106

J. Meichsner

5.3 Plasma Surface Transition

5.3.1 Plasma Boundary Sheath, Bohm Criterion
We consider a stationary, uniform low temperature plasma consisting of single charged positive ions and electrons with Maxwell energy distributions
(Te  Ti ). The discharge electrodes, surrounding surfaces or immersed substrates/probes will be negatively charged in respect to the plasma potential (VP l ) because of higher mobility of electrons in respect to the ions
1/2
( [mi Te /(me Ti )] ). The negative charged surface is shielded by a positive
space charge sheath in front of the surface. This plasma boundary sheath, the
potential of which is shown in Fig. 5.4, determines the charge carrier transport to the surface and may inuence the discharge mechanism by secondary
particle emission from the surface.

potential

VPl
VBohm

Vsurface

presheath

plasma

n+ ne

n+=ne

sheath
n+ne
d sheath

Fig. 5.4. Plasma boundary sheath. Typical potential change in dependence on the
distance from the surface

More in detail, the plasma surface transition is characterised by a presheath and the space charge sheath. Coming from the quasi-neutral plasma
at the potential VP l , a small potential drop over the quasi-neutral pre-sheath
accelerates positive ions to the Bohm velocity.
Potential drop :
Bohm velocity :
Bohm criterion :

1 kB Te
VBohm =
,
2 e


1/2
kB Te
vBohm =
,
mi
mi 2
1
vBohm kB Te .
2
2

(5.21)
(5.22)
(5.23)

In the space charge region the ions will be accelerated and electrons retarded
according their kinetic energy. For an insulating surface the net current in
steady state will be zero:

5 Low Temperature Plasmas

je + ji = 0 ,

1/2

kB Te
e Vsh
exp
2me
kB Te


1/2
kB Te
; ni0 = ne0 .
ji = e ni0 exp(1/2)
mi

je = e ne0 exp(1/2)

Then, the potential drop across the space charge sheath is


mi
1 kB Te
kB Te
ln
,
34
Vsh =
2 e
2 me
e
Vf l = VP l VBohm Vsh .

107

(5.24)


,

(5.25)
(5.26)

(5.27)
(5.28)

Typical electron temperature of a few 104 K (few eV) leads to a oating potential Vf l of about 1020 V negative to the plasma potential. Using
Poissons equation and a plane geometry the positive ion current density can
be calculated in the collision free and collision dominated case:

1/2 3/2
Vsh
2e
4
i  dsh collision free :
ji = 0
,
9
mi
d2sh
(Child Langmuir)
(5.29)
i  dsh

collision dominated :

ji =

V2
9
0 i 3sh .
8
dsh

(5.30)

Furthermore, taking into calculation the ion current density ji according to

the Bohm criterion at the sheath boundary, the space charge sheath thickness
can be expressed in terms of the Debye length D [see (1.7) in Chap. 1] and
the sheath voltage (5.34).
In a similar way the plasma sheaths are formed in front of discharge
electrodes (dc cathode layer, rf electrodes), immersed samples for plasma
diagnostics or samples for material surface treatment, and walls.
In low pressure dc discharges, the ion current at the cathode represents
nearly the total discharge current. Davis and Vanderslice [8] have presented
rstly an analytical expression for the ion energy distribution function at the
cathode. Rickards [9] has modied this model.
Linear increasing electric eld strength towards the cathode surface, no
ionisation in the cathode layer, and charge transfer collisions with constant
cross section are included in the model.


dNi
Ni0 L
L
L
1/2
1/2
=
(1


)
exp

+
(1


)
,
d
2 ex
ex
ex
(5.31)
where ex is the mean free path for charge transfer, L thickness of the cathode
layer,  = /(eVc ) the ion energy relative to the maximal ion energy for
collision free transport in the cathode layer ( = 0 . . . 1).
F ( ) =

108

J. Meichsner

5.3.2 RF Plasma Sheath

More complicated is the situation at the electrodes in rf discharges, characterised by excitation frequencies between ion and electron plasma frequency.
In a capacitively coupled, unconned and for that reason asymmetrical rf discharge, a negative self bias voltage is created at the powered electrode which
is little less than half the peak to peak rf voltage. Assuming capacitive sheath
model the simplied potential change with time is represented in Fig. 5.5.

Vsheath
Grounded electrode

VPl

Potential in V

VRF

Vsheath
RF-electrode

Vself bias

Fig. 5.5. Simplied potential change with time and resulting sheath voltage at the
rf and grounded electrode. The dierence between the plasma potential VP l and Vrf
respectively ground potential (V = 0) represents the sheath voltage at the powered
and grounded electrode

1
VP P = Vrf 0 ; Vrf = VSB + Vrf 0 sin (t) ;
2
1
= Vf l + (VSB + Vrf 0 ) [1 + sin (t)] .
2

VSB

(5.32)

VP l

(5.33)

The negative self bias voltage results from the fact that no net dc current can
be ow over one rf cycle at capacitive coupling. The electrons can follow the
alternating electric eld and leads to a moving electron front which modulates
the positive space charge region, respectively the voltage and the thickness of
the sheath. Increasing rf voltage amplitude mainly aect the self bias voltage
and have only little inuence on the plasma potential in strong asymmetric
rf discharges. As the result the self bias voltage at the powered electrode
increases with rf voltage, whereas at the grounded electrode no inuence can
be seen. The sheath properties at the grounded electrode are comparable
with a dc plasma sheath.

5 Low Temperature Plasmas

109

The transport of positive ions is inuenced by the oscillating plasma

sheath voltage, charge transfer collisions and elastic collisions.
The sheath thickness is determined by the Debye length D and the voltage drop across the sheath Vsh . For collisionless regime the sheath thickness
is given by (5.34). The factor Ce represents a correction term due to the time
modulated electron density [10].
dsh

25/4
Ce D
=
3

e Vsh
kB Te

3/4
with

1 Ce

50
27

1/2
.

(5.34)

1050 Vpp

875 Vpp

700 Vpp

525 Vpp

5.0*10 5

Lin. Intensity [ C/ s ]

Lin. Intensity [ C/ s ]

The value Ce = 1 is given for the dc sheath.

The energy of impinging positive ions at the rf electrodes depends on
the ratio between the ion transition time in the rf sheath and the rf-cycle.
Therefore, the ion mass, rf frequency, and collisions in the sheath regions
have signicant inuence on the shape of the ion energy distribution function. Direct ion extraction at the discharge electrode and energy selective
mass spectrometry can be used for experimental determination of ion energy
distributions. Figure 5.6 (a) and Fig. 5.6 (b) show the time averaged Ar+ energy distributions at the driven and grounded electrode of an rf discharge in
argon. As expected from the potential structure, the ion energy at the powered electrode is strongly coupled to the rf voltage due to the self bias voltage.
The corresponding maximal ion energy is of the order of several hundred eV,
whereas the energy of positive ions at the grounded electrode is lower then
20 eV.

1050 V pp

875 Vpp

700 Vpp

525 Vpp

1*10 6

350 Vpp

2.5*10 5

350 Vpp

5*10 5

*5
*10

175 Vpp
0
0

100

200

300

400

Ion Energy [ eV ]

500

600

0
0

10

15

175 Vpp
20

25

30

Ion Energy [ eV ]

Fig. 5.6. Ion energy distribution function (Ar+ ) at the rf electrode (a) and
grounded electrode (b) (13.56 MHz-discharge in argon at 5 Pa, parameter: peakto-peak voltage [11])

110

J. Meichsner

Signicant dierences in the shape of the ion energy distribution at the

two electrodes are observed. Ions coming from the bulk plasma need several
rf cycles for transition to the rf electrode. In Fig. 5.6(a) the arrows mark
the situation for entering the ions from the bulk plasma into the sheath
at the low and high sheath voltage, respectively. In result a saddle shaped
structure in the ion energy distribution is found. The observed multiple peak
structure in the low energetic part comes from charge transfer collisions in
the sheath region. In the time averaged ion energy distribution the saddle
shaped structures overlap from ions directly from bulk plasma and ions from
charge transfer collisions. At the grounded electrode the single peak at the
high energy end is seen, only.
With increasing pressure the elastic collisions will have more inuence.
This is connected with increasing ion intensity at the low energy part and
disappearing (multiple) peak structure.
In microwave discharges and inductively coupled rf discharges (ICP) the
lower sheath voltages represents conditions similar to the conditions in front
of surfaces at oating potential. Using magnetized plasmas the cyclotron
motion must be taken into the consideration.
5.3.3 Electric Probes
Electric probes are widely applied to determine experimentally the electron
energy distribution function f (), or Te in the case of Maxwellian distribution,
electron and ion density and potentials. The I/U -characteristic is taken from
a circuit consisting of a small metallic electrode (probe) of plane, cylindrical
or spherical shape immersed in the plasma, a reference electrode, and variable
external dc power supply. In single probe measurement (Langmuir probe) the
reference electrode is one of the discharge electrodes, and in double probe
measurements a second immersed probe is applied, respectively. Generally,
the immersed electric probe represents a disturbance of the plasma around
the probe position due to space charge sheath in front of the probe surface
and the extraction of charged particles. Despite the relative simple technique,
specic conditions have to be fullled for accurate analysis of the plasma
parameters derived from the I/U -characteristic [12].
Single (Langmuir) Probe
We consider an uniform low temperature plasma consisting of single charged
positive ions and electrons at Maxwellian energy distribution with Te  Ti .
A typical I/U -characteristic of a cylindrical Langmuir probe is shown in
Fig. 5.7. Principally, the characteristic can be divided into three parts:
I:
II:
III:

Ion current saturation region Ii  Ie (V  Vf l )

Transition region
Electron current saturation region Ii  Ie (V > Vpl )

5 Low Temperature Plasmas

Probe current I

I
Ion
saturation current

111

III
Electron
saturation current

II
Transition
region

Vfl

VPl

Probe voltage U = V-VPl

Fig. 5.7. Dierent regions of a single probe characteristic

The working regime of the electric probe is determined by the parameters

probe radius rP , the mean free path length of charge carrier i/e for ions and
electrons respectively, and the Debye length D . For the classic collisionless
single probe theory the two working regimes are dened by
i/e  rP  D (thin sheath)
i/e  D  rP (thick sheath, orbital motion limit OML )
Ion Current Saturation Region (I)
A simple solution is given for the OML case, and energy and angular momentum conservation law. Not all ions entering the sheath are collected by
the probe. For cylindrical probes the ion saturation currents is given by:


1/2

1/2
kB Te
eU
(5.35)
Ii = ni e2 rp lp
1
mi
kB Te
with U = V Vpl . Furthermore, Sonin [13] has introduced the so-called
Sonin-plot for calculation the ion density. In this plot the term P2 ii is plotted
against the dimensionless current ii for a pre-selected value of f l 10 [14].
Taking into calculation the ion current:


1/2
kB Te
ii .
(5.36)
Ii = ni e Ap
mi
2

The multiplication of (5.36) with P2 = (rp /D ) and conversion results in

 

3/2 

1/2

rp2
e
Ii (f l 10)
2mi
2
P ii =
(5.37)
e
e
kB Te
Ap

112

J. Meichsner

with f l = (eVf l eVpl )/(kB Te ). The right side of (5.37) includes experimental
data, only. From the determined value P2 ii the dimensionless current ii can
be found in the Sonin-plot, and from (5.36) the ion density.
Transition Region (II)
The electron current increases due to the reduced retarding negative probe
potential in respect to the plasma potential. Therefore, the information about
the EEDF is included in this part of the probe characteristic. Assuming
Maxwellian distribution of the electron energy, the electron current is


Ie = ne e Ap

kB Te
2 me

1/2

eU
exp
kB Te


.

(5.38)

The electron temperature can be calculated from the slop of the semilogarithmic plot according to



Ie
e d
ln
(5.39)
Te =
kB dU
Ie0
and the electron density from the electron current at plasma potential:
Ie (U = 0)
ne =
Ap e

2 me
kB Te

1/2
.

(5.40)

If the electron energy distribution function is non-Maxwellian, the Druyvesteyn

method can be used by second derivative of the electron current:
d2 Ie
=
dU 2

2e
me

1/2

e Ap
1/2
ne (U )
f ()V .
4

(5.41)

with U = V Vpl .
Electron Current Saturation Region (III)
The electron saturation current in the OML case can be described similar to
the ion saturation current. The electron current is expressed by
2
Ie = ne e Ap

kB Te
2 me

1/2

1+

eU
kB Te

1/2
.

(5.42)

Symmetrical Double Probe

The I/U -characteristic is taken from two small symmetric probes immersed
in the plasma. This characteristic resembles the ion current part of the single
probe characteristic in both direction of the applied voltage, see Fig. 5.8.

5 Low Temperature Plasmas

dI
dU

fl

dI i
dU

113

sat

Probe current I

I i , fl

I i , fl
dI i
dU

sat

Probe voltage U

Fig. 5.8. I/U-Characteristic of a symmetric double probe

The double probe theory was rstly given by Johnson and Malter [15].
The advantage is that the complete probe system is on oating potential, and
it can be applied in electrode-less generated plasmas without a big reference
electrode. The disadvantage is that no information can be obtained about
the complete electron energy distribution function. Taking into calculation a
Maxwellian EEDF the electron temperature is given by:





 1
dI
dIi
kB Te
= Ii,f l 2

.
e
dU f l
dU sat

(5.43)

The ion density is obtained similar to the procedure at single probe measurement.
Special Cases, Problems in Probe Diagnostics
The analysis of I/U -characteristics and calculation of plasma parameters is
more complicated because of the inuence by:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

collisions in the sheath,

dierent kinds of positive ions,
presence of negative ions,
magnetized plasmas (anisotropic transport),
rf plasmas (modulated plasma potential needs compensation methods and
damping of the rf amplitude in the probe circuit) and
6. deposition plasmas.