'

'

'

'

Canarese, with

The
future

by

insertingv' between

in accordance
Like

it,this Canarese

but it is
'

'

invariable

'

with

'

or

signof

'

the

the

Tulu

pp,' in

the
the

future time.

and

first Tamil
an

Tamil,
modern
It is not

its

ordinary

the

pronominal
future,viz.,that

aoristic
indeterminate,
inasmuch

as

it

its third person

another
'

'

nations,
termiin

'

v.'

sense;

changes

never

but uses
dialect,
obligedalso,like

singularneuter from
of
forms it,like the other persons, by means
of
will he; and it has also a relative participle
to borrow

forms

agrees,

the theme

future has often

regularthan

more

into

which

'

'

as

the

the

Tamil,
formation,but

it
;'e.g., iru-v-adu,'

its own;

'

e.g., 'balu-v-a,'

FUTURE

THE

that will

live; compare

411

TENSE.

Ancient
'agipa,'

Canarese, tliai

(answeringto the modern

"g-iruva').
The
Telugu tense which correspondsto

will

become,

'

aoristic futures is still more

with

inclination in

an

grammarians this

the

Tamil

aorist
an
distinctively
the

generalto

idea

of

is

and

Canarese

than

they,though
futurity.By English
the future,'
but
the

commonly called,not
aorist.' It is formed by inserting du
the theme
and the
between
pronominal terminations; with the exception of the third person
in which
uu
singularand plural,
alone,the equivalentof the Tamil
to the theme.
urn,' is added
Compare the Tarn.
ag-um,'if will
become, it will be,with the Telugu aorist 'avu-nu,' (he,she,it,they,"c.)
will become.
Probably the Tel. aoristic formative 'du' is allied to 'tu,'
the particle
of present time.
The Gond
makes
of k
the sign of the future,in connexion
use
as
tense

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

with

the first and

speak. Compare
of the future

the

'

'

the

High

Affinitksof

the

sign of

used
extensively

evidentlythe

is remarkable

'

'b;' and
the

Latin

future,and

verb.
wide

The
a

or

'

or

'

range

'

bo

the

'

'

future.
"

the

The

future

of the

Bengali'b
which

'

which

wunki-k-a,'/

is sometimes

used

the

as

will

sign

forms

'

in

Tamil,

has

been

the

most

is considered

of the Dravidian

of affinitiesboth

to

be

characteristic and

most

the

DrS,vidian

Canarese, and

Bengalialso,the signof

this

'

with

'

that in

which

'

'

Tamil.

sign of

'

of the verb ; e.g.,

persons
'
kk
or

by

most

is

second

'

future time

connected

by

characteristic
a

relic of

an

tongues,
Tulu.

is
Max

'

It

v,'pronounced
Miiller

sign of

the

old substantive

has been proved to have so

preterite
in Europe and Asia,that it cannot
be

improbable that the Dravidian futuric 'b' also possesses

ulterior Indo-European affinities.
some
it will be found that the
As in the case
of the sign of the preterite,
those of the Ugrian languages. In Finnish, wa'
closest analogies
are
which
is used
is the sign of the future
as
an
or
va
participle
considered

'

'

'

auxiliaryin the formation of the future tense; e.^r.,ole-wa,'ahovi, to be:

to be,to
and the signof the future infinitive is wan;' e.g., ole-wan,'
the Tamil future gerund,
he about to he; with which
we
compare
may
In the Hungarian, the future
and
Malayala infinitive in van.'
is formed by suffixing
'vo;' e.g., 'Ie-v6' (Finnish'ole-wa'),
participle
'

'

'

'

about

beingor
4.

to be.

Compound

of the DrS,vidian

they

are

formed

various tenses

to enter
into an investigaIt is unnecessary
tion
in
all
the
inasmuch
dialects
as
compound tenses,

tenses.

"

in the

simplestpossiblemanner,

of the substantive verb to the

by suffixingthe
of active
verbal participles

412

VEliB.

THE

Tliua,doing T was will represent the imperfect(alsodoing I

continuative
(i.e.,
keepinga doing)I was, a more
came); doing-keeping
imperfect;having done I am, the perfect;having done I was, the pluperfect
the
future
done
I
shall
perfect.
be,
having
A vast
verbs
used in all the Dravidian
of auxiliary
number
are
in conjunction
for the
verbal participles,
with infinitives and
dialects,
verbs.

of

purpose

expressing
compound ideas;but

pertainsrather to the idiom

grammatical structure, and
it would

grammars,

Relative

be out

or

is

of

participles.

as

the

use

of the

language than to the

explained in the ordinary
sufBciently
syntax

placeto inquireinto
It

"

of those auxiliaries

is

remarkable

them

here.

of
peculiarity

the

Drividian

whatever,
languages,that they have no relative pronouns
and that the placeof the relative pronoun
is suppliedby a part of the
verb which
is called
the relative participle,'
which
is
a
participle
invariablyfollowed by a noun, and preceded by the words or phrases
that depend upon the relative.
'

The
from

vernaculars

of Northern

India

have

relative pronouns

derived

the Sanscrit relatives

they make

pronouns

Dravidian, or

at

which

sentence

members;

and

of the second
Thus

instead

came

person.

'yah,''ya,''yad,'who, which; but of those

little use, probablythrough an
under-current of

least of Pre-Sanscrit
contains

relative

the demonstrative
member

influences.

of the

is

In those

languagesa

ordinarilydivided
which

pronoun

forms

sentence, is used

instead

into

two

the nominative
of

relative.

of

who came
day,
yesterdayhas come again tosaying,the man
he is come
they would preferto say, a man
came
yesterday,again
make
of a similar
to-day. The DrS,vidian languages sometimes
use
idiom, but only in the hurry of conversation.
They are not obligedto
have recourse
to any such arrangement, the signification
of the relative,
together with that of the definite article,being contained in, and
of the verb.
Thus they
distinctly
expressedby, the relative participle
in
would
ihe-whoTamil, 'vanda al,'the person who came, literally
say
In

like

instead

manner

of

'

vanda,' the preterite,

they

might use the present relative participle;

e.g., varugiRaal,'the-whois coming person, or the future
varum
al,'the-who-wUl-come person.
The name
given to the relative participle
by Tamil grammarians,
'

'

is 'peyr

echam,' noun-defect,or

noun-complement, i.e.,
a

word

which

requiresthe complement of a noun to complete its signification.

This
is given to it because
it participates
name
so
largelyin the nature of
that it is invariably
followed by a noun,
an
adjective,
to which
it
stands

in the

relationof

antecedent clauses.

relative,and which

it connects

with

the

RELATIVE

TtlE

Like

other

Dravidian

of the number

413

PARTICirLE.

it undergoes no
adjectives,

alteration

on

but inasmuch
as
gender of the related noun;
in
it is a verb as well as an adjective(i.e.,
a
participle
participating
the nature
of both parts of speech),it is capableof governinga preceding
other
of
verb
which
it
with
to
the
equally
noun,
part
any
belongs;e.g., 'nulei erudina pulavan,'Tam., tJie poet who wrote the
the-who-the-book-wrote poet; kattil tirigiRa
hook,literally
Tam.,
yanei,'
the elephantthat wanders
in the jungle,
literally
the-that-in-the-jvmgle
wanders
elephant.
The relative suffix most largelyused in the Dravidian
languagesis
or
a,'which is appended to the verbal participle
gerund,to convert
it into a relative participle.Thus, in Tamil, the (assumed.)
present
of
to
is
verbal participle
uru,'
plough,
uru-giR,'
ploughing; from
the present relative participle
which, by suflBxing a,' is formed
of the
urugiR-a,'that ploughs. The preteriteverbal participle
verb
is
same
nru-d-u,' having ploughed,(of which the final u
from
is merely enunciative,)
which, by the addition of the same
the
a,' is formed
preteriterelative participle uru-d-a,' that
ploughed.
verbal participle
the preterite
When
ends, not in 'd-u,'but in i,'
the
n
(alternatingwith
y '), is euphonicallyinserted between
i and
vowels
concurrent
is
a ;'e.g., from
erud-i,'
having vrritten,
formed
that wrote.
In all these paror
erud-i-(n)-a,'
erud-i-(y)-a,'
ticulars,
with
the
Tamil.
The
the Malayalam perfectly
future
agrees
the
Tamil
is
but
of
formed
from
not
relative participle
terminates
a,'
in um,' being identical with the aoristic future third person singular

account

or

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

neuter.

Tamil,

has

Canarese

The

but

of all the

in this

point the advantage

dialects ; inasmuch

other

as

onlyof

not

it forms

the

its future

also by suifixing
'a,;'e.g., madu-v-a,' which will
participle
of the present tense in
On the other hand, the relative participle
do.
of the relative participle
Canarese is defective,
bein^formed by means
which
of the future,used as an
: e.g.,
bal-utt-iruva,'
lives,
auxiliary
will be living. The
is
which
preteriterelative participle
literally
'a;' the only difierence
formed, like that of the Tamil, by suffixing
and the relative
is,that between the final i of the verbal participle
'a,''d' is inserted euphonicallyinstead of 'n;' e.g., mad-i-(d)-a,'
mad-i,'having done.
which did, from

relative

'

'

'

'

'

'

The

Telugu

agrees

with

the

Tamil

in

forming its present

relative participles
,by suffixing a,'and
preterite
'

in

and
'

inserting n
verbal participle
of that dialect
i in which the preterite
the
between
ends, and the relative 'a;'e.g., from 'avu-tunnu,'becoming.
invariably
'

'

'

414

THE

VERB.

is formed

'

avu-tunn-a,'that becomes; and

is formed

'

that
ay-i-(n)-a,'

The
verb

is

'

in

havmg become,
'ay-i,'

became.

of the negativevoice of the

participle
Tamil, Malayalam, and Canarese, in Telugu it is

suffix of the
'

from

relative

'ni.'

regardedas the characteristic

relative suffix of the Dravidian languages. The
only exceptionsare
ni,'the negative relative suffix of the Telugu ; the suffix of the
It is

evident

now

that

'

be

'

may

'

aoristic future
*

'

um

in

relative

Tamil,

and

'

in several

of the

edu,' edi,'
'

'

'

or

dialects,viz.,
'

eti

'

in

'

ni

'

in

and

Telugu ;

Ku,
'

ti

'

relative participle
in Tulu and Kn.
signof the preterite
Not only are the greaternumber
of relative participles
formed
by
observed
in
the
section
The
on
suffixinga,'but, as was
Noun,'
Dravidian
also
receive
suffix.
most
the
Ultimate
same
adjectives
of
nouns
qualityor relation are capable of being used as adjectives,
without
change or addition ; e.^., siR-u,'small, per-u,'
great;
any
but more
converted
into quasi relative
are
commonly these nouns
and rendered
convenient
for use
as
participles,
thereby more
tives;
adjecThe
small,
per-i-(y)-a,'
great.
preterite
e.g., 'siR-i-(y)-a,'
relative participles
of regularverbs are
also frequently
used as adjectives;
thai
was
fow",
uyar-nd-a,'
high,Wi"caWy
high; tar-nd-a,'
e.g.,
Tamil
like
that was
low.
adjectives
literally
per-i-(y)-a,'
agree so
like
pann-i-(y)-a(for
exactly with preteriterelative participles
'),which made, that they may safelybe regarded as
pann-i-(n)-a
in form, though unconnected
with the
preteriterelative participles
or
preterite
any other tense in signification.
Another
receive the suffix of the future
class of Tamil
adjectives
aorist relative participle,
i.e., um,' which is suffixed like i-(y)-a
or
of quality;e.g., per-um,'great, 'pas-um,'green.
to the crude
noun
these two classes of adjecThere
is no difference in meaning between
tival
the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

formatives,the

use

of the

one

rather than

solelyby euphony or usage ; but

more
i-(y)-a.'
elegantthan

on

the other

the whole

mined
beingdeter'

'

um

is

sidered
con-

'

The Tamil aorist or future suffix

Originof the relative suffixes.
um,' has alreadybeen shown to be identical with the conjunctive
or
copulativeparticle. I regard all the other relative suffixes as
or
originallysigns of the inflexion,
possessivecase signs,expressing
the signification
of endowed
with,possessedof, hawing,which has,
"

'

"c.
In the older
the

Dravidian

is used, as in
Scythianlanguages,a relative participle
languages,instead of a relative prcnown;
and the

THE

'existence of

RELATIVE

family likeness

415

PARTICIPLE.

in

remarkable

is a proof
particular
of the existence of a family
between
the Scythiangroup
relationship
and
the Dravidian.
The
which
is suffixed in the Scythian
particle
for
the purpose
of forming a relative participle
languages
of a
out
verbal participle,
is identical with the sigpof the possessive
In
case.
Manchu
this particle
is 'ngge'or 'ninge'(corresponding
to the Turkish
'niug');in Mongolian don' or 'ton:' and the addition of this possessive
converts
the
verbal participle
with
the theme
case-sign
{i.e.,
the tense-sign
attached)into a verbal adjectiveor relative participle,
in Tamil or Canarese.
as
Thus
in Manchu, from
precisely
'aracha,'
a

so

'

written,which

is the verbal

of 'ara,'to wnte, is formed the

participle
relative participle aracha-ngge,'
which
tke-writtenwivte, literally
'

The

has
also a
language of the Scythian tablets of Behistun
relative suflBx,'pi,'answering to the Mongolian 'ki,' which
is
in the Dravidian languages,
in the formation
as
to the theme
appended,
of relative participles.
Looking at the analogy of the Scythian languages,and at the
geniusof the Dravidian
languages themselves,I have no doubt that
'

a,' which
with

case.

The

forrnsthe
'

most

a,'the oldest and

other

will be found

Dravidian

common

most

characteristic

also which
particles

to have

relative

aroused

as

signof

tical
sufBx,is identhe

possessive

suffixes of the relative

similar nature.

in Ku differs from that

Though the sign of the relative participle
which
prevailsin the other dialects,
yet ni,'the signof the aorist
relative participle,
is identical with the sign of the inflexion
or possessive
which
is
also
relative
the
of
the
ni.'
ni,'
sign
negative
case,
in
bear
relation
the
to
to
same
ni,'a sign
participle Telugu,appears
of the Telugu inflexion.
the sign of the preteriterelative
ti,'
both in Tulu
and in Ku, is the most commonly used sign
participle,
of the inflexion in Teluguj and
the various
suffixes of the Telugu
aorist relative participle
ponding
formatives,corresare
apparentlyadjectival
in originto
inflexion in the same
ti,'the signof the neuter
language.
instead of a relative proThough the use of a relative participle,
noun,
is characteristic of the Scythiantongues; yet both the Turkish
well. The
and the Finnish
as
languages possess a relative pronoun
is foreignto the grammatical structure of those
of such a pronoun
use
guages
from the usage of lanlanguages,and has evidentlybeen borrowed
It is certain that the Turkish
of the Indo-European stock.
influenced by the Persian ; and the Oriental Turkish,
has been much
from the Persian a relative pronoun,
rarely
though it has borrowed
'

'

'

'

'

'

416

THE

of
and ordinarily
substitutes for it a suflSxed particle
it,
genuineScythianmanner.

uses

in

VERB.

Formation

its own,

of Moods.

of the structure of the Dravidian verb may

now
investigation
of
the
the
verb
considered
for
dialect
be
in each
as
family
completed;
has,properlyspeaking,only one
mood, the indicative ; and the forms
and the infinitive
which correspondto the conditional,
the imperative,
moods
of qther
verbal nouns
are
or
compounds, rather than
.languages,
Nevertheless
it is desirable,
at this point,
to inquireinto the
moods.
The

in which

manner

those moods

formed.

are

(1.) The conditional or subjunctive. In most of the Indo-European

and even
in the Turkish
and Finnish,the subjunctive
is a
languages,
regularlyconjugatedmood, distinct from the indicative,with pronominal
terminations
of its own.
In the Dravidian
languages the
subjunctiveis formed by simply postfixingto different parts of the
verb, either a particle
correspondingin meaning to si or i^ or the
"

'

'

conditional

forms

of the

substantive

and
particle,

which

this purpose

in the different
the

suffixed to

they

if it
signifies

and
suffixed,

are

the

Different

he.

verb ; but

to which

use

the

are
particles

and they are

dialects,

part of the

same

includes

verb, which

not

in each

principleon

the

they are

the

put, are

same

used for
dialect
which
in

same

all.
In Canarese
from

relative

'

the conditional

ir-u,'the

theme

of the
participle

sonal,the

condition

is re,'which
particle
'

of the verb

and
preterite,

without
applies,

numbers, genders,and

to he:

that

change

is derived

it is

bably
pro-

appended
participle
being inper-

of

to the

form, to

all persons,

madida,' that did, on

receiving
this suffix becomes
madida-re,'
if {I, thou, he,she,they,"c.)do, did,
do.
shall
or
Person,number, and gender are expressedby the prefixed
times;

e.g.,

'

'

and
time by the
pronoun,
of the relative participlea form

The
subsequent finite verb.
which
always requiresa noun
that
is regardedas a noun,
re

"

shows
completeits signification
that a closer renderingof the construction would
in the event
{my, your, "o.)doing,more
literally
have done (so and so).
'

"

The
consists

base;

most

in

e.g.,

essential and

annexing
'

'in'

ancient
or,

'ina'

form
to

'

evidentlyidentical with the

in

'

which

in

that

to

and

the event

of

(/, you, "c.)

of the
the

Telugu conditional
ultimate conjugational

chuch-in,'if (/, thou, he, "c.) should

'

be

use

is used

see.

for the

This
same

'in'

is

purpose

418
the
'

THE

conditional mood

in,'to

forms

the formed

the

Thus, from

is

infinitive and

the formed

locative

by suffixingthe

that assumed
theme, i.e.,

verbal

basis of the

VERB.

theme

'

signs il'
'

case

verbal

or

which

noun

aoristio defective future.

the

the infinitive

f6g-u,'going,is formed

base by
p6g-um,'it will go : and from the same
the addition of the locative,
the conditional
'il' or 'in,'is formed
var-u,'coming,is
'p6g-jr or 'p6g-in,'
if (I, thou, "c.) go. From
'

p6g-a,'to

go, and

'

'

formed
'

to
var-a,'infinitive,

'

var-il'

or

'

var-in,'
if {I, "c.)

being,is formed

'

come;

var-um,' it
In

come.

or

also

'ag-u,'

from

like manner,

the infinitive 'ag-a,'

to become

and

will come;

be; 'ag-um,'it will

'ag-in (theequivalentof 'ag-il'),

has been softened into
ay-in;'and this is identical in originand
meaning with the Telugu 'e-ni' ('for' avu-ni ')referred to above,
and
is subjoinedto the personalterminations of verbs in the same
'in' is undoubtedly
'e-ni.'
This
conditional
il or
manner
as
'

be; and also 'ag-il,'

if(I,"c.) be.
'

'

'

identical with

which

'

il

'

or

sign of the ablative of motion,

locative,
signifyingin,at, or on; and

in,'the

'

Tamil

is

properlya signof the

of this
with dialectic laws,
in accordance
in,'the Telugu equivalent,
is
used as a locative.
ni,'which is also occasionally
of '^g-il'or
This being the case, the signification
'ay-in,'is
in being,i.e.,
in the event of being; and this is equivalent
to
evidently
the phraseif it be.
Hence
and
d-ui/are well suited
ag-il,'ay-in,'
and appended to the various
conditional auxiliaries,
to be used as
personalterminations of verbs.
The second mode
of forming the conditional in Tamil, consists in
'

'

'

the

use

of the above-mentioned
'

verb, viz.,' ag-il and

as

'

'

'

conditional
'

also

ay-in (and

auxiliaries to other verbs ; and when

like the

forms

commoner

thus

of the

substantive

form,

used,they are

an-al

')
post-fixed,
'

correspondingTelugu eni,'to any person of any tense : e.g.,

in the (event
if it be that I did, or if I did, literally
ieyden-agil,'
in the
of its)being(that)I did; 'seyvSn-agil,'
if I shall do, literally
(eventof its)being(that)I shall do.
This mode
of forming the Tamil
conditional,
though not confined
is but rarelyused
to the classics,
in the colloquial
dialect : it is
used in elegantprose compositions.
chiefly
A third form
of expressingthe sense
of a conditional mood in
Tamil is by appending the particle
kal
to the past relative
or
noun
participle;
if (I, "o.) do or did; uvari olittae.g., se,yda-(k)kal,'
The conditional form which
is
(k)kal,'if the sea sliould roar.
most
commonly used by the vulgar,is a corruptionof this,viz,,
or
even
'iSeydakka,'
'geydakkij'and the Ku conditional also is
formed
k^l being appended to a relative
by appending kka.'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

it is evideiilly
to
participle,
either be tLe
used

Tamil;
channel,a
will

Sanscrit derivative

crude

it may

tvnie,
(for'Ijil-atn'),
it is sometimes

put
'

'

means.

have done

'

to whicli

use

form

did, a

or

will

which

')a good action

('seyda-(k)k"l

from

readilytake

Tamil
following

conditional force ; e.g.,in the

.' Ital

; and

noun

kal,'a
probably,the pure old Dravidian word
of
The literal meaning, therefore,
seyda-(k)kal

less

or,

as

'

be, when (I) do

context
you

be considered

to signify
when, a
adverbially

in

419

CONDITIONAL.

THE

When

stanza,
"

one, say not,

to any

the

'

when

it is evident iha,t when

good action he returned?'
you have
The
of when is
done is equivalentto if you have done.
signification
stillmore
clearlybrought out by the use of kal in connexion with
the future relative participle
if {he,they,"c.)
; e.g., sey(y)ung-kal,'
when
time
shall do, or in the
should do, literally
(they)
when (they)
mood
is
ingly
exceedof expressingthe conditional
shall do. This mode

will thai

"

'

'

'

in the Tamil

common

poets.

forming the conditional is by sufHxing

relative participle,
'al' to the abbreviated
if
e.g., '^eyd-al,'
preterite
we
looked
If we
seyd-al,'
only at examples like
(I, "c.) do.
verhal
might naturallysuppose 'al' to be suffixed to the preterite
is regularlyelided
of which
participle('seyd-u'),the final u
The

fourth

mode

Tamil

of

'

'

before

vowel

with

perfectly
agree

look,however,

we

in

'i,' and

their

conditional would

the

of

Telugu mode,

the

second

the

class of verbs which

at

to

the

that

the

two

vowels

'

'

but

'

al' is

noun,

and

therefore the

'

shall

n-a,' we

to the verbal

relative,not

participle,
incorporatedinto one;
but
dently
an-al,'eviag-i-al,'

('a' and 'a') are

ag-u,'to he,is not
e.g.,the conditional of
from 'an-a'
'),that was, and
('ag-i-(n)-a
be followed by a verb or
must
verbal participle
and

then

e.g., 'chest-e.' If
form their preterite

in
preteriterelative participle

'al' is added

find that

form

this

and

'

'

'al.'
some

to which
participle

Besides,the
verbal form ;
it is suffixed

In colloquial
Tamil,
not a verbal one.
participle,
alone
but
in the
forms
of the verb
;
al is suffixed to impersonal
be suffixed to any
higher dialect k\,'or its equivalent el,'may
be

must

relative

'

'

'

'

if thou hast done; 'seyof any tense; e.g., ' ^eydanei-(y)-e],'

relative participle,
guvgn-el,'
if I shall do. It is also suffixed to the
person

as
'

'al' is in the

I conceive

ordinarydialect;e.g., seygindra-(v)-al,'
'

if {I, thou, "c.) should

seyda^(v)-al,'

do.

This

of
leyda-(v)-al^'
common
colloquial
'

High Tamil illustrates the originof the more

form
seyd-al.'
I conceive,from
This conditional particleal has been corrupted,
founded
already mentioned, and is not, I think,to be con'kal,'the particle
al is
Tamil.
with
al,'the signof the instrumental case in
the

'

'

'

'

'

'

420

THE

'

kal

in the

signof the cohditional

is generally
preferred.

rarelyused' as
'

VERB.

One

form

another

higher dialect,in which

if1 do)\
expressedby if{e.g.,
though I do, or
although {e.g.,

of the conditional mood

is

is

expressedby though,or
thoughJ have done). This second form of the conditional is generally
expressed in the Dravidian languagesby suffixingthe conjunctive
of the conditional particles
to one
alreadyreferred to. Thus,
particle
in Tamil, 'seyd-al'signifies
if {I, "c.) do; whilst 'seyd-al-um'
urn,'the conjunctiveor copulative
signifies
though {I, "c.) do.
of even, as well as that of and, the literal
particle,
having the sense
is
particle um
meaning of this phraseis even if (/) do. The same
verbal participle
suffixed to the preterite
to
bring out a preterite
even
signification;
having
thovgh(/,"c.) did, literally
e.g., 'seyd'-um,'
'

'

'

done.
In the

superiordialect
(answering to the Tamil

of the

'yu'
Telugu the conjunctiveparticle
um
')is appended to the conditional particle,
when
the reference is to the present time, and to the preterite
relative participle
is substituted for
nu
(in that case
yu ')when
'

'

'

past time
The

is referred to.

Canare^seadds
the

when
the

'

conditional

copulative u
'

'

the addition of the

'

'

annexed

; and

u,' like

'

'

agyu

to

the

relative
'

participle,

is re,'with
although. ru
is agi,'
having been,with
agyu
of

'

'

the Tarn.

'

'

'

anal-um.'

imperative. In the Dravidian languagesthe second person

singularof the imperativeis generallyidentical with the root or
This is so frequeiitly
theme of the verb.
the case, that it may
be
regardedas a characteristic rule of the language.
In a few instances in Tamil
there is a slightdifi^erence between
the imperativeand the verbal theme; but those instances scarcely
constitute even
an
apparent exception to the generalrule,for the
difference is caused not by the addition of
to the root, for
any particle
of forming the imperative,
the purpose
but merely by the softening
2.

The

'

'

is that

sense

same

and

ru

"

of the formative suffix

away

or

the final consonant

of the

theme, for

the sake of

euphony; e.g., 'var-n,'to come, takes for its imperative

vi,'Tel., ra ;'the plural(or honorific singular)of which is in High
Tamil 'vammin,' in Telugu 'rammu.'

'

'

It has been

their transitives by

Such

that there is

seen

doublingthe

class of Tamil

initial consonant

verbs'whioh

of the

vefbs

signof

also,however, use the simple unformed

theme
in
far
is
that
mood
a
nd,
so
imperative,
as
concerned, make no
except

in

their

connexion

and

force,between

form

as

tense.

their

tion,
distinc-

transitives and

THE

intransitives.

is
Thus, 'ked-n,'

the connexion, whilst

every
to

its

that

signification
; e.g.,

421

IMPERATIVE.

either

spoilor be.spoikd,
acpordingto

other part of the verb

the

takes

form

infinitiveof the intransitive is

of the transitive 'kedukk-a.'

suited
'

ked-a,'

The

Telugu, on the other hand,

makes a distinction between the imperativeof the transitive
generally
and that of the intransitive
is
; e.g., whilst the intransitive be spoiled,
chedu,'the transitive is not also chedu,' but 'cheRuchu' (for 'cheduchu '),a form which would be kedukku
in Tamil.
"

'

'

'

largenumber

ultimate root, but

'

mpu.'

This

of

Telugu verbs use

speciesof verbal

for the

accounts

in
formative,

the

their verbal theme, not the

as

ending

noun

of

presence

'

imperative cheRuchu,'and
'

in

'

chu,' pu,'or

chu,' which

'

is in itself a

only in the imperative,

but throughall the moods
and tenses of the Telugu verb.
The
Tamil uses
the equivalentverbal noun
(endingin kku ')as the base
of its transitive infinitive,
of
and of the third person singularneuter
the future or aorist of its transitive;e.g., 'kedukk-a,' to spoil,
and
not

'

'

it will spoil; but in every other part of the verb it uses

alone (includingonly the inseparable
formative,if there be

kednkk-um,'

the

root

one) as its inflexional

true root of a
primitive,
ascertained

The
and

theme.
verb
of

use

in Tamil

that
be

is to

take,

considered

imperativein Tamil;

and

verbal

from

person

as

noun

The

noun.

yet that even

this,that the

appears

portionof the

nominative,of the Tamil

but the

obliquecase

is used

in construction

or

the

Tamil

pronoun

viz.,that form
genitive,
with

nouns

;, e.g.,

imperative

verbs, leads

pronoun
is
of
that
plural
imperativeemploys, not the
noun

the

as

Telugu
imperative,whatever

verbal

'

the

Telugu.

classes of

Dravidian

every

in

than

speciesof verbal

inflexional basis of certain

conclusion

it is easier to ascertain

Hence

to

the

form

crude

it may
root is the

imperative is
which

the

second

nominative,or

any

of the second person,

of the pronoun

ked-um,'spoU

ye,

which
or

he ye

is formed by suffixing
to the verbal theme, not
nir,'yow, but
spoiled,
'um,' your,
aproof that the imperativein Tamil has the grammatical
and the energy
of a verbal noun, and that it is the context
significance
of its enunciation that constitute it an imperative.
'

"

-The
the

particlemu
'

verb,

or

'

or

'mi,'is often added

verbal theme, to form

the

to the

inflexioaal base of

imperativein Telugu.

The

'

in Tamil
is somemd
times
practiceobtains in the Ku ; and even
and
'min'
to the plural,
of the imperative
suffixed to the singular
"only, however, in the classical dialect. In Telugu, nevertheless,
commonly used as the imperative
in Tamil, the verbal theme is more
as
probablethat
without the arldition of any such particle
; and it seems
'

same

'

'

niu

or

'

mi,'the only remaining relic

of

some

lost root, is added

as

422

THE

an

iiitensitiveor

do

come.

'

VERB.

like
precative,

andi,'which

Tamil

the

is added

the

to

Oh
'en;' e.g., variira-"n,'
'

Telugu, to form

in

root

the

pluralof the imperative,is the vocative of an obsolete

to mean
Sir);it is probably
noun, Sin (sometimesused honorifically
identical with
andar,'an honorific pluralsuffix of the Canarese {e.g.,
av-andar-u,'
they);and the other signs of the same
part of the verb
in Telugu ('di,' udi,'
and
udu
du '),
are
or
evidentlyabbreviations

second person

'

'

of

'

'

'

'

'

andi.'

used to form
tlie
(also minir '),the particleoccasionally
phosed
pluralof the imperativein classical Tamil, is perhapsonly a metamorand equivalentto
nim,' the obliquecase of the old
pronoun,
nim,' you; and probably in,'the suffix of the imperativepluralin
'

min

'

'

'

'

'

Malayalam,has

softened

It
infinitive.

The

3.

been

has

"

in the
especially

from

'min.'

been

customary
verbal

Telugu,to call various

'

iu Dravidian

grammars,

infinitives ;

nonns
'

as

'

the

in
the infinitive
in
adam-u,' and
infinitive
for though,
This use of terms
edi.'
is not sufficieutly
discriminative;
each of those forms may
infinitive in
be used with the force of a qv/isi
certain connexions,yet the two
first are properlyverbal nouns, and
the third is a participial
is capable of being regularly
: each
noun
is identical
declined,and each possesses a plural. The Tel. 'padu-ta,'
with the Tamil
whilst the infinitive proper, to
'padu-dal,'
suffering;
that the true
is in both languages'pad-a.' I have
doubt
no
suffer,
infinitive was
verbal noun
a
also,and this originof the
originally
Dravidian
infinitive will,I think, be proved in the sequel;but the
of grammatical nomenclature
usus
loquenfii
requiresthat the term

in
infinitive

uta,'

'

'

the

'

'

'

should be restricted to those

infinitive
destitute of
to be declined,which
are
of

'

verbal
a

which

nouns

and
plural,

which

have

ceased

capable

are

being used absolutely.

Both

used

in

and

in

it is identical with

tional

theme
used

noun

Tamil

The

iu

Tamil;

than
absolutely

Malayala

gerund,and is used
The
to the

the
and
a

root

in

therefore
formed

infinitive 'van'
as

infinitive in 'u'

Telugu an

such in

High

Telugu

and

is

with
be

occasionally
the conjuga-

rather

verbal

'pp"n,'is properly a

future

to

seems

infinitive.
or

Tamil.

generallyformed by suffixinga'
verbal theme.
This is invariablythe mode in which the infinitive
is formed
in Telugu ; e.g., chey-a,'
to do.
in Tamil
Ordinarily
true

Dravidian

infinitive is

'

'

and

Canarese

the infinitive is formed

is also much

verbal

noun

dative

case-signunderstood

used
or

in

in Canarese

the
as

same
an

manner;

but

with the
infinitive,

expressed;e.*/.,instead of 'mada,'

to

THE

423

INFINITIVE.

do, they,prefersaying raad-al-ke

'

modern

(in the

'

dialept mad-ali'

kke'),/or t^oim^r,
or
(without the case-sign)'mad-al'
doing or

to do.

Similar

in classical Tamil
'

laRku

constructive

also,instead

infinitivesare

of the

'mad-alu/

or

used
occasionally

infinitivein 'a;' e,g., 'sol-

true

('Bollal-ku '),for saying,and

soUal,'saying,with the sign
dative understood,instead of soll-a,'
There
is also
to say.
in ga,'which is occasionally
or honorific imperative
infinitive,
'

of the

'

another
used

'

in classical Tamil

to know, or mayest (thou)

aai-ga,'
know,
form
which
will be inquired into presently. Notwithstanding
a
these apparent exceptions, a
is to be considered as
the regular
Dravidian signof the infinitive.

; e.g.,

'

'

'

Professor Max

tives
Miiller,noticingthat the majorityof Tamil infiniterminate in
ka,' supposes this 'ka' to be identical in origin
of the Hindi, and concludes
ku,' the dative-accusative case-sign
'

with

'

that the Dravidian

that

true

the

infinitiveis the accusative

Sanscrit

rectlyregardedas
is the

dative of

infinitive is

infinitive and

verbal

Latin

accusative,and

an

noun

of

that

verbal

'

is cor-,
supine in turn
Englishinfinitiveto do,

our

it is also true

It is

noun.

'

that

the

Dr"vidian

loses that
origin,and never
altogether
character;nevertheless,the suppositionthat the final 'ka' of most
Tamil
infinitives is in any manner
connected
with 'ku,'the signof the

Dravidian

verbal

dative

comparisonof

and

various

in

noun

is erroneous.
dative-accusative,

of the Hindi

classes of verbs

and of the various

dialects shows

questionproceedsfrom a totallydifierentorigin.
The Tamil infinitive terminates in 'ga' ('g-a')only in those cases
in which
ends in a formative
the verbal theme
(g-u'); and in
gu
instances in which 'g' appears in the infinitive (as in the verbal
many
it in the poets : e.g. noga,'
theme) in the ordinarydialect,v replaces
used 'oythe classics as 'nova.'
to be pained,is not so much
'ppa' is
of
also used in the higher dialect instead
'kka;' e.g., 'nadappa,'to
of the formative consonant,
These interchanges
walk, for nadakka.'
that the

ka

'

'

in

'

'

'

'

'

'

is the termination of the verbal

which
'

from

'

is

both

added,

it is

Tamil

verbs

when

they are

the purpose
such

cases

of
the

in

are

apparent

ending

perfectagreement
that

and hence

to which

with

is the

alone

'a'

the

sign of

the infinitival

Telugu ; and
the infinitive.

'

intransitives ; and
the formative is doubled for
into transitives,

in- the

converted

formative

'

g-u

are

of signification.
In
denoting the increased intensity
formative

'

'

g-u

is converted

the infinitive of all such verbs ends iu

Thus,

and

theme,

the verb

'

p6,'to

gu

'

'

kk-u ;

'

and accordingly

kk-a.'

for its intransitive formativCj

p6-gu;'from which is formed the acrist

the verbal noun
going,and the infinitive
pog-al,'

its verbal theme

'p6g-um,'it wili go,

go, takes

'

'

into

is

'

'

424

VEKB.

THE

p6g-a,to go. The correspondingtransitive verb is p6-kku/ to drive

('gu being converted into kku ')j and from this is formed in
away
like manner
p6kk-um/ it will drive away, and also the infinitive
instances the intransitive shape of
In some
'p6kk-a,'to drive away.
'

'

'

'

'

the verb has

formative ; and

no

the initial consonant

'giR* becomes
pp.'

'

kkiR,

'd'

is hardened
tense-sign

or'nd'

is constructed

tbe doubled

takes

and

on

which

formative, 'kk-u

transitive,

doubled

'tt,'and'v'

becomes

In such instances the verbal theme

'

to
valar-a,'

of the

it is converted into

when

or'b'

i.e.,
comes
be-

the infinitive

:' e.g., compare

This formative, 'kk'

to rear.
valar-kk-a,'
however, appears not only in the infinitive but also in the aorist
of Tamil
valar-kk-um,'it vdll rear.^ A very large number
verbs,
have
termination
formative
whatever
no
includingmany transitives,
;
and the infinitive of such verbs is formed
by simply suffixinga to
the root ; e.g., var-a,'
and 'kan-a,'to see.
In the event
of
to flourish,
the root of a verb of this class ending in
i or
ei,' y is inserted
between
the root and the sign of the infinitive ; e.g., aBi-(y)-a,'
to
know ;
This
to obtain.
adei-(y)-a,'
y,'however, is clearlyeuphonic.
When
intransitive root is converted
into a transitive by annexing
an
to the root, s.^., 'tar-tt-u,'
tt-u
to lower, the infinitive simply elides
the euphonic u
and suffixes a ;' e.g., tar-tt-a.'
From
it appears indubitably
a comparisonof these
certain
instances,
'

jfj'ow, with

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

that 'a' alone is the normal

'

'

kk

which

'

'

'

suffix of the Tamil

and
infinitive,

that the

often appears,

belongsto the formative of the

verbal theme, not to any supposititious
case-sign.
What
then is the originof the infinitival suffix 'ga,'which is
used in classicalTamil; e.g., 'aui-ga,'
occasionally
to know, instead of
the ordinary 'aRi-(y)-a,'
and
sey-ga,'to do, instead of 'sey(y)-a?'
This form is chiefly
used as an
optative,or as conveying a wish or
'ni
politecommand; e.g.,
aki-ga,'
mayest thou know I It does not
'

or

so

'

follow, however, from this,that it would

form

the
I

'

"

g'

The

regard it

to

as

for the ordinaryinfinitivein 'a' is

imperativeoriginally;
by the poets in the same
manner, and not unfrequently
even

peasants.

persuadedthat the

am
'

or

'

g-u

same

of verbal

formative

Thus,

not

only

is

aRi-g-il-ir,'
you know

'

'

of

'

nouns,
'

'

parts also of the very

'

correct

of the

often used

by

be

and

is found

verbs

which

'

'

ga

that

is

simplythe usual formative

its use is primarily
euphonic,

to be used

given

are

ani-ga,'to know,
not, instead of

'

in connexion

with

other

examples of this rule.

as

used instead of

but
aBi-(y)-a,'

'

or
aBi-(y)-il-ir/
aRi-(y)-ir
; and
'

just as '^ey-ga,'to do, is used instead of sey(y)-a/

find
so
we
I will do, instead of '^ey-v-6n.'The
soy-gu-v-en,'
which makes
g
'

'

'

'

426

THE

'which the

imperative and

doubted,that
cb' and

the Tamil

VERB.

theme
and

'

'

is

'

'

nada.'

p,'alternating
(after i ') with
formatives,without any specialconnexion
which is a alone.
infinitive,
'

'

'

instances

most

discarded

in Canarese

and
altogether,

the

to he, takes 'iru-kk-a'

'ir-u,'

which

'a'

suffix

of

the

referred

verbal

the

Thus,

root.

for its infinitive in

to above

are

sign of

whilst

the

the verb

Tamil, the simpler

'

'

is

adduced

the

with

constitutes

the

infinitival
suffix'a.'
the signof the infinitive in all
originally
'

'

infinitiveis ir-a.'

Origin of

that

nch

correspondingTelugu
and
mp,' are merely

'

the formatives

infinitive is suffixed to the crude

Canarese

'

be

'

'

In

the

kk,' and

it cannot

Hence,

form

weakened

which

I conceive

"

render

of

al.'

the

that

Dravidian

'al'

was

and
dialects,

be
analogiesmay
of al' into
a,'not only possible,
softening
shown
that 'a,'the verbal signof negation,
'al,'the ordinarynegativeparticle.The

the

'

Several

'

but

'

probable. It has been

is probably derived
from
decisive.
Much
is made
in Tamil of a
followinganalogy is more
use
verbal or participial
noun
a wandeiing,
ending in 'dal;'e.g., 'alei-dal,'
from 'alei,'
from
to wander;
muRi-dal,'a breaMng,
muui,' to break.
'

In

Canarese

the

final

'

'

1 ' of

those

and

similar

verbal

has

nouns

a
systematically
disappeared;e.g., 'ale-ta,'
wandering, 'muri-ta,'a
breaking.
the final 1 of the same
The Telugu also has softened away
class
of words ; e.g., compare
the Tamil
m"y-(t)tal,'
pasturage, with the
correspondingTelugu 'ni"-ta;''chi-ta,' Tel., an act, with 'sey-dal,'
Tam.
'nada-ta,'Tel.,walk, conduct,with
; and
nada-{t)tal,'
T^m.
Tamil
Even
in
alternates with
also, nada-(t)tei
nada-(t)tal.'
It has alreadybeen stated that the verbal noun
in
al,'with or
is used instead of the infinitive in a
without the dative case-sign,
in
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

dialects of the

both

signof

the

be, which

the infinitive is
is

being~-" form
Now,
of

as

'

not

the

of the most
abstract

connexions
to

verbal

it is certain that

al,'one

and

in classical Tamil.

alle,'
amplifiedfrom

used
occasionally

or
participial
a

'

evidentlyidentical with

the Dr".vidian

as

as

Canarese

infinitive

verbal

in the

Tamil

noun,

and

GAnd

al ;' e.g.,

verbal

higher dialect as

undoubtedly
partakesof
is considered

'

to
aialle,'

noun,
an

also,

'

agal,'

infinitive.

the character

by native

marians
gram-

or gerund of the present or

aorist tense ;
participle
it is intimately
associated with a verbal noun
in
characteristic in the language,and which denotes

idea

of the

verb,but

has been softened into

the conclusion

the

'

In

'

that

'

we
'a,'

the
seem

act; and
to be

as

'al' in other

in coming
justified

a,'the infinitival suffix,has been weakened

THE

from

427

INFINITIVE.

to he,is identical with ' ag-al,'

that 4g-a,'
and, consequently,
al,'
heing.
A parallel
instance of the softening
of the final consonant
of
away
'

'

the infinitiveappears

in the

infinitiveis in Persian
to

Indo-Europeantongues.

and Gothic

but
'an,'

in Frisian

The

sign of the

'a;'e.g.,'mak-a,'

make.
The

the

present infinitiveof the Finnish

Dravidian, being

also in

is

apparentlyidentical

with

'a;' e.g., 'olKa,'to he; but

it appears
nasal,for the

probable that this a

was
originally
preceded by a
correspondingEsthonian infinitive is 'olle-ma,'and the sign of the
infinitivein Hungarian is ni.'
On the supposition
that the Dravidian
infinitive terminated originally
in '1,'
there is a remarkable,but probablyaccidental,
resemblance
to it in the Armenian, in which
'1' is the infinitival suflSxje.g.,
to carry
ber-e-1,'
(compare Tarn.
poR-al,'hearing or to hear);
to give(compareTam.
'ta-I,'
'ta(r)-al,'
givingor to give).
'

'

'

'

'

Use

of

the

If
infinitive.
"

shall discover

we
infinitive,
as

verbal

or

languagesto
to

come,

Dravidian

down,

noun.
participial

denote

but

also

adverbs

would

be in

in which

look at the force and

we

in the
are

or

purpose

conclusive

reasons

It is not

only

end,

e.g.,

'

followingconnexions,
infinitives of neuter

Telugu

'

in
pada gottenu,'
to fall,i.e.,
so

use

for
used

of the Dravidian

regardingit
as

in

other

tell (him)
(s)sollu,'
(i.)The majorityof
verbs; e.g., he hnocked

var-a

Tamil

'

vira

/
(t)tallinan

to fall. Through the

as
phrasesdown means
idiom
the infinitive of the verb to hecome (inTel. ka,'or
same
ag-a,'
of qualityto convert
them
into
added to nouns
ga '),is ordinarily
adverbs ; e.g., naudr'-aga,'
Tam. well,from
nandr-u,'
good,and ag-a,'
tohecom".
(ii.)The infinitiveis elegantlyused with an imperative
significati
with
the Hebrew
idiom),or rather as an
(in accordance
optative,
seeingthat it conveys a wish rather than a command; e.g.,
ni var-a'
I
The
(more frequently*var-ga'),mayest thou flourish
infinitiveof the verb to he,also regularlyforms an optative,
or
polite
annexed
the
of
future
to
tense
imperative,by being
any verb; e.g.,
thou
from
wilt
thou
do,
do, and
leyvay-aga,'
aga,'to
mayest
sey vay,'
it
he (that)
thou wilt do.
It is used as a
become,literally,
(iii.)
may
kind of ablative absolute;e.g., 'poruduvidind' irukk-a,en tilngugiRay,'
In this instance,
thou?
Tam., the sun having arisen,why steepest
'vidind' irukk-a,'(literally
is in the perfecttense,
to he
havingarisen,)
is not a preterite
but irukk-a
but is the ordinary
infinitive,
present
in this
aorist
the
verb
he.
to
infinitiveof
infinitiveused
The
or
ir-u,'
in Malayalam, and is capableof being
is styleda verbal noun
manner
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

428

VEKB.

THE

The Malayalam
regularlydeclined,which proves that it is a noun.
prefersto use as au infinitive van/ which is properlya gerund of the
in 'ga,'
of the uses
it puts its verbal noun
to which
future; but some
'

'

ka,' or

'

kka,' show

that

is identical with

verbal

that

the

Tamil

'ellawarum kelkka,'Mai., (Tarn. ellarum ketka,')

m
infinitive;
e.j'.,
the audience of all is literally
that
all
should hear, or, whilst all
so as
were
hearing, (iv.)A series of infinitives is often elegantlyused^
somewhat
in Latin, to express
actions
that take place
minor
as
contemporaneouslywith the principalaction ; e.g., they would say in
Tamil
irul-a
raugilerumba
{whilstthe clouds were rising),vanam
(whilstthe sky was
gatlieringblackness), marei porindu pey(y)-a
the rain was
(whilst
fallingabundantly),'urar tiru-vira nadattinargal'
celebrated tlieirsacred festival),
of
(thevillagers
(v.)The reduplication
any infinitiveexpresses exactlythe force of the Latin gerund in do ;'
eundo f more
acguirit
e.g., p6g-ap6g-a,balan kollum,''vms
closely,
it goes
to go
to go) it gathersstrength.
as
as it goes (literally
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

"

These
of

illustrations "prove that the Dra vidian infinitivehag the force

of a verbal noun, as well as that of
or
gerund or verbal participle,

the infinitive
the

properlyso called. The examples adduced are all from

Tamil, but parallel
examples could easilybe adduced from each of

the other dialects.

Formation
Dravidian

verbal

participial
nouns,
verbal

of each

nouns

are

determinate

formed

by
to

from

the

are

pointof

present

relative

viz.
classes,
and
participle,
"

the time of the tense to which

retaining
from the theme, and
always formed directly
time.
The

"

greater number

the demonstrative
suffixing

the

into two

and

Participialnouns.

1.
are

in

formed

are

tense

they belong,which

Nouns.

divide themselves

nouns

which

of Verbal

and

of

of this class

nouns

pronouns,

or

their

nations,
termi-

preteriterelative participles
; e.g.,

from

that.does (thepresent relative participle

of 'iey,'
is
'seygiKa,'
to do),
lietliatdoes ; seygiRa-(v)-al,'
formed 'leygiRa-(v)-an,'
she that does,"c.
'

from

the

past relative participle

'seyda,'that did, is
liethai did; 'seyda-(v)-al,'
formed 'seyda-(v)-an,'
she that did,"c.jand
In like

manner

of
by simply adding the appropriateterminations,
nouns
participial
of
number
the
third
or
gender(butalways
any
person only)may be made
A
similar
series
of
future
at pleasure.
participial
nouns
exists,
or
may
if
be constructed
required; e.g., oduvan,'he who will read, or w accm'

tomed

to read.

The

participle
; but

Tamil

future in

its existence is

'

'

or

'

'

is destitute of

tive
rela-

impliedin that gf future participial

VERBAL

like

nouns,

that which will go,

^tiya.-d.\i^

'

will see, and

429

NOUNS.

and

he who
'li:anba-(v)-an,'

have ended like the future relative

must

of
participle

the

Canarese,in va,''ba,'or 'ppa.' The Tamil aoristic future in 'um,'

well as a future tense, forms no
though a relative participle
as
cipial
partiin
of
in
um
probably consequence
a conjunctive
nouns,
being reality
not
true
sufiBx
of
relation. Negative participial
particle, a
of
each
and
number
like the affirmative
nouns
genderare formed exactly
the' various demonstrative
terminations
participial
by suffixing
nouns,
to the negative,
instead of the affirmative,
relative participle.
These participial
declined like other nouns
nouns
are
; nevertheless,
beingparts of the verbs,they have the same power of governingnouns
the verbs to which
as
they belong; e.g., vittei (k) kattinavan'

'

'

'

ukku,' to

Mm

who

In these

built the house.

respectsall the

that it is needless

Dravidian

dialects

are

so

perfectly
agreed

multiplyquotations.
There is a peculiarity
about the words which are
used as neuter
in Tamil whiph requires
of them
to be noticed. Each
nouns
participial
is used in three different significations,
viz.
neuter
as the third person
of the verb, as a neuter
relative -participial
and as a verbalnoun,
noun.
means
Thus, seyginadu in the first connexion
participial
it does ; in the second,that which does; in the third,the doing or to do.
I have termed it in the third connexion
noun,' to
a verbal-participial
formed
from
it from the ordinaryverbal nouns, which
are
distinguish
and from
which
the idea of time is
the theme, not from participles,
in origin. I
in use, though participial
It is a verbal noun
excluded.
and most correct
the original
am
persuaded that of these three senses
tive-partic
is the last,viz.,that of the verbal-participial
noun
one
; for the relanot
noun
ought by analogy to be seygiBa-(v)-adu,'
verbal noun
or
'seygiK-adu; and whilst it is certain that a participial
to

"

'

'

"

'

'

'

ance
Blighteasilybe used as the third person neuter of the verb, in accordother languages,it is difiicult to see
with the analogy of many

the third person

how

as
fegularly

noun,

time

of the verb

could

be

to

come

used

so

of partiThis species
noun.
cipial
verbal-participial
includes the idea of
though neuter or without personality,
it is

it has three

the future

neuter

tenses

as

forms,in accordance with the present,the past, and

the doing; 'seydadu,'
of the verb; eg., ieygiusiiu,'
'

leyvadu,'the beingabout to do. Each of these

it is used as
be pluralised,
as far as
forms may
usage permits,when
of the verb, or
as
a
neuter
relative-participial
the third person
it is
used
noun
abstractlyas a verbal-participial
noun
; but when
the

not
one

having

done ; and

pluralised.The
of the most

'

noun
participial

commonly

formed

from

used forms of the verbal

noun

the
in

future

is

Canarese,

4:30

VERB.

THE

of descending,from

the act
or
'ilivu-du,'
e.^f.,'iliyu-v-adu,'

of this kind

Words

to
jli,'

called infinitives ; and

been

have sometimes

'

it

lating
they may generallybe rendered in the infinitive on transthem
into English,e.g., 'appadiseyginadusari (y) alia,'
Tarn.,
tive
infinithe
is
because
it is not rightto do so.
Bat this
English
simply
is equivalent
and
do
to
itself is sometimes
used as a verbal noun,
the doing. The phrase might be more
to the participial
closely
noun,
of this class
rendered,the doing thus (is)not right. Verbal nouns
become more
allied to infinitiveswhen
they are put in the dative ; e.g.,
'adu'
fdr the doing, i.e.,to do. As the pronoun
'seygiRadu-kku,'
becomes optionally'adan/ so the participial
noun
'seygiRadu'may
This
become
seygiRadan.'
change, however, is exceedingly rare
seygiRadan-ku,'
euphoniexcept in the dative ; and in that connexion
in written
is more
than
common
compositions
cally seygiRadaR-ku,'
seygiRadu-kku.'
The, Tamil alone possesses an abstract relative-participial
pressing
exnoun,
in the form of a declinable participle,
the abstract idea denoted
by the verb. It is formed by appending mei,'the suflBx of abstracts,
relative participle
of any verb : e.g., from
to the present or preterite
of
to he),
irukkindr-a,'that is (the present relative participle
iru,'
form
Tamilians
by the addition of mei
irukkiudra-mei,'
being.
The
of this form
is confined to classical compositions
use
; but the
which are formed by annexing 'mei' to the
abstract derivative nouns
crude verbal theme
poRu/ to bear)
(e.g., poRu-mei,'patience,from
much
used even
in the colloquial
dialect. The relative-participia
are

is true that

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

in

noun

It Is.declined

mei,' whilst

'

a verb ; but the

power
the force of a substantive

Tamil

The

suffix

several of the
considerable
in Finnish
infinitive

'

is

'

'

me

Scythiantongues

is 'ma'

or

supines

are

formed

of which

2.

exhibits

Verbal

nouns."

an

'

suffix of the

me

'

or
or

'

'

'

mek.'

ma

governing
mei

'

'

has

nouns

Telugu.

which

are

In

bears

noun
participial

Is the suffix of the

Possiblywe

'

Brky'idian verbal

in

by suffixing
'man

mei,' the

'

'

suffix used

Finnish

'

mi

old

and
Sea-fM-9,'
irotij-fiaj'
suffix.
participial
as

old

The

in

compare

this Dravidlan
nouns

the

derivative in

'

:' in Esthonian

'ma

with

and such
fiev,'

has

noun,

Canarese,

find

to this.

infinitival suffix is 'mak'

in

in

we

Turkish

'

only.

mei

resemblance

like

verbal
corresponding

of

'

'

Greek
'

:' the

may

also

infinitive

each
ux"^-/"'}/

indeterminate with

but from the verbal

respectto time,being formed, not from participles,
root

or

the formed

theme

; but

they express

the act, not the abstract

VEEBAIi

idea,of the verb

to which

431

NOUNS.

they belong,and

hence

called

are

grammarians toril peyr,'nouns

ofoperation.
Verbal nouns
from
to be distinguished
are
carefully

Tamil

by

'

substantives

or

from

the verbal
merely as nouns
; whereas
(likethe participial
noun), is construed as a

called

In several Dravidian

kudal/ and

verb.

by Europeans this distinction

Tamil words like 'nadei
or
nadappu,
'

to; and

classed with verbal

been

noun,

written

grammars

has not been attended

walk, have

derived

latter,
though

The

verbs.

tives,
deriva-

used

verbs, are

properlyso

derived from

verbal

like

nouns

'

'

nadakkei,' nadak'

nadakkal,'walking. Though, however, each of these

words maybe translated walking,
the first two are simplysubstantives;
not adverbs,must
and adjectives,
be used to qualifythem; whereas
is a true verbal noun,
noun
'nadakkudal,'the corresponding
ofoperation,
and is qualified
itself,nada,'to walk,
as the verb
by adverbs,precisely
'

'

would

be.

Thus,

justly; but

we

can

could

we

ing
walk-

nadakkudal,' actingor
'nidi(y)ay

say
not

adverb

the

use

'

nidi(y)a,yto qualify

'

those
'nadappu' or 'nadei.' It would be necessary to qualify
words
form
there being nearly the
by the adjectival
nidi(y)ana,'
that there is
nadakkudal
difference between
same
nadappu and
in Englishbetween behaviour and behaving.
A verbal noun
kkei
is often used in Tamil, e.g.,
in
gei or
the doing; but though this is used as a
'irukkei,'the being 'seygei,'
verbal noun,
seeingthat it is so, more
e.g., appadi irukkei- (y)-al,'
throughits beingso, yet the forms which are most commonly
literally

either

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

used

as

verbals,and

which

those
'

nadakk-al

'

al'

or

formed

best claim

the

have

which

to that

character,are

in 'al :' e.^,, '^ey(y)-al,'

or
doing;
'sey-dal,'
nadakkudal,'walking. Whether the suffix appended be

terminate
'

'

or

not to the crude root, but

'dal,'it is generallysuffixed,
forms the basis of the
to that which
verbal theme, i.e.,

of the defective future

tive and

aorist

or

e.g., the verbal

noun

to

the

infini*
that ia

but 'iru-kkTal,'
to be, is not 'ir-al,'
being; and from
from 'ir-u,'

formed

'nad-a,'lo walk, is formed

this, al
'

'

'

or

not

dal

'

but
na-d-al,'

'

is sometimes

'

nada-kk-al.'

added

to
directly

standing
Notwiththe ultimate

going,but
'pog-al'or 'p6gn-dal,'
also 'p6-dal;'
and not only 'ag-al'or 'agu-dal,'
becoming,but also
tion
'a-dal.' Probably, however, in these instances the right explanabase:

is,that

by
and

use.

force

circumstance

'

the

'

of
'

'

have

we

'

'

'

of

'

considerations

transitive instead of

require;

'

'

'

that the 'd' is doubled

verb becomes

'

p6-gu and a-gu has been softened

character
dal
is clearly
a formative of the same
of 'gei' or 'kkei ;' and this is proved by the

the formative

The
as

only

e.g., not

and
an
'

e.g., comp.

converted into 'tt' when

the

when euphonic
or
intransitive,
a
being
kuRei-dal,'intransitive,

432

VERB.

THE.

a
curtailing. It is evidetut
transitive,
kunei-ttal,'
d
which constitutes the sign
with the
is unconnected

curtailed,with
that this
of the

d'

'

'

'

'

for the verbal

verbs;

of many

tense
preterite

in

noun

dal' is

'

respectto time as that in al or that in kkei ;'

't^'' and
'dam-u;' e.g.,
and
the correspondingTelugu forma
are
doing.
more
or
or
commonly 'chfeya-dam-u,'
'chlsu-ta,'
'chgyu-ta'

aa

distinction

The

haa been

softened from

Verbal derivatives.

3.

of the
investigation

derived

from

(1.)The
to

first class

verbal themes

infinitive in

suffix of verbal

intention

my

formatives

to enter

'

fullyinto

substantives

being merely euphonic,

being very great.

reader's attention

modes
interesting

'

nouns.

of verbal derivatives,
or

dialects

the

the

in

to

which

the

It may
be
few of the
Dravidian

of this class.

nouns

consider them

with

of those

direct

to

characteristic and

languagesform

It is not

in the various

desirable,however,
more

"

formatives

verbs,most

their number

and

hypothesiathat

al,'the Tamil

'

'

verbal
to exist between
been^ shown
verbal derivatives,furnishes,I conceive,

has

of the

confirmation

some

the

which

properly so called,and

nouns,

'

'

indeterminate with

as

of derivative

nouns

it is correct

identical
consists of those that are
derivatives)
katt-u,'to tie.
katt-u,'a tie,and
e.g., compare
'

'

(if indeed

become
nouns
by the doubling and
(2.) Some verbal themes
from
enid-u,'
a letter,
hardeningof the final consonant; e.g., 'erutt-u,'
to write;
a song, from
a
pad-u,'to sing. This is especially
patt-u,'
Tamil
of the corresmethod
of forming derivative nouns, for some
ponding
formed
and where
are
they do
Telugu nouns
diflferently;
consists only in the hardening,
resemble the Tamil, the resemblance
and not also in the doublingof the final consonant; e.g., 'pata,'Tel.,
a song, from
pad-u,'to dng. The Telugu diff'ersalso from the Tamil
of the verbal root into
in changing the final or enunciative
a.'
a
from
'ad-u,'to play. The
Compare 'at-a,'pla^ (Tam. 'att-u'),
mode
well as hardening,the final consonant,
Tamil
of doubling,
as
in accordance
with Dravidian
most
seems
analogy; for it is when a
converted
into a surd,and when
is doubled that it is naturally
sonant
it is not doubled,it should be pronouncedas a sonant.
It is remarkable
how many
served by the doubling
purposes are
of Dravidian
final consonants.
(i.)It places substantives in an
relation to succeedingsubstantives;(ii.)
it converts
sitive
intranadjectival
verbs into transitives;
it forms a sign of the preterite
(iii.)
from verbal themes.
tense; and (iv.)it forms derivative nouns
(3.) A remarkable mode of forming derivatives is that of lengthening
of
included
verbal
the
vowel
roots;
monosyllabic
e.g., in Tamil,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

434

THE

VERB.

an
gei,'
'g' formative becomes in Tamil
e.g., sey-gei,'
action,from
sey,'to do; it is nasalised to ngei,'
e.g., ka''(ng)gei,'
heat, from 'kay,'to hum; or is doubled and hardened into kkei,'
pad-u,'to lie. The corresponding
a
bed, from
padu-kkei,'
e.g.,
'ke'
Canarese formatives are
or
'ge,'with not unfrequentlythe

i. The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

prefixof

terminate

in

i.'

'

euphonic

an

'

ka

'

Telugu

The
or

ki

'

;'

'

e.g.,

this formative

take

which

nouns

eli-ka/ government, from

uni-ki,'
residence,from ' undu,'to be,to dwell.
govern, and
'd' formative is in Tamil 'di;'e.g., ' kedu-di/ ruin, from
ii. The

'

to
el-u,'

'

ked-u,' to spoil: being

e.g.,

'

doubled

tti;'

unar,' to feel,to be sensible. This

'chi;' e.g., 'pugar-chi'(insteadof

from
unar-tti,'
sensibility,

'

'

it becomes

hardened

and

'

'tt' is

generallysoftened into
pugar-tti
'),praise,from 'pugar,'to praise. This formative is 't'
Insteadof d in Canarese and Telugu. It appears in Canarese under
the forms of ta
and
te ;' eg., hogal-te,'
hogal (Tam.
praise,from
'pugar'),to praise; kay-ta,'
kay,' to fruit.
producingfruit,from
In Telugu we
find 'ta' _or 'ta' and 'tij' e.g., alasa-ta,'
fatigue,
from
alas-u
from
he
to
tin,'to
alay-u ('
')
tired; tin-ta,'
eating,
nadi-ti,'
eat; mu-ta,' a lid, from
conduct,
mu-yu,' to shttt;and
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

from

'

vi

'

'

'

nadu-chu,'to

"

'

walk.'

iii. The

'

'

;' e.g., kel-vi,hearing,from

'

or

vu

'

formative is in Tamil
'

from
vu,' concealme7it,
'

generallysoftened

'

maRei,' to

kel,'to hear,and
In

conceal.

'

v,'i.e.,
maRei-

however,
instances,

some

'

'

euphonisedinto mb
('mbu '); e.g., ve-mbu,' the Martree, from 've-y,'to he umbrageous; 'pa-mbu,' a snake, from
gosa
pa-y,'to spring. b cannot retain its proper sound before a vowel,
and when
that the
mb ;' and
v
or
singleeither becomes
vu
b

'

is

'

into

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

which

is

so

common

softened

from

'

doubled

it becomes

formative

in

from

the

bu,' appears
'

;' e.g.,

'

'

'

each

Dravidian

circumstance

dialect

that when

was

it is

a
nada-ppu,'a walhing; iru-ppu,'
In Telugu this formative is 'vu,''vi,'or
being; mu-ppu,' old age.
'puj' e.g., 'cha-vu,'death, from
cha-chchu,'"o die (corresponding
and Can.
Tam.
sa-vn,'from 'sa'); digu-vu,'tJie bottom, from
to descend;
to know;
teli-vi,'
'dig-u,'
understanding,from
teli-yu,'
from
to draw
cher-u,"
'cheru-pu,'
a weeping,
nearness,
near;
',edu-pu,'
from
to cry
edu-cliu,'
(correspondingTam.
ara
').
ara-ppu,'from

ppu

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

The

'

Canarese

uses

in

this connexion

to the Tamil
being,corresponding

4. Nouns

of

a,gency

Dravidian

languages are

nouns

also formed

are

or

'

'vu'

alone;

e.g.,

'

ira-vu,'
a

iru-ppu.'

operation. The
"

largelyused
in each

'

of the

as

nouns
participial

nouns

of agency;

Dravidian

of the
but such

dialects in

more

NOUNS

OF

435

AGENCY.

direct and

'i to the verbal root ; e.g.,

primitive
manner
by suffixing
un(a)-i(Tam. and Can.), an eater, from un,' to eat; kol(l)-i
and
guages
.(Tarn,
Can.),a killer,from
kol,"to kill. The Dravidian lanin borrowing feminine
derivative nouns
from the Sanscrit,
final
the
'i'
of
the Sanscrit feminine into short 'i;' e.g.,
change
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

snnda-ri,'
Sans.,a fair woman,

of feminine
is not

which
derivatives,

to be confounded

with

becomes

'

borrowed
is directly

the

But this final i

sundari.'

'

from

'

the Sanscrit,

Dr"vidian
i,'by
distinctively
are
operation,
formed^without
'

more

which
of agency
nouns
or
"suffixing
reference to gender,whether masculine,feminine, or neuter.
It is
also to be distinguished
i which in Sanscrit is sometimes
from the
used as
suffix of nouns
of agency, generallymasculines,e.g.,
a
a
a
kav-i-s,'
speaker,in borrowing which from the
poet, literally
the Dravidian languagesinvariably
Sanscrit,
rejectthe sign of the
and use the crude theme {e.g.,kavi ')instead.
nominative,
'

'

'

'

Dravidian

Possibly i,'the
'

sprung

from

sometimes

the

formed

originas

same

in Sanscrit j but

the

'

into the Dravidian

introduced

nouns
'

by

of agency, may
which similar nouns

it is certain that

and
from the Sanscrit,

borrowed
directly
have been

suffix of

it does

have
are

it has not been

not

to
appear even
languagesin imitation of it.

independenceof a direct Sanscrit originwill sufficiently

appear
of the manner
in which it is used.
from the following
statement
of agency which are formed
by suffixingi,'
(1.) Dr"vidian nouns
the
destitute of gender: their gender depends entirelyupon
are
context J e.g., panei-(y)-eR-i,'
Tam., a Falmyrcf climber (from'panei,'
Its

'

'

be considered as masculine,
eR-u,'to clvmb),
Palmyra, and
may
Tam., a
because men
only are climbers of the palmyra ; man-vett-i,'
and
t
o
vett-u,' dig or
native spade, a hoe (from man,' the ground,
o
f
the
neuter
case
: but both
by the necessity
cut),is in like manner
these nouns, and all similar nouns, when regardedfrom a grammatical
'

'

'

'

point of view, are destitute of gender in themselves,and

appliedat discretion to objectsof any gender.

(2.)Nouns

of agency may

underived nouns,
a
'

as

well

as

has

from

manner

from verbal roots; e.g.,

that which
chair, literally
a foot.
kal,'
(3.)When

be formed in this

four feet,from

'

may

be

primitive,

naR-kfi,l-i,'
Tam.,

'nal-u,'
four, and

from verbs,the suffix is

of agency are formed
theme, or
often added, not to the crude root, but to the conjugational
in the
in the infinitive and
that form of the root which
appears
nouns

Tam.
'),an eater.
(as well as nn(n)-i
ung-i,'
this suffix as a true and ancient
for regarding
whatever
independentof the Sanscrit,
as
may

defective aorist; e.g.,'

(4.)My chief reason
Dravidian

form, and

'

2 F

436

THE

have

been

which

is

only
It

its

in

the

in

the

the

of

in

extent

following
from

'

ar-i,'

the

'

compounds,

from

th,e

plant,

literally

lark

literally
if

Adverbs.

It

investigation
Drfi.vidian

used

in

ve],'

be

to

the

the

'

literally

witherer,

'

following
'

vanam-

th^

sensitive

should

we

or

saltness;

the

tottal-vad-i,'
as

sweet

cheetah,

way-shower;

or

The
derived

uvar,'

'

also

much

toddy,

the

pul-i,'

Compare

been

kal,'

from

sea,

heaven-singer;

the

'

to

Sanscrit.

have

from

white;

deep.

guide,

he

to

and
in

to

cactus,

uvar-i,'

touch,

(one)

is

as

the
which

ordinary

an

of

the

infinitive
those

grammars

in

or

the

gerund

words

Dravidian
have

languages
adverb

each

adverbs

Dravidian
of

languages
verb;

an

of

work

of

adverbs,

no

acquire
of

in

unnecessary

"

or

kal(l)-i,'

'

ar-u,'

'

supposed

many

nicknames,

prefer

to

tovx:h-me-and-I^wit1ier.

say,

the

'

vari-katt-i,'

'

pSd-i,'

the

"

small;

pul,'

from

sea,

'

silver,

be

than

use,

of

in

proverbs,

not

peasantry.

names

connexions,

of

cannot

the

the

use

suffix,

this

of

in

in

lowest

very

of

means

animals,

extensive

very

language

the

varieties

precedents

from

leopard,

the

these

in

and

the

by

compounds,

old

examples

vel(l)-i,'

also

plants

in

all

Tamil

Sanscrit

sap;

nature,

highest

very

but

in

and

formed

agency

of

names

in

it, consists

to

of

classics,

the

objects

relation

nouns

Tamil
in

larger

'

of

made

appears

of

ulterior

VERB.

the

and

adverbial

Dravidian

for,
all

at

kind

this

is

to

properly
:

either

illustrations
force

will

dialects.

speaking,
word

every

verbal

of
be

into

enter

the

found

that

is

theme"

manner

in

the

SECTION

VII.

GLOSSARIAL
The
in

loose

so

and

regard
of

adopt

bones

and

and

the

an

European
group,
more

family

in their

exhibit

Pre-Sanscrit

with

think,

the

"

"

especially
essential

their
to

the

than

assumed

of

an

any

other.

the

to

tongues,

"

shape

cautiously
lingual

aSinities

of

closer, more

of

at

the

connexion
the

the

bear

whilst

that

viz.,

ducted,
con-

result

same

very

languages
is

is

Nevertheless,

mother-tongue
the

to

forms

their

ancient, deep-seated

archaic

and

following vocabularies

comparison,

relationship
Ugrian

of

degree, to

own

much
nouns

time,

both

ages

carefully and

the

of

is

conj ugational

for

that

original meaning

persistency.

that

traces

I admit

of

lapse

determination

by grammatical

idioms

Dravidian

testimony,

arrived

and

marvellous

the

the

till the

another,

of vocables, when

found,

in

has

philology

Isolated

grammar.

declensional

to

of

comparison

carefully prepared,

language^retain

important help
be

independent
we

of

comparison

it will

which

whilst

the

disgrace.

comparative

after

of

neglect

conducted

out
principles,with-

this branch

get corrupted

to

meaning

sinews

the

that

often

was

definite

undeserved

not

significationwith

as

and

of

forgotten ;

their

regard

than

apt

very

phase
or

to

vocabulary, however

are

one

overlaid
the

and

languages

without

structure,

indiscriminate

verbs

of

manner,

and

philologicalvalue

and

vocables

changes, and

forms

comparative

less

and

dialectic

to

into

the

unscientific

grammatical

fallen
a

of

comparison

AFFINITIES.

Indo-

Scythian

distinctive,

438

GLOSSARIAL

AFFINITIES,

I.

Affinities.

Indo-European

Section I.
Sanscrit

Before

is desirable

comparisouof Dravidian with Sanscrit

disentanglethe subjectfrom extraneous

the

enteringupon

vocables,it

Affinities.

to

of words which
preliminaryexamination
appear to have
been borrowed
by the Sanscrit from the Dravidian languages.
words of pure Dravidian
I have
long felt persuaded that some
and I have no
originhave found their way into Sanscrit vocabularies;
into
of words
have been introduced
doubt that a still largernumber
vernaculars.
I have
also already
Sanscrit from the North-Indian
from the
Sounds ')that it was
stated my opinion(in the section on
Dravidian
sonants.
languagesthat the Sanscrit borrowed its cerebral con-

by

matter

'

'

'

is

There
in

probablyalmost

of British words

Sanscrit,as

unnoticed

remained
to be the

been

have

once

and

unknown

; a,nd wherever

assumed

of Sanscrit

introduced

those words
Tamil

at

was

number

the

or

to be a

was

found

expected,but

in

Dravidian

words.

doubt
exists whether
a
only,some
ticular
parborrowed
the
from
the
word was
Sanscrit
Tamil, or by the
by
Sanscrit lexicographers
and grammarians
Tamil from the Sanscrit.
discriminative
their Dravidian brethren;and if
not
so
as
were
any
writer had
happened to make use of a local or provincial
word, that
is,a word belonging to the Dravidian vernacular of the district in
a

he resided

which
be

used,for

few

called,which

languagesis very great; but

admitted
to be derivatives by
from
carefullydistinguished
In a few cases, as might be

into the Dravidian

always recognisedand
and
Telugu lexicographers,
native

any of the Dravidian

Sanscrit derivative. Doubtless,

derivatives,properly so

are

7iationaior

word

any

property of the Sanscrit and

common

tongues, it

largea proportionof Dravidian words

in English: but this fact has generally

as

cases

(and it was
of
variety

Sanscrit had

ceased to be

only it were

found

down

such
origin,
and
degree),
found

as

even

their way

metre

or

spoken tongue),every

as

Sanscrit.

denarius,'vipa,XeTrtov
the Greek
into

names

Sanscrit.

of

such

characters,
was
Some

'

should occasionally

other cause,

some

written in Sanscrit

in the vocabularies
'

natural that such words

'

after
especially

word, provided
forthwith

words of Greek

or

set

Roman

(inthe sense of a minute of a

the signsof the Zodiac,have

If so, it
may

be

concluded

that

439

SANSCRIT.

much

considerable number

more

vidian

vernaculars

obtained

have

must

to
belonging

of words

the old

Dra-

footing in the Sanscrit

vocabularies.
The

grounds
in

follows:

I conclude

which

on

Sanscrit lexicons to be of

the

word

any

Dravidian

tained
con-

origin,are

as

"

(i.)When
and

conditions

or

the word

is

an

isolated

in

one

without

without a root
Sanscrit,
the Dravidian languages

but is surrounded in
derivatives,
with collateral,
when
the Sanscrit
related,or derivative words j (ii.)
idea,whilst the Dravidian
possesses other words expressingthe same
when the word
is not
tongues have the one in questionalone; (iii.)
found in any of the Indo-Europeantongues allied to the Sanscrit,
but

is found

in

some

dialect however

of the

at least in every

Scythianidioms,or

rude; (iv.)when

derivation which

the

Dravidian

the Sanscrit

have attributed to the word is evidentlya fanciful one,

lexicographers
native Dravidian
whilst Dravidian
deduce it from some
lexicographers
verbal theme
similar signification,
from which a
of the same
a
or
tion
varietyof words are found to be derived;(v.)when the significaof the word
in the Dravidian languages is evidentlyradical
is metaphorical,
and physiological,
whilst the Sanscrit signification
or
withstanding
only collateral;
(vi.)when native Tamil and Telugu scholars,notthe languageof
their high estimation of the Sanscrit,
as
the word in question
the gods,and the mother of all literature,
classify
as

pure

Words

akka,

one;

"

when

of these

any

reasons

found

are

to

I conwhen several or all of them coincide,

ceive
especially
we
safelyconclude the word in questionto be a Dravidian
may
I here subjoina selection of such words.
Sanscrit derivative.

exist,and
not

Dravidian

more

For

the exclusive

proof of

its derivation

mother.

and

by the Sanscrit from

borrowed

Indian vernaculars,see

atta,a mother,an

the Dravidian

tongues.

of this word,
Scythianrelationship

the Sanscrit from

by

the list of

'

the

Scytho-

ScythianAflSnities,'

mother's elder sister. See

elder sister,
a
"

'

Scythian

Affinities.'

atavi, a jungle, a forest. The

Sanscrit dictionaries to be

'

to
ata,'

is

go, because

of which
signification
root is modified
monosyllabic

radical

is
a

representedin
forest is a place

a fanciful derivation.
evidently

birds,"c,, go; which

the Dravidian languages contain

where
All

of this word

root

primaryroot

'

ad,'the

is nearness,
Closeness;and this
and expanded so as to signify

440

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSAUIAL

every varietyof closeness. Amongst other derived words we

have in Tamil ' adar,'
thick together
to be crowded, to grow
(like
the trees of

forest)
j and

this verbal root,not from

(inTamil

and

I have
any

doubt

no

native

that

'

Sanscrit one, that a^avi

derived.
Even the formative

'

'

from

was
'

Telugu adavi,')was
vi is one
Dravidian
which is distinctively
Tam., hearing,from kel,'to hear.
'

it

; e.g.,

kelvi,'

'

'

ani,

ani,

"

the

pin of

pin

of a cart; derived,it

On

sound.
a

the axle

comparing this word

land, it
peg 6f any

or

different words, but

is which is the

familyof
to

that

of

to touch.

has

The

'

'f'" mother, vocative

'

an-u,'

this Dravidian

from

than

natural

is,therefore,
beyond comparisonmore
Sanscrit

'

an-avu,' to cleave to;

of the Sanscrit word

derivation

with

is connected

in signification
affinity
fastening;e.g., 'an-ei,'to

'

word
real

nail,considered as
to put on;
tie; aii-i,'

that which

have devised.
lexicographers

amnia.'

word

This

is found also in

of

some

'

Oscan

'amme'

German

Indo-European dialects;e.g.. Old High

the Western
and

Tamil

that

and

same;

ani,'a nail,

'

they are not

the only question

is evident

the

?
The
original

the Tamil

with

root

and

roots, each of which

embrace,to

amma,

one

to
said,from 'an-a,'

is

'

amma;' Icelandic

German
{grandmother);

'amma'

{nurse).

Notwithstandingthis,I am inclined to believe that it was

from the Dravidian languagesthat this word found its way into
character in the
the Sanscrit. See proofsof its Scytho-Indian
"

'ScythianAffinities.'
are,

to
of calling
interjection

with

which

are

this the
used

in

The
interjection.

often been

an

Telugu are,'and
'

the Tamil

manner
exactlythe same
dialectic interchangeof

that
illustrated,

'

ar6

'

may

as

'd'

pare
Com-

given.

derivation

no
inferior:

ade ; or
the

and

be
safely

'

ada

j'

Sanscrit

r,'has

so

considered

as

'

The
their identityis
equivalentto
arSrfi,*
by comparing the Sanscrit reduplication
strengthened
Tamil reduplication
adadi.'
with the corresponding
is nnderived and perfectly
Whilst the Sanscrit interjection
'

ade.'

suppositionof

'

'

Tamil
the equivalent
isolated,
from
from a Tamil root; viz.,

claims to be derived
interjection
adi,'a slave,the primary signification
of which word is the lowest part ofanything;e.g., the sole
addressed to women
interjection
of the foot. The corresponding
'

442

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSAKIAL

kaver-i,
safron,also the river Oavery (fromits muddy colour): assumed
kava,'to

'

root

Greek

colour.

this word
Possibly

the

river

Kaveri,

eR-u,'Tel.,a river,or

'

er-i,'
Tam.,

sheet

may
of

name

'kavi,'red ochre,and

the Dravidian
'

origin. I

origiuof the

of the
possibility

from

river,x"/3";/)ts.

same

Sanscrit

be of true

may

the

however,
suggest,

of the

name

of water.

that of a young unmarried

wbrnan
:
female breast,especialty
vation
natural deriderivation
There is a much
more
ku,'to sound.
verbal noun
in the Tamil word
a
'kucha-m,'hashfulness,
from
kuS-u,'to be shy,to be ticklish.

kucharh,

'

'

kuj-a,to

utter

Probably this word is mimetic; we

Dravidian
words,
it,however, with corresponding
bird.

as

cry,

may compare
which
also appear

be

to

mimetic; viz., Tam.

'ku-su;'Can. 'ku-gu;'each of which is

inarticulate cry.
root, ku,' an
English coo.'

'ku-vu;' Tel.

derived

from

vidian
Dra-

also

Compare

'

our

'

kuti,a house; related words

and

'

kutumba,'

There

pot, from

'

habitation,also
kudil

doubt

'

of the

origin. In

kuterah,'a cottage,a hut,

derivation

assumed

but

kuta,'crooked;

of Dravidian

'

kutiram,'also

family :

be any

cannot

water

'

'

of

derivation

Tamil

'kuta-m,'a

other words

the
'

kuta,' crooked.

kudi

means

bably
pro-

house,a

inhabitant,a farmer; related

an

are

'

Tamil

words

form of the latter

a
hut; a provincial
kudisei,'
of which is 'kuohu.'
In Telugu and Canarese 'gudi'means
a
and
hut.
In
Hindustani
a
temple,
'gadishi'or 'gudise,'
'gnti'
house.
all
native grammarians, these words
a
means
are
By
considered to be of pure Dravidian
origin;and the existence of
the same
root in all the Finnish tongues favours the supposition
that it was
not borrowed
by the Dravidian languagesfrom the
Sanscrit,but by the Sanscrit from those languages. Compare
the Finnish 'kota,'
Tscheremiss
'kuJa,'Mordwin
'kudo,'Ostiak

are

'

'

chot,'
"

and

each

'

a house.
signifying

derived from this

". .' " having a crooked

"

withered

Tam., crook-back;and
an

undoubted

both

the

Tam.

arm.

root, from which

kun,'and the Sanscrit

'

this with

it is

kuni

'

cot

also

source

Compare

'

with 'kun-i,'Tam.
especially

Dravidian
'

the Saxon

Scythianor Finnish

same

or

Was

'

to

kun,'
stoop,

probable that

'

or

'

kuni

'

have

been derived.

kula, a pond

or

pool: assumed

derivation 'kiil-a,'
to

cover.

Com-

443

SANSCRIT.

the Tamil

pare

'

kul-am

'

and

the Tel.

'

kol-anu,'a tank, a

pool.
We

"with the Drividian

from

it,for

verbal

kota

that the Sanscrit word

scarcelydoubt

can

the

; and

one

Tarn.

if so, it must

'

or

a
kul-am,' a tank, is unquestionably
from 'kul-i,'
to bathe,a pure Dravidian
root.

noun

to
kutta,'

and

The

cut.

similar word

'

'

k6ttei

derivation

Dravidian

having another and

is

'

be concluded

Sanscrit.

But

better

or

'

kottei

did the

Tamil

of the

use

same

Tel.,'kote' in Can.,

are

'

Dravidian
a
certainly
has

from

the
?

after all ; for the Sanscrit derivations

natural derivation than

could not desire

we

the Tamil

'

k6d-u,'a

is sometimes

used

when
a fortification.
village,
kod-u,'
'

walled

root, it

borrowed

been

fanciful,whilst

very

for

Sanscrit itselfobtain this word

root

'

k6ta

more

also

crooked,

be

ancient word

very

line of circumvallation,which

line, a
denote

'

that

where

Probably from
of

kuta,'to

dialectsmake

for a fort,viz.,'kota' in

viz., aran,'which
stronghold,
may

'

in Tarn.

Tamil

The

been derived

have

'

assumed
^ stronghold
:
*/""**'
or

is identical

to

used

becomes '^tt-u.'
adjectivally,

khatva, a couch,a
The
and

assumed

Tam.

the
build.

cot

'

a cot, from
katt-il,'

word

katt-u

'

which

one

sava-m,

sava-m,

to
relating
adj.,

derivation

'

abounds

is

'

to
khatt-a,'
'

katt-u,'to

thoroughlyand

pare
Com-

screen.

bind,to

tie or

dian,
Draviessentially

with derivatives and related words.

corpse.

These

words

dead

are

body.

said to be derived from

this derivation is much

'

sava,'to

go ;

less probablethan the Dravidian

but

verbal

'

is short
la,'Tam. and Can.,to die. The vowel of sa
in the correspondingverbal
in the Telugu 'cha' (for'sa'),
theme
'chachu;'and both in Tamil and Canarese it is short
'

root

'

in the

tense,
preterite

root ;

and

it re-appears

'sa' is
in

a
undoubtedly

the

Probably also the Sanscrit shei

have some
and
sho,'to be destroyed,
'

'

s^ya,the evening:
to.
seems

the

The

assumed

Tamil

to be

derivation

'

'

Samoi'ede

pure
'

Dravidian
dead.

chawe,'

('s"yati'), to

waste

ulterior connexion

to put
sho,'to destroy,

away,

frith it.
an

end

to lean,to incline,
Dravidian word,
a pure
'say,'
natural derivation,
much more
the eveningbeing

periodwhen

the

sun

inclines to the west.

444
nana,

AFKINITIES.

GLOSSAKXAL

several,various,multiform. Bopp derives

nan"

this
signifying

obsolete demonstratives

assumed

'

'

from

certain

that.

and

likelyto have been derived from the Tamil

nal-u or
/oMr, this numeral being constantlyused
nan-gu,'
in the Dravidian
languages to signifyseveral,various,or an
number
indefinite
of moderate extent. By a corresponding
usage
indefinite
the numeral
is
taken
ber.
numten
to representany large
and
told so
Thus
Tamilian will say, / was
so by four
a
do as ten people
must
by several persons;
or, we
persons, i.e.,
do, i.e.,as the world does. The numeral
adjective'nala'
(from nal-u,'four) is regularlyused in Tamil to signify
and the euphonic
various,though literally
meaning /owr-Zo^c?;
four, shows
change of 1 into n in the High Tamil nan-gu,'
nana' may have originated
from
nala.' The Tamil Dictionary
how
givesus, amongst other instances of the use of nala,'
It is

more

'

'

'

"

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

which

one

is identical with

the instance

of the

of

use

'

'

nana

viz., nala vidam,'in various

given in the Sanscrit Dictionary,
in a fourfold way ; which
we
literally
ways,
compare
may
in
various
Sans. nana
with the corresponding
vidha,'
ways.
the
With
Dravidian
of
this
mony
testithe
to
word,
origin
respect
of the Tamil stands alone ; for in the Canarese and Telugu
Dictionaries
'nana' is regardedas Sanscrit.
'

'

nira-m, water

that

shows

derivation

assumed

the

word

graphers.
lexico-

familiar to the Sanscrit

not

was

derivation

This

obtain.

rarelyused, in comparison with

(connectedwith 'aqua'),and 'uda' (connectedwith
another
Sanscrit word
for water,
and
iiSaip
'). jala,'
'

niram

'

ni,'to

'

'

is

'

been

to have

whilst

I have

borrowed

little

or

from
doubt

no

that

vernaculars

northern
to

'

'

nira

is supposed

Dravidian

Dravidian
word
corresponding
is 'nir' or'nir-u;'and this is the only word
properlysignifying
which
the Dravidian
dialects possess.
The Telugu
water
nillu
for
the plural('nirulu,'
uses
niru,'
ordinarily
rupted
cori.e.,
for the singular
to
is
nillu')
niru,'the singular,
; but

originshould

be ascribed.

the

unda'

'

'

'

ap

'

'

The

'

'

also

'

used.
occasionally

'nir'

become
another

'

is in Gond
dir.'

softened

to

'ir,'and

in Brahui

The

Malayalam alone commonly uses

word, viz.,' vejlam,'which properlymeans

This word

is used in Tamil

to

denote the

wateir

it has

for watei'
a

with which

flood.
rice-

are
to signify
fields
flooded;and it has probablythence come
in Malayalam. Even in that dialect,
water
however, 'nir' is

445

SANSCRIT.

also used.

In Tamil

prefixedto
'

'

adjectivetan,'cool,is so frequently-

the

nir,'that

'

in the

dialect the compound

colloquial
water, has supersededthe original

cold
tannir/ water, literally

and

simple noun.
Whilst

it may

I have

have

descended

Japhetic source
have

doubt that 'nir' is

no

older

to

than

the

Dravidian

the

Sanscrit;and

ulterior connection

some

Dravidian- word,

true

with

family from

some

hencCj it may
'
Greek
and
ur/pos'

the

vapos,'
wet, (and through them with the modern Greek
v^/io,'
rectly)
water),though these words are supposed (and perhaps cor'

'

to be derived from

)
patta-m
town,
pattana-m "a city,
pattana-m,

'

vdw,'to flow.

assumed
village:

or

derivation

'

to
pata,'

sur-

j
The

round.

Tamil

the Sanscrit ; and

has

yet, as

found,I think,that
from

the

borrowed
in the

the
of

case

the Sanscrit word

old Dravidian

word

'

pattanam from
a fort,it will be
'k6ta,'
'

itself was

derived

Professor

vernaculars.

nally
origi-

Wilson

'

is probably identical with

the
conjecturesthat, pattam
of Southern
ceive
'pettah,'
India; but the word from which I conit to have been derived is 'patti,'
Tam. a foldfor cattle,
a
pound, a small village,a word which constitutes the final
of so many
of the names
and
towns
portion,or termination,
Temple-town, In
villagesin the south ; e.g., Kovil-patti,'
word is 'hatti;e.g., Dim-hwtty. The Old
Canarese the same
in addition to
to have adopted this word
Sanscrit seems
patti,'
its own
'pura' (which is a true Indo-European word), and
and then
formed from it first pa^ta-m,'
pattana-m.'
which is resuburb
The word
ferred
a
(Tam. pettei
'),
pettah,'
and
from
to by Wilson, belongsto a different root
'patti,'
have been the originof the Sans. pattam.' pettei is
cannot
to the names
derived from
a
suffix
of villages;
pedu,'Tam.
is identical with 'padu'and
padi,'a place,each
which, again,
of villages
like p6du.'
of which is suffixed to names
'

"

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

panno,

from
it

the Sans.

was

Tel.

'

word

This

Prakrit,
gold.
'

suvarna.'

adopted into the

gold.
ponn-u,'

a city,
a
town,
palli,

the Dravidian

placesin

is

'

Ellis to be derived

probablethat
Prakrit froin the Tam.
pon,' or the
I think it much

is without

which
palli,'

the South j e.g.,

more

'

village.This
word

supposed by

is added

doubt

identical with

to various

names

of

properly Trisirapalli.'
Trichinopoly,
'

446

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSARIAL

The Drdvidian

circumstance that it is

placeswhich

this word

originof

if not
chiefly,

the limits of the Dravidian

within

are

proved by the
sufficiently
used to denote
exclusively,

is

tongues.

bhaj-a,to share.

bhaga,a portion. I
derived
both

from

doubtful whether

am

and

earlier
the

case

the Tamil

At

correct.

more

case);and

mina-m,

found

word

'

to
('minati'),

'mi'

for

fish is

'

in the small

family,and is
languagespossess.

these

listof

Dravidian
decidedly

the
'

which

only
'

word

is found

min

words

is

contained

It seems
Rajmahal dialect. The G6nd has mind.'
rowed
more
probable that the Sanscrit-speaking
people borfrom
this word
the Indian aborigines,
and then incorporated
it in their vocabularywith other words signifying
the
than
that
the
Dravidian inhabitants of the Malabar
object,

in the
much

same

'

and Coromandel
denoted
to

hurt.

word

min,' a

dialect of the

in every

signifying
fidiwhich
even

noun
'

one.

derivation

Dravidian

The

'

'

fish;assumed

is a
pag-u
formed
from
it,

pang-u

pangu
the Tamil

with

Tamil

this

'

'

('ng for g,'as is often the

is 'pag-ir,'
meaning also to share.
unconnected
means
lame, and is altogether
'

collateral root

Sanscrit word

The

'

the

The

root.

common

suppositionis in

former

as

to suppose

derived from

all events

Dravidian

a
share, is
signifying

be

to

Probably the

source.

underived

pure,

to divide,to share,
or
'pag-u,'

the Tamil

the Sanscrit and

regard these words

to

indebted

were

for the word

which

important an article of their food and commerce,

of inland peoplecoming from the North-West.

so

race

sea-boards

the derivation of

Moreover

'

min,'which

languages,is as beautiful

Dr"vidian

as

is

suppliedby

the

the Sanscrit derivation

is uncouth.

The

root

of

'

is
min,' a fish,

phosphorescent.Hence
and
'

min

'

Tam.,
'

kol,'to

the

'min,' a

birth,from

the

fish in

verbal
the

noun

is

'

'

to

to
glitter,

min-mini

which

included

'

by

is formed

vowel

peRu,'to hear,and
in poeticalTamil
receive),
signifies

anu-mtn,' the

seen

min,' Tam.,

glow-worm

of
lengthening

fish;e.g., 'van-min,'a

a
'

by

the

'

'

he

plication;
redu-

from

(like p^Ru,'
from
kol,'reception,
a

'

star, as

well

as

a
(literally
sky-sparhler)
; and
the six stars.
Pleiades,literally
Who
that has

star

from every movement

phosphorescence
flashing
seas
or lagoonsat night,
tropical
doubt the
can

of the
appro-

447

SANSCEIT.

of denotingthe fish
priateness
the waters,

sky,by

well

as

and

one

which glows or

that

sparklethrough
that sparkle in the midnight

the stars

as

the

dart and

word, viz.,a

same

word

that
signifying

?
sparkles

valacsha-m,white; assumed derivation vala,'to go.

probable is the derivation of this word from

Much'

'

'

vel,'white.

Compare

the open

air;

the

also the related Dravidian

more

Dravidian

words

'

veli,'

velli,'
silver; velicham,'light. The
allied word.
Hungarian vilaga,'
Has
light,
appears to be an

space,

'

'

'

the

Slavonian
?

source

veli,'white, been borrowed

is it

or

both families

val-a,to

'

of those

one

ultimate

from

Scythian

analogieswhich

bind

together?

surround.

bracelet.
a
valaya-m,a circlet,
the
the verb

doubt

Sanscrit noun,

from

which

the

Dravidian

with
noun

or

has

rowed
languages have borwithout
but
modification;
been formed was
I
itself,

not, borrowed

languages.
bend,

to

The

by the Sanscrit
correspondingDravidian

from

of

secondary meanings

the Sanscrit verb.

and

It is also used

as

the

root

to surround.
crook,metaphorically

larger store
than

The

is

Dravidian
'

to
val-ei,'

This word

wider
a

has

ramifications
without any

noun,

formative
'

when
it signifies
a
hole,a sinuosity;
addition,
e.g.,
eli-valei,'
Tam., a rat-hole. Whilst the Tamil makes occasional
use

also

uses

of the Sanscrit
'

'

an
valayam,'a bracelet,

verbal
a
valeiyal,'

verbal

noun

formed

froin

'

armlet; it
valei,'its

signifythe same
thing. Taking these
I conclude that the
various circumstances into consideration,
verb
from
Dravidian
has certainlynot been borrowed
the
own

root, to

that tlie Sanscrit verb has

Sanscrit,and

probablybeen

derived

from the Dravidian.

In the
a

placein

the
are

have

names

foregoinglistof Dravidian
the vocabularies of the

in

Sanscrit,I

which
have

have found
not

included

placesand tribes in Southern India which

of various

mentioned

words

the

in consequence

Sanscrit historical poems,

and which
found a place in the dictionaries. In

general the vernacular originof those words is admitted by

Sanscrit lexicographers. In one
case, however, a Sanscrit
originhas erroneouslybeen attributed to a Dravidian word of
mountainous
in
or
this class.
Malaya,' a mountain
range
as
Southern India, is represented
being derived from
mala,'
The
contain
real
(sandal-wood).
originis
Sans., to hold or
'

'

448

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSARIAL

also

mountain,and

of mountains

range

referred

to

now

Ghauts

are

the Arabian

proceed to pointout

the

existence

contained

roots,yet they
of

of the

mal-ei,'a hill or
country

geographers.
of

real Sanscrit

some

words

The

languages.

Draridian

the

Malaya' is
country,
'Malayala'
of

name

the

and

'

followinglist are true, underiyed Dravidian

closelyallied to certain Sanscrit words, that

in the
so

are

be concluded

they must

or

by

was

affinities in the vocabularies

which

under the

called 'Male'

which

'

or

mountainous

hillyor

doubtless that of the Southern

'mal-a'

Dravidian

the
unquestionably

be

to

the

property

common

of both families

tongues.

Possiblyone
periodby the one
in every

or

have been borrowed

may
languagefrom the other; but in most
words

two

case, there

preponderanceof evidence in
mutually independentoriginof both the Sanscrit word
one,

both.

from

The

is

which

source

various

words

early

an

cases, if not

favour
and

been

have

to

appears
to be
appear

at

of the

vidian
the Drato-

common

in each
deeply-seated
and (whilst
familyof languages,to have too many ramifications,
they
retain a familylikeness)
differ
to
too widely,either in sound
in
or
of a direct derivation of the
to allow of the supposition
signification,
from the other.
one
Moreover, notwithstandingthe general resemblance
of the Dravidian words
contained
in the followinglist to the
with which
Sanscrit ones
they are compared,and notwithstandingthe
prejudiceof native grammarians in favour of everythingSanscrit,
these words are invariably
regardedby native scholars as independent

of the

and
Sanscrit,
if

these

words

connexion

of

and
a

the

common

list those Dravidian

or

underived, 'national'

as

connexion

words

more

which

directly
to

; and

traced,as

Dravidian
I think

correspondingSanscrit ones,
origin. I place in another
which

than
Indo-Europeanfamily,

words

be

can

Latin, the Persian,or

Dravidan

too

are

Extra-Indian

to the Sanscrit.

appear

be allied

to

the Sanscrit than

it is remarkable

how

sequently,
Con-

it can, between
it must
and

be

the

subsequent

allied to the Greek

directly

more

other

some

words.

to any

member

of the

In this list 1
to

placethose
the Sanscrit alone,or

other

guage
Indo-Europeanlan-

few such words

there are, compared

A comparisonof the two following
lists
the conclusion that the Indo-European
elements

with those of the other class.

will,I think,lead
which
those

are

to

contained

in the Dravidian

languagesbefore the Sanscrit

least before the

the Dravidian

Sanscrit,
as

family.

languageswere
separatedfrom

separate tongue,

came

introduced
its

into

or
sisters,

in contact

at

with

450

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSARIAL

to rend.
kir-u,io cut,to scratch,
to tear.
kir-i,
Compare khor-a,'Sans,
'

cut, to scratch.

to

to he spoiled
or
ked-u,to spoilor destroy,
or
(intransitively)

verbal

destroyed:
'ketta' ('tt'for
'ked-u,'7-uin;relative participle

noun

'dd'),bad.
Compare
its verbal
to

pain or misery,and
khid-a,'to suffei'kh^da/ sorrow, distress. Compare also 'khit-a,'

the Sanscrit

noun

and
terrify,

its derivative

If these words
to

appear

is
'

not

'

kheta/ bad, low.

'

allied

are

be in virtue of

be, it must

Dravidian

the

to

there
than

in existence

word

Dravidian
distinctively

more

origin;for

common

they

as

one,

ked-u.'

to shave:
BiR-ei,

Compare Sans, 'kshur-a,'to scrape, and

'kshaura,'shaving. Compare also the correspondingGreek
verbs
to shave; our
Englishshear,from the
^vp-aw,' ^vp-ew,'
the Greek
to share.
Germ, 'scheer;'and even
xeip-w,'
base

'sin'.'

'

'

'

to have
to tremble,
sil-ir,
thejikaiistandingon end. Compare chel-a,'
Sans, to shake, to tremble,
See also subsequent list under
'

"

'

cold.
kulir,'
the basis of many
'ien,'red); but is not used
(e.^f.,
This

se, to be red.
nouns

forms

root

unformed

'

theme

'

'

tuv-u,

to

sprinkle
gently(asdust).

tu-Ru,

to

to scatter,to spread abroad

drizzle,

The
to

transitive of

wirniow; and

ultimate root
*

dhu,' Sans,

"

dhuli,'dust.
'

'

tu-Ru

derivative

of all these
to

'

is

'

or

heavy.

pare
Com-

(asa report).

tu-RRu'

from
words

mitive
pri-

to be red.

beat.

to
strike,

to

in its

anywhere

be thick

tadi,'to

also tad-i,'
Sans,
tad-a,'

and
adjectives

'sona,'Sans,

shape. Compare

a club; verbal
tad-i,a stick,

Tamil

'

(pronounced tuttru'),
'

tuvu

'

is

'

dvst.
tusi,'

is
evidently

'tu.'

The

Compare

shake, to agitate;a derivative from which is

tion
Compare also tusta-m,'dvst (assumedderiva'

tus-a,'to Sound), with

which

our

word

own

'

is
dicst,'

evidentlyidentical.
the

Prom

and

also

'

Sanscrit

tul,'dust

word, allied
and

to
possibly

the

the Tamil has borrowed

tuli
dhiili,'
the other hand, is a pure Draon
vidian
tus-i,'
'

'

to

'

the Turkish

'

tus

'

or

Mongolian 'toghoz; and

of the Tamil verbs

tuv-u
any doubt
'dhti' or
dei'ived Dravidian themes,
'

'

and

'

'

'

tusan,'powder,

there
tuR-u

cannot
'

'til' appears,

be

being untherefore,

451

SANSCRIT.

to

be tliecommon

whilst
languages;
meaning of this
familythat the original
been most faithfully
preserved.

propertyof both

families of

it is in the Dravidian
root

to have

appears

to walk.
njid-a,
nat-a,'to dance,to act,
Compare the Sanscrit theme
to shake; derivatives from which
are
nata^m/ dancing, nataka-m,'a drama, a play. It seems
improbablethat the Sanscrit
'

'

word

has been borrowed

the Dravidian tongues; and yet

that the Dravidian word
has not been borrowed

it is certain

from

from the Sanscrit,for the

distinction between
to

dance, and

and

Telugu

both

their

theme

own

languageshave

words have

pad-u,Tani. Tel.,and
from

which

to

Sans.

the

'

'

naduchu

'

make

'

or

broad

'natisu,'

or

nadi,'to walk;

walking,the
signifying
nad','alone. Probably,therefore,

'

words

been derived from

Can.

The

to recite.

Canarese

and

the Sans, derivative 'natinchu'

whilst the Sanscrit has many

Dravidian

'

source.

common

to read,
sing. Compare Sans, 'pa^li-a,'
path-a is,I have no doubt, the theme
'

Tel. 'path-i,'
and
corresponding

Tamil

the

borrowed ; and the Tamil

to read,have been
pada-m,'
pad-i,'
the
is
derived
from
Sans.
a
lesson, clearly
pa^ha,'reading.
and
to
a
pad-u,' sing,however,
patt-u,'
song, (Tel. pa^a,'
G
ond
not
Can.
are
pat-u,'
certainly derivatives from
pata,')
related to
the Sanscrit;but I suspect them to be ultimately
path-a and patha,'as descended from some ancient source
The ideas expressedare
to both.
common
nearlyrelated ; for
is a sort of
the reading of all Hindus
(and of all Orientals)
the Sanscrit derivative 'padi,'
and even
to
intoned 'cantilena;'
Tamil the meaning to sing.
read,often receives in colloquial
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

a part, a class. Compare Sans, 'phal-a,'

portion,
the
a
divide; also Lat.
par-s,'
portion. See especially

pal.Tarn, and Can.

to

'

'

'

"

Semitic affinitiesof this word.

(for'pera').Can.
of different,
which it
a sense
sense
and not with
often bears. It is with this preposition,
pra,'
other,should be
pina,'
before,
forward, that I think the Tamil
compared.
and that of the Sans, 'para'(in
The use of the Tam.
pisa,'
and we
adduced above) are identical;
might
th" signification

another
piaa, otJur;e.g., piRa-n,'
Sans, in the
Compare para,'
'

'

man;

hera'

'

'

'

'

naturally
suppose
the

Sanscrit.

'para'

was

the Tamil
The

borrowed

word

to have

been

derived from

Tamil, however, whilst it admits

from

the

Sanscrit,
regards'piRa' as
2 o 2

that
an

452

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSARIAL

indigenous
Sanscrit,
vidian

theme.

and

is

words.

of

range

the

that

this

which
It

that

the

seated

and

in
we

milk.

The

from
the
'

'

to

European

drink,

are

and

pIS-u,
pu,

this

of

speak.

Compare

Sans,

all

to

do

of

'

'

para

and

the

that

allow

and

yet

are

is derived

deeply

too

this

that

piKa,'

'

one

is

of

supposition,

both

contain

not

We
also

which

the

may

with

words

have

been

verbal

theme
it

compare

'

from

all the

almost

with
Zend

paya,' water,
derived

are

through

runs

to

Tamil

this

pal,' milk,
j

for

word
the

'

adding

purely

'bhash-a,' Sans,
Tarn., Tel., and
a

to

verbal

'

pa,'

Indo-

'

'

al

the

noun

of

'

or

'

Drividian

pal,' preclude

Sanscrit

'pushpa,'

be

may

large number

by simply
this, the

from

blossom,

blossom, and

'

theme

very
in

derivation

or

perfectly

significations

many

Each

to

derived.

l)r"vidian

formed

connexions

flowei;

that

conclude,

to

be

to

Sanscrit.

tongues

which

root

its direct

to

of

is

Notwithstanding

root.

d. much

languages.

from

nouns

the

source.

poi;'

the

supposition

driven

word

Possibly the
formed

in

think,

languages

'

of

one

payasa,' Tnilk, and

peo,' Affghan

Sans,

common

this

Sanscrit

para

family

Dravidian

which

has

piBa,' other;

'

quite inadmissible.

is

own

from

'

'

yet the

therefore

are

derived

pal,

its

with,

after, is

to

and

other,

is considered

which

unconnected

concluded,

radically allied;
from

'

root, 'piB-a-gu,'

another

has

Tamil

the

piR,')

'

meaning,

be

may

para

Dra-

pina

'

'
'

of

signification.

attributed

are

to

the

to

mark

ascribes

Sanscrit

the

unknown

is

distinctive

Tamil

alone, whilst

of, and

very

piRa/

'

be

Moreover,

after, (ultimate base

independent

of

to

is remarkable

It

'

'

considered

of other

meaning
wider

The

verbal
'

to

the

character

supposition

of

pa,'

speak.
Can.

flower.

Compare

'

phull-a,'

WEST

INDO-EUHOl'EAN

453

FAMILY.

Indo-European Affinities.
Section II.
Extka-Sanscritic

Drdvidian

which

words

contained

in the

Indo-Ebkopean

West

or

to

appear

he

languagesof the

Appinities,viz.:

allied
specially
Western

or

to words

that

are

non-Sanscritic branches

of the Indo-Europeanfamily.
of the words

Some

which

contained

followinglist hare
but they have
Sanscrit as well as Classical or West- Aryan analogies;
been placedin this,rather than in the preceding,
because the Westlist,
certain than the
direct,and more
Aryan affinitiesare clearer,more
The greaternumber, however, of the words that follow,
Sanscrit ones.
connected with the Western
tongues, and especially
though indubitably
with the Greek and Latin,exhibit no analogy whatever
to any words
are

in the

contained in the Sanscrit.

existence of this class of

If the

be

it must

concladed

either that

early periodnear neighboursof

of those tribes
to the separation
that both

descended

were

races

the Westfrom

from

the
a

be

analogiescan

blished,
clearlyesta-

the Dravidians

were

at an

Aryan tribes,
subsequently
Sanscrit-speaking
people,or

common

source.

majorityof the l)ra vidian words which exhibit West-Aryan

class to which
do not belong to that primary,rudimental
Etualogies,
with the
that the Dravidian
the words
languageshave in common
Scythianare to be referred. Nevertheless,they are so numerous,
are
so
remarkable,and, when all are viewed together,
many of them
that an
ultimate
the analogy which they bring to lightis so distinct,
The

relation oi

kind

some

the

between

Dravidian

and

the

Indo-European

established.
regardedas conclusively
As before,the Dravidian words are to be regardedas Tamil, except
other dialect.
it is stated that they are taken from some

families,
may

be

to shaJce,
to move
to and fro.
Compare ael-ui,'
ar-u,'to ebb, to trickle down.
Compare
waterfall;from
'

as-ei,to shake.
arn-vi, a

'

Latin, a brook,English^river;'also the verbal theme

'riv-us,'
(asin pirj
'),to flow.
of those words, pe-ui or
pv-w
'alei,'as a noun, means
a
wave.
to wander, to be unready:
al-ei,
'

Compare
a

av-a,

'

'

'

to wander;
aXa-ofiai,'

'

'

Germ.

'

Armen.
welle,'

'

alik,'

wave.

desire; also 'av-al,'a

verbal noun,

derived

from

an

obsolete

454

GLOSSAKIAL

'

root

the

"v-u/

the Latin

ranch

Compare

See also

"

Sans.

'

'

'

avva

or

of this word

is

ava

complete,inasword in Latin,as in

more

'avva,' means

'

'

avve

mother,or, generally,
an
'

'

'

Semitic Affinities.'

Tel.,a grandmother. Li Tuda

Canarese

still

of

one

between
affinity

of the

only meaning

which

av-a,'of

'

The

desire.

to

ave-o,'to desire,is

'

this is the

as

Tamil.
avv-a,

desire.

to

meanings is

rarer

and

AFFINITIES.

either

means

old

mother

honorific term

auv-ei,'an

for

form

matron,

iu

g^-and-

or

ordinaryTamil

The

woman.

mother;

an

'

elderlylady, but avv-ei is also used. Compare the Latin

a
"av-us,' a grandfather;'avi-a,'
grandmother'. The root of
the Latin word appears to have been applicable
to any elderly
'

relation ; e.g., '

av-unoulus,'a

maternal

uncle.

breath; then

and also a spirit

:
life,
Compare the Gothic
yauni, to breathe.
or
ahma,' spirit; the Sanscrit fi,tma,'
soul; the Greek
self,
wind; the Latin 'anima,'and the Tamil
'anma,'
avefios,'
soul or spirit. Compare also the High Tamil
the
an-dal,'

avi,'a spirit,
literally
vapour,
verbal theme
'avi,'to

'

'

'

'

breath.

The

of the Tarn.

resemblance

'

'

avi

to the

Greek

i-emarkable.
especially

to blow,is

'

aw,'
'

to draw.
Compare
ipv-w,''
Compare also
ele,'the Canarese equivalentof irn,'with
eXK-w,'to drag,
word
which
is probably related to
a
ipv-ut,'
through that
is apparent in all languages.
to '1' which
alliance of
r

ir-u,to draw,

'

pull.

to

'

'

'

'

'

'

from

iru-mbu, iron;
a

'

or

ir,'the

from
formative, euphonised,

Compare
The

'

from
'

'

the

be

Saxon

:' Tel.

vu

hardened

from

'

'eisen

'

innrau.'

'ergad.'

s,'as
and

"^mbu/
'

'iern,'Armenian

appears

the Sanscrit

words, however, though possibly

ulterior connexion

some

root, and
'

or

the German

these

nearlyrelated to

so

'bu'

has been
with

comparing them
ayas.' None of
have

ultimate

'iren,'Danish

of these words

they may
to

'iru'

'

iru

'

as

with

the

the Motor

Tamil,seems
(a Samoi'ede

dialect),ur.'
'

in-u, to bringforth young,

yean,'Sax.
high;
uyar,'

when

said of cattle

only. Compare Engl.

'

to

'eanian.'

used

verb, (o raise. Compare ae/fj-w'to

also uep' in
raise up;
aop-Oek'(Aor. pass, past),and in the
adverb ' ctep-Si]}/,'
liftedup.
the air;
Compare also
iItjp,'
Armenian
'wor,'high; Ossete 'arw,' heaven.
'

as

'

'

'

WEST

INDO-EUUOPEAN

nr-i,Can,, lo burn; Tarn., er-i.'

Compare

'

Armenian

ur-u,

'or/ Jlre; Affghan 'or,'

'

very

remarkable

and

'or,'light.

to
'

Semitic

455

FAMILY.

'

ur-o/ Lat., to burn;

wur.'

analogies;e.g.,

There
Hebrew

also

are
'

ur,'Jire,

Lithuanian
plough. Compare Lat. 'ar-o;' Greek 'apo-ui;'
aru.'
also be compared with the equiuru-dal,'
tillage,
valent
may
'

Greek

ul-ei,mire.

'

apo-TOi.'

.Compare

'

a marsh.
e'X-os,'

ul-ei,a howling. Lat.

'

ululo,'to fwwl; Greek

oXoXv^w ;' English

'

'howl.'
ey, to shoot
'

er-u,

to cast (a dart). Compare

(an arrow),
to shoot to cast; 'eoj,'
to send.
I'u},'
^

rise,to get

to
'

an
t'o's,'
arrow;

to rise,to get
Compare Lat. ori-or,'
the
Tam.,
jnayiRu,'
risingsun, may be compared with

eru

Latin

ell-a,all.

'

'

up.

up.
the

ori-ens sol.'

'

The

Canarese

all they,
ellar,'
correspondingto the Tamil
all ye
(for'ellar'),
togetherwith the Tamil 'ellir,'

'ellor'

'

all,and
(from ell,'

'

'

for
ir,'

Dra vidian root

of this word

nicallyadded

to

el

'

'

'

is

(at

that the ultimate

nir,'
you),prove
'

el.'

first

in consequeiice of
lengthened),

which

eupho-

vowel, afterwards

short

has been

vowel

addition

the

consonant

is doubled

by dialectic rules.
eal;'Danish
al;'
Compare Ossete al,' ali,' all;'Saxon
English 'all.' Probably the Greek 'oX-09' and the Hebrew
'

'

kol'

'

allied rather

are

'sarva,'than

to

'

our

coast.

'

Sans,
'whole,' Lat. 'salv-us,'

own

to the Dravidian

6r-am, border, brim, margin,

'

and

Germanic

Compare

'

el,'all.

Lat.

'

ora,'border,

has no connexion with any Dravidian word

margin. 6r-am
the derivation of the Lat
mouth ; and possibly
ora,'
signifying
from
'os,''oris,'
maybe open to question. The corresponding
'

'

'

in

word

iad-i,to cut,
'

to

Marathi, and Hindi, is

Gujarathi,

rend,

to

to cut, but
krit-a,'

and

Ossete

to

the

'caed-o.'

Compare also

the

Persian

which
'kard,' a hiife,and the Sanscrit 'karttari,'

words, however,
than

a
'katti,'
Icnife.Compare Sans.
the English 'cut;'Norman
especially
'cotu,'

reprove,

'cateia;' Latin

Welsh

'kor,'

are

more

English

'

cut.'

nearly related

to

'

kriit-a,'
Sans.,

4.56

kan, the eye; 'kan'

'

kannu

'

'

in

In

the latter
but

Tamil,

the

of

Compare
-

pmver
'

reach

or

kauna

Drftvidian

of

that

an

which

to

kan,' to

with

alone

it is exclusively

mistake

This

be

may

compared

representing kuruta,' Hind, as a

guages,
lanof referringit to the Dravidian
it belongs. Possiblythe Dravidian
'

in

ulterior connexion
have
some
consider,
may
Sans-,
r^vSi-vaif
"'kunn-an,'to know; Greek

see, to

the

see;

in Sanscrit ; whereas

word.

Sanscrit word, instead

'

In

eye

Klaproth

is used

row,

English 'ken,'view,
Webster's English Dictionary

'ceniaw,'to

vision.

of

is said to be

with

the Welsh

dental

nasal.

n,' the cerebral

'

to

In

unchanged.

remains

nasal of the

'

mark,

euphonically

it becomes

sense

base

Telugu,the ordinary n,' the

instead

see, also to

to
(inthe preterite kan '),

think.

consider,to

AFflMTIES.

GLOSSAKIAL

"

Gothic

'

'chann.'
Old High German
'gna' ('gnarus'),
attributed
different shades of meaning which are

'jni;'Latin
The

Greek

'

'

to

and

r^vw-vai

seem
etSd-vat,'

'

to

corroborate

as meaning
supposition
; for the latter is represented

to know
7'eflection,
to

with

karadi,a

bear;
The

'

be

must

Tnda

to know
to

means

by
ceive,
-per-

an

root.

word

for

'

kara
a

bear is

Compare

kar.'

the

'

Latin

'

the Persian

urs-us.'

Compare

the^ Tungusian 'kuti.'

'

eagle. Compare Persian

'

ultimate

the

kar.'

'

or

harj,'and even
the Samoiede
korgo,'and

an
karug-ti,

have

this

ulterior connexion

'karadu,' rough, knotty, uneven,

from

chars,'Kurd

also

therefore

may

the Dravidian

base of which

'

and

mark,

the former

whereas
absolutely,

in

'

Ossete
kergish,'

'

kartziga.*

kal-a.Can., "o steal;Tam., 'kalavu,'a theft;Malayalam, kall.am,'

'

to steal; Greek
clep-o,'
Compare Latin
also
ScythianAffinities.'

lie.

See

'

'

/cXaTr-e/?.'
"

'

gav-i,Can.,

cell; Tam.,

'

keb-i,'a

The

equivalent
guh-a,'to conceal,
guha,' cavern,
and
gaha,'a cave, a forest,from
gah-a,'to be impervious.
'guha' has become in Tamil 'kugei;'but the Tamil 'kebi'
and the Can.
gavi,'are altogether
independentwords.
Compare with them the Latin cave-a,'a cavity,a den,
a

cave,

Sanscrit words

'

are

cave.

from

'

'

'

'

'

from

'

cav-uSj'hollow; theme

with

'

cav-o,' to

hollow

out:

the Tel.
this compare
kapp-u,'to cover over, the
of the Tamil
of '
a
kapp-al,'
ship,and also,probably,
'

'

and

a cave.
'gav-i,'

"

See also

'

ScythianAffinities.'

and

origin
keb-i,'

458

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSAUIAL

a
kil-ei,

branch.

young

Greek

'

Greek

kXASo?,'a

word

considered
also to

is

The

shoot,a branch.

young

verbal

theme,

not

means

to pinch, to
pinch off. kill-u,'
'

;'
'.galusa

theme

of the

the Tamil

K\a-w,'to lop,to break; and

'

as

kalius ;'Servian

'

Ossete

Compare

'

kil-ei,'

only to sprout, but

pluek, is a collateral

theme.

kupp-ei,sweepings,refuse,dung,
duTig,dirt,a farm-yard.
kuR-u, short,brief:derivative
kuR-ei,' a

'

root

Persian

words

that

'

kurz ;' Latin

comparing the Latin

is
curt-us,'

'

derived

would

cur-o,'which

Compare

'

Kovpo^,'

kuKu-gu,'to diminish : collateral

be err mahe
defective.Compare

be

'

from

curt-us,'
short,

'

word

sert-us/ connected,from

'

as

concluded
theme

'

chord/ short,German

'

'

verb

defect,to

On
small, defective.
such

dung-heap.

'

curt-us/ with

ser-o,' it may

be

obsolete verbal

an

identical with

the

Tamil

'kuR-u.'
ultimate

kuru-du, blindness,blind;
base

ultimate
Kurd

'kor/

knri. Can.,

of

'

'kuru'

kiradu,'old). Compare

Ossete

(like kira/ the

'

Persian

kur

'

;'

blind.

'kurm/

sheep; Tuda

base

'gurri/ Compare Irish 'kaora/ Georg.

chhuri.'

'

Can.: ultimate

base,by analogy,'kul/ Telugu

Canarese
and
chali,' cold : collateral root, silir/Tam., to
and
kudal
tremble.
kudir,'cold, are doubtless derivative

kul-ir,cold,Tam.

and

'

'

'

'

or

allied words.

'cele/

"

Irish
'

clu-o,'to

are

kol, to

kiibl

/ Saxon
'cholod/ English cool,''cold/

'

listen;also the

'

cyl,' col,'
Latin 'gelu/
'

'

English chill.'
and

German

Compare

Russian

kel, to hear, Tam.

'

See also

Greek

'cluas,'the
be called.
"

stillcloser than

'ScythianAflSnities.'

Compare Latin

Can.

'

'

kKv-w,'to

'

Lithuanian

ear;

See

to hear, to
ans-cwZ-to,'
ing;
hear; Welsh
clyw/ hear-

also

'

the

'klau/

to liear;

Latin

which
Scythian aflSnities,

these.

to stab; and
Compare Russian 'kolyu,'
the
especially
'kill'
and
English
'quell.'See also 'ScythianAffinities.'

kill.

"

sack.

'

adicK-oi or
Compare Greek
also 'Semitic' and ScythianAffinities.
Greek
lexicographersderive this

e"kk-u, a

etymon;

'

but

we

can

suppose

it to have

'

sack.
a
adx-o^,'
"

word

sprung

from

from

See

Greek

a
a

Greek

WEST

base

INDO-EUKOPEAN

459

FAMILY.

supposition
(whicliis an inadmissible one)
that the Greeks were
the great carryingtraders of antiquity.
The Tamil word
sakk-u/ denotes a loose lag of coarse
cloth,
only

the

on

'

but not also

tvhich the
would

satt-u, to close

sack

or

and

coarse

cloth

the Tamil

to the

Those

is made.

than

nearer

door, to sAwiy

the

Greek,

itself
of
languages,therefore,

to
"'scytt-an,'

Saxon

shut

original

in;

Dutch

to shut.'

to stop; English
schutt-en,'

'

'

hag

in Hebrew

to come
appear
of the word.

source

sad-i

as

English
Compare Spanish 'jarra;'

(pronounced 'jadi'),
ajar.

''jar.'
sal, a bttchet. Compare
rim.

See also

"

'

'

flat hoard

a7jX-id,'
any

tray with

or

raised^

Semitic Affinities.'

sivar-u,Can.,a splinter.Compare English

'

shiver.'

siR-u

Compare avp-l^w^to pipe,also

a
sa-surr-xis,'
whispering,or whistling. Our

to
(pronounced siiR-u '),
'

to

hiss; Latin

'

'hiss' is

English word

bear

allied roots

sud-u, Tam.
to

shine.

Compare.

'

suds-1n,'to hum.

'

sicc-o,'to dry.

to
sel,'

go, to

'

to

fire: related
;' Kurd

sus-an

'

'

root

sud-ar,'

/
sodj-an

Ossete

'

'

base.

same

proceed.

Persian

origin.

imitative

an

its

Compare also Sans. snsh-a,'and Latin

Probably Sans. kud-a,' to heat, to hum,

Compare

speak

to

of

'siRu' and

but

mimetic;
evidently

trace

no

'

Can., to heat,to hum,

and

contains the
sepp-u,

hiss.

'

'

eir-ui

is

This

'

(for

feir-w '),
to

speak.

a pure
unquestionably

Dravidian

root,

the white ant; 'fiel-avu,'

in derivatives ; e.g., 'sel,'
'
also
sel-vam,'prosperity.It forms its preterite

and abounds

expenditure;
in

to pure Dravidian
is peculiar

which

manner

It is

obviouslyallied

to
'shel-a,'

move,

to

shahe,to totter; and

to

go.

Close

as

also to the

these

cell-o' and
'

e.g.,

go, from
'

to

which

and

sel

go, to

derivative,'chal,'
'

appears

to

bear

an

nifying
eel,'the obsolete Latin root, siga
nd
also
'exformed
celer,'
are
'

'

The
prw-cell-o.'

a
runner,
KeX-r/i,'

'

move,

or

'char-a,'to

Hindustani

analogiesare,

verbs.

shal-a,'to go
and

tremhle; 'chal-a'

equallyclose resemblance
to

to the Sans.

'

'

same

ksWu;'

root
to

is in Greek

urge

'

kc\

on.

right,proper, just.
tag-u,Jit,proper, worthy. 'Compare c/n-awf,'
'

;'

460

AIFINITIES.

GLOSSAUIAL

cheese.
Compare '-wp-o^,'

tayir,curds.

tin,to eat; tindi,'

food. Compare
a gourmand.
revOiji;''

revt-w,'to

'

'

daintily;

to eat

gnaw,

'

an
tiR-a-vu,'
(pronouncednearlylike 'toRa'),to open;
ing,
opena way,
a means.
Ovpa,'a door; German
Compare Greek
daur ; Sanscrit
thur ;' Old
tor ;' Gothic
High German
dvara.'
These words are commonly derived from the Sanscrit
theme
not the door-Zea/,
dvru,'to cover; but as they all mean
but the ^ooT-way,and metaphorically
this
a
or
way,
means,
'

tiR-a

'

'

'

'

'

'

derivation
'

'

toRa

is far inferior to

(Can.

'

kindle.

tind-u,to touch, to

Possiblythere
'

other

hand, the n
in
it disappears
Compare

'

'

Compare

Gothic

remote

connexion

'

of the Tarn.
the Can.

'

'

tind-u

is
'

kindle.

also with

the Sans.

dandah.'

On

the

probablyeuphonic,

tid-u.'

clear,manifest.
6^\-os,'

to end, or
signifies

Buttmann

or

tandya/
'

is

distant.
tol-ei (base' tol '),distance,adverbially

which

'tiaa'

open.

the intensitive of which

'

tel,clear.

be

may

dawh,' to bum,

for

'),to

teRa

of the Dravidian

that

to

come

end.

an

derives from

'

As

Compare

TeVos,'an

'

'

verb, tol-ei
rijX-e,'
far off,
'

end'.

tripp-u,Tel.,to turn ; also,by corruption,tippu;' Can.

tiru-pn
;'
Tamil
'tiru-ppu.'These are cg,usalor active verbs, and the
correspondingneuter or intransitive verb signifyingto turn, is
in Tel. 'tiru-gu,'
in Tamil
'tiru-mbu.'
The
has
Canarese
and
tirn
tiru-hu,' tiru-vu,'
gu.' There are also a few
related themes; e.g., 'tiru-gu,'
Tam., to tvnst or turn; from
which is derived
From a comparison of all
mill.
a
tirugal,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

these

words, it is manifest

which

various

that their

formative

additions

base is

common

have

been

'

made,

of

tirn,'to
for

the

expressingmodifications of meaning. tirn itself,

also,has evidentlyarisen through the phonetic necessitiesof
the language,from
tru
which is to be regardedas
or
tri,'
the ultimate base.
to turn; which
Compare Greek
Tpiir-io,'
purpose

'

'

'

'

'

'

bears

remarkable

likeness

to

the

(with

that

Tel.

initial
seems

portion of which
closelyallied to

Probably the
word, but
from

one

Sanscrit

the

Dravidian

and
the
tripp-u,'
our
English 'turn'),
tri.'
base, tru .or

'tarkn,'a spindle,is

which has been

the Dravidian

of

'

tongues.

borrowed
directly

'

'

not

by

'

collateral

the Sanscrit

WEST

to

nas-u,

INDO-EUROPEAN

461

FAMILY.

crush,to squash. Compare

'

to
vaaa-w,'

to stamp
close,

squeeze

dovm.

Can.,a tendon, a sinew, catgut; sometimes, but improperly,

a
vein or artery: adjectivally
wiry, stringy. Tel. 'naramuj'
'nara' or'nar'
Tarn, 'narambu;' Rajmahal 'naru.'
appears

nar-a,

which

to be the ultimate base ; with

'

us

and

the Greek

Can., 'nen-i.'

and
primitive,

is

[With respect
'

and
faculties),

the mental
If there

'nen,' and

word

is

connected

part of

undoubtedly

with

the

also

'

'

The

'

or

lightonly
vi-cw,'
'

to

on,

member,
re-

perfectaccordance with the

'

'

'

'

or
an

'

'

nen

changed from

and
nind-u

'

Dravidian

been

'

nin

wish,are
/iev-o9,'
ancient than
vo-eiuf
mana/ and are probablymore
been changed from
has possibly
the initial
/i.'

and

of which

in

'

word

by comparing
to think
fiva-o/nm,'
by reduplicationveuo-ri/iai.'
Sanscrit

phragm.
dia-

of the
signification
twofold meaning of
in
"f"p^v,'
chest (supposedto be the seat of
the mental faculties
themselves.]

correspondingGreek

the

'nenjju,'

the
chest,

the Dravidian
is any analogy between
to
the Sanscrit 'man,' to think,it comes
it with

'

nerv-

this double

to

the
nenjj-u,'
compare
Greek, viz.,the diaphragm or

word

This

probably

the upper
the soul, literally

Tam.,

'

a tendon,a ligament,
vevp-ov,^

'

to rememher;
nin-ei,to thinJc,

Tamil

the Latin

compare

'

nin

'

has in like manner,

older 'men'

'

or

conceive,

min,'allied to

'man-a'

/iev-09.'

'nich-u' and
nitt-al,'
to swim;
swimming.
(also'ninj-u'),
to swim; Tel. derivative noun,
'ita,'
Can.
ich-u,'
Tel. 'id-u,'
swimming. A comparisonof these words shows that the final
euphonised from 'du.'
of the Tamil verb has been
'ndu'
'

'

I have
'

ni

"'

no

that

doubt

of which

'

the base of this verb

mi,' Can.,

to

is

simply

'

nid'

or

bathe,is probably a collateral

form.
with

'

ni
Compare
also
Greek
vi-ui,'
'

the

Latin

'

'

no

('navi '),to swim;

a
vau-s,'
vij-x"^ Sanscrit nau ;' Greek
originalof
boat.
Compare also 'nid-u'"(the supposititious
and
'id-u')with the Latin secondaryverb
both 'nind-u'
nat-o.'
Bopp derives these Indo-Europeanwords from sna,'
'

'

'

'

"

"

'

is not, I conceive, in Sanscrit.

Sans., to bathe; but their root
It is only in the Classicaland in the Dravidian tongues that it
is found,

Probably nul,'a thread,and also

'

nevy

to weave.

to

spin,is a

word

4G2

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSARIAL

of collateral

origin-.As

'

derived

been

have

pal,'milh, may

tu,'4)0 scatter,so
tul,'dmt, from
pa,'to drink, and
nul,'a thread,may be supposedto be derived from an obsolete
'nu,'to spin: and this root would naturallybe concluded to
'

'

'

rom

"

be

correlative of

Compare
the
especially

'

ney,'to weave.
thread;
a
vd-w,'to spin, vrj-fia,'
Latin
neo,'which not only means

A
closer

auro.'

neverat

root, and

analogy to

the

the

knit,to join;

one

Dravidian

German

and

'

weave;

e.g.,

more

spin,to

tuuicam

quam

Virg.

collateral

find in

we

to

'

to
entwine,but also,secondarily,

molli

and

'

'

which

bears, perhaps,a

ney,'to

'

'nah-en,' to

Sanscrit ,' nah-a,'to

is that which

weave,

Latin

sew;

hind, to

still

'

to
nec-to,'

tie.

to receive or feel an
pad-u, to suffer,
impression;a word which is used
in all the Dravidian
as
an
languagesin the formation
auxiliary
of passiveverbs:
derivative noun,
pat-u,'Tel. and Can., a
sufferi/ng.
of
each
and Greek
ttoO-civ,''
Compare Latin
pat-ior,'
which has precisely
the same
meaning as the Dravidian verb.
*

'

'

pad-u, Tehto

fall.
one

in

verb

; but the

addition

affinities.

This

to

meaning,to

that

Even

is identical

of

in Tamil

to

in

Telugu

fall,which
to

hit,or

the

it bears in

suffer,
suggests a
it means

with

Telugu,

different

to

as
light,

ceding
pre-

set

well

ofas

pad,'
impression.Compare Slavonian
to fall; Sanscrit
pat,' to fall, to fly; Zend
pat,'to fly;
Latin
to fall upon;
Greek
io
irii-ofiai',
pet in im-pet-o,'
fly,and also mVT-n),'to fall.
io

receive

or
suffer,

'

an

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

pan,

make,

work,

form
colloquial
'pannu;' Tel.
word is evidentlyallied to the Sanscrit
pannu."
pan-a,
to do business,
to negotiate;the noun
correspondingto which,
hence property.
This noun,
'pana,'means
business,
'pana,'
has been borrowed
by the Dravidian languages; but the only
which
it bears is money.
Whilst
signification
pana-m,'
is
admitted
Dravidian
always
by
money,
grammarians to be a
Sanscrit derivative,
to make, to work,
they regard pan(n)-u,'
a
as
primitiveDravidian word; and this view is confirmed by

to

'

to

to

produce:

This

'

'

'

the circumstance

that it stands

at

the head of

largefamily
are
pann-ei,'
a
tillage,
rice-field;
service,
pan-i,'
humility; panikkn,"a
design,a clever performance; pani,'Malayalam,difficulty,
toil;
of derivatives and

collaterals;
'

some

of which

'

'

'

"WEST

INDO-ETJROPEAN

463

FAMILY.

It is especially
pani,'Tel.,worh.
worthy of notice that
verbal root, signifying
as
a
pa^n-ij'
to he subservient,
to obey,
to
Las
become
in its turn the parent of a host of deriworship,
"

'

vatiT'e words.
I have

doubt

that

pan,'to make, to work, has an ulterior

connexion
-with the Sanscrit 'pan-a,'
but it appears
to negotiate;
to
have a still closer connexion
with the Greek
to
Trov-ew,'
toil,to worh hard, irov-o^,'worh, a task,and
to
Trev-ofiai,'
toil.
the
worh, to
Compare also
Babylonian ban-as,'to do, to
no

'

'

'

'

'

make.
send:

Tel.,to

pamp-u,

from
'

which

ambu,'

softened form

is derived

an

also

arrow;

ampakam,'

the

Tamil

the

'

Tel.

'

word

same

anuppu,'
ampa,' an

It is obvious

from

is

'ampu,'

send,

to

and
and

arrow,

comparisonof
these words, that the Telugu has best preservedthe original
form.
Telugu grammarians suppose 'pampu,' to send,to be a
causal from
causals are
p6,'to go; and it is certain that some
This supposito the root.
formed in Telugu by adding mp
tion,
'

dismission.

of the

'

'

'

however,
'

pampu
formed

lead

'

'

pampu

send, correspondingto
think that

'

to

us

it is inconsistent

;' and
from

would

expect

with

instead

'

'

pompu

the existence

of

to
itself,
viz., pamp-i-inchu,'
'

the

Tamil

pamp-u,'to send,should

'anuppu-vi.'
be regardedas

I
a

of

causal

cause

to

therefore,

primitive

word.

Compare
and

the

noun

the verb
'

par-u,

'

with

pamp-u

Greek

with
pamp-u,'a dismission,

'

to send,
wefbir-w^
irofiir-i^.'

'

'para.' Compare
in olden time.
TroKai-o^l
old,ancient,
.antiquated;Trakai,'

pal-e.Can., old,long in
'

'

use,

of ancient date;

Tamil

'

fruit,to become ripe; 'para-m,'a ripefruit; Can. 'pala'

pandu
('r changed dialec('r changed into 1 '); Tel.
'her,'
into 'd' a.nd then nasalised).Compare Persian
tically
'fru-x.'
fru-or,'
Compare
'perk;' Latin
fruit; Armenian
also the Sanscrit
phala,'fruit; a word which has been
of efector profit,
but
borrowed
by the Tamil in the sense
confounded
which
is never
'para-m.' I
by it with its own
suspect,this root to be identical in originwith the preceding
In Tamil
to be old or
long in use, is para ;'td be ripe,
one.
'paruj'and both the words themselves and the ideas they
to

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

express

seem

analogiesof

to

be

allied.

this word.

"

See

also, however,

the

Semitic

464

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSARIAL

pal,many,

various

people; pal-a,'many

'

pal-ar,'many
form
The ordinary
adjectival

of this

discrimination of number
classical.

more

There

base, pal-gu,'to
'

If there is any

word,

formed

verb

from

to
multiplied,

to be

many,

the

same

increase.

and

this word

between

connexion

is used without

which

gender,is 'pala;'but 'pal' is

or

is also

become

things.

'

the Sanscrit

') much, it is a very distant one ;

whereas
pal appears to be closelyallied to the Greek
"' TToXv,'
TToXw,'
much, and the Latin 'plus.' Compare
many,
the majority.
the many,
iroWdt,''
palar,'
many
persons, with
is derived from
to fill(ipi-par-mi
The Sanscrit puru
');
pri,'
'

(for

'

puru

'

paru

'

'

"

'

'

oi

'

'

but the Tamil

'

pal

'

'

is

ultimate

an

root.

in Travancore
a church,
a
a
a mosque;
school,
pall-i,
town, a village,
and generallya place of concourse.
Compare trokml a city,
from
TTosAw^ to haunt, to frequent.
palli is found in Sanscrit dictionaries; but I consider it
to be a purelyDravidian
word.
'

'

'

'

piykk-n, to
'

to card, to comh cotton,to pick. Compare

pieces,.
to comb; English'to pick.'
ireK-tv,'

rend

in

to
'por,'to cleave. Compare Sanscrit 'phal-a,'
the Latin
a portion; also
divide; but especially
par-s,'
porfrom
the
to
root
or
par-o,' apportio,'
supposititious
tion,
por-o
of
The Greek
in
the
to divide.
sense
irop-iu^
im-'^a.T-ting,

to divide;
pir-i,

also

'

'

'

'

'

'

is doubtless

an

allied word.

however,
analogies,
vocabulary, which
"

are

The

those

closest and

which

we

most

find in

remarkable

the Semitic

see.

Tam., a child; Tel. 'pilla;'Can. 'pille;'Latin 'pue]l-us,'

pill-ei,
a
hoy, a girl. If the Latin word is derived from
puell-a,'
it is probablyunconnected with
puer-ulus,'
pill-ei.'
Perhaps
is that of
reliable aflSnity
more
fil-ius,'
a
fil-ia,'
a
son, a
a
supposed to mean
tiflM^Ate?-,
suckling. S^e also the
literally
'ScythianVocabulary.'
'

'

'

'

'

'

"

pugar,

puB-am,

/ praise,
and
praise. Compare Old Prussian
pagir-u,'
noun
corresponding
praise.
'pagir-sna,'
'

to

the

the,outside,the exterior;e.g., ''appuBam,'

side, especially

that side;

ippuBam,' this side : adjectivallypuB-attu,'

external:
puEambaga {j)\iRam-h'-kga,'),-extern
adverbially
as
a verbal theme
puBappadu ('puBa^(p)-padu
'),to set out :
outside: 'pora-du,'to set forth. There is.
Can. 'pora-ge,'
'

'

'

'

'

'

466

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSAEIAL.

of elassing
the Latin
'fra/ indicates tbe propriety

ppy,

elf;French

Compare the English fay,'an

demon.

Vocabulary,.

See also the Semitic

the other derivatives.

'

witli

'fru-x'

'

file.'

Mala.
and 'peiy-al:'
peiy-an,a hoy,a servant; also 'pay-an,'
'pay-al,'
al' is that of
termination
The
hei-da.'
;' Can.
pei-tal
and consequently payal might be
the nenter verbal noun;
'

'

'

'

'

to
applied,

youth

masculine.

the

though restricted in Tamil to

ahoy, 'pen
MalayaJam has 'an pei-tal,'

of either sex,

The

a girl.
pei-tal,'
a hoy or
^rtw?,'Traii-o^,'
Compare Gre^k
girl,a servant;
a
Latin 'puer/Persian
Laconiain '7r6ip-/
bach,'a hoy, puser,'
son; Swedish
'poike;'
English'boy.' See Scythian AfSnities.
'

'

'

'

"

poR-u,

sustain, to hear, to sufferpatiently: 'poB-u-ppu,'responsibility;

to

bair-an,'to
poR-u-mei,'
patience. Compare Gothic
hear; Greek
;' Latin fer-a.' The Tamil distinguishes
(f)dp-w
this word
between
and
piB^a,'to be born, though both are
'

'

'

'

'

probablyfrom

the

between

tongues make

'

par-io

'

is formed

por-u-du,time:
of

theme

'

'

constitute
horn

tinguishes
dis-

manner

whilst
fer-o,'

Gothic

the

bear,'to sustain,and

or

which

word, from

one

to

por.' Compare Sanscrit

theme

time, whjch

tem-her

'

'

to be
past participle

the

'bar,'the

of

appears

borne,and

also the

'

of the

names

var-a,'time;

Latin

bari,'once;

in the

'

'ber,'the
months

sian
Per-

suffix

from

Sep-

to Decem-6er.

rise,to

be

puffed up, like bread:

local,vulgar

and

in like

birth.

noun

povv-u,

Latin

The

difference between

no

bear,'to bringforth. They

'

p6,

base.

same

also
boff-en,'

'

real Tamil

word, though

and
Compare English 'to puff,'

one.

pof,'a

blast which

Dutch

smells the cheeks.

'p6-gu'(with the usual formative addition of 'gu').

The
second person singularof the imperative of
p6gu is
'p6.' Laghmaui (an Affghan dialect),'pak,'to go; Greek

to go;

also

'

'

'

pd-u),'to

go;

to
occasionally

Latin

'

va-do,'to march;

Hebrew

'

bo,' to

com^,

go.

to
p6d-u,'to put. Compare Dutch 'popt-en,'
to graft;English to put.'
'pod-er,'

set

or

plant;

Danish

""

bil-u,Can.,

to
'

fall; Tajn.

fallen.'

'

vir-u.' Compare English 'to fall/ German

WEST

mag-an,

son,

then

be able ; Gaelrc 'mak,'

to

from

Compare

the verbal

also Latin

Compare Persian

theme

'

mui

the
mate, particularly

male

swine; e.g., 'ari-ma,'

a

male

to
'mag/ originaUy

Tibetan

son;

mas,' a

'

'

grow,

'maga,'son-in-

male.

;'Armenian

forget. Compare Lithuanian

niaR-a, to

467

'mag-e.' Compare Gothic 'mag-us,'a

son,

hair.
raay-ir,

male; Tulu

hoy, a
law.

ma,

INDO-EUROPEAN.

mas,' hair.

'

mirsz,'to forget.

of the

lion,elephant,horse,and

lion.

Compare Latin 'mas,' a

m.ale.
"narg-u, to
be

die,to

to mingle: related theme

bewildered,

be

confused,to

languid or lazy,and also the Greek

to wade
passivevoice signifies
away, or
have

It is

connexion

remote

mar-u,'to

be

lazy.
Compare Latin 'marc-eo,' to wither,to

words

'

with

between

'

themes here adduced

Latin

the

be

impalvw^ which in the

die.
Possiblyall these
to die.
mri,'Sanscrit,

evident,however, that there is

specialconnexion

faint, to

be

'

closer and

and

Greek

more

secondary

and the TamiL

mig-u,much, great: as a verbal theme, to be much.

to
'minj-u,'
is
abound (from 'mij,'nasalised), probablya collateral root.
Belated words, Tel., 'migal-u,'
remainder,that which is too
adverb and adjective,
much; migula and
migala,'
much, exceedingly,
also 'mikkili,'
the same.
Can. 'mig-ii,'
to exceed,
also
both as a verb and as a noun;
ancient dialect of
'migil-u,'
Canarese
much;
mogga,' and also mokkala,' a mass,
migal,'
a
heap,an assemhlage.
'

'

'

'

The

'

Sanscrit 'maha,' greai,from

mah,' to grow,
used in the Dravidian dialects,but it is
'

considered

be

to

which

view

is confirmed

the

languageshave

Dravidian

no

the

by
word

its correlatives. The

words

the Latin

'

the Greek

always

originalbase

derived.

that

the

This

Dravidian

WMch, except mig-u,"and

signifying
words

quoted above, bear a

the corresponding
words in the

tongues than

to the Sanscrit.

Thus,

or
'meah;'
mag-nus,'mag-isj'the Persian mih
the Old High German
mihor
'/teiyAos;'
'yite'tyo'
'

'

'

'

hil ;' Norse

Scottish

been

quently
is fre-

'

Dravidian

Germanic

have

circumstance

closer resemblaiuce to

Classical and

the

Sanscrit derivative,not

from

much

'

'

'

mikil

;' Danish

mickle,'are

more

'

megen

;' English migh-t;

'

with

closelyconnected
2

the
2

Tarn.

468

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSARIAL

migu,'the Can. migal and ' mokkala' and the Tel. 'migala'
and 'mikkili,'
raah-St.' The final 1' of
than with the Sans.
of specialisation.'
the Dravidian words seems
to be 'a particle
'

'

'

'

'

"See
murg-Ui

the section

'

on

Boots.'

amir
plunge, to sink.
appears- to be a softened form of
is only a
the same
word; and probablythe 'g' of murgu
formative.
Compare Latin
merg-o,'to plunge, to immerse.
The
merxi,' possiblythe g of
being mersi/ not
preterite
'merge' is a formative addition like the 'g' of the Tam.
mur-g-u.'
'

to

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

and

Compare Sanscrit megha,'

mih
The word
to sprinkle.
a cloud,from
('mehati '),
migha,'
from the Sanscrit by the DrSvidian
guages,
lanhas been borrowed
and is now
more
commonly used than
mngil.' The
used
latter,however, is found in the classics,is much
by
is undoubtedly a pure
word.
the peasantry, and
Dravidian
Doubtless 'megha' and 'mngil' are
ultimatelyallied; but
there is a direct and special
connexion
between the Dravidian
word and the Greek
a cloud,the Lithuanian
i-/u'x'K-'^,'
migla,',
the Slavonian 'mgla,'and the Gothic 'milh-ma;' in each of
which the
1 of mngil retains its place.

mngil,Tam.

Ancient

Can., a

cloud.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

vour,
mol-ior,'to endeaCompare Latin
the toil of war;
English 'to
'/uSX-o?,'

endeavour.

strive; Greek

to

moil,'to labour

or

to

murmur,

'

strive.

grumble, to

to

moBu,'

'

'

muyal, to labour, to

muRumuRu,

'

murmur.

would

similar

word,

naturallybe regarded as

'

moHu-

identical

originis ascribed to each.

is Said to be simply and solelya mimetic
moRumoRu
word,
of a large class of imitative,
one
reduplicatedexclamations;
he spoke angrily/:
'his head
i.e.,
e.g., 'he said 'moRu-moRu;"
said 'kiBu-kiRu;" i.e.,
it went
round.
'muBumuRu,' on the
other hand, is not purelyimitative,
but seems
to be regularly
formed by reduplication
from
muRu,' the base of muRukku,'
the signification
of grumbling,and being
to twist,
to chafe;and
has arisen from that of chafing.
discontented,
Whatever
be the derivation of the Tamil word, it may be
The Latin
compared with the Latin
murmuro,' to muiter.
with

'

;'but

very

muBumuRU

different

'

'

'

'

'

word

is

evidentlyan
being
syllablemur
'

'

muttering sound,

imitative one, the reduplication

of the
used to signify
the continuance of a low

'mur'

has

doubtless

some

connexion

with

"WEST

the base of

musso,' mussito,'to

'

'

also the Greek

The
"See

expressionto

Old Prussian

also the
The

word

but also to express

beyond

the

'

say

murra/

grumble. Compare

or

to mutter, to grumble.
fiv,^

fw

is

to murmur,

in

only to

not

means

to
discontent,

related.
evidently

utter

he angry;

mutteringsound,

and

in this it goes

of the

meaning

Muttering,is

mutter

'

Scythian Vocabulary.'

'

Tamil

469

INDO-EUROPEAN.

correspondingLatin murrauro.'
what
expressedby muna-muna/ a some-

Tamil

'

'

imitative word.
similar,yet independent,

miikk-u/ the
verbs

theme

nose:

'

'

mugar

'mug-u,'Can.,

and

mokk-u,'

'

Compare Greek

Tamil

smell; related

to

to smell.

the nose.
The
Greek
word is
fivKTqp,'
said to be derived from
to maan,
to mutter, to such in,
fiv^iv,'
from
the discharge
or
fiv^a,'
').
from the nose (Latin mucus
It is worth
the Dravidian
consideration,however, whether
derivation is not, after all,a more
probableone.
'

'

'

'

mett-a, Tel.,a bed,a

'

mott-e.'

word

The

Tam., soft,
fine.
Compare Latin
Saxon

'

The

bed, a cushion; Tamil

cotton

be

to

seems

matta,'a mat,

'

Tamil

to

seems

derivative

matirass;

:' also the Hebrew

meatta

Canarese
'raett-ei;'

from

'

Slavonian

'

mel,'
;'

mat

mittah,'a bed,a cushion.

give the best and

tion
natural deriva-

most

of these words.

mel, Jine,
tender; mell-a,'softly,
thin,soft,
gently.

Compare

Latin

'moll-is,'
tender,pliant; Greek
soft,

Ko's,'
soft,gentle,tender.
from

'

of

between

both

Compare Sanscrit
Tel.,a

to
'

the

\a-as

'

or

of the Latin

the

Dravidian

connexion

'

mel

Xcu-a,'a

mutual

'

fiuXa-

mollis,
tainly
cer-

the

semblance
re-

is remarkable.

Tamil

'

med-n.'

of
interchange

.this word

'

which

'fioKaKos;'and

which is in
mridu,'soft,

Bearing in mind the

perhaps compare
may

'

with

'mollis' and

stone.

'1,' we
'

derivation

movilis,'is inconsistent
subsists

ray,

The

'

with

the

'r' and

Greek

stone.

val-i,strength; val-i-ya,'
strong; 'van-mei' ('val-mei'),
strength.
have
and
The
Dr"vidian
borrowed,
languages
frequentlyuse,
Tamil
bala
the Sanscrit
balan/
balam,' and even
(in
valam '); and it might at firstbe supposed that this is the
I am
"c.
persuaded,however, that the words
originof vali,'
but have
cited above have not been derived from the Sanscrit,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

470

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSABIAL

been

the

property of the

The
of

only

not

which
e.g.,

'

be

vali,'a

word

idea

an

the Latin
'

of

verbs,

anything Sanscrit;
if this word

is

family of languages must

to

so

express

val,'also,

'

strong.

as

ning.
begin-

derivative

val-eo,'to be strong, and

'

the

large family,

Ac. ; and

row,

be destitute

the Sanscrit

'

necessary

closely

more

val-idus,'than

bala-m.'

val, fertility,
abundance;

val-ar,'and

'

related verbs,

many

Latin

Compare

to grow.

cause

with

from

to

also of

whatever

this

to

birth

given

regarded as Dravidian,

rudimental

resembles

languages
but

vali,'to

'

spasm;

has

nouns,

connexion

no

supposed

and

'

val

'

adjectivesand

have

to be

not

Dravidian

Dravidian

to rear,

to

Connexion

'al-o,'to nourish.

doubtful.

vind-u, the wind.

Tamil

is said

word

resemblance

vifiei,to

shiver

'

to

vent-us

from

or

also

cold;

with

vin, useless,vain.

the

'vin/

be

stiffrom,

shy:

its

cold.

'

'.vRi

was

bably
pro-

of this theme.

'

pi''j-09,'
frost,cold,
he

'frig-eo/to

cold;

'

'

to
pir^-lio^

shivering

'frig-us,'
cold;

stiff,
as
from cold; English
Latin

Compare

The

is, therefore,probablyaccidental.

cold;

Latin

to
'rig-or,'
'rig-eo,'

from

to tremble, to shiver;
cppiaa-w,'

'

shudder

derived

grow

primitiveform

Compare Greek
shiver

'

to

'vent-us;' English 'wind.'

be

to

cold,

from

the

Latin

Compare

'to

freeze.'

van-us,' empty, unreal,frivolous,

vain.

vend-u,

wish,

to

wanian,'

'

as

to

to

it appears

to be

other.
different,
of which

If the

fail.

Cauarese

veR-u,

Compare

want.

is

from

'

'

English
of

'

from

word

with

word, this resemblance

'

want

the Tamil

comparison

Compare Latin

'

euphonic,

bed-u,' the

'

is

is

Saxon

sponding
corre-

merely accidental.

var-us,'the secondarymeaning

dissimilar;
different,

'also

'

var-ius,'diversified,

various, different
from somethingelse.
vray,

Tel., to write; Tam.

'

erud-u.'

identical,as it is probable they

have

lost

final 'd.'

'ScythianAfiinities.'

If these
were,

the

Compare English

words

Telugu
'to

originally

were
'

'

vra,jf must,

write.'

"

See

also

471
II.

Semitic Affinities,
OR,

Dravidian

The

words^ which

ctf such

number

great; and

it

to he allied to the Hebrew

appear
sister tongues:

words

in the

might be supposed

that

and

its

Dravidian

not

in

the

languages is
attempting to prove

in addition to affinitiesof the Indoexistence of this class of affinities,

European-and

nothing by attemptingto
I submit,however, the followinglist of words to
judgment of those who may 'entertain this supposition

much.

too

prove

Scythian clas^es,I

scrutinyand
; and they will

the

existence of

Vocables

instances

closer and
that

the words
In

one.

Semitic vocables

the

to

Dravidian

in this list rather

the Dravidian

analogiesare
it is for that

than

of Semitic affinities in the Dravidian

introduced

the Malabar

as

Semitic

in the preceding

by

the

Dravidian.

are

as

be

those affinitiescannot
established,
been

the

the

adduced,

well

between

instances,again, the only analogies to

such

If the existence

have

be

resemblance

Indo-European,and

inserted

are

some
are

that

found

direct than

more

will

which

Indo-Europeanas

it will be

languages; but
reason

the

allied to the

are

not, clear evidence of the

pointsof
highlyinteresting
and that of the Hebrew.
vocabulary
of

some

I mistake

few

the Dravidian
In

it,if

find in

prove

the Jews

languagesis

explainedby supposingthem

who

settled

have

coast; for the JewSj whether

'black'

or

on

to

parts of

some

have
'white,'

fully
care-

of isolation: they are but a small

preservedtheir traditional policy
handful of people at most; they have never
penetratedfar into the
even
interior,

the

on

Malabar

coast,whilst

on

the Coromandel

coast,

vidian
unknown; and the Draspoken,theyare entirely
fullyformed, and the Tamil and Telugtiwere,
languageswere
it is probable,
to writinglong before the Jews
committed
made their

where the Tamil

appearance
common

is

property

be

regardedeither

or

association

tutihgtraces
app-a,

Whatever

India.

in

of the

of the

all the
has

iot

'

the Semitic race,

the

or

as

consti'

speechof the NoaChidae.

This

dialects. The
the

be

must
languages,
intermixture
ancient,
pre-historic

app-an.'

father;

to

the Dravidian

of the

oneness
original

Dravidian

'appa'

and

DravidiaftS with

fatherl vocative of
'

Hebrew

indicatingan

as

iofthe

words, therefore,appear

word

M^th

is fotlnd unaltered in

also,a Bhutan dialect,

Bhotiya 'aba;' thfe Sifighalese

472

GLOSSAEIAL

APriNITIES.

appa.' Analogieswill also

'

In

all the

languages of

the ultimate
families^
'p' or 'b,'and that

the

Indo-European and Semitic

is
words which denote father,

of the words

difference between

the

Indo-Europeanwords
'm;'

found

base of the

The

those

bulary.
Scythian voca-

in the

be

denote

which

families consists in

two

this,that

the consonants

with

commence

is 'm.'

mother

'p'

mater;' whilst in the Semitic

pater/
languages,
are
kh,'
preceded by a vowel ; e.g., Hebrew
guages
lanIn this particularthe Dravidian
mother.
father, k.va.^
follow the Semitic rule;
app-an//atAer,
e.g., Tam.,
between
The resemblance
'amm-al,'mother.
'appan' (vocative
and the Chaldee
abba/ father(Syriac ab6 ')is very
appa '),
or

e.g.,

'

'

those consonants

'

'

'

'

'

remarkable.
Gal.

It is

'

in the

close,that

so

there
iv,6, 'abba,'/ai!Aer,'
'

translation

Tamil

of

difference whatever,either

is no

in

in sound between
the Aramaic
word
abba' (which
or
spelling
in Tamil),and its natural
by a phoneticlaw becomes
appa
and proper Tamil
rendering'appa/ in consequence of which
'

'

'

it has

been

found

the second

amm-", m,other!

vocative

See also the

which

are

use
'

the

derivative

Sanscrit

the translation of

appa,'as

word.
of

'

'

amm-ei
'em'

Hebrew

Compare

aR-u,

to
necessary
of the Tamil

instead
pita-(v)-S,'

'

'amm-al/

or

mother.

'imm,' mother;

or

Syriac 'am6.'

Scythianand Indo-Europeanaffinitiesof

still closer than

this

word,

the Semitic.

river; Tel. 'Sb-u/ Malayalam

'aR-a:'

correlative root

'eri,'

'6r' or
Tamil,a natural reservoir of water.
Compare Hebrew
'ye6r/ a river; Coptic 'jaro.' See also ScythianAnalogies.'
'

"

al, not.

negativesthe attributes of a thing; il,'its

al '),is prohibitive. The
existence :
el
(and sometimes
vowel
is transposedin Telugu,and '16' (thebase of 'ISdu'),
used instead of il.' Compare the negative and prohibitive
16 / also the corresponding
of the Hebrew,
al and
particles
16 in Hebrew
Arabic and Chaldaic
la.'
negativesthe properties
in
al
of a thing,like
Tamil, and another particle
('ain')is used to negativethe existence of it. This idiom is
In

Tamil,
'

'

al

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

which

'

'

'

'

one

'

'

with

remarkablyaccords

that

of

the

Dravidian

languages.
16th,'it is not, a compound of
Compare also the Chaldee
and
\k,'the negativeparticle,
fth,'the substantive verb it is
'

'

'

474

GLOSSAIUAL

We

the

find

AFFINITIK8.

word

same

in

languages;

many

The

'sac;'Finnish 'sakki;' Magyar 'saak.'

in Genesis

of this word

use

than its

ancient

is unquestionably
more
xlii.,

e.g., Celtic

use

in

Indo-European tongue. The Babylonians

having been the great carryingtraders of the earliest
it would seem
probablethat the word
periodof human
history,
Greek,

sak

'

in

or

'

and
theirs,
originally

was

that

though

Telugu ;

or

this word

the

the Malabar

old

It is remarkable

if so, Semitic.

Tamil, it is not

is in

it
Possibly

is it in Sanscrit.

nor

which

commerce

with

other

any

and

Phenicians

is

in Canarese

relic of the
carried

Hebrews

on

They brought with them to Palestine

of the peacock, to k-a
the Old Tamirand
Malayalam name
in the Book
of Chronicles)
('thuka
they left behind
; and
coast.

'

'

'

them

sal,a

in India

bucket.

their word

for sack.

Compare

Hebrew

incline.

Compare

basket; Greek

sal,'a

'

'

a
anjX-ia,'

tray.
say, to lean, to
'

sha'

'

'

or

sha

'),to

verbal

sina-m, anger:
Hebrew

'

'

sha

'

an

base,
(biliteral

lean.

theme

;'

sane

Hebrew

he

'sina-kku,' to

Chaldee

Compare

angry.

sene,' to hate;

'

Hebrew

'

sinah,'

be
correspondingCanarese word being 'kini,'to
ofended, 'sina-m' is probably softened from 'kina-m.' The
doubtful.
analogy is therefore somewhat
The

hatred.

siR-u,

to hiss.

'

sbarak
base
Compare Hebrew
(biliteral
to pipe,to hiss.
hiss; Greek
avpl^ut,'
'

'

shar

'),to

'

sumTei, a

verbal theme

burden:
Hebrew

'

samak

pare
Com'suma-kku,'to bear,to carry.
base
(biliteral
sam
'),to support, to
'

uphold, to weighheavilyon.
a

suv-ar,

Compare Hebrew

wall.

base

sevv-ei,equal,levd,correct:
form

of the

shur,'a wall.

'

'sev'

or

'se.'

nasalised,adjectival

is 'sen;' e.g.,

root

correct
'sen-Tamir,'
Tamil, the classical dialect of the Tamil language. From
se"'
semm-ei
sen,'is formed
sen-mei
sev/ or
('
'),an abstract
of the same
'sevvei.'
meaning as
Compare Hebrew 'shavah;'
Chaldee 'sheva'
base 'shav' or 'shev'),to be equal,
(biliteral
If
the Sanscrit
to be level.
sama,' even, is at all connected
same

'

'

'

'

'

'

with

the Tamil

whereas

'

the Tamil

identical.

'

sev

or

and

'

sen,'the

the Hebrew

connexion

word

seem

is very remote
to

be almost

475

SEMITIC.

natVUj

f^, to set up, to establish: ulterior verbal theme 'nad-u,'t9

nat4'
base
plaiU. Compare Hebrew
nat '),to
(biliteral
'o

'

'

to
'plant,

mtt-u,

to

to establish.

set up,

stretch out; formed

to
lengthen,

the final consonant

Hebrew

nokk-u, to look
'

par-u,

nok

from
'

natah

'

"

nid-u

'

base
(biliteral

'

'

direct at, to address.

'

Compare Hebrew
against.

'),straight
forward, over

become

of
by causative reduplication
(also nil '),long. Compare
to stretch out.
nat '),

'nokah'

(base

ripe,to fruit; para-m,'a ripe fruit. Compare

Hebrew
par4h,'to be fruitful,to bear fruit; parah,'t6
to break forth: biliteralbase of both
blossom,
par.'Especially
peri,'fruit. Compare also Armenian
perk/ and
compare
Persian
the affinity
is thrown
of
ber,'fruit. Doubt
upon
these words
with the Dravidiau
nexion
par-u,'by the apparent conof that word
with
par-a/ Tam., to become old,to be
to

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

accustomed.

pal,a part,

pal-u;' collateral Tamil

portion,a class; Canarese
also
roots
to divide;
pir-i,'
pil-a,'
por,'to cleave. The
of
and
1 confirms
of the dialectic interchange
r
regularity
the supposition
pare
that
pal and 'pir-i are related roots. ComHebrew
palah,' pala,' palah,' palag,' palal;' and
also (by the interchange
of
and
r
'1'), parash,' pftras,'
and Chaldee
"c.
peras,'to separate, to divide,to distinguish,
All these words, like the Tamil 'pal' and 'pir-i'(and also
include the idea of separation into parts.
to divide),
pagir,'
See also the Indo-European analogiesof these roots; e.g.,
and
Sanscrit 'phal-a,'to divide; Latin
a
'par-s,'
por-tio,'
Semitic
are
analogies
portion. It is evident,however, that the
'

a
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

the closest.
peR-n,

bringforth,to get or beget:verbal noun

peB-u,'a bringingforth or birth,a thing obtained,a benefit':
to spring
collateral root
piR-a,'to be born; Gdnd 'pirra,'
forth; also 'piRa,'Tam., other,different. Compare Hebrew
fruit; 'parah,'to blossom,to
'parah,'to be fruitful;'peri,'
to

obtain,to

bear

or

'

'

break

and

'

forth. Whether the

pert,'Heb., fruit,be

doubt of the existence of

'

piR-a,'to

be

hear,
here adduced, as well
to

an

connexion
real

'

par

only apparent,

pr

-am,'Tam.,
I have

intimate relation between

hm-n,and
as

between

the

the Latin

'

Semitic words

'

peR-u,'

\vhich

par-io,'pe-per-it'
'

no

are

476

GLOS8ARIAL

ba, Can., to

Gond

come;

Tuda

AFFINITIES.

;'Tamil

wai

'

wo.'

Compare Hebrew
Babylonian ba,'to come
'

'

'

'var;' Telugu 'fa;'

or

va

bo,'to

'

to

come,

in ;

come

'

to

may,

pare also
maR-u,

to death.

die,to put

in the

muwo,' dead,

'

Hebrew

Compare

muth,'

'

Cora-

to die.

dialect.

Lar, a Sindhian

mur,' to change
change; Can. to sell. Compare Hebrew
or
exchange,of which the niphal is namar,' as if from a
base in
The
mir.'
marar
or
correspondingSyriac mor,'
'

to

'

'

'

'

misukka-u,

pool', wwthlesi

Compare Hebrew
The
from

'

'

'

huy.

to

means

'

'

Hebrew

worthless

fellow; 'misukk-ei,'a

misken,'

word

unfortunate.

poor,

commonly supposed

is

article.

sakan ;'but Gesenius considers the

'

'

of

be

to
'

derived

miskin

'

to

has found its

servile.
This word
not
a
letter,
of the Saracens) into several European
(probablyby means
way
languages;e.g., French 'mesquin.' The Tamil does not
contain the root of this word; and it may
therefore be supposed
Semitic dialect,
it an earlyperiodfrom some
to have borrowed

be

radical

after the

'

sakk-u,'a

me^t-a, Tel. (Tam. 'mettei;'Can.

'

Dravidian

The

cushion.

'

'motte'),a bed,
word

mel,'soft. Compare, however,

from
cushion,a litter,

between

'

misken

and

deserves to be noticed.

which

misukkan,' is one

sack.

coincidence

all events, the

At
'

of

manner

be

to

appears
the Hebrew

'

bed, a

cotton

derived

from

mittah,'a bed,a

'natah,'to stretchout.

III.

Scythian Affinities,
OB,

words

Dravidian
in

some

of

which

the

exhibit

near

to words
relationship

contained

to the
languagesof tlieScythiangroup, particularly

Finnish dialects.

majorityof

The
and of

more

affinities which
of the

prvmwry

words

the affinitiesthat follow

essential character than the

have

which

been

pointed out

will be

character,and

adduced

of almost vital

more
clearer,

are

Indo-Europeanor

direct,
Semitic

in the
as

precedinglists. Many
examples are words of a

necessitywords
"

which

carry

477

SCYTHIAN.

and
aathority

Some

in comparisonsof this kind.

convey intuitive conviction,
of tlie Dravidian words
in the following
list have Sanscrit or

well
Indo-European affinities,
as

Scythian; a very few also have

Semitic affinities
because
; but I have preferred
placingthem in this list,
the Scythianaffinities are not only the most
but the closest
numerous,
that appear
to exist. Such words, though they are
but few, are of
as
peculiarinterest,
of the
tendingto prove the primitiveoneness
and
Scythian
Indo-Europeangroups of tongues.
For the important Scythianaffinities which
are
apparent in the
Dravidian

and

pronouns

as

numerals,

the

see

sections

to those

devoted

partsof speech.
akk-a. Can.
In

and

Tel., elder sister;Tamil 'akk-al;'Marathi 'aka.'

Sanscrit, akka,' signifies
a
mother; and an improbable
'

Sanscrit derivation
word
the

to be

has

been

attributed to

of those which

one

indigenousDravidian

it.

I believe this

the Sanscrit has borrowed

tongues;

and

the

proof of

from

this supposition

is furnished

by its extensive use in the Scythian

The
of this word, a mother,
Sanscrit signification
group.
it is true, from
elder sister;
but a
the Dravidian,an
differs,
in various languages,proves
comparison of its significations
that it was
used to denote any elderly
originally
femalerelation,
and that the meaning of the ultimate
base was
probablythat
of old.

The
with

are
Scythianinstances
following

of the

use

of this

root

the

in the Dravidian
as
meaning of elder sister,
precisely
akin ;' Mongolian achan ;'
:
languages
Tungusian oki or
Tibetan
achche ;'a dialect of the Turkish
ege ;' Mordwin
aky j' other Ugrian idioms iggen.'
both wife and grandmother.
The Lappish 'akke,' signifies
The Mongol aka,'Tungusian aki,'
and the Uigur acha,'signify
'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

an

elder

brother

whilst

'

the

of old
signification

is

man

ukko,' and the

conveyed by the Ostiak iki,'the Finnish
Hungarian 'agg.' Even in the Ku, a Dravidian dialect,
akke,' means
grandfather. The ultimate base of all these
the other hand 'akka,' in
words
is probably 'ak,' old. On
Osmanli Turkish,means
a younger
sister;and the same
ing
mean'

'

'

appears

in several related idioms. It may,

that
possible
elder

or
sister,

younger

It is proper

here

that the Drayidian

'

akka

'

be
therefore,

sidered
con-

sister;and then
originally
sister,
by secondaryor restricted usage.
to

meant

notice

the

remarkable

languages,like those

of the

circumstance

Scythiangroup

478

GLOSSAKIAL

AFFINITIES.

for brother,mter,
term
destitute of any common
uncle,aunt, "c., and use instead a set of terms which com,bine
iu

general,are

the

idea of

yownger

and
sister,

brother,elder sister,
younger

The derivation of
to be the

appear

that of age ; e.g., elder

with
relationship

'

more

akka/ from
probableone.

brother,

on.

so

old,would^
signifying

root

att-an, fatha:
We

att-al,mother.

find in the Sanscrit

mother's
a
sister,

elder

language,an
of

Dravidian

origin;

sister; also

elder
I

elder sister.
and

lexicons

regard this
it will

be

atta/

'

mother,an

in theatrical
atti,'

'

word

also

found

that

probably,

as

in

one

or

meanings of father or mother,it has a

wide range of usage throughout the Scythian tongues. The
the Tamil
att-al or
difference in quantitybetween
itt-ei,'
another

related

of the

'

'

and

the

Sanscrit

'atta,'does

not

appear

'

be of much

to

sequence
con-

'

Dravidian
dialects
change of tt in some
into
ch
with generally
tch,'is in perfectaccordance
or
Hence
the Malayala achcTih-an
prevalentlaws of sound.
tical
idenare
ajj-a,'
(pronounced atchhan '),and the Canarese
with
the Tamil
'att-an;'and probably the Hindi and
is a related word, if not identical.
Marathi
a grandfather,
aja,'
The
related words, S,tt-ei,'
Tamil; 'att-e,'
Canarese; att-a,'
Telugu,have also the meanings of moiher-in-law,sister-in-law,
means
paternal aunt; and the corespondingSinghalese att-a,'
maternal
a
grandmother; meanings which are not found in
; and
'

'

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Sanscrit.
For

the

Scythiananalogiesof

these

words, compare

Finnish

mother, togetherwith the followingwords for father,

aiti,'
viz.,Turkish 'ata;' Hungarian 'atya;'Finnish 'atta;'Tchereatai ;' Ostiak
ata.'
miss
Compare also
atya ;' Mordwin
and
also
able
grandfather,
attje.' It is remarkLappish, aija,'
that. 'atta' is also a Gothic theme
; e.g., 'attan,' father,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

aithein,'mother.
'

e?"r sisier. ann-ei

and
honorifically
probablycorrelative forms of the same base, m

ann-ei,mother:

'

'

Compare however
'ane;'

the Turkish.

word.

and

The

'

are

times
beingsome-

'n.'

softened into

Ostiak

'amm-ei'

Finnish

also 'anna'
Hindi

'

'anya,'mother; Mordwin
and

annS,'a.

'ana'
nurse,

in
is

two

'anai

;'

dialects of

probablythe

same

479

SCXTHIAN.

fMher.

Compare the. followingwords for father-in-law,

viz.,
Ostiak
up,' 6p j' Finnish
appi ;' Hungarian ip,' ipa,'
apos.'"See also Semitic Analogies.'

app-an,

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

aram-al, ]
amm-ei,

^inother: the word

anim-an,

is also used

in addressing
honorifically

The

following are correlative words, 'amra-ay,'

maternal
grandmother,aunt ly the mother's side,and amm-an,'
mother's brother.
Compare Samoi'ede amma,' mother; Jenese'i
or
amma
am
;' Estrian emma
;' Finnish ema.'
Compare
also Ostiak 'iu-a,'woman,
See also
wife; Hungarian 'eme.'
amba
Semitic analogies. The Sanscrit
or
amma,' mother,
of
is
title
doubtless
derived from
or
properlya name
Darga,
the Dravidian
word.
The
bloody rites of Durga, or Kali,
were
probablyborrowed from the demonolatrous aborigines
by
the Brahmans; and 'amma,' mother, the name
by which she
would
known and worshipped her only Dravidian name
was
time.
naturallybe borrowed at the same
matrons.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

"

From

the

the

Malay

'

source

same

"

is derived

the Scindian

'

'

ama

and

ama,' mother.

It is remarkable

that

in

one

or

dialects the

Dravidian

two

fatherand mother, have mutuallychanged

places. In Tulu, 'amm-e,' 'v"father; 'appe,'mother; and in
Tuda
the former is 'en,' the latter 'aph.' Compare the Mongolian ama,' father.
In Tibetan and its sister dialects,pa
denotes a
or
po
and these words are post-fixed
ma' or
mo,' a woman:
man;
to nouns
as
signs of gender; e.g., 'Bot-pa,'a Tibetan man,
words

which

denote

'

'

'

'

'

'

Bot-ma,' a Tibetan

woman.

^^'^'" precious,
dear,scarce.
and

Finnish

al, )
el, /

the

Compare Hungarian

Lappish

'

ele

'

aru,' ar,'price;

'

kodel

'

(from kod-u,'griiie),
'

'ala.' Compare Lappish

prohibitive

Santal

;' Ostiak

'

arwo.'

'noli;'e.^.,
particle,
prohihitive

givenot:
'

'

'

'

ila,'and

Finnish

'

ala.'
"

See

also

'ali'
'

or

Semitic

Analogies.'
Tuda
tel.,a grandmother;

avva,

matron,
.

al-ei

"See

wave;

an

also

elderlywoman.
'

Can.

'

avva,'a mother;
Compare Mordwin

Tamil
'

'

avv-a,'a

ava,' mother..

Indo-European Analogies.'
'ale:'

as

verbal theme

means
'alei,'

to

wander,

480

AFFINITIES.

GLOSSAEIAL

to be
'

aR-u,

a
unsteady. Compare Finnish 'allok,'

Armenian

wave;

alili.'

Compare Lesghian 'or;'Avar 'nor;'

Yakntan
Turkish),'oryas;'Lappish 'wiro;'Ostiak
(Siberian
'aruj' Coptic jaro;' and
'jeara.'Compare also Armenian
river; Telugu

'

eR-u.'

'

Hebrew
am,

or,' ye6r.'

'

is,yes.

'

Compare Vogoul

'

id-u,Tel.,to swim;
'

am,'

yes.

dialect),ur,'iron.

Compare Motor (a SamoTede

Indo-EuropeanAnalogies.'

irn-mbn, iron.
See also

'

Tamil

'

'

niiij-u.'
Compare Ostiak

'

udem

"

;'Finnish

swim.

uin,'to

uyarka, high: infinitive (used adverbially)of

uyar/ to he high;
arka,'
RSjmahal idiom, arka,' high. Compare Sam'oi'ede
high.
'

'

ul, to

he

in,to

be

as

within';Ancient

'

noun,

:
entity

being,an

Canarese

'61.'

as

in,
post position

is very

averb'ul'

As

gular;
irre-

'1,'though radical,has generallybeen euphonised

of
form
and
force
the
into
root
n.' The
are
primitive
ulladu
verb
('ul(l)-adu
'),
apparent in the Tamil appellative
it is,there is ; the Canarese
there are;
'ullavu' ('ul(l)-a-vu'),
and
kadavul
such nouns
as
('kada-(v)-ul
'), Tamil, God,
WiaxaWythe surpassingor transcendent Being, 'ulladu' has in
undu'
Tamil
been
(like 'kol-du,'
having
euphonised into
forms
taken, into 'kondu'); and this euphonisedappellative
the inflexional base of the Telugu verb to be. Compare with
ol,'to he; e.g., Tchereul,'to be,the Ugrian substantive verb
miss
Finnish
olam,' / am;
olen,'
Syrianian voli,'/ was;
also
Turkish
be.
/ am,.
the
61,'to
Compare
The
to be
ul,'seems
primitivemeaning of the Dravidian
it is still used as a post positionin
within, in which sense
Tamil.
and

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

erud-u, to

write.

Finnish

elu-mbu, hone.

'

to write; Manchu
Compare Hungarian 'ir,'

'ara;'

kir.'

Compare Finnish

all.
okk-a, Malayfilam,

Compare

'

lua ;' SamoYede

Mordwin

'

'

wok,'

luy,'bone.

all.

a knife. Compare Tungusian koto,'a knife. See also ' Indokatt-i,

European Affinities.'
'

"

482

AFFINITIES,

GLOSSABIAL

to the

be related

portionof krisbna,'Sanscrit,Hack, may

Scythiantheme.

the radical

'

same

kara-du/ rough. Compare Samoi'ede

kara-di,a hear; probablyfrom
Indo^EnroSee also
'korgo;'Tungusian kuti,''kuuti.'
'

'

'

"

Atfinities,^

pean

karug-u,an eagle. Compare Ostiak

'Indo-European Affinities.'

'

knruk,'

also

See

eagle.

an

"

the wind-pipe. Compare Vogoul

kajutt-u,the throat,;also, kur-alj'
kurko,' 'kero,''kerri; Kurd
'kuryd,' the throat; Finnish
gorlo.'
g'eru;' Lappish karas/ kirs ;'Slavonian
'

'

'

'

'

'

Compare Lappish 'kalle,'also 'kedke'

'kual,' 'kualla.'
Lesghian 'gul;' Kamtschadale

kal, a

stone.

these

words

have

connexion

ulterior

an

with

'kerkej'
Probably

or

Finnish

the

Hungarian k6 ;'Ostiak
key,' kaiick.' Compare
also (throughthe interchange
of '1' and 'r') the Tamil 'kar,'
the Greek
a pebble; with
gravel,and x^P"/""^/
x^p-^^,'
gravel,
'

'

kiwi ;'

'

'

'

'

stone; and

vidian
the
or
'

cannot

root

be

traced

correspondingLappish
connected

'k'ar,''kuar,' a

the Armenian

with,

'

'

farther than

kalle,'
appears
become

kalw-at,'to

'kal,'a
to

Dra-

The

stone.

stone;

be derived

from,

Compare

hard.

but

also

karra,'Lappish,hard, rough.

kall-am, Malaya lam, a lie; Taniil

Lappish keles,'a lie.

'

kala-vu,'a

theft. Compare

'

(pronounced k"ttr-u '),wind.

Compare Kangazian (aTurkish
'kat,'wind; Sojoten(a Samoi'ede dialect)
'katj' other
dialect)
Samoi'ede dialects
chat,' kada
(alsoa storm, charru ');
Georg. 'kari;'Jurazen 'chada.'

kaBR-n

'

'

kay,

be

'

hot, to burn,

'

boil.

Compare.Finnish
keite,'
keitta,'to boil,to cook;,Hnngarian keszil.' Compare especially
the Indo-EuropeanAffinitiesof this word.
heat, or

to

'

'

to

'

'

'k61j' Tulu 'kar.'

Compare Mongol 'kol;'
Ostiak 'kur;'Tungusian 'ohalgan,'
'halgan;'Permian 'kok;'
Ossete
kach,' koch ;'Vogoul lal j' Kprean
pal;'Canton-

kal, foot;

Tuda

'

Chinese

'

'

'

'koh.'

kir-a,old, aged. Compare Oriental Turkish 'chari;'other Turkish

idioms, 'kar,' 'kart;' Wotiak
'keres;'Lesghian 'heran.'
See a.leothe

Indo-Europeananalogiesof

this word.

SCYTHIAN.

kil,Can., below; Tamil

'

kir.'

with

-which

koren ;'Jensei

'

has doubtless
but I cannot

'kir' is derived

we

koryl/a

a horse; Canarese
kudir-ei,

borrowed

Compare Wolgian 'kilgi,'

'kelga,'
bulbous
a
kir-angu,'
the Slavonian
perhaps compare
may

tlieTamil

deep. From
root;

'

483

root.

gudur-e.' The Sanscrit ghMa,' a horse,

'

'

ulterior connexion

an

with the Dravidian word

the Dravidian word

suppose

from

'

the Sanscrit one,

to have

for the

been

directly

Tamil

occasionally
'ghoda'(inTamil 'ghoram,'also 'g6dagam;'
in addition to its own
Telugu 'gurram-u'),
'kudir-ei.'
Both
borrows and

words

uses

to be derived from

origin.The Scythian
Jenese'i 'kut' and Lesghian 'kota.' Compare

seem

common

are
analogies
also Malay 'kuda.'

kud-i,a habitation;'kud-il,'kudis-ei,'
a
hid, a cottage. In Telugu
and Canarese 'gud-i,'
similar word, kuta
means
a temple. A
but it appears to be one
or
'kuti,'is also contained in Sanscrit;
'

'

of those

words

Dravidian

which

the

It has

tongues.

Sanscrit has
a

family;e.g.,Mordwin
'kndaj' Finnish 'kota;' Ostiak

suspectthe Saxon
kul-ir,cold,

become

to

'kud-al'
cold.

'

and

'

cot

cold

had

cold;
'kud-ir,'

the

kudo/ a house; Tscheremiss

'chot;'Lappish 'kata.'

'

base

also

origin.

Finnish

ultimate

fr"m

place in each of the diailectsof

the Finnish

'

borrowed

'

'

kul

related

;'

words

Telugu and Canarese 'chali,'

to be

sil-ir,'
Tamil, to tremble,seems

collateral root.

Finnish
to freeze;
Lappish 'kal-ot,'
'cyl-ma;'and with 'chali' (Telugu and Canarese),compare
cold.
Permian
See also Indo-EuropeanAffinities.'
cheli,'
With

'kul-ir,'
compare

'

'

"

kei,hand; Canarese
of these words

form

'

Telugu cheyi.'A comparison

ky",''keiyyi;'
'

'

the Sanscrit

the

kly,'was

Possiblythere is

of this root.

between

that

to show

seems

ulterior

remote

'kara,'the hand,

primitive

and

the

nexion
con-

dian
Dravi-

supposed to be derived
from
key,'the hand, may
kri,'to do (or hri,'to take),so
be derived from, or connected with, the Dravidian
ki,' gi,'
There appears also to be a
sey,'to do.
g#,' chey or
word

also,as
possibly,

kara

'

'

is

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

between

resemblance
special
'

X^V

the Tamil

)' y"''''^'len the Greek

with the Old Latin

'

hir

'

and

that it is with the latter that

than with

'

the Tamil

'

kei.

genitive

'

kei

'

and
'

'

x'^P'"^

the Sanscrit

'

is

the Greek

compared

kara,'it is obvious

'

x^^P '^ *" ^^ connected,rather

The analogiesof the Dravidian
'

i2

484

AFFINITIES.

GLOS9ARIAL

Scythian. Compare Hungarian

exclusively
(pronounced keis '); Finnish kchesi (root M ;'e.g.,

word
'

kez

'

to be

seem

'

'

'

'

genitive 'ka-an'); Estnian 'kasi;'Ostiak 'ket;' Lappish

'ki;' Lasian 'ke; Miugrelian 'che;' Quasi'kat;' Permian
dialect),'kuya.' Compare also Persian
Qumuq (a Turkish
The
'kef,'
Hungarian has both 'kar' and 'kgz;' but the
is used

former
which

to

seems

long been independentof

related,have
keb-i,a

Canarese

cave;

raneousroom,
a
cavity,

cave

gav-i;' also 'kapp-n,'Canarese,

pit-fall.Compare Mongol and Manchu

kgl,'to

'

ing

the

'

'

'

See

"

hear.

Compare

kel-u. Ancient

kobi,'

'

'khaff:'

'kui;' Ossete

'

kaba,' kebi,' kavi,'a chamber.

kapp-u,'
'kapp-al,'Tamil, a ship, from

Ostiak

Brahui

ear:

siibter-

Indo-European Affinities.'

'

Telugu (euphonicallysoftened)'chevi;' Tuda

"A(5 ear;

'kavi;'

mately
ulti-

another.

one

'

Compare also
Telugu,to cover over.
kev-i,'Can.,

perhaps

roots, though

those

that

prove

latter fiand,a distinction

the

signifyarm,

to

"

dialects

Compare

tlbe hand.

Georgian cheli,'the

'

signifyr

ku,' 'kus;'

Korean

dialects 'kulak.'

'g'oh;'Turkish

'k'us;'Kurd

'

'ko,'

and

ear,

followingScythianwords

the

Samoiede

Telugu,

'kad-u,'the

related words

and

'kell'

Kuralian

hand.

knnl-en,'to hear;
kel-vi,'
hearing. Compare Finnish
kol-am ;'"fliungarianhalla ;'
Syrjanian kyla ;' Tcheremiss
Lappish 'kull-et' ('kuUem,' hearing); Ostiak 'kudl-em.'
Notice the change of the final 1 of the other Finnish dialects
into 'dl' in Ostiak, a single cerebral consonant, precisely
similar in sound
1 of the correspondingTamil
to the final
kel.' See also the Indo-European affinities of this word.

kel, to hear;

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

kol,

to

k6n,

kol-em ;'
'kuol,' to die; Tcher,
Compare Finnish
Syrj.'kula ;'Hung, 'hal.' See also 'Indo-EuropeanAnalogies.'
kill.

'

king, a ruler; in honorific

Another form
caste.
shepJierd
a

It is hard

god.

usage
of the

to determine

shepherd,or
same

whether

word
'

ko

is

of

man
'

'

k6,'a king,
'

or

the

k6n

'

is to

be

regardedas the primitiveform of this word.

Compare the
and
Turkish
Mongolian 'khan,' abo 'khagan,'a ruler;
khon
Ostiak
;' Scythian of the Behistun tablets, k6,' ""
king.
'

kAr-i, the

domestic

'

fowl ; G6nd

'

k6rh ;' Seoni

G6nd

'

k6r,'a

hen

483

SCYTHIAN.
o
('gogor'j'
cock).

This

used in the Dravidian

If
'

'

word

is the

for
languages

tei-ni

common

which

the cock and

both

it is

is

the hen.

requiredto express the gender saval,'a

a
pettei,'
hen, is prefixedadjectivally
to the common

cock, or

'

term

kdri.'
-The

does

Sanscrit

not

knkkuta/

have

to

seem

'

cock, from

'

kuk-a,'to

scratch

with the Dravidian

an'yaffinity

'kor-i.'

The

the other hand, are close and direct.

on
Scythiananalogies,
Compare Vogoul 'korej' Ostiak 'korek,''kurek;'Permian
'korech,'
'kuryg,'
'kuraga.'Probablythe North-Asian tongues
borrowed this word directly
from the Dravidian ; for the domestic
fowl had its
and

when

which

it

originin India,where

it
was

was

in

introduced
the

India

that

appear

from

India

of
irruption

cessation

of the

Dravidian

word

the domestic

into

the

of intercourse

the other members

The

Upper Asia, the name

by
be introduced
would naturally
itself. That name
being,not Sanscrit,

known

the fowl
along
but Dravidian,it would

Asia, prior to

varietystillexists

introduced into

with

have been

the wild

Central

Aryan

between

and

race,

the

fowl

must

Northern

and

the

Dravidians

sequent
con-

and

Scythianfamily.
has

found

its way

into two

languages
of the western
branch of the Indo-Europeanfamily,viz.,the
Persian and the Russian.
Compare Persian 'khor-os,'a coc/fc;
a
poulet; and the Russ
kur,' a cook ; kur-itsa,'
kour-ek,'
a fowl ; diminutive
a chicken.
kur-otchka,'
'

'

'

'

by the wind: in the usage of the Southern Tamilians,

the rain broughtby the south-west monsoon.
Compare Sanio'iede
rain.
sarre
'sor,'
'ser;' Wotiak
j'Permian

rain
saral,

driven

'

sa,

'chachu'

e"g-M, to die; Telugu

or

Samoi'ede

'

chawe

ched-u,Telugu had.

'

and

'

(base 'cha'). Compare

chabbi,'dead.

Compare Ostiak

'

had.
jat,'

Compare chedo,''zerta,''choti,'and 'chat',' Les^

che"-a,mud.
ghian words for clay.
'

"

;'
tal--a,
Telugu,"Ae head; Tamil 'tal-ei.' Compare Mongol 'tologoi
Calmuck
tulgai;' Samutan
(a Tungusian
'tolgo;' Buriat
dialect)'doll,' dollokin / other Tungusian dialects 'dUll,'
'

'

'

del,' deli.'

ti,
fire. The

'

more

commonly

used Tamil

word

for fireis neruppu

'

j'

486

AFFlNITIEg,

GL0S8ARIAL

Telugu

'

is much

classical word
nippu ;' but ti is the more
used by all classes of people in the southern
'

'

country. It

of the Tamil

; and

it

districts

is used also in Tulu.

Scythian aflSnities of this word 'ti,'are peculiarly

tua;'
distinct;e.g., Sanioiede 'tu/ 'tui,' ti,' ty ;'Mantchu
togo ;' Lesghian
Huugarian 'tviz;'Ostiak 'tut;' Tungus
tuli ;' Lappish 'tall.'
Compare
'tze,''zi,''zie;' Finnish
also Gaelic 'teine;'and Welsh
'taan;' Persian 'tigh;'Sanscrit
tejas.'
The

'

'

'

'

'

'

tus-i,dmt,

'powder.

Turkish

Compare

'

tus,'

'

;' Mongol

toosan

dust.
'toghoz,'

tol,skin.

Compare Vogoul

nakk-u, to lick: derivative

'

toul,' towl,' skin.

'

nakku

'

noun

'nal,'to lick, and

Ostiak

'

pare
'nk^the tongue. Com'nal,'the tmigue : Samoiede
'

or

'nawa,'the tongue.
to laugh; 'nach,'
to laugh,laughter.Compare Ostiak 'nag-ara,'
nag-ei,
laughter.

nay,

dog;

Tuda

'

noi.'

Compare Mongol

'

a c^ogr
nogai,'
; Calrauck

'nokoi,''nochoi.'
nu,

and.
Telugu copulativeparticle

Compare Ostiak 'no,'and.

nett-i,the forehead; Telugu 'uud-ur.'

the forehead.
'node,''nete-bek,'
ney,

oil. Compare
butter,
ghee,clarified

Compare

Avar

Lesghian 'nata,'

(Turkish
familyof idioms),

'na,''nab,''nach/ butter.
to see, to look.

nod-u, Canarese

the
Compare Mongol 'niidu,'

eye.

the sun.
fijayiR-u,

Compare Hungarian 'nar,'the sun; 'nyar' ('njar'),

a
t7iesun;
day : also Mongol 'nav-an,'
Ostiak
summer;
n"Tp,'
nai ;'Affghan nmar.'
'

'

'

^a,s-u, green ;

Ostiak
pay

an,

'

pul,'grass.

Hungarian 'pusit,'
^frcws; Vogoul 'piza;'

'pady.'

pav^aT'
("'**'^'

"' *^''''*'**-

Canarese 'heida/a
Malayalam "peidalj'

}
peiy-al,
boy OT girl. The words terminatingin
those in 'al' and

'dal'

are

verbal

nouns,

'an'

are

masculines;

'dal' is as

common

487

SCYTHIAN.

formative of verbal
forms
are

nouns

in Tamil

even

mutually convertible.

are

and
abstracts^
necessarily

either sex.

are

as

'

al,'and

the

two

Both

'payal' and 'peidal'

therefore capableof denoting

'

a
payan/ Tamil, is restricted to signify
boy.
The theme or base of these words is evidently'pay' or
which are-equivalent
'peiy,'
sounds,and of which the 'y'seems

have been converted from, of isconvertible into 'I,'if We

to

may

which is often used as the colloquial

judge from 'pasan-gal,'
instead of 'payan-gal.'
plural,
Compare the following
Ugrianwords for son : Vogoul 'py,'
Finnish 'poika;'
'pu;'Mordwin and Syrj.
'pi;'Wotiak
'pyes;'
Hungarian 'fiuj'Estrian 'poegj'Ostiak 'pach,'
'poeh,'
'pagul/
'pagam,''pyram;' La/ppish patja.' The Swedish 'poike' is
'

derived
evidently
and
'7raT'-9\

from

the Latin

the

Finnish

'pu-er'are

poika ;' and

evidentlyrelated

the

'

Greek

roots.

See

'Indo-EuropeanAffinities.'
The

Dravidian

theme of
a

word

languages appear to contain the ultimate

all these words,viz.,'pei,'
Tam., to he green or fresh,

which

into

'pei'),
green, by

of

'

conversion
would

has been softened from

also

(by

and

Ostiak

'

'

vation
The deri-

are

'

often used

terminations.

as

Tamil.
'paras-u,'
of use); Canafese 'pala-ya;'
old.
Compaire Mordwin
pares ;'Sy'ij.pdrys ;'
old.
pirich,'

redson

old,what

t)ravidian law.

common

pay-an,'a hoy, from this root would account for its

in vulgarusage (iuthe plural)into 'pas-an,'
and it
dal,'which are formatives
explain why al and

of verbal nouns,
pai-a, old

ible
convert'pas-u'('pay-u,'

is

'

'

'

padne,'
pal, tooth. Compare Lappish pane,' padne ;' Wolgian
pank,' penk,' pek ;'"Tcher. py.'
pai/ pin ;' Ostiak
'

'

a part, a
"\pa\,
itigd

'beale

""

"

'

'

division.

half:
"

;'Ostiak

Compare
'Samoiede

'

'

'

'

'

followingUgrianTVordS signifypele;' Lappish

'p6alea;'Tcher.
the

'

'pelek/ Hungafiah 'fM.'

Se6

also

'Semitic

Affinities.'

pid-u,to catch. Compare Finaish

'

to catch.
pidarfi,'

yin'),behind,after. Compare Ostiak 'pir,'

piR-agu (base'pin' or
behind,hindermost; Finnish 'pera.'
'jiiiA,'
"

child. Compare Yarkand

a
pill-ei,
See also
a cub, a pup.
'pilla,'

Tartar
'

a
child; Hindi
'billa,'

Indo-EuropeanAffinities.'

488

GLOSSARIAL

AFFINITIES.

Compare the followingwords signifying

vapour in the
Turkish dialects, bug,' buch,' 'bugu.' Coitnparealso the
English'fog.'

pug-ei,smohe.

'

'

pen,

female; Canarese 'henn-u.'

pokkul-i,Telugu the navel.

bayir,Canarese

Compare Lappish 'bene,'a female.

Compare Ostiak

the

'

puklam,'the navel.

helly
vayiR-uj' Gond 'pir.' Compare
; TamiJ
'bar/ the hdly; Armenian
Kangazian (aTurkish dialect),
'por;'
Albanian
bark ;'Ostiak
pak.'
perga ;' Mordwin
'

'

'

'

to live prosperoibsly.
baj,Canarese to exist ; Tamil
var,'to flourish,
to exist.
Compare Oriental Turkish
b6],'
'

'

Canarese

man-a,

'

house ;

men,' a

Vogoul

'

Compare Saraoiede

unneh.'

Canarese

tree, wood;

mar-am,

'man-ei.'

house: classical Tamil

;' Telugu

'mar-a

'

'). Compare Lappish muor,' muorra,'a

Turkish
murch
Quasi-Qumuk
murm,'
;' Mongol
Lettish
mea.'
Tomsk.
j'
madji;'Finnish mezza
'mran-u

'

'

'

'

'

tree,wood

young

of

the

modo

;'

'

horse,the

horse ; Mancbu

a
raori,'

'

'

'

a foal,the
mftR-i,

(for

'man-u'

'

ass, "c.

Compare Mongol

morin ;' Breton

'

;' German

mor

mahre.'

Canarese
nial-a,

hill,a

mountain

Tamil

'

This

mal-ei.'

its way into the Sanscrit lexicons

of the Southern
'Malaya,' the Sanscrit name

root has found

Ghauts

'
"

or
Malayalam,'

as

the Arabian

Dr4vidian
the base

as

and

of

Western

geographerscalled it,

also to the Mal-dives,

probablygiven their name
to Male
the 'dives' (Sanscrit'dwipa'),or islands,pertaining
or Malayalam.'
molima ;'
malli,'a hill ; Vogoul
Compare Albanian
Permian
mylk ;' Wolgian (by a change of '1' into r '),
mari ;'Avar
mehr ;'Finnish
mar
;'Samoiede
m"gi.'

It has

Male.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

grumble. Compare Finnish 'muraj,'and

See also
Indo-European
Hungarian morog,' to murmur.
to

muBumuRU,

mutter,

to

'

'

Affinities.'

menj, G6nd,
an

egg:

is jnore

plural mensk.'
Compare Hungarian mony,'
Finnish 'munaj' Samoiede
'muna.'
Canarese 'motte^
'

an

egg

remote.

'

APPENDIX.

I.

Are

the Pariars

of Southern

India

Dravidians

It is

that certain tribes and

commonly supposedby Anglo-Indians,
the Pariars and similar
castes inhabitingSouthern
India,especially
bitants.
low-caste tribes,belong to a different race
from the mass
of the inhaThe higher castes are
styled Hindus,'or else Tamilians,'
"c., according to their languageand nation; but those
ME^layalis,'
'

'

'

names-

and

withheld

are

from

from

of the ruder

some

the Pariars and

and

tribes,
primitive

more

slaves. As this supposiagricijltural

tion,
and the use
of words
to which
it has given rise,are frequently
met
desirable to
with both in conversation and in books, it seems
enquirewhether, and to what extent, this opinionmay be regardedas
other

correct.

The

terra

'

'

Hindu

as

nomenclature.
religious

by some, is one
they speak of

used
When

which

pertains to

certain

classes

as

followers of the Brahmanical

that they are
Hindus,'they mean
the religionof the Puranas; and accordingto this use of
or
religion,
it is the use,
inasmuch
words
as
(which is open to serious objection,
'

not

of

but of a geographical
term, to denote
theological,
within the regipnto which
which prevail
religions

several

classes

whose

Hindus,'

In

applies),the tribes and

the Brahmans
Tudas

and

are

'

not

the Gonds

are

predatory,wandering tribes,and
or

at least

are

not

Brahmans

of the lower

the

castes

the

majorityof the
not
are
Hindus,

much

rightto

the

name

of Hindus

as

the

themselves.

Some, again,use

They

as

that of

it is true, that

sense

of

it is
Hindus;' though, geographically,

'orthodox

certain,that they have

this

out

the term

religiondiffersfrom

Hindus, and that

not

one

call the

the terra

Brahmans

and

'

Hindu

'

with
synonymous
the higher castes of Northern
as

'

Aryan.
India

492
'

APPENDIX.

Hindus,'but withhold the

stillmore

only the
whole

improper use
low-caste

of

words, inasmuch

inhabitants of the

of the Dravidian

exist

Hind, or Ind-us, and occupiedthe

rivers,' the Vedic

seven

"

'

of

name

it denationalizes

as

but
provinces,

northern

seems

not

also the

and the Peninsula j

they crossed the Sind,

of the Dekhan

inhabitants

the proofs that

notwithstanding

This

races.
aboriginal

from the

name

that

Sapta Sindhu,'or
India

'

country of

the

before the arrival of the

"

they have, therefore,a better claim to be called

Hind-us
To deprive the Dravidians
than the Aryans themselves.
of
and other aboriginal
of the name
Hindu,' is as unjustas it
races
would be to depriveall persons of Anglo-Saxon descent of the name
of Englishman,'
man
and to restrict that name
to the descendants of NorAryans, and

that

'

'

'

'

families.
There

are

some,

additional

an

Telugu,and

Aryan

races

one.

other

now
mentioned, conjoin
again,who with" the error
They suppose the higher castes of the Tamil,
to be identical in origin
with the
Dravidian peoples,

India, and

of Northern

the lower

alone

castes

to

have

Dra vidians
they call the high-c:}ste
Aryan origin. Hence
from the Pariars,"C:, not on geoHindus,'and withhold that name
graphical,
but on ethnological
grounds. I apprehend,however, that
the Non- Aryan originboth of the higher and of the lower castes of
a

Non-

'

Dravidians,has

been

proved when

Dravidian languageshas been

words
from

passed by
misapprehension.

The

may

be

Pariars

the

Non-Aryanstructure

of the

established ; and, therefore,

this
further

without

remark,

in Telugu Malars) are

(called

as

use

of

arisingsimply

the

only caste or
class of people in the Dravidian parts of India,who
are
commonly
the
lowest
most
as
nor
are
or
degraded of those
regarded outcasts,
they
classes j but partlybecause they are the most
servile tribe
numerous
(theirnumbers amounting on an average to at least a tenth of the
entire population),
and partlybecause theyare more
frequently
brought
with Europeans than any similar class,
in consequence
into contact
of
the majority of the domestic
of Europeans throughoutthe
servants
Madras
to be regarded by
they have come
Presidency
beingPariars,
of Southern India. Hence, besides
some
persons as the low-caste race
in the application
the above-mentioned
of the name
errors
Hindu,'
there are
various popular errors
afloat respectingthe originof the
Pariars and their position
in the caste scale,
which require
to be noticed
before enteringon the questionnow
to be discussed,
'are the Pariars
not

'

Dr" vidians V

Europeans were
several

generallyled

generations
ago,

to

suppose,

that the Pariars

were

on

their arrival in India

either the

illegitimate

AEE

THE

PARIARS

OF

SOUTHEB^N

of adulterous intercourse,or
offspi'itig

were

excluded

This

from

caste

in

their

castes

or,

for their crimes.

Brahraans

propagatedby the

and

the

DRAVIDIANS?

INDIA

persons
notion

was

who

493
had

been

invented

and

in
higher castes,and originated,

justifytheir exclusive, unsocial behaviour

towards
the Pariars,on
peans
principleswhich they supposed that Eurowould approve.
In part,also,it originated
m
an
error
arising
the
of
from the uncritical habit of the Hindu
ferring
transerror
mind; viz.,
to Southern
India and
the fictions
to the Dravidian
tribes,
for the originof the
which were
devised in Northern India to account

part,

new

castes

Sudra

to

called,'mixed

so

of
classes,'

the North.

Those northern

beingthrough the operationof two causes ;

castes of Vaisyas and servile
the sub-division of the original
Aryans, in accordance with the progressivesub-division of

classes

or

from
first,
or

wish

came

into

secondly,from the introduction of one tribe after another

and civil polity
the religion
the pale of Aryan civilization,
as
race
spread throughoutthe country, and the
Sanscrit-speaking

labour ; and
within
of the

transformed

were
aborigines

and the Shastras,no

mention

from

Mlechchas

is made

into Sudras.

In

of either of these causes;

Manu

but the

of
to fictitious mixtures
exclusively
of the new
castes are attributed
The more
the older castes.
respectabl"
of persons belongingto different castes of
to the legalintermarriage
inferior set of castes
and
Another
are
recognizedrespectability.
of
of
attributed to the adulterous intercourse
equal respectability,
persons
with
low-caste
but of different caste, or of high-castemen
of all are represented
to have sprung
women
; whilst the lowest castes
with low-caste
intercourse of high-castewomen
from the adulterous
of persons who had
and are said also to constitute the receptacle
men,
for offences againsttheir caste.
excommunicated
been socially
of truth may be contained in this representation
amount
Whatever
India (and I think it most
of Northern
of the originof the castes
be affirmed that the
probablya fictionthroughout),it may confidently
new

or

mixed

Dravidian

castes

castes

in Southern

had

are

no

attributed

such

India,is that

origin. The

which

only

'

mixed

caste' known

consists of the children of the

dancing

girlsattached to the temples. Of this class the female children are

of their mothers, the males
as
temple
brought up in the profession
when
children
born
all
In
are
ordinarycases,
floristsand musicians.
in rank or caste between the
if there is no great disparity
in adultery,
parents,the

rule is that the caste of the child of adulterous

is that of the less honourable

belong.

.caste woman,

two

is

on

or

even

castes

to which

its

parents

tion
exists,and where the derelicdisparity
for example,where a highside
as
the woman's
belonging to the middling caetes,has
a woman

considerable

Where

of rank

of the

intercourse

"

494

APPENDIX.

of a residence
intimacywith a Pariar man (andin the course
amongst the Hindu peoplefor seventeen
years, I have heard of several
such cases),
neither the caste of the father nor
any other caste has
of being recruited or pollutedby the addition
of the
any chance
woman's
the light;the
sees
illegitimate
offspring.The child never

formed

an

mother

either procures

aibOrtion

an

To

as
suppose, therefore,
suppose, that the entire caste

and

the 'left hand'

in the

who

have

castes

been

Europeans

led to

been

sometimes

have

(includingits subdivisions,
into existence
to it)has come
corresponding
described above, or that it is composed of

manner
surreptitious

persons

suicide.

commits

or

of Pariars

excluded from

for their

caste

less
crimes,is a base-

dream, which is too preposterous for serious refutation. Though

it is probable that it was
from
the statements
of natives that the
derived
this notion,yet I never
Anglo-Indiancommunity originally
with any natives,learned or unlearned,by whom
met
the notion
appeared to be entertained ; and the Pariars themselves,who regard
their lowly caste with feelings
of prideand affection,
which
are
very
different from what
be
of
would
this
resent
them,
might
expected
of it, with
of their origin,if they had ever
heard
representation
indignation.
guages,
Anglo-Indianswho are not acquaintedwith the vernacular lanoften designatePariars
are
outcasts,'as persons who
as
'

'without

caste,'or

that the Pariar

belongto

as

master's

'

their Pariar

caste

'no

Europeans will

of

servants

have

who

persons

;'and

sometimes

It is true

vaunt

know

masters

many

to lose.'

caste

to their

that

they

cost that

distinctions
superstitious
scrupulous,
and drinks.
Notwithstandingthis,to suppose that
respectingmeats
the Pariars have literally
The
caste,'is undoubtedlya mistake.
no
ancient caste, independent
Pariars constitute a well defined,distinct,

practise

servants

no

'

of every
own

other; and

the Pariar
its

peculiarusages,

encroachments

and
traditions,

own

of the castes

which

Pariars,though,perhaps,the

belong

the lowest

from

sprung
are

to

not

the

division.

lowest

of the

its

above

castes

part of
which

below
in

caste

of castes, and

not

are

Brahma

are

its

jealousyof

own

it and

numerous

of its own,

the

fabled

it.

the
The

country,
have

to

nevertheless,
they

comprised in this

lowest

acquainted with ten castes in various parts of the

Tamil
country, which are certainlylower than the Pariars in the
social scale;and in this enumeration
I do not include the Pallars,
a
caste

division

are

most

the least noble

even

subdivisions

has

caste

between

am

whom

and
The

the

Pariars

there is

respecting
precedence.
the castes above them, is doubtless unjust and
treatment

which

an

unsettled

dispute

the Pariars receive from

but
indefensible;

it is

ARE

THE

PARIARS

OF

known
generally

not

deal out

Pariars

which

INDIA

those

by

the

treatment

very same
inferior to their own,

to

e.g., the caste

VIDIANS?

DRA

Europeans who
Pariars,
that,whenever they have

of the

wrongs

SOUTHERN

495

sympathize in the
the
an
opportunity,

the

members

of castes

of

shoemakers,and the
low-caste washermen; that they are, equallywith the higher castes,
and jealousy
filledwith that compound of prideof birth,exolnsiveness,
which is called 'cast" feeling;'
and that there is no
for precontest
cedence
th"
of
of
a
more
higher castes
longerstanding,or
amongst
are

character,than

eager

Pallars,

the

In

that which

the

insane

is carried

between

on

the Pariars and

disputeabout

pre-eminence,which is
alwaysbeing carried on in Southern India, between the righthand
and the left hand
castes,the Pariars range themselves on the right
hand, the Pallars on the left;and it is chiefly
by these two castes that
the fighting
part of the controversy is transacted.
the
Now
that Europeans are better acquaintedwith Indian affairs,
rarelyfound to
originof the Pariars is more
theoryof the illegitimate
be entertained;
and, as the study of the native languagesextends,the
that they have
will
that they are
no
or
outcasts,'
caste,'
supposition
'

'

'

'

'

'

disappearlikewise.
The
questionwhich is reallybefore us having been cleared of
tion
to the consideranow
come
matter, we
popularerrors and extraneous
Are the Pariars Dravidians V
Are the
of that questionitself.
that speak
the lower castes,and the so-called out casts,'
forest tribes,
soon

'

'

the Tamil
Pariars and Telugu
languages,especially
of the class),
of the
Malars (who may be taken as the representatives
the Dravidians of the higher
race
as
same
originand of the same
Whilst
both classes have a rightto be called
castes?
Hindus,'are
the higher castes alone Dravidians,Tamilians, Malayalis,"c. ? andthe Pariars and- peopleof similar castes to be regardedas belonging
are

the

Dravidian

'

to a different race

I think

the whole

On

the
nevertheless,
race,
"

that

reduced

older than

by

It may

more

descended

they are

race

vidians;
probablethat the Pariars are Drathat they belongto a different
supposition

it

the

conceived

to

that

Dravidians,so the Dravidians

of whom

the Doms

and other

is
servitude,

as
were

'

of
aborigines

themselves

Drividians

the first Dravidians

be

the true

from

"

not

and

the

country

that

they were
destitute of plausibility.

preceded by the
Aryans were
precededby an older,ruder race,

the

Chandalas,'of

Northern

India,and

the

Peninsula,are the survivingrepresentatives.

existed priorto the arrival of the
race
If this primitive
of them would take
Dravidians, it would naturallyhappen that some
Pariars

and other low

tribes of the

496

APPENDIX.

jungles
refugefrom the intruders in mountain fastnesses and pestilential
^like the Rajisor Doms
of Ceylon,and
of the Himalayas,the Weddas
the Mala-(y)-arasers
of the Southern Ghauts; whilst others,probably
the majority
like
of the race, would be reduced to perpetual
servitude,
the Pariars,
and Pallars.
Puliars,
The historyof the subjection
of the Pre-Aryan Sudras of Northern
India,would thus form the counterpart and supplement of the history
of the subjection
of a much
older race.
Though, however, all this
not be any
and though there may
to be possible,
may be conceived
"

in it,it
priori improbability

circumstances

and

is

considerations

to

more
as

appear

the

to

purpose

to

be

state such

adducible

in

its

support.

(1.)The Pariars,the Pallars,the Puliars,and several other low

caste tribes,
slaves to the highercastes,and appear always to have
are
been in

enslaved

condition ; and it is
reduced to a servile condition

an

they were
that

If
have

must

conquerors,

(2.)The
slaves

be

natural

to suppose

that

by conquest,than to suppose
tribes were
enslaved
by the operationof ordinarysocial
a subjugatedpeople,
then,the castes referred to were
they
settled in the country at any earlier period than their
and probablybelongedto a different race.
India (whether they
low-caste inhabitants
of Southern

entire

causes.

more

like

Pariars; vagrants

the

like

the

Korawas,

or

basket

of land, like the Shanars, or

proprietors
from
the entire circle of the
are
palmyra cultivators),
distinguished
higher castes by clear,unmistakable marks of social helotry. The
title of
Sudra,'which has been assumed
by the higher castes, or
which was
conferred upon
them
by the Brahmans, is withheld from
the low-caste tribes;they are not allowed to enter withih the precincts
old Hindu
of the templesof the Dii majorwm, gentium; and wherever
states of Travanusages survive unchecked, as in the native protected
and Cochin, the women
core
belongingto those castes are prohibited
cloth
their shoulders,and obligedto leave
from wearing their
over

makers;

freemen

or

and

'

'

'

the entire bust

uncovered, in token

of servitude.

class distinctions like the

argued,that broadlymarked
above-mentioned,which separatethe peopleof at least twenty different
tribes from the rest of the population,
castes
or
are
incompatiblewith
of an original
of race.
the supposition
identity
It may

be

(3.)There

are

various

traditions

current

amongst the Pariars

to

that the
the effect,
at

former

some

much

more

which their caste occupiedin native society,

position,
it is now,
and
period was
very different from what

honourable.

the Canarese

Pariars

were

Wilks
once

observes that there is

an

tradition that

independentpeople,with kings

of

498

APPENDIX.

support of the

It has been said that the

that

of the
it is

hence

mistake, however,
between

those two

the Tamil

of

race

of mountaineers

race

Pariahs

the

mistalje.

with

synonymous

Calcutta; and

near

be

may

that there is any

suppose

connection

whatever

is
Pariar,'
properly Paaeiyar,'
'),which denotes not d
paReiyan'('paRei-(y)-an
drummer, a word which is regularlyderived from
word

The

names.

pluralof

mountaineer,but

to

Pariah,is

or

upon

considered,like the
aborigines.It is a
Un-Aryan, Un-Dravidian

argued that

Faharias, as

Pariar,

name

a
aria*,'

Pah

'

is founded

view of the ease, which

same

'

'

'

the great drum

used at funerals. The name
a drum, especially
'paRei,'
of a hereditary
the Pariars
'Pariar' is, in fact,the name
occupation,
and
being the class of peoplewho are generallyemployed at festivals,
at funerals,
drummers.
It is true that their numbers
as
are
especially
of
them
that
and
that thd
now
so great,
are
never
so
employed,
many
of
of
agricultural
only employinent the gi?eatmajorityis that
slaves.;
but whenever
and wherever
the din of the
paRei happens to be
be assured that a
heard, we
Paaeiyan is the person who is
may
engaged in beatingit. As the whole caste,though the most numerous
is denominated
in the circle of the low-castes,
by this name, it appears
their onlyemployment. If so,
was
probablethat originally
d^WKOiingi
at a fornier periodthat they
they must have been much less numerous
The originof the epithet Malar,'which is appliedto the
are now.
Telugu Pariars,is unknown.
and arguments that have
been
now
Though the circumstances
originof the lower castes,
sieged in favour of the Un-Dravidian
possess a considerable degree of strength,I proceedto shov that they
and that theyare to some
not perfectly
extent
balanced
counterconclusive,
are
'

'

'

'

'

considerations which

by
(1.) The

adducible

are

is drawn

argument which

from

thftPariars fails to establish the conclusion

there

are

from

their

serfs

are

in race,

masters

Slavonians,and

be drawn

the servile condition of

; because

slaves in various parts of the world

many

though they do
the

Magyar

Illustrations of the

their masters.
may

the other side.

on

also from

Dravidian

it is certain that
who

in status.

serfs

do not
The

differ

Russian

Magyars,equally with

iucon^lasivenes^ of the argunjent

life.

Shanars, the highestsection of the lovfestdivision of castes,

of the land which
generallyproprietors
they cultivate,and many
The

are

"of them

are

wealthy
whom,
caste.

almost

of the

on

Shanars

called 'Kalla
These

level with
have

the Dravidian

Shanars,'belong to

yet they

are

The

slaves in thp^iremployment,

servileShAijarsappear

period; and
"eiarly

Sudras.

of

subdivision of th? Shaijiaf

to have

admitted

more

some

been slaves from

even

by their

masters

very
to

ARE

THE

belong to

PAEIARS

the
of

same

race

SOUTHERN

higher or

portionof the Maravas

Thus,a
Marava
or
Poligars,

-to the

Tamilian
the

INDIA

themselves.

as

the

of

some

OF

There

southern

are

not

few

499

also servile subdivisions

are

Dravidian
unquestionably

of the

and
chieftains;

there
cultivators,

VIDIANS?

DRA

castes.

slaves
are
provinces,
of the
or
Vellalas,'
'

even

families who

slaves

are

to

temples.
Various

circumstances

might contribute to the reduction of the

of difference or identity
of race.
Pariafs,"c., to servitude,irrespective
of barbarous nations,
In the wars
it often happens that both
conquerors
and conquered belongto the same
and
the
to
tribe.
even
same
race,
In

be content
civilizedage, the conquerors
with governingand
may
in a tropical
taxingthe conquered; but in a ruder age, and especially
the vanquished are
climate,where labour is distasteful,
ordinarily
a

of slaves.

reduced to the condition

such

exactlyparallelto that

cases

shall meet

we

with

of the

Pariars,viz.,a servile
phenomenon
and
the
tribe speaking the language
exhibiting
physiological
peouof their masters, and yet separatedfrom them by an impassable
liarities
a

"

In

barrier. Other
been in

however, in

causes,

such
operation,

feudal system, or

poverty,or

as

to

state of

that of war,

have

may

the
society
resembling

trade in slaves like that which

even

addition

in Africa sets

only nation againstnation,but villageagainstvillage.At all

that these and
the probability
similar
events, taking into account
not

it does not seem

more
socialevils may have existed,
for the enslaved condition of the Pariars,without

have been
the

different

serfdom

Russian

of the

to

it is to account

for

peasantry, or

the

existence

primitiveIndo-European races,
supposition.

helpof

any such
It is worthy of notice
are

a
slaves,

in the lower

much

division

"

also,that

whilst

largernumber
includingsome

the

of

slavery

without

the

amongst nearly all

Puliars

supposingthem

their masters, than

from

race

difficult to account

the

and
Pariars,Pallars,:'

of the castes that

lowest

of the very

included

are
"

are

posed
com-

of freemen.

(2.)

The

traditions that have

been

mentioned

respectingthe

formerlyoccupiedby the Pariars,do not establish

position
tion,
the pointin hand.
Supposing them to rest upon a historical foundadifference of race, but onlythe ancient
they prove, not an original
of their social rank,
the respectability
freedom
of the Pariars, and
honourable

before their reduction

to

slavery.

(3.) The circumstance

mclnding the Pariars, are

that

the

entire circle of the lower

separatedfrom

the

and denied the national name,

sociaildistinction,
admitted

to

castes,

higher by badges of
is

one

which

must

the argument which

possess great weight. Thongh
2

be

may

500
be

APPENDIX.

from

deduced

this circumstance

is

it does not

very strong one,

however, to be absolutelyconclusive,for it is in accordance

with the genius of Hindu
to punish poverty by civil And
legislation,
social disabilities;
take the shape
and bigh-caste
pridemight naturally
of an exclusive appropriation
of the national name.
even
We find a parallel
of words in the Sanscrit Shastras,in which
use
the Yavanas
nations that are admitted to be of Kshatriya origin{e.ff.,
and Chinas),
termed
of difference of
are
Mleohchas, not in consequence
in consequence
of their
disuse of Brahnianical rites.'
race, but solely
in the law of Manu, that Brahmans
who
There is a stillcloser parallel

appear,

'

took

country in Manu's
up their abode in the Dravida
should be regardedas Mlechchas.
forest

time

"

an

cleared
un-

"

(4.) There
features,
or

is

the

nothing in

physiologyof

of their

in the colour

they belong to a different

The comparativeblackness of

that

skin,which
from

the

Pariars,in their

warrants

to suppose

us

their

high-casteneighbours.
their complexion has led Some
persons
of Negto
them to be descended from an imaginary race
to suppose
but this hypothesisis unnecessary,
well as gratuitous.
as
aborigines;
The swartbiness
of the complexion not only of the Pariars,but also of
the Puliars of the Malayala country a still blacker caste, is adequately
accounted for by their continual employment for many
ages in
the open
If the
air, exposed to the full force of the vertical sun.
of Egypt,
Fellahs,or labourers,and Bedouins,or wandering shepherds,
admitted
of pure blood, notwithstandingthe deep
to be Arabs
are
brown
of their complexion,it is unnecessary
the Pariars,
to suppose
who labour in a hotter sun
than that of Egypt, to be of a different race
race

"

from

the

rest

of the

beinga
Such

"

to

for their

account

plexions
com-

darker.

of the Pariars

favourable

more

order

Dravidians, in

shade

"

had

have

as

circumstances,are
Pariars

have

risen

the

good fortune

found

to

be

as

to be

fair

as

placedin
the higk-

positionof competence and

and been obligedto
comfort, and Sudras
impoverished,
all day,their mutual
work
hard in tjiesun
difference of complexion is
and in the second,or at least
reversed,as well as their social position;
in the third generation
the Sudra becomes dark, the Pariar fair.
Whett

castes.

have

I admit

that the features of the Pariars differ from

those of the

features of every caste in India differ

other caste; yet there is no differencebetween the

as
high-caste cultivators,'
'

from

those of every
'cultivator' and the Pariar

from

to

become

the

in the

shape of their heads. Not only

from the shape
dress,but even

of feature and
their peculiarities

of their

heads, we

Telugnsfrom

are

generallyable

the Tuico- Tartar

to

Mahommedans

TamilianS
distinguish
of India.

But

or

lo6king

ARE

THE

PARIAES

fiOUTHEBN

OF

DEAVIDIANS?

INDIA

501

at the

shape of their heads alone,and leavingcomplexion and features

out of account, it is
to distinguish
impossible
a Tamilian, or
high-cast"
Pravidian,fi;oma Pariar or any other member
of the low-castes.
Difference in feature is of littleor
notorious that castes
another

one
as

which

proceed from

both in features and

if they inhabited different and

The

robber

same

characteristics,
as
widely

distant countries.

of Kallars and

castes

the

in mental

inquiry,for it is
origindifferfrom

in this

account

no

Maravars, differ

the

highercastes in their features as the Pariars,and

they differ still more.
Nevertheless,
they claim to
Sudras.

The

as

from

much

in habit of mind
be

considered

as

titleof the

that of
as
Maravars,'Deva,'is the same
the old kings of the Pandiya and Chola dynasties. Chieftains of their
stillpossess the principalities
of Shevagunga and Kamnad, which
race
called 'the two
the prince of Ramnad,
are
Maravas;' and the latter,
has claimed from an
ancient period to be considered
as
Setupati,or
hereditaryguardianof Rama's bridge.'
The other predatory
tribe,the Kallars,have a king of their own,
the Tondiman
ship
Rajah,or Rajah of Poodoocottah;they claim a relationto the ancient kings of the Chola country ; and they are
regarded
the
Tamilian
in
rank
next
or
to
selves.
themVellalars,
as
cultivators,'
by
caste

'

'

It is

probable,that these robber castes settled

in the Tamil country subsequentlyto the settlement of the mass
of the
follow that they belonged to an Un-Drapopulation
; but it does not
For the course
which I have supposed the Kallars and
vidian race.
Maravas

and
possible,

even

that
followed,is precisely

to have

which

of the Pandiyas,by various

decline of the power
castes that are
unquestionablyDravidians.

unityof
The

unityof

essential

(5.)The

the race, inclusive of the lower

mixed

the Hindus

originof

not only from

conjectured,

of the component
vernaculars

no

we

can

dialects argues

Dravidian

of the

trace

the

of the

Gaura

northern

existence

the

of any extraneous
from that of the

the
Scythian,

idiom

which

of the

the

provincesmay

of two

to

an

have

In

those

lingualcurrents,
to the
traces

be

examination

vernaculars.

one

appears

the

castes.

but from
historical notices,

elements

on

Telugu and Cauarese

running counter
dialect of the Pravidian languagesare such

Sanscrit and
in

all the

followed

was

the

other; but

discoverable

differed in character

language.
of primary importancein all the Dravidian
All the
harmonious
dialects cohere togetherand form one
system. If
rent
the Pariars and the other servile castes are supposed to be a diffefrom the Dravidians, and the only survivingdescendants of
race
mass

forms
grammatical

502

APPENDIX.

the

tribes,

the

and

race;

Tudas,

if

this

isolated

tribes,

and

Tamil.

the

discovered

dialects,

but

is also

worthy

classes

in

idiom,

of

which

is

in

instances,

many
On

the

to

appears

the

those
the
in

family

Telugu
tical
gramma-

and

the

as

long,

has

things,

Tuda

the

Kn,

been

the

Kota

cultivated

more

tribes
to

Dravidians

Those

them,

system,
moulded
Northern

the
and

master

difference
the

the

same

by

slave,

India.

degrees

seems

hostile

had

not

already
have

may

Brahmanical
into

an

exact

of

want

found

to

the

to

only

the

into

formed

civilizers

counterpart

the

that

the

gration,
immibut

poorer,

amongst

foundation

the

the

India,;

existence

of

all

Aryan

and

introduced,

in

higher,

Southern

enough

richer

and

castes

that

before
of

lower

hold,

probable

come

of

exist.

the

in

Aryans

tribes

only

education;

from

race

safer

is

in

The

speech.

that

the

high-caste

mispronunciation

different

It

race.

distinctions,

their

It

by

into

up

distinctions
which

found

were

general

to

difference

any

of

their

is not

to

of

forms

supposition

belong

broken

that

their

untenable.

and

were

and
of

this

who

one

from

their

which

in

in

removed

themselves,

them

peculiar
consists

apparent,

by

amongst

of

or

arising

be

hamlets

villages

trace

therefore,

to

nie

in

other

the

and

Pariars

the

though

the

no

provinces

indigenous
belonged

is

even

whole,

Dravidian

from

words,

derivatives,

of

of

names

same

that

live

plains

there

Sanscrit

was

the

to

notice,

distance

peculiar

difference

caste

and

Gond

the

of

the

reside,

masters

also

important

more

demonstrably

considerable

the

the

of

difference

essential

no

aboriginal

same

from

essentially

tain
moun-

tongues.

servile
a

contrary,

the

languages

the

differ

to

of

remnants

as

correct,

found

the

them;

"c.,

isolated

the

regard

to

necessary

were

be

in

or

belong

DrUvidian

theory

On

in

be

Gdnds,

should

structure,

It

it will

aborigines,

true

of
and

caste

the

which

system

II.

Are
The

the Nilghefry Tudas

Tudas,

inhabitants
aboriginal

or

commonly
of the plains. The
Euppositionappear

supposed to

exaggerationand

Dravidians

belong

error

been

included

are

sentimental interest with which

in

is not

quite true

Brahnianical
idiat the

J but

that

the

it will be shown

originalreligionof

plainsdiffered from
the G6nds

and

Tuda
in

satisfaction in

much

and

not

unlike that

(2.)The

and

manners

and such as
generis,
peopleof the plains.

is

ticide is not
in various
The

the

as

the

Tamil

Brahmans,'

to

said to be

origindifferent from

an

of this tribe

Dravidianism

confined

are

altogether^
that of tha"

to

whose
Qoorgs,

of the Tudas

to indicate

of the' customs

mistake

as

customs

regard them
is practisedby
Pblyandria
a

they

of the Tudas.

"m

Many

that

from the
religiondiffers greatlyanother portionof this Appendix*

certainlyDravidians
of
peoplethemselves,is very different from the religion
are

is called

majorityof the Dra-"dians of the

as
widely,and that the religionof-

the

Brahmanism

Kus, who

the

the Tudaa

with

of the Tudas from what

(1.) The difference of the religion
is allegedto prove
Hinduism, or the Brahmanical
religion,
belongto a different race to their low country neighbours.
It is

much-

from
arising

reasons

everythingconnected

that there
by tourists,
the question.

support of this-

Unfortunately,so

in those

has been invested

dealingwith

the Dfavldiana

from

adduced

inconclusive.

me

Nilgherry Hills,are

different race

that have

reasons

to

to

of the

as

the

remarkable,but
certainly

are

Tudas, and sui generis.'

it is practisedalso by the"

the

peculiarto
Tudas, but
be

cannot

questioned
;

the Tudas, but is

it

and

female infan^i

too well
unfortunately

known

parts of India.

Tudas

are

pastorallife ;

who

huts formed
heads ; who
their clothes

the

not

subsist

of twisted

bodies

entirely
upon

bamboos

let their hair

or

only Indian

from

gtow

; whoto

people who
milk
wear

its full

and
no

length;

live

wandering,'

grain;who dwell in
covering upon their
or

their birth to their death.

who

never

Washi-'

504

APPENDIX.

of those customs

practisedby various other Indian tribes,

though not all of them, perhaps,by any tribe but the Tudas : and
of minor
customs
though the Tudas may observe some
importance
do not, like
which are quitepeculiar
the Tuda
to themselves
men
(e.g.,
other long-haired
tie their long hair in a knot like women,
Dravidians,
Each

is

"

but allow it to cluster round

huts,also,in

which

the

head

in natural

curls.

bamboo

The

plan of a perfectequilateral
arch), yet the observance of a few peculiarcustoms
by a
caste which is so isolated as the Tudas, cannot
be regardedas a proof
of difference of race
; for every caste in India,whether Aryan or Drawhich is
another
custom
vidian, whether high or low, has some
or
in dress,in the
entirely
peculiarto itself,generallysome
peculiarity

they dwell

are

built

or

in the

on

the

"

"

ornaments
are

by the

worn

women,

in which

manner

their houses

built.

(3.)The

Tudas

Roman
features,
hence

in

hazel

noses,

it is concluded

Dravidians

said to

are

that

as
orisrin,

be

manly race, witJiEuropean

great physicalstrength; and

fine

eyes, and

they differ

well

as

It is certain that the Tudas

from

the

and

Tamilians

other

in appearance.
are

athletic,
hardy,fine-looking
race,

an

might be expected from their simplemode of life and the bracing

mountain
air which they breathe ; but it isalso certain that many of the
that are commonly made, both in conversation
and in books,
statements
As regards
their physical
characteristicsare mere
romance.
respecting
size and strengthof body they will not bear a comparisonwith the
natives of the north-western
with
the Telugu
provinces,or even
palanquin bearers. The supporters of the Celtic or Indo-European
originof the Tudas are wont to rest the chief weight of their theory
of their protegSs; but aquilinenoses
in the Roman
noses
not
are
unthe
of
the
with
met
frequently
people
plains,
though they
amongst
of the notice of
have not had the good fortune to attract so much
which
is most
tourists : and after all,the nose
commonly seen on the
but
Tuda face is not aji aquiline
Even
if it
simplya largenose.
nose,
it would reveal nothingrespecting
the origin
aquiline,
were
universally
as

of the Tudas

; for

of heads, and
from
materially

makes
physiology

little account

the shape of the heads

that

of the low

features do not differfrom

true

those of the

that the

Tudas

does not differ

country Dravidians.

degreethan their isolated situation

expect. It is

of the

of noses, but much

Tudas

peopleof the

for many

have

ages

hazel

Even

plainsto
would
and

their

greater

lead

ns

to

naturally
hair ; and this alone would give them a different appearance
curling
from the black-eyed,
straight-haired
people of the plains. The colour
of their eyes may be, and probablyis,the result of their long resideneaeyes

in.

Dravidian

Physical Type.

My

objectin making a few remarks on the physicaltype of the

Dravidian race
is merely that of guarding the reader againstcertain
the only
commonly received errors.
Lingual comparisonis, I believe,
of the Dravidian
guide to a knowledge of the pre-historic
relationship
family on which any reliance can safelybe placed;and though I admit
covery
that,in some
instances,
physiology has contributed much to the disof the afiRliation of races, it seems
in so far as the study
to me,
has hitherto been pursued,that it is at fault in this instance,
I must

of
Mr.

vidian
to the Drapremise that my remarks relate exclusively
Nish^da races
race
or
properlyso called,not to the aboriginal
India
generally. Many of the physical characteristics which
Hodgson attributes to the Tamulians,' may
undoubtedly be
here

'

observed

in

the

Bhutan

and

Sub-Himalayan tribes,and

degreein the Santals and other Koles

a
as
general appellationso definite
from

the

the

same

error
or

as

Mr.

similar

of Southern

Tamulians
tribes

into which

some

the

term

India,who

thus

differ

'

the

to

much

as

Tamnlian/

have fallen of

writers

smaller

inexpediencyof using,

as

physicalcharacteristics

do the Brahmans

Hodgson

recent

; but

in

appears

attributing

Dravidian"

from the

or

Himalayan

themselves.

the
distinguishes

'

Arians

'

from

the

'

lians
Tamu-

:'

practisedeye will distinguishat a glancebetween the Arian

and Tamulian
a practised
styleof features and form
pen will readily
make the distinction felt" but to perceiveand to make others perceive,
the physicaltraits that separateeach group or people
by pen or pencil,
'

"

of Arian
a

or

of Tamulian

task indeed !
and

In the Arian

: in
flexibility

from

each

form

their

is

Arian

face

extraction

the

an

other group,

would

be

height,symmetry, ness
lightoval contour
with ample
round chin, perpendicular

jaws and mouth ; a

with the forehead,
a
regular set of distinct and fine features ; a well
raised and unexpanded nose, with elliptic
narcs
; a well-sized and
the face ; no want
of eyefreelyojjenedeye, runningdirectlyacross
forehead and

moderate

DRA

VIDIAN

PHYSICAL

or
beard;and lastlya
broWB, eye-lash,

than

not darker

In

the

that of the most

Tamulian

fornijon

SOl

TYPE.

clear bruuet

complexion;often
southern
Europeans.
the contrary,there is less height,
less

dumpiness and flesh : in the Tamulian face,a somewhat

contour
caused
the
less
cheek
by
lozenge
large
bones,
cularity
perpendiin the features to the front,
occasioned not so much
by defectof
mouth
Jbrehead
and
of
or
chin, as by excess
jaws
; a largerproportion

symmetry,

more

of face to head, and

features less

face,with
least of

less roundness

in the

latter;a broader,flatter

symmetrical,but perhapsmore

individuality
; a shorter,wider

nose,

at
expression,

often clubbed

at the end

and furnished with round

nostrils ; eyes less,

and less fullyopened,
the face by their line of aperture; ears
and less evenlycrossing
larger,

lipsthicker ; beard deficient; colour brunet,as in the last,but darker

the whole, and, as in it,various. Such is the generaldescription
of
on
the Indian

Ariaus and

Turanians.'

Hodgson states also in several placesthat a Mongolian stamp

Look
all the aboriginesof India.
he
is impressedon
steadfastly,'
of an aboriginal
race, and say if a Mongol origin
says, on any man
is not palbablyinscribed on his face.'
Mr.

'

'

Probablythere

in this
called,

so
mans

the

was

; but

same

he

accurate

to the

Tamulians,

of the
description

of the forest tribes of the

through the

it is evident that

reference

strikingand

India and

of Northern

Vindhyas

little if any

use

vague

Prof. Max

MuUer

of the

perly
pro-

Bmh-

Himalayasand'

lian,'
appellationTamu-

has been

'

led to suppose

the

inhabitants
to the Dravidiaus proper, or aboriginal
applicable
description
which
of the south. Founding his theoryon this description,
included in BunResearches,
quotes and eulogizes(inhis Turanian
'

From
the most
of Universal History), he says :
meet
everywhere with
ancient times to the periodof the Puranas, we
of two races
less distinct,
broughtinto contact in
or
more
indications,
:' and again, The traveller in India to the prethe Indian peninsula
sent

sen's OutlAnes

"

'

day, though he would look in vain for the distinctive features of

sistibly
a
or
Vaisya,feels the conviction irreBrahman
a
( ? ), a Kshattriya,
or
growing upon him, as he passes along the streets of cities,
the
south
that
nvrth
wliether
or
Vindhyas,
of
the roads of villages,
every-.
of
least
with
at
two
distinct
races
man,
where
he is brought in contact
also
from
evident
from
a quotation
in mind as well as in body.' It is
that
which he subjoins,
by those two races
of Dr. Stevenson's,
a paper
orders of natives
the higher and lower
he understood
of man
'

'

'

'

'

"

the Brahmans

Aryancastes
that

and other castes allied

theui,and

the

lower

or

non-

clusion
population,'We thus arrive at the conof the physical
peculiarities
Hodgson'sdescription

of the Hindu

Mr.

to

508

APPENDIX.

which

he

calls

Turanian

or

"

Mongolian

has

"

come

traiture of the Un-Brahmanical

Brahmanical
Dravidian
Puranas
'

classes south

people.
in which

being,'they

be

acceptedas a faithful pourHindus

the Ungenerally,
including
the entire mass
of the
Vindhyas, i.e.,
to

"

'

say,

complexion of
stature.'

charred

stake, with

The inhabitants of the

'

called his descendants.

as

black

short

Padma-puranaadds

wide

the

of dwarfish

are

they were

of

rata-purana,they had
chin,broad
projecting

and

their
particularises

and

the term

Professor quotes also those notices from the

the type of the Nishada features is given. He is

mountains

syapurana,

of the

understands

The

flattened features,
and

Vindhya

he

Tamulian,' that is, as

'

as

arms

According to the Matcollyrium.According to the Bhagaand legs,

black as a crow, with
were

flat nose,

red

eyes

and

hair.

tawny

The

mouth, largeears, and a protuberantbelly,

descendants
as
Kiratas,Bhillas,Bahanakas,

Pulindas.'

chapterthe Professor states

that he 'acceptsfor his starting
pointthis generaldistinction between
Aryas and Nishadas,which, whether suggestedby physicalfeatures or
puted
proved by the evidence of grammar, may be considered as an undisbe
fact j'and he then proceedsto inquire whether they can
subdivided into distinct ^oups.'
Finallyhe distinguishes,
yet on lingualevidence alone, between
Bhramaras, and

In

the

next

'

classes of Nishadas, the Tamulic, in the

'two

narrower

Bhotiya or Sub-Himalayan.'
of
recent writer,Dr. Logan, treating

word, and

sense

of the

the

Another

thinks that

there

is

the Dravidians

strong Melanesian

or

clusively,
ex-

Indo-African

the arrival

physiology; and accounts for it by the supposition

India and Ultra India,not only before
negro race overspread
before the arrival of the Scythians.
of the Aryans,but even

He

evidence

element

in the Tamil

that

sees

an

of this in the colour of the Dravidians,and in the

exceedingvarietyof physicaltype and features which he observes

and in this pointat least I
in his opinion,
Yet even
amongst them.
think he is quite correct, the Tamilians
are
more
intellectually
Tartaro-Iranian
race.'
Europeanisedthan any other
so
The tide evidentlyruns
stronglyagainstmy Dravidian friends,
'

that it

seems

almost

to attempt
fool-hardy

persuadedthat

it has arisen in the main

that
persuaded

the

is not
that

tingedwith
type

which

to resist it; and

yet

am

from

misapprehension.I am
Dravidians is not Mongolian,

physicaltype of the
is not essentially
difierent from
negro peculiarities,
is called Caucasian

or

Indo-Germanic

and

that

indubitable evidence of their languagerequires

whilst the distinct,
logical
that the Dr"vidians should be aflSliatedwith the Scythianrace, physioconsiderations

throw,in this instance,so littlelightupon

the

DEA

VIDIAN

PHYSICAL

509

TYPE.

subjectthat they would admit of our affiliating

them,
with
the
Indo-Europeans.
necessary,
Leaving out

of account, for the

if it seemed

present, the questionof colour,it

does not appear

to me
that there is any essential difference between
the heads or features of the Dravidians and those of the Brahraans.
There

well as of colour,
is,it is true, a great varietyof feature,
as
apparent amongst the Dravidians ; but though the varieties of feature,
or

of

rather

physiognomy,which
minute

generallyso

difference in the
of

and

shape
of

observes

one

are

they are

numerous,

unimportantthat in the absence of any classof the head, they are

consistent with the supposition

blood,and

safelybe referred to local,

social,
and individual causes
of difference. The
long continued operationof
the caste-lawof the Hindus
appears to me to be quitesufficient to account
for the differences of feature,
colour,and expressionthat are observed
to

oneness

may

exist.
Like oil and

mixed
castes

in the

water

mechanically,but
into

which

preceptorshave

the

which
or
vessel,
ingredients

same

will

not

Dravidians

lived side

by side

be

may

combine

the various
chymically,
were
arranged by their Brahman
for ages, probablyin some
instances

for

twenty-fivecenturies,without commingling. For ages there has

social intercourse,
bond of symbeen no intermarriage,
no
no
common
pathy.
well
Rank
has become
and
not
caste
as
as
hereditary,
only
;
and
but
c
teristics.
haraceven
rank,
intellect,
physical
temperament, character,
from
In consequence
of the separationof caste
caste for so
of intermarriage,
unmistakeable
ages through the prohibition
many
pointsof difference both in features and in mental temperament have
been developed.
indeed if under such circumstances 'varieties
It would be surprising
and if ethnologists,
did not make
their appearance,
of man
looking
'

at the

could

questionfrom
all be

referred

distance,did
to

not

singlerace

sometimes
of pure

doubt whether

blood.

they

'Some,' says

are
exceedingly
Logan, speakingof the Tamilians in particular,
are
Semitico-Iranian,
Semitic,others Australian,
some
are
more
Iranian,
remind us of Egyptians,while others again have Malayo-Polysome
Simang and Papuan features.'
nesian,and even
In no country in the world are features and complexion so variable
it affects
as
in India ; but caste, as it exists in India,and especially
as
'

Dr.

is unknown
the condition of the lower classes,

in every other

country in

the world.

Separate
class of
with

for

ever

from

the

labonrers
agricultural

families in

more

easy

societyof
or

slaves

circnmstances

their fellow
:

countrymen

prohibitall intermarriage
to live by
t requirethem

510

APPENDIX.

wigwams, removed to a considerable distance

householders :
is inhabited by the respectable

themselves in wretched
from

villagewhich

the

compel them to work hard the whole year round in the open air in an
twice in the
the sun
in a country where
climate
conies
iuter-tropical
head : let all possibility
of their risingto a higher
year right over
condition of life,
or
shady employment be
obtaininga more
pedentary,
for ever
precluded: prohibiteducation : pay them no wages : feed
ness
drunkenthem scantily
and clothe them stillmore
: encourage
scantily
from dressing
and the eating of carrion : prohibitthe women
treat
themselves with ordinaryregard for decency :
them, in short,
for twenty centuries as the Brahmans
Dravidians
have
and high-caste
treated the Pariars and other low-castes,
and it will be quiteunnecessary
with
to Dr. Logan'stheoryof their intermixture
to have recourse
for the
of Africans or Negritoesin order to account
a primitive
race
"

"

of their

coarseness

their skin.

as

great

Notwithstandingall this,though

the

the

blackness of

Pariars,as

class,

find amongst them

any other class in the Carnatic,we
varietyof colour as amongst other classes of Hindus ; and

darker

are

or
features, their dwarfishness,

than

notice complexionsthat are

clear as those of
we
as
occasionally
may
the highercastes, togetherwith considerable regularity
of features.
The question,
is before us
is. not 'are the
now
however, which
the high-casteDravidians
V but
Pariars of the same
to what
race
as
do the Dravidians
themselves
Do
those
who
race
are
belongV
of pure blood resemble most
the Aryans or
admitted to be Dravidians
the MongoliansV this is the questionreallyat issue.
with that of
In comparing the physicaltype of the Dravidians
Mongolians and Aryans, it is unfair to restrict the comparisonto the
classes of Dravidians
lower
Sudras, or high
; for the South-Indian
claim
be
the
to
of
caste Dravidians,
regardedas
purest representatives
'

'

"

their

it is pure

institutionsand

Their

race.

Dravidian

possiblybe

blood

doubt

some

which

whether

have

manners

flows

in

the lower

been

Aryanised
; but

their veins.
castes

were

not

There

may

intermixed

higher castes call themselves Tamilians,

Tehigus,Malayalis,"c. par excellence ; and their specialrightto those
is always admitted,in terms
at least,
national appellations
by the lower
with

anterior

an

castes

we

-""idianswith

are
women

but the

themselves.

When

and

race

compare

the

that of the

of

physicaltype
Brahmans,

no

essential difference

little difference of any kind, can

instances the features of the
In many
very

more

foimed
delicately

themselveB,whilst

and
their

cultivated,high caste

Dri-

whatever,

be observed.

Driividian women
high-caste
more
regularthan those of Brahman
complexionsare at least equallyfair;

DRAVIDIAN

PHYSICAL

and if any difference appears, it consists not in

but in greater elongation
-face,
and narrowness.
of head

will

even

for

Compare,

bear

be

to

511

TYI'E.

Moirgolianbreadth
The

directly
compared

instance,the heads

of the

Dravidiau

with

of

type

the

European.
or
Telugu Munshis,
that of the presiding

Tamil

and Pandits
translators,

in any Zillah court with

Englishjudge ; and it is evident that the Dravidian

heads

differ from

with a preponderance
Englishonly in beingsmaller and narrower,
in the former of the signs of subtilty
and suppleness,
in the latter of
moral and mental energy.
straightforward
the

"

It is

especially
deservingof consideration,that

Tudas, who

of all Dravidian

tribes have

the

Nilgherry
guarded
thoroughly

been most

by their secluded positionfrom Bhramanical

influences,instead of
or
beingmore
Mongol-like
Negro-likethan the Aryanised DravidianSj
Caucasian
in the opinion of many
that
so
are
distinctively
persons,
they have been regarded as Celts,Romans, Jews, "c., and the chief
that exists is that of inducingpeople to be content
with the
difficulty
statement, that the Tudas are proved by their languageto be identical
in originwith the Dravidians
of the plains.
Amongst the lower class of the Dravidians,I have occasionally
observed
called

type

of head

which

Mongolian,that is,it exhibits

with

pyramidalnose

On

other

the

that

of

the other

broad

inclined to be what
breadth

elements

notice,though

of

skin,scantiness
olive hue

with ; and it should

met

never

the eye",

base.

peculiarmonotonous

the

is

the cheek

across

of
obliqueposition

hand, Mongolian smoothness

face,and
Mongolian complexion are

hair, flatness

unusual

somewhat

boaes,a pyramidalforehead,a
and

is somewhat

of

of the

be observed

of the
it is

Mongolian type which one does occasionally

if
chiefly, not solely,
amongst the lower

of
they are seen, yet they do not constitute the class-type
met
are
or
they ordinarily
with,
frequently
any caste whatever; nor
b4it are exceptional
all
which
the
at
affect
instances,
scarcely
general
doubt
that
similar
have
and
I
instances
could
no
rule;
exceptional
classes that

be pointedout amongst
easily
The. physical
type of a race

the lower
should

classes of
be

our

own

determined

by

race.

the

shape of
of feature alone,irrethe head and the more
spective
permanent peculiarities
of the complexion or colour of the skin ; for every one
who
learned
have
to regard colour as
has lived in India must
most
a
It is true
that the
deceptive evidence of relationshipand race.
Brahmans

the

as

conviction

hundreds
colour

class

much

are

is forced

of instances

upon

which

fairer than
the
he

nund

meets

of the features of the Hindus

is

the

Pariars

of every

with

in

purelya

as

class ; but

observer,by the

daily life,that

the

result of the external

512

APPENDIX.

circumstances in which
and mode

of

pation,
placed,with respect to climate,occuin proportion
life. They are dark-complexioned

theyare

they are exposed to the sun in out-door labour,and fair in proportion

live
and
as
a
they
consequentlycolour,if an
sedentarylife;
evidence of anythingspecific,
is an
evidence only of the social status

as

of the individual
considerations

The
colour

and

his

family. It

is

to expect from
vain,therefore,

mining
complexion any real help towards deterthe race
the Dravidians
to which
belong.
influence of climate alone, in darkening or blanching the
of the skin is greater than is commonly supposed; and India
of colour

furnishes innumerable
Indian

instances

which

and

instances of this influence.

of the influence of climate

acquainted,is

furnished

by
greater proportionof

am

complexion of the
coast, compared with

the very

dark

hue

in

One

modifyingcolour with
fairness of the

the

extreme

the

natives

of

of the- best of

like

of the

Malabar

proportionof

the

similar
or
Coromandel,who belong to the same
mandel
castes, and who follow similar occupations.The natives of the Corocoast are
exposed for ten months in the year to a very high
degree of dry heat, in a level country, bare of wood.* .The natives
of the Malabar
coast
are
exposed to a similar degree of heat for not
of the twelve, and
similar degree of
than two
months
out
a
more
: their sky is almost
drought is on that coast unknown
always laden
with moisture ; the quantityof rain that falls is always double,generally
treble,the quantitythat falls on the eastern coast in the same
latitude. The country is everywhere well wooded, and the houses of
the people are
quence,
generallynestled in deep, cool groves; and, in conseof
and
in the same
with
difference
in
latitude,
a
degree
the
skin
half
of the peopleon
a degree,
longitudeof only a degreeor
central
mountain
the western
side of the Ghauts
(or
range of Southern
India)is as much fairer tlian that of the people on the eastern side,
of any provinceis fairer than that
the complexionof the Brahmans
as
of the labouringclasses in the same
this
province. Notwithstanding
difference in race, for the Malay"
difference in complexion,there is no
41is are
demonstrablydescended from an earlycolony of Tamilians;
and an
equallyremarkable difference in complexion is apparent
of those Tamil castes, of whom
have
a portion
amongst the members
natives

of the coast

settled in

of

Malayalam.

I never
knew the thermometer
neighbourhood in Tinnevelly,
of
the
than
76". For about eight
or
day
period
night,
year,
in the year it averaged 8i",and for about
months
two months
above 90".
rose
The maximum, which it rarelyreached in the shade,was 96".
*

In my

fall lower

The
which

own

at any

average
I

fall of rain in the same

neighbourhood,during the six years
Only 26 inches I

registeredit,was

in

514
are

APPENDIX.

descended.

unmixed

Even

amongst

Brahnians,though a perfectly
pure,

the

differences of colour

race,

observed.
frequently

are

It is

black Brahman,' or
a
supposedto be unluckyto meet
a fair Pariar,
the firstthingin the morning. The Brahmans
of Northern
India are
generallyfairer than those of the south, with the exceptionof the
of the Malabar
Namburis, or high-casteBrahmans
coast, who appear
'

to be the fairestof their

Professor Max

Reportsof

'

race.

Miiller

(inhis valuable paper on

thinks he finds
Association),

the British

Bengaliin

the

Gonds, and

in the

other
'

Un-AryanisedDravidians,evidences of the existence of

closely
resemblingthe Negro ;'and says that, the existence

the

dark

in the South

race

of

contrary, Strabo'a statement,

when

He

Indians resemble

says,

but in

the

Southern

and
features

woolly);but
in which

of the

the Northern

black

brigaded with the

'.Ethiopiansfrom

in
.^Ethiopians

the

the rest

the

resemble

throws

lighton
apparently Hindus,

race,

I have

which

fairer Indians

in the

the

from

colour

(for

become

not

Egyptians.'
passage in Herodotus,

are

said to

have
He

of Xerxes.

army

but

taken.

Indians

of the

climate the hair does

Indians

of Strabo

statement

the view

hair,they resemble

of the moisture

account

This

corroborate

On

merely alluded to,

not

to

'

race

of the

Strabo.'

India,is authenticated by

translated,will be found

on

'

same

the

been

says,

sun-rising^from Asia
marched
with Indians, but differed not from other .^Ethiopians
except
in their languageand their hair; for the Libyan ^Ethiopians
have the;
Woolliest hair of all men, but those peopleare straight-haired.'
dotus
Herosuppliesus with a fact,Strabo with the rightexplanationof that
fact.

Herodotus

eastward

is silent with

"

the

the

respect to

"

of
features-

i^thiopians
; Strabo asserts that their features resembled

"

the
those

Eastern
of the

rest of the Indians.

is little or

Though there
character in the

nothing of

featnres and

heads

of

the

distinctively
Mongolian
Dravidians, considered

does not furnish

generally;and though consequentlyphysiology
any
reliable evidence in support of their Mongolian or Scythianorigin,
it is
unsafe to draw any conclusion from this circumstance.
The danger of
matters
which are so fleeting
arguingfrom negativeevidence respecting
and changeableas features and complexion,is illustrated by the change
the features of the Mahommedans
which
has passed over
of India.
The

Mahommedans

and

partly from

descendants

the

of the

accompaniedboth
the

of India

are

partlydescended

Mogol invaders;

AfFghan invaders

AflFghansand
of

India

the

soldiers and

Tartar-Turkish

the

but

ware

from

the

AffghaUj
great majorityare

camp-foUowersjwho
the Mogols. Probablymost
of
SeljukianTurks; the Mogols

DRAViniAN

their

PHYSICAL

515

TYPE.

imports,
Mongoliansj and the hordes that followed
mixed
were
a
'oollu-.
invaders,
race"
a
vies gentium
various
tribes and races
of Mongolian and
comprising
Tartar-Turkish origin,called by the Hindus
Turushkas, in Tamil
Turnkkar,or more commonly Tulukkar,i.e.,
Turks.
The proportion
of Persians and other races
of Indo-Europeanorigin,
who accompaniedthe Aflfghai^s
and Mongolsin their expeditions,
was
exceedinglysmall ; and though the Mahomraedans
have occasionally
made
proselytesamongst the Hindus, by force or the prospect of
were,

as

name

the fortunes of both classes of

'

"

secular
wives

and
have occasionally
advantages,
robbed Hindus
of their
and daughters,
the disturbing
influence of these accessions to

their ranks

has

been

Hence,

account.

the

so

small,that

Mahommedans

Tartar-Mongolian
people;

and

it may
be left altogether
of
out
of India may be regardedas a

might naturally
expect to observe
of the High Asian
physiological
peculiarities
races
which must
have characterised the majorityof their ancestors on their
firstarrival in India,and which are still apparent in all their distinctiveness,
not only in the Mongolians,but in the Siberian
Turks.
we
this,
Notwithstanding
generallysearch in vain amongst the Indian
for signs of their Tartar origin. With
Mahommedans
the exception
in them

of

we

those

somewhat

greater breadth

of face and

olive
head, and a more
the Hindus, properlyso

differ from
complexion,they do not now
in any essential point. They exhibit,
it is true, special
called,
liarities
pecuof physiognomy and expression;but every Hindu
tribe or
caste has, in like manner,
a
peculiarphysiognomyof its own, by
which
it differs from every other tribe. A change appears to have
of India similar to
passedover the physiologyof the Mahommedans
Turks have experienced
that which
the Magyars and the Osmanli
them
from
since they settled in Europe, and which has transformed
be any doubt of
there cannot
Tartars into Europeans. As, therefore,
the original
Mongolianismof the majorityof Indian Mahommedans, or
of almost every thingthat is Mongolian,
of the absence from them now
Mongolian is now
so, though little or nothing that is distinctively
of the Dravidians,
apparent in the features or physiologyof the mass
from as purelya Scythian
be descended
this,
they may, notwithstanding
known
to bej or at
are
or
Mongolianancestryas the Mahommedans
view
least,we may conclude that there is nothingin the physiological
which is opposedto the argument derived from lingual
of the question

comparison.
mass

Perhaps, however, on the whole, the safest conclusion is,that the

the Mongolians
as
of the Dravidians,though as trulyScythians

themselves

were,

even

at

the time

of their entrance

into
2 l2

free
India',

516

APPENDIX.

of feature that are

called Mongolian. We
peculiarities
from
conclude that the Mongolian type of features was
cannot
safely
the beginningthe inheritance of the whole of the Scythiantribes.
It
of
probable that that type was developed in the course
appears more
time in the steppes of High Asia; and it is certain that the tribes
it has acquireda peculiardegree of permanence,
are
amongst whom
the Tibetans and the Mongolian nomades, who still inhabit the original
from

those

seats

of their

race.

It is remarkable

that

the

tinctly
disonly Indian tribes which are now
those which
characterized by Mongolian peculiarities,
are
entered India by the north-east,
and which
are
probably of Tibetan
as
origin. The Garos and other forest tribes on the Bhutan frontier,
described by Mr. Hodgson, seem
the
to be decidedlyMongolian ; and
Koles and Santals are probablydescended
from the same
similar
a
or
of Orissa,of
stock. The existence at an
earlyperiod in the vicinity
in appearance
tribes differing
from the rest of the Hindus,
barbarous
ing
and exhibiting
a Mongolian or
foreigntype, is attested by the followin the Pervplus Maris
to the
Erythraei. After referring
passage
regionwatered by the Godavery and Kistna, the author says : After
this,keeping the sea on the right hand and sailingnorthwards, we
the
as
KippaSai (Sans.'Kiratas'),
come
upon certain barbarous tribes,
flattened
with
noses
(evidently
Mongolians),also the
a
race
of people
all of whom
said to be cannibals.
horso-faces and the long-faces,
are
Then sailing
eastwards,and havinga certain sea on the right,
we
come
to the Ganges.'
of Strabo which
has already been quoted^
The distinct statement
joined to the negativeevidence of this passage, proves that at the
cultivated
the civilized,
Dravidians
Christian
(the Pandiyas
era,
d
iffer
in
not
did
Andhras,
"fec.),
materially
physiognomy or
Calingas,
from
the
northern
and
certain barthat
barous
Hindus;
personalappearance
who
inhabitants
of the jungles,
barbarians still,
the
are
were
Mongolian. The Gondali
only tribes that appeared to be distinctively
of Ptolemy,probablythe Gonds, who are classed among
the Bitti,'
and
the Phyllitae(probablythe Bhills),
from
not said to
are
distinguished
'

'

'

'

'

'

from

have differed in appearance

Some
the

the

cultivated

more

Dravidians.

writers,I think erroneously,

speak of the 'jet blackness' of
and

the

Eajmahal people are

this,accordingto the account

Gonds;

Dr. Buchanan

Hamilton,

do
people,

differ
essentially

not

at all like those

l)ut not
full,

shapedlike

the

lozengeas

said to be black.

of that

features of the Males

fvotn the

of the

those of the Chinese

Their
are.

observer,
Rajmahal hill
Their lipsare

accurate
or

Aryan type.

Negro.

standing
Notwith-

'

faces

are

oval,not

Their eyes, instead

DBA

of

|)eing

of

pencil,

it

will

Purana

very
the

true

Oude.

other

be

suffice

Dravidians

them,

Dravidians

of

some

like

obliquely

the

black

'

as

amiable

drawn,

517

TYPE.

the

of

those

Chinese,

are

Europeans.'

that

writers

Aryanising

and

the

have

Puranas

of

to

PHYSICAL

placed

and

seen

Puranas

accuracy

of

those

have

We

fat

ia

like

exactly

the

hid

VIDIAN

and

for

which
the

the

supposed
be

remind

different
that

descended

they
the

tested

be

the

into

Calingas,
from

debating
tribes,
Mr.

by

reader

colonies

the

which

the
the

those

respecting

opposite

Pandiyas,
of

in

Hodgson's
that

impression

an

fell

described

are

without

primitive

to

to

so

south,

and
to

waits

present

entertained

of

those

of

but

;'

crows

as

portrait

Nishadas

Vindhya

Aryans

error

Keralas,
from

IV.

Ancient
Religious

usages

Religionof

to throw

fonnd

sometimes

are

the Dravidians.

lighton

the

origin

in the religions
ideas and practises
of races.
Similarity
relationship
ship
of any two primitivetribes strengthens
the evidence of their relationwhether
derived from
of language. Let us
see
similarity
any
of
the
Draviof
the
be
thrown
the
on
question
relationship
lightcan
this inquiry
A priori,
dians by an inquiryinto their religious
usages.
the religions
inasmuch
definite result,
as
seems
likelyto lead to some
of
of the ancient Indo-European nations and the old Scythianreligions
Upper Asia present many essential pointsof difference.
or

In the earliest times

familythe
each

of those nations
of the

the

universal

of heroes and
usages

was

the

who
hereditary,
and

was

either the

worship were

heroines

amongst

the nations

prevalenceof certain
to have

doctrine which

that

of the

elements
; and

of

the
of

venerated

most

tenets

inherited

The

maintenance
were

find

appears

race.

family

whole

we

was

from
most

of the Indo-European
and

the

usages, which
common

genitors
pro-

characteristic of

of
Metempsychosis ; their objects
nature
or
a Pantheon
personified,
characteristic
of

of their

religious

distinct order

as

of all ancient
the depositaries

priests,
generally
tions
tradi-

spiritual
power.

religious
peculiarities
appear to have prevailed,
shall probably find on
we
inquiry that there are weighty
for attributing
tionship
to that race
an
reasons
Indo-European originor relain like manner
dissimilar
a
: and
familylikeness (exceedingly
from the particulars
now
mentioned) will be found to characterize the
of the nations of the Scythiangroup.
practises
religious
In endeavouringto ascertain the characteristics of the primitive
Dramet by a serious but not insurmountable
vidian religion,
we
are
diflSculty.
whom
the
civilization
The Brahmans, by
was
Aryan
graftedon the
ruder Dravidian stock,laboured assiduously
to extirpate
the old Drain its room
and to establish their own
vidian religion,
; and they are
In

whatever

race

these

this object.
generallysupposedto have succeeded in accomplishing
Notwithstandingtheir success
however, it is still possiblein some

ANCIENT

RELIGION

OF

degreeto discriininate
between
by the Brahmans

and

instance,
any usages are
and
India,
especially
amongst
Buddhism

relicsof the
usages
from

the ruder

and

religious
system

less

from

nor

from Jainism,such usages

nor

tribes,
Aryanised

Puranas,neither

the

be concluded

may

to

be

of the Dra vidian

aborigines.Many such
do actually
esist. Several religious
systems widelydiffering

the Brahmauical

and

troduced
inwhich were
practices
the older religion
of the Dravidian
people.
found to prevail
in Southern
extensively

derived neither from the Vedas

are

from

519

DRAVIDIANS.

the doctrines and

If,for
which

THE

discoverable amongst the Dravidian

are

nations,

especiallyprevalent amongst the rude inhabitants of tho

of comparing
jungles. Henoe, we are not quitedestitute of the means
the characteristics of the ancient Dravidian religion,
duction
priorto the introof Brahmanism
(orwhat is commonly called Hinduism), with
the religious
usages that prevailed
amongst the Scythianraces.
The system which prevailsin the forests and mountain-fastnesses
and also in the extreme
south of
throughoutthe Dravidian territories,
are

the Peninsula

amongst the low

been still more

widely prevalentat

or the worship of
demonolatry,

and

and which
tribes,

caste

frantic dances.

This

to hava

early,period,is a system of
of bloodysacrifices
spirits
by means

evil

system

appears

an

introduced within the historical

was

periodfrom the Tamil country into Ceylon,where it is now mixed up

On comparing this Dravidian system of demonolatry
with Buddhism.
and

sorcery

amongst

the

with

'

of the

China,

Mongols,and

before Buddhism

race

them

"

cannot

^we

which
and

avoid

by
though practised

races

"

the

of Siberia and

Ugrian races

frontier of

'*

Shamanism

which
was

which
superstition
the hill-tribes on

is stillmixed

up with the Buddhism

of the whole
Tartar
th6 old religion

Mohammedanism
the
so

prevails

the Southwestern

disseminated

were

conclusion

that

those

are
widelyseparated,

not

amongst

superstitions,

two

onlysimilar

but

identical.
I shall here

the Shamanism
as

features of resemblance between

pointout the principal
of the Dravidians.t
of High Asia and the demonolatry

in many
stillpractised

"

This

word

Shamanism

districts in Southern

is formed

from

Shaman,

India.

the

name

of the

magician-

'
Shaman,' though a name
appropriated
priestof the North Asian demonolaters.
and
was
Buddhist
adopted from the Mongolians. It
of
is
origin,
by demonolaters,
for a Buddhist, and is derived from
name
is identical with ' Samana," the Tamil
'
this
word Shaman
of
in Siberia,
The
be
must
use
Sra,mana.'
word
the Sanscrit
modem
oiigin; but the system of religioninto which it haa
of

comparatively
is one
adoptedand incorporated

been

of the oldest

in
superstitions

the world.

of the DrS.vipeculiarities
called
The
Sh"nArs
of Tinnevelty,
a
I
think
I have
of
the
the
for
Propagation
Gospel.
published by the Society
Sbanars
of
the
cultivators
the
palmyra
that
demonolatry
(the
in that work
to refer the reader for

t 1 beg
dian demonolatry, to

proved

small work

full account
of mine

of the

520

APPENDIX.

(1.)The

Shamanites

the father of the

oflScemay
aside.

narily
regularpriesthood. Ordifamilyis the priestand magician; but the'
and at any time laid
by any one who pleases,
destitute of

are

be undertaken

similar is the practice

existingamongst the Sh^nars and
Precisely
other rude tribes of-Southern India.
it is the head of the
Ordinarily

family,or

the

head-mau

of the hamlet

the

office ; but
priestly
volunteer
disposed,
may
the

and
representative

(2.)The
but they do

God's existence

offer him
and

the

of the Dravidian
religion
(3.)Neither amongst
nn-brahmanized

to

and
officiate,

or

female,who

becomes

feels so

for the time

being

of the daemon.
interpreter

Shamanites
not

worshipper,male

any

performs

community, who

or

acknowledge the existence of a supreme God;

acknowledgment of
any worship. The same
same
neglectof his worshipcharacterize the
demonolaters.
the

Shamanites

demonolaters

of India

amongst

nor

is there any

the

primitive,

of belief in

trace

the

metempsychosis.
of Shamanite
worship are not gods or heroes,but
(4.)The objects
and
demons, which are supposed to be cruel,revengeful,
capricious,
and are worshippedby bloody sacrifices and
The
wild dances.
ciating
offimagicianor priestexcites himself to frenzy,and then pretends,
or
by the demon to which worship is
supposes himself,to be possessed
being offered ; and after the rites are over he communicates, to those
who

consult him, the information he has received.

in India by the more

Dravidian
primitive
demonolatrypractised
tribes is not only similar to this,but the same.
Every word used
of the Shamanite
in the foregoingdescription
worship would apply
the ceremonies
equallywell to the Dravidian demonolatry;and in depicting
of the one
race
we
depictthose of the other also.
The

of Southern
of the

demonology

which

this old Dravidian

It is admitted
"

nolatry from
unreasonable
Brahmans
Puranas.

with the Brahmans, or in any local developnot originate

ment
but that on
the contrary, the element
of
the Brahmans;
from
borrowed
is contained
in the later Pnranic
was
system,

India) did
religionof

the

superstition.
to be

of the

that it was
to suppose
the demoniacal
borrowed

I apprehend

aboriginaldemonolatry

of Ceylon borrowed
P9,ndiyaKingdom : if so,

fact that the Buddhists

DrUvidians

that

we

into the

have

Old
from

the

element
a

same

or

which

mythical

later Brahmanical

similar

is contained

record

of the

system, and

their demo-

it cannot
that
source
in

the

be
the
later

adoption of the
of the objectin

in this alliance,in the Puranic

story of the sacrificeof Daksha.
According
Siva (i.e.,
Vedantic Brahmauism) found himself unable to subdue the
to that story,
the exclusive homage at which
and to secure
to himself
old elementary divinities,
view

rigines),
(the demonolatry of the aboaimed, till he called in the aid of the demons
of his ('pro-re-nata')
and put himself at their head in the peraon
son,
Bhadra-C"li,
Vlra-Bhadra; a demi-god, whose wife,emanation, or representative,
is regardedby the Shtoars as their patronessand mother.
he

522

APPENDIX.

w4ieh
rather the instruments of noi^e,
or
instruments,

'The musical

chieflyused

are

Indian

drum, and

clarionet when

the

in the devil-dance

the

horn ; with

partiescan

tomtom,

the
occasionally

or

is called 'the bow.'

sizes is fastened to the frame

of

ordinary

addition

aflbrd it! But the favourite

because the noisiest,

is that which
of various

the

are

giganticbow

of

instrument,

series of bells
; the

strings

tightenedso as to emit a musical note when struck ; and the bow

rests on
a largeempty brazen
pot. The instrument is playedon by a
plectrum, and several musicians join in the performance. 'One
of the bow with the plectrum,another producesthe
strikes the strings
bass by striking
the brazen pot with his hand, and a third beats time
and improves the harmony by a pairof cymbals.
and the devil-dance isabout
the preparations
'When
are
completed,
the music is at first comparatively
to commence,
slow, and the dancer
about
seems
impassiveand sullen ; and either he stands still or moves
in gloomy silence.
Gradually,as the music becomes quicker and
louder,his excitement beginsto rise. Sometimes to help him to work
medicated
rates
himself up into a frenzy he uses
draughts; cuts and lacehis flesh tillthe blood flows ; lashes himself with a huge whip ;
presses a burning torch to his breast ; drinks the blood which flows
wounds ; or drinks the blood of the sacrifice,
from his own
puttingthe
his
of
the
mouth.
throat
Then, as if he had
decapitated
goat to
his staff of bells,
and dance
he begins to brandish
life,
new
acquired
but wild,unsteady step. Suddenly the afflatus
descends.
with a quick,
There is no
mistakingthat glare,or those frantic leaps. He snorts,
taken bodilypossession
of
he stares, he gyrates. The demon has now
of utterance
and of motion,
him ; and though he retains the power
are

both

are

under

the

demon's

control,and

his separate consciousness

is

The

bystanderssignalizethe event by raisinga long

shout attended with a peculiar
noise.
vibratoryThe devil-dancer is now
worshippedas a present deity; and every
his disease,
his wants, the welfare of
bystanderconsults him respecting
and the ofierings
which
for the
to be made
his absent relations,
are
accomplishmentof his wishes.
in

abeyance.
'

'As

the devil dancer

acts

to admiration

the 'partof

maniac,

it

his dubious or
experienceto enable a person to interpret
requiressome
his muttered
voices and uncouth gestures; but the
unmeaning replies,
who consult him help them greatlyto interpret
wishes of the parties
his meaning.'

It

seems

substantial

to me

identityof

with the Shamanism

in proof of the
anythingmore
the demonolatryof the Dravidians
of India
Northern
Asia,
It may be alleged
that simi-

unnecessary

of

to

say

ANCIENT

in
iarity

mental

RELIGION

OF

characteristics and

523

DRAVIDIANS.

THE

social circumstances

alone

might
in religious
ideas and practises,
but it
similarity
far more
seems
probable that both the superstitions
which have now
been described have
origin: and I may add
sprung from a common
that the conformity
which has been traced between the old religion
of
the Drividians and that which
the religion
of all the Scywas
once
thian
nations corroborates the supposition
of the Scythiati
relationship
give rise

this

to

of the Dravidian
Whilst
to

have

race.

the demonolatroiis rites which

dians, we

also with

meet

I have

described appear
the prevailingsuperstition
of the ancient Dravi-

constituted

correspondin part to those

which

the existence of systems that

of

traces

now

prevailed
amongst

the

Indo-European

races.

The

of
religion

the Kunds

be described

element, may

trous

rivers

and

Kus, though it

or

in the main

as

contains

demonolar

worship of gods

of

gods of the earth and the sky,and of the

gods of elements and geniiloci. It is in part an elementary worship,
which
be allied in principle
to tbat of the Aryans, but which
may
differs widely from it in spirit
and form, and appears to be quiteindependent
of it in brigin. This remark especially
appliesto thatisection
of the Kus which
and delights
in cruelty
sacrifices,
practiseshuman
and gloom. A worship of gods of rivers and mountains similar to
that

mountains,

of the

Kus

is found

Sub-Himalayanand
not

seems
was

amongst. the Koles, and also amongst

tribes described

Bhutan

improbablethat

Hodgson

; and

those tribes that the Ku

from

it was

Mr.

by

the
it

religion

derived.

has

elements

into

alreadymerged
Puranas,before
as

originis either
The
religionof

Indeed

there

worship of

is

to

reason

worship of the Brahmans

elementary
mythologicaland mystical system of
effected a settlement

the Brahmans
every

Dravidian

identical with

nical

of the

trace

or

the

appears,

plainsno

discovered.

been

ever

believe that the old Vedic

So far

of the

the Dravidians

Amongst
the

of

usage

Shamanism

the

in the South.
is not

which
or

had

of Brahma-

allied to it.

Nilgherryhills exhibits some

which are analogous to the earliest Brahmanical
religion,
peculiarities
with
which
of
the
some
are
the religion
Vedas, together
regardedas
or
the

Tudas

of the

Scytho-Druidical
.

The

veneration
peculiar

of ancestors

their sacrifices to

worship of geniiloci by
their freedom
which

they

with

from

appear

the
to

means

of

which
secure

the Tudas
the peace

of
offerings

milk

worship the

manes

of the dead ; their

and

clarified

butterj

veneration
worship of idols ; the religious
regard a sacred bell,which is hung up in

with
their

524

APPENDIX.

their abstinence from flesh,

and livingentirely
on
temples,or dairies;
from all share in the rites
grain and milk; their exclusion of women
of worship,and even
from the precincts
of their temples; their practice
of polyandria
and female infanticide ; these and analogouspeculiarities
of the religious
and
life
of
Tudas
accord to
the
social
system
with
certain extent
which
a
prevailedin the earliest ages
usages
amongst most of the tribes of the Indo-Europeanrace.
There
is no trace amongst the Tudas
of Aryan
of hero-worship
or
of souls,or of the
mythology,of the doctrine of the transmigration
of
existence of a priestly
caste, all of which are distinctive portions
the Indo-Europeansystem. Nevertheless the peculiarities
of the religion
of the Tudas
which have been mentioned
above may
be suspected
had an
to have
at least to have
been shaped and
or
Aryan origin,
Our
tinged by Aryan influences.
ignoranceof the historyof the
Tudas (an ignorancewhich has not been dispelled
by the speculations
of CaptainCongreve),and of the circumstances which compelledthem
to take refuge in the Nilgherryhills,
renders it exceedinglydifficult,
if not impossible,
whether
their religion
to determine
sprang from the
same
Scythian origin as the Dravidian demonolatry, or whether
it is to be placed to the account
of their early association with
We
look to further and more
must
some
rate
accuIndo-Europeanrace.
research for the solution of this problem.
been
The
religionof the Tudas has sometimes
regarded as
of the
identical with the religion
or
Druidical,' Celto-Druidical,'
ancient Celts ;'but, with the exceptionof the performanceof some
of
their rites in the deep gloom of sacred groves, a practice
which was
not
peculiarto the Celts alone,but which prevailed
amongst various ancient
or
nations,it does not appear that there is anything distinctively
in
the
of
the
D
ruidical
Tudas.
certainly
existing
system
o
f
the
Druidical
of
The
character
the Tuda
supposition
religion
of attributing
has arisen from the error
to the Tudas
various remains
and usages which
were
peculiarto an earlier and probablyextinct
"

"

'

'

'

race.

Those

consist of cairns

remains

or

burrows, cromlechs,
kistvaens,

upright,loose stones,which are nearlyidentical in form

with those that are found in Europe in the ancient seats of the Celts :
the origin
of those remains
and
and whatever mystery may hang over
of which
the race
there
they are the only survivingrelics,
over
for hesitatingto stylethem, in a generalsense,
reason
no
seems
and circles of

Druidical.
In the cairns

vessels of

or

barrows

glazedpottery are

referred to, vases,

cineraryurns, and

often found, which

sometimes

other

contain

ANCIENT

human
a

RELIGION

bones,more

littleanimal

or

less

OP

charred,and

charcoal alone.

Most

525

DEAVIDIANS.

THE

mixed

ashes,sometimes

with

of these

vessels have

peculiar

glazeof a rich red colour,with a zig-zagornamentation

: some
black glaze. Brass and iron implements of agriculture
and
have

often been

been

found,as
gold

in them

discovered

in

in several

Celtic barrows

instances

have
of

war

bell has

sionally
England ; and occathese
have
remains
ornaments
to light. Though
come
be
to
seem
undoubtedlyDruidical,they can hardly lay claim to an
antiquityequal to that of many Druidical remains found in Europe.
The rich glaze of the pottery ; the eleganceof the shape of some
of the vessels (compared with the rude cineraryurns
discovered in the
British barrows);the presence of implements of iron ; the representations
of processions
with musical instruments
and led horses, which are
of the cromlechs ; the presence of
the sides of some
on
rudelysculptured
civilization
all these circumstances
denote a superior
gold ornaments
;
to that of the primitive
Celts,and therefore a later originof the relics.
asserted (though I have been unable
If it be true, as it is confidently
covered
disthat a Roman
to ascertain the truth of the statement),
aureus
was

of the

some

in

"

in

of the

one

practisedmust

were

Christian
At
were

barrows, the
have

was

discoverable

of the
the aborigines
in their

peopleto

whom

made

of

use

appearedto

should

language.

several centuries

that

first be

rites

after

who

are

the

the

always lived

belonging to themselves

or

as

hence

it

to the

Tudas,

was

peculiarin their
it

was

found

toms
cus-

that the

and
practised
agriculture
Tudas
were
ignorantof agriculture,
wandering life,and were
pastoral,

neither claimed

Tudas

and

remains

belonged had

of the existence of the horse.

the

Druidical

attributed

further research

On

those remains

have

at

and
Nilgherries,

horses; whereas

ignoranteven

reverence

for

supposed that cairns and other

only on the Nilgherry hills ;

that these remains

as

survived

those Druidical

era.

first it

natural

by which

race

It

covered
dissubsequently

the cairns and cromlechs

their ancestors, nor

of
; that their rites

was

sepultureare

regardedthem

different
altogether

as

with
from

people who used those cairns ; and that they

ancient than themselves,
by whom
ascribed them to a peoplestillmore
inhabited priorto
was
they assert that the plateauof the Nilgherries
they designatedthe cairns as burial places
their arrival. Sometimes
or
Curumbars,a race of uomade
of the 'Curbs,' i.e.,of the Curubas
overspread a considerable part of the Tamil
shepherds who once
of Ptolemy),and of whom
nomadic S6ras
the
a
couBtry (probably
of
the Nilgherries.It
few scattered relics still inhabit the slopes
appeared,however, on making inquiryof the Curubas, that they
those

of the

ancient

'

'

526

APPENDIX.

neither

supposed the barrows

problem stillremained

Druidical rites themselves, nor

practised

to be the

work

unsolved.

It

of their ancestors

that the

so

lengthascertained that similar cairns

a great varietyof similar remains, but of a
more
containing
order and

in

Ana-mala

at

was

better condition,existed in immense

of hillson

a
hills,^"
range

barrows,

or

advanced

numbers

on

the

the south side of the great Coim-

batoor gap, which form the commencement

and the northern face of the
Southern Ghauts ; and further investigation
not
proved their existence,

only in

mountain

but
rangies,

in almost

Peninsular India,from
in the

presidencyof

Similar
of stones

Arabian

found

are

and

Druidical

had

remains

completelyas from
and the questionof

any
the

and also in various

Madura,

found

are

graves

in the Somali

discoveryhas

to

also in Circassia and

surroundingancient
coast

This
other

remains

Nagpore
Bombay.

every part of the Dekhan

districts

Kussia; and

both

and

circles

the Southern

on

country in Africa.

the effect of

of the

the cairns,and
disconnecting
from the Tudas, almost as
Nilgherries

other Dravidian

race

tribe that

or

exists j

now

originof the relics which have been discovered

but in many
in such numbers
other parts
not only in the Nilgherries,
of India,and in the plainsas well as on the mountains, and
also the
and historyof the peopleof whom
ulterior questionof the relationship
that remain, have now
become
these relics are the only monuments
character.
general and of a deeplyinteresting
problems of a more
Captain Meadows
Taylor has discovered and examined a largenumber
and also at Siwarji,
of these remains atEajan KolOor,in Sorapoor,
near
Ferozabad,

the

on

comparison of

them

Bhima; and

with similar remains

much

found

in

attention

England.

to

He

the
calls

'

It is probablycorrect

character

to the

to

regard

them

Druidical ; but

as

Celtic,for the
necessarily

this account

on

Druidical

the

devoted

or
Scytho-Drnidical.'
'Scytho-Celtic,'

them

not

has

and

the

nse

of cairns

and

practiceof rites of
barrows

also
appear to have prevailed
the other Scythiansby whom

Celts,but

Euraskians,and

theyare
not

were

fined
con-

amongst the Finns,

Europe

was

bited
inha-

priorto the arrival of the Celtic race ; and traces of the same
have been discovered in various parts
and sepulture
system of religion
arid Central

of Northern
seems

The

other

term,

'

Scytho-Druidical/

one.
unobjectionable

an

It is

Asia.

remarkable' circumstance

of the

to which

these

that

no

class of Hindus

Druidical remains

know

thing
any-

belonged,and that
in that of the Dravidian languages
neither in Sanscrit literature nor
is there any tradition on the subject. The Tamil peoplegenerally
call
'kuri' means
of 'p"nda-kuris.'
the cairns by the name
a pit or grave,
race

ANCIENT

RELIGION

OV

THE

527

DRAVIDIANS.

and

'pandu'* denotes anj/thimg

connected with the Pindus,'or Pandava
brothers,to whom, all over
are
India, ancient mysteriousstructures
generallyattributed. To call anything 'a work
is
of the Pandus'
equivalentto terming it 'Cyclopean'in Greece,'a work of the Picts'
in

Scotland,or

'a work

of Nimvod'

in Asiatic

Turkey ; and it means

is appliedwas
only that the structure to which the name
erected in
remote
When
some
known.
age, by a people of whom
nothing is now
the Tamil
these pindu-kuris built
people are asked
by whom
were
and used V they sometimes
reply, by the people who lived here long
unable to tellwhether
those people were
their own
ago ;'but they are
ancestors
kuris
or
a
foreignrace, and also when and why those
'

'

'

'

ceased

be used.

to

peoplewho
and

who

The

which

built the cairns

is sometimes

given is that the

'a race'of dwarfs
who
lived long ago,
cubit high,but were
possessedof the

answer
were

only a span or a
strengthof giants.'
The supposition
that the builders of the
were

the Dravidians, and

earlier than
the

plainsand

forced to take

theygraduallydied out, would

mentioned

now

; but

modern

the art
Hindoos

of

expelledby the Dravidians from

refuge in the hills and jungles,where
accord

with

it is inconsistent

with

themselves.

wandered

who
about

the

If

of the circumstances

some

the

proofswhich we meet
with their ance
in.particular
acquaint-

glazingpottery,an

hand, .that they were

settled in India

were

with of the civilization of the race, and

with

cairns had

art which

should

we

of nomadic

is unknown

suppose,

the

on

to

the

other

'

'

Scytho-Druidicalshepherds,
India, afterit was
peopled and settled (perhaps
stance
era),and then wandered out again, the circuma

into

Christian

race

remains

that the Druidical

are

found

most

in remote
plentifully

The
an
improbableone.
regionsrenders this supposition
of the supposition
would, however, be diminished,if we
improbability
that this shepherd people,instead of retracingtheir
to suppose
were
mountainous

alliances with the

steps and wandering out of India,formed

graduallymerged in the
the people to
Whether

and

of the Dravidian

know

whom

these

is not to be confounded
'P"ndu'
' Pindi
Pandiya/ the name
or
confounded
it)with
Madura.
Possiblyboth words may be 'derived from
*

This

word

'

they
Tamil

are

unconnected

scholars derive

Sanscrit
ultimate

'Pandu,'
root

race.

Scytho-Druidicalremains
be settled
not Dravidians
were
or
(a pointwhich cannot
be regardedas proof them), it cannot
something more

belonged were
till we

mass

Dravidians,

'

but

'

'

and

Pandi,' the

from

old.
par-a,'

independent.
title of the

''Pandu,'a

Tamil

(as Captain Congreve has

of the ancient
dynasty of
the same
torically
etymon; but his-

It may
Madura

be added

also that some

the

dynasty, not from

word, signifyingancient,from

the

528

APPENDIX.

bable

that their

rightsof sepulturehad

religions
usages and

their

originin India.
resemblance

The

"c.)to

of the barrows

the Druidical

which

lechs,
crom-

discovered in the ancient

are

to be
Europe,is too exact and remarkable
accounted
for on any other supposition
than that of their derivation
from the same
Druidical rites were
origin. Hence the peopleby whom
introduced into India must have broughtthem with them from Central
Asia ; and this favours the conclusion
that they must
have entered
India at a very earlyperiod a periodperhaps as earlyas the introduction
it is
of Druidical rites into Europe. On
this supposition
that they kept themselves
separate from the
necessary to suppose
and that they imitated
various races
that entered India subsequently,
the civilization of the newer
immigrantswithout abandoningtheir own
peculiarities.
that those people
It remains,however, as great a mystery as ever
and that not even
tradition of their
have everywhere disappeared,
a

seats

of the Celtic

remains

(with the

and their contents

in

race

"

existence
On

survives.
review

of the various

which have been mentioned

particulars
religious
usages of the Un-Aryanised Dravidians,

the
respecting
that
race
includingthe Kus and the Tudas, and also the unknown
Druidical rites,
it seems
that the majorityof
unquestionable
practised
above

inhabitants

Dravidian

the ancient

manites, like the majorityof the

Asia, whilst
Dravidian

it also

tribes

of Druidical

seems

of India
ancient

probable that

strong under-current

of

were

demonolaters

or

Sha-

Scythian tribes of Upper

there

existed

amongst

some

and possibly
Indo-European,

tendencies.'

which has already

exactlyaccords with the supposition
from lingualcomparisonrespecting
the relationship
been deduced
or
that in basis and originit is distinctively
affiliationof the Dravidian
race, viz.,
of an
Scythian,with a small but very ancient admixture
Indo-Europeanelement.
This result

PRINTED

BY

HABRISOH

AND

SONS,

ST.

MARTIN

LANE.