T H E PICTURE O F T H E T A O I S T G E N I I P R I N T E D O N T H E COVER

of this book is part of a painted temple scroll, recent but traditional, given to
M r Brian Harland in Szechuan province (1946). Concerning these four divinities,
of respectable rank in the 'Taoist bureaucracy, the following particulars have been
handed down. T h e title of the first of the four signifies 'Heavenly Prince', that
of the other three ' 3lysterious Commander '.
At the top, on the left, is Liu Thien Chiin, Comptroller-General of Crops and
Weather. Before his deification (so it was said) he was a rain-making magician
and weather forecaster named Liu Chun, born in the Chin dynasty about +340.
Among his attributes may be seen the sun and moon, and a measuring-rod or
carpenter's square. T h e two great luminaries imply the making of the calendar, so
important for a primarily agricultural society, the efforts, ever renewed, to reconcile
celestial periodicities. T h e carpenter's square is no ordinary tool, but the gnomon
for measuring the lengths of the sun's solstitial shadows. T h e Comptroller-General
also carries a bell because in ancient and medieval times there was thought to be
a close connection between calendrical calculations and the arithmetical acoustics
of bells and pitch-pipes.
At the top, on the right, is 1f'i.n Yrtan Shrtai, Intendant of the Spiritual Oficials
of the Sacred Mountain, Thai Shan. IIe was taken to be an incarnation of one of
the Hour-Presidents (Chia Shen), i.e. tutelary deities of the twelve cyclical characters
(see Vol. 4, pt. 2, p. 440). During his earthly pilgrimage his name was Huan Tzu-Yii
142). He is seen
and he was a scholar and astronomer in the Later IIan (b.
holding an armillary ring.

Relow, on the left, is Kou Yunn Shttai, Assistant Secretary of State in the Ministry
of Thunder. FIe is therefore a late emanation of a very ancient god, Lei Kung.
Hefore he became deified he was I-Isin Hsing, a poor woodcuttcr, but no doubt an
incarnation of the spirit of the constellation Kou-Chhen (the Angular Arranger),
part of the group of stars which we know as Ursa llinor. I-Ie is equipped with
hammer and chisel.
Below, on the right, is Pi Yuan Shrtai, Commander of the Lightning, with his
flashing sword, a deity with distinct alchemical and cosmological interests. According
to tradition, in his early life he was a countr);man whose name was Thien Hua.
Together with the colleague on his right, he controlled the Spirits of the Five
Directions.
Such is the legendary folklore of common men canonised by popular acclamation.
An interesting scroll, of no great artistic merit, destined to decorate a temple wall,
to be looked upon by humble people, it symbolises something which this book has
to say. Chinese art and literature have been so profuse, Chinese mythological
imagery so fertile, that the \Vest has often missed other aspects, perhaps more
important, of Chinese civilisation. Here the graduated scale of Liu Chun, at first
sight unexpected in this setting, reminds us of the ever-present theme of quantitative measurement in Chinese culture; there were rain-gauges already in the Sung
( + 12th century) and sliding calipers in the Han ( + 1st). T h e armillary ring of
Huan Tzu-Yu bears witness that Naburiannu and Hipparchus, al-Naqqssh and
Tycho, had worthy counterparts in China. T h e tools of I Isin I-Ising symbolise that
great empirical tradition which informed the work of Chinese artisans and technicians all through the ages.

SCIENCE AND CIVILISATION

I N CHINA
A certain knowledge of Eastern religions and philosophies aids one's intellect and intuition
in understanding the ideas (of inner alchemy), partly at least, just as one can fathom the
paradoxes of primitive beliefs in terms of 'ethnology' or of the 'comparative history of
religion'. But this is the Western way of hiding one's own heart under the cloak of so-called
scientific understanding. We do it partly because of the 'mis6rable vanite des savants', which
fears and rejects with horror any sign of living sympathy, and partly because an understanding
that reaches the feelings might allow contact with the foreign spirit to become a serious
experience.. .. Science only works harm when taken as an end in itself. Scientific method must
serve; it errs when it usurps a throne.
C. G. Jung, in the introduction to his commentary on
Richard Wilhelm's translation of Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih
Entwachsest d u dir selbst und aller Kreatur
So wird dir eingeimpft die giittliche Natur.
Angelus Silesius (Joh. Scheffler, 1624 to

+ 1677). Cherubinische Wandersmann, I1

T h e mystic does not deny the body, but uses it as a necessary instrument of salvation.
G. Tucci, in Theory and Practice of the Mandala
T h e essence of all things is in our bodies. When thou shalt know thine own body, thy own
Amrita-ratniivali
foundation will be firm.
Ever keep Ithaca in your mind,
Your return thither is your goal.
But do not hasten at all your voyage,
Better that it last for many years.
All full of years at length you anchor at your isle,
Rich with all you gained upon the way,
D o not expect Ithaca to give you riches.
Ithaca gave you your fair voyage
Without her you would not have ventured on the way.
But she has no more to give you.
And if you find Ithaca a poor place
She has not mocked you.
You have become so wise, so full of experience
T h a t you should understand already what
These Ithacas mean.
C. V. Cavafy, 'Ithaca'
T u r n back, 0 Man, forswear thy foolish ways,
Old now is Earth, and none may count her days,
Yet thou, her child, whose head is crowned with flame,
Still wilt not hear thine inner god proclaim ' T u r n back, 0 Man, forswear thy foolish ways'.
Clifford Bax

SCIENCE A N D
CIVILISATION I N
CHINA
BY

JOSEPH NEEDHAM,

F.R.s., F.B.A.

S O \ l E T I \ l E X I A S T E R O F G O S V 1 I . I . E A S D CAIL'S COI.I,EC;E. C A \ l R R I D G E .
D I R E C T O R O F T H E E A S T A S I A S H I S T O R Y O F S C I E S C E 1.IRRARY. C A \ l R R I D G E
HOSORARY PROFESSOR O F ACADE\IIA S l S l C . 4

With the collaboration of

LU GWEI-DJEN,

PH.D.

FEI.I.O\V O F R O R I S S O S CO1.I.EC.E. C A M R R I D G E
A S S O C I A T E D I R E C T O R O F T H E E A S T A S l A S H I S T O R Y O F S C I E S C E 1.IRRARY. CAXIRRIDGE

VOLUME 5

CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL

TECHNOLOGY
P A R T V: S P A G Y R I C A L D I S C O V E R Y A N D
I N V E N T I O N : PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMRRIDGE
L O N D O N . NEW Y O R K . NEW ROCHELLE
MELBOURNE. SYDNEY

Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, C B 2 I R P
32 East 57th Street, New York, NY 10022, USA
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia
@ Cambridge University Press 1983

First published 1983

Reprinted 1986
Printed in Great Britain at the
University Press, Cambridge
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Needham, Joseph
Science and civilisation in China.
Vol. 5: Chemistry and chemical technology. Part
5 : Spagyrical discovery and invention:
physiological alchemy
I . Science - China - History
2. Technology - China - History
I. Title 11. Lu Gwei-djen
509'.51 ~ 1 2 7 . C 54-4723
~

formerly Professor of Comparative Religion at the Nanking

Theological Seminary
a master in the Tao

-remembering our talks in the

tower of Hua-Hsi Universityat Chhingtu
1943-1 944

and in memory of
R O R E R T van G U L I K
formerly Minister Plenipotentiary in the Netherlands
F m ~ Service
p

a master in the Tao

-remembering our talks from
Rasra to Chungking-

this volume is dedicated

CONTENTS
List of Illustrations
List of Tables

33

page xi

List of Abbreviations
Author's Note

xviii

xix

xxiii

A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y (continued)

Page 1

The Outer and the Inner Macrobiogens; the Elixir and the Enchymoma, p.
(I) Esoteric traditions in European alchemy, p.

(2) Chinese physiological alchemy; the theory of the enchyrnoma (nei tan)
and the three primary vitalities, p. 20
(i) The quest for material immortality, p. 28
(ii) Rejuvenation by the union of opposites; an in vivo
reaction, p. 34
(iii) The Hsiu Chen books and the Huang Thingcanons,p. 67
(3) The historical development of physiological alchemy, p. 129
(4) The techniques of macrobiogenesis, p. 142
(i) Respiration control, aerophagy, salivary deglutition and the
circulation of the chhi, p. 142
(ii) Gymnastics, massage and physiotherapeutic
exercise, p. 154
(iii) Meditation and mental concentration,p. 179
(iv) Phototherapeutic procedures, p. I 8 I
(v) Sexuality and the role of theories of generation,p. I 84
(5) The borderline between proto-chemical (wai tan) and physiological (nei
tan) alchemy, p. 2 I 8
(6) Late enchyrnoma literature of Ming and Chhing, p. 229
(i) The "Secret of the Golden Flower" unveil'd, p. 243
(7) Chinese physiological alchemy (Nei Tan) and the Indian Yoga, Tantric
and Hathayoga systems,p. 257
(i) Originalities and influences; similarities and
differences,p. 280
(8) Conclusions; Nei Tan as proto-biochemistry, p. 288

(k) The enchyrnoma in the test-tube; medieval preparations of urinary steroid

and protein hormones, p. 301

(I) The sexual organs in Chinese medicine, p. 302

(2) Proto-endocrinology in

Chinese medical theory, p. 304

(3) The empirical background, p. 307

(4) The main iatro-chemical preparations, P. 3 I 2

(5) Comments and variant processes,p. 322

(6) The history of the technique, p. 33 I

BIBLIOGRAPHIES .
Abbreviations, p. 3 39
A. Chinese and Japanese books before I 800, p. 347
Concordance for Tao Tsang books and tractates, p. 399
B. Chinese and Japanese books and journal articles since I 800, p. 402
C. Books and journal articles in Western languages, p. 424

338

GENERAL INDEX

Table of Chinese Dynasties

.
.

Summary of the Contents of Volume 5 .

Romanisation Conversion Table

515
563
564
566

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy; the idea
of parricide hypostatised into chemical reactions .
Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy; the idea
.
of incest hypostatised into chemical reactions
Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy;
calcination imaged as the breaking-up of the dried dead bones
of the royal hermaphrodite .
Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy; sexual
union as symbol of chemical reaction .
Drawing of a plant often eaten by adepts seeking prolongevity or
material immortalitv, the shu
.
Drawing of a fungus often eaten by adepts seeking prolongevity
or material immortality, the fu ling
.
Knowledge of Nature as a way of salvation; a Buddhist arhat

A scholarly adept meditating on the inner and the outer

.
enchymomas
Portrait of the physician Sun I-Khuei, prefixed to his Chhih Shui
Hsiian Chu of I 596 .

Emblematical illustration showing an adept holding the three

interlinked primary vitalities, shen, chhi and ching .
T h e eight trigrams in the Fu-Hsi arrangement, from Chang
Chieh-Pin's LA Ching Fu I ( 1624). ch. 1, p. 2 h .

T h e eight trigrams in the W i n Wang arrangement, from the LA

Ching Fu I ( I 624), ch. I , p. qb .

The chart called Ming Ching chih Thu (Bright Mirror of

Physiological Alchemy) drawn up by Phkng Hsiao in 947 .

An illustration from Hsing Ming Kuei Chih (ch. I , p. 37h)

showing the symbolical animals of the four directions
surrounding and influencing the bodily reaction-vessel in
.
which the enchymoma is b e ~ n gprepared

xii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Image of Mei-Than Tsang Wang, one of the 500 Lohan at the

temple of Pao-Kuang Ssu, near Hsintu in Szechuan
.
An adept meditates upon the inversion of the trigrams Khan and
.
Li
An illustration from the Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Him Yuan Thu
(Treatise on the Analogy of the Regeneration of the Primary
Vitalities with the Cosmogony of the Supreme Pole and
Primitive Chaos), written by Hsiao Tao-Tshun about I 100

Another diagram from the same work (p. qa,b) in which the chhi
circulation cycle is paralleled by the diurnal rotation of day and
.
night, and with the lunation .
-

Another diagram of Hsiao Tao-Tshun's (pp I I b, I 2a), showing

the relative positions of the six organs concerned with
physiological alchemy .
'Eclipse' diagram from the Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Thu
( ~ ~ . 1 5 b , 1 6 a ).
The circulation of pneumata (chht?and juices (1) through the nine
.
organs
A diagram from the Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Chih HGan
Thu (TTr47) written by Chin Chhiian Tzu about 830 (p. I b)

A similar diagram (p. 5b) of rejuvenation, i.e. the re-casting and

.
re-creating of the bodily form (lien hsing)
Another diagram (p. qa,b) showing the successful formation of a
.
greater and a lesser anablastemic enchymoma
An 'eclipse' diagram from the same work (p. 6 b) expounding the
theory of perfected equalisation in enchymoma formation .
The enchyrnoma in all its glory (p. 7a) surrounded by the archaei
.
of the organs
One of the 500 Lohan at the Pao-Kuang Ssu temple near Hsintu
in Szechuan (orig. photo. 1972) .
A fresco of Lohan at the Fo-Kuang Ssu temple in the foothills of
Wu-thai Shan in Shansi
.
The 'divine embryo' or enchyrnoma seen again in an image of
one of the 500 Lohan at the Pao-Kuang Ssu temple near
.Hsintu in Szechuan .

...

L I S T OF I L L U S T R A T I O N S

A rubbing from a stele inscription of the H u q Thing Nei Ching

YuChing .

86

1569 One of the frescoes of the Taoist temple, Yung-L6 Kung, in

Shansi, showing Chungli Chhiian in conversation about the
.
Tao with Lii Tung-Pin

87

1570 Drawing of Chang PO-Tuan, from Lieh Hsien Chhiian Chum,

ch. 7, p. 23a
.

89

1571 Sculptured Lohan in one of the caves at Nan-f6ng Shan, near

Hangchow in Chekiang
.

90

1572 One of the 500 Lohan at Pao-Kuang Ssu, Hsintu, stretching out
his arm to bring down the Yang from the heavens (or rather,
the Yin within the Yang) .

93

I 568

..

X111

1573 One of the 500 Lohan at Pao-Kuang Ssu, Hsintu, stretching out
his arm to fish up the Yin from the depths of the sea (or rather,
the Yang within the Yin) .
I 574

T h e adept holding the moon (Yin) in his right hand, and the sun
(Yang) in his left. An illustration from H*
Ming Kuei Chih
( + I 615) entitled 'Universal Radiance' (Phu Chao Thu)
.

1575 T h e celebrated graphic tabulation of reagents in physiological

alchemy given in the Wu Chen Phien (Poetical Essay on
Realising the Necessity of Regenerating the Primary Vitalities), composed by Chang PO-Tuan about 1075 .

97

T h e three explanations of the Wu Chen Phien (TT260, ch.

26, pp. 6b 7a) .

100

I 576a,b,c

I 577

The 'crescent moon furnace' in Hshg Ming Kuei Chih (

ch. I , p. 27b
.

+ I 6 I g),
101

1578 Another version of the graphic tabulation of Chang PO-Tuan,

from the Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu, ch. 3, p. 34a
.

102

1579 Diagram of the Mutual Stimuli and Responses of Forms and

Things (Hsing Wu Hsiang Kan chih Thu), from Chin Tan Ta
Yao Thu, ch. 3 p. 32 a .

103

A later representation of the same pattern, from H s i q Ming Kuei

Chih(+1615),ch. 2,p. 33b.

104

1581 The body depicted as a mountain up and down which the chhi
circulates; from Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu.

105

I 580

xiv

L I S T OF I L L U S T R A T I O N S

1582 A fanciful drawing due to Lin Shen-Feng analogising the

exercises of physiological alchemy with a set of arrows used in
.
the pitch-pot game
I 583 a, b

Yen Lo Tzu's drawings of the head region

1584a,b Yen Lo Tzu's sagittal sections of the thorax and abdomen,

giving the names of many structures recognised in physiologi.
cal alchemy
I 585 a, b

Yen Lo Tzu's drawings of the front aspect (right) and dorsal

aspect (left) of the viscera of the thorax and abdomen, about
1000 if not earlier
.

1586 The diagram of Taoist anatomy and physiology in the Shih Lin
Kuang Chi encyclopaedia, from the edition of 1478 .

I 587

The Nei Ching Thu (Diagram of the Internal Texture of Man), a

rubbing from a stone stele preserved at the Pai-Yiin Kuan
Taoist temple at Peking
.

1588 The Hsiu Chen Chhiian Thu (Complete Chart of the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities), a Chhkngtu wood-block
broadsheet of the twenties .
1589 A microcosmic figure from the Nei Chin Tan (The Metallous
.
Enchymoma Within), printed in 1622

159oa,b A page from the Chin Tan T a Chhhg (Compendium of the

Metallous Enchymoma), written by Hsiao Thing-Chih early
in the I 3th century .

1591 A nei tan adept in H+

Ming KueiChih ( + 1615),ch. 2, p. 14b.

1592 Possible beginnings of symbolic notation in physiological

alchemy; the small. drawings on pp. 4a,b and ga,b of the
Huang Thing Nei Ching Yii Ching Chu (Liang Chhiu Tzu's
Commentary on the Jade Manual of the Internal Radiance of
the YellowlCourts) .
1593 Symbolic notation in physiological alchemy; a couple of pages
from the Na' Chin Tan (The Metallous Enchymoma Within
the Body) of 1622, pp. gb, 6a .

I 594

Stone statue of Lao Tzu self-dated by inscription at 719, in the

.
Provincial Historical Museum at Thaiyuan, Shansi

517, in the
1595 Stone monument self-dated by inscription at
century following the activities of Khou Chhien-Chih .

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Photographs of two of the figures in the silk document on Taoist

calisthenics recovered from the tomb Ma-wang-tui no. 3, near
Chhangsha.
.
Outline drawings of the twenty-eight remaining postures in the
Ma-wang-tui document on Taoist calisthenics (chhi kung
.
chhiang shen)
The shrine of Lu Tung-Pin at the Yun-Lu Kung Taoist temple
on the top of Yo-lii Shan, across the river from Chhangsha in
Hunan
.
The physical exercises of the Chungli P a Tuan Chin F a
portrayed in two pages from Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT260), ch.
19,PP.4a,b,sa,b
.
An exercise from the Pao-Sh&g Hsin Chien (Mental Mirror of
the Preservation of Life), 1506, suitable for the fifth month

Another exercise from the same manual, suitable for the sixth
.
month.
A third exercise in this book, suitable for the eleventh month

An exercise from the I Chin Ching (Manual of Muscles and

Tendons), ascribed to the +5th century but in its present
form probably not earlier than the 16th .

An exercise from the set called Shih-erh Turn Chin Thu (Twelve
Elegant Exercises Illustrated), probably Ming in date, and a
Buddhicised version of Chungli Chhuan's series. .
Four pictures of Taoist calisthenics from Cibot ( + 1779), the
first paper to bring Chinese macrobiotic gymnastics to the
attention of the Western world .
A further four illustrations from Cibot (3)

Drawing of Ssuma Chhing-Chin, writer of the Tso Wmg Lun

.
(Discourse on Meditation) about 7 I 5

Drawing of Phing Tsu, the Methuselah of China, who was

believed to bwe his longevity to the mastery of sexual
techniques .

A drawing from Hsing Ming Kuei Chih ( 161S), ch. I, p.

illustrating the theory of huan ching pu nao .

21 a,

xvi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

T h e matrimonium alchymicum in the Chin I Huan Tan Yin Ch&g

Thu (Illustrations and Evidential Signs of the Regenerative
Enchymoma elaborated from the Metallous Fluid) by Lung
.
Mei Tzu, probably of the I 2th century (p. 3 a, b)

Another picture from the same work (p. 6a,b)

A third illustration from the same work (p. 7a).

212

214

215

A scroll-painting of KOHung's alchemical laboratory in a cave,

similar to that published by Sung Ta-Jen ( 6 ) ,p. 8; to show the
similarity between wai tan and nei tan operations .
The furnaces and hexagrams in the Hsiu C h a L i Yen Chhao Thu
(Transmitted Diagrams illustrating Tried and Tested Methods of Regenerating the Primary Vitalities), attributed to
Tung Chen Tzu .

221

Syncretism of the Taoist, Confucian and Buddhist traditions as

Ming Kua' Chih, ch. I , p. I b ( I 615)
.
seen in HszSZng

230

One of the 500 Lohan at the Buddhist temple of Chhiung-Chu

.
Ssu near Kunming, Yunnan

232

Another of the Lohan at Chhiung-Chu Ssu

A third Lohan at Chhiung-Chu Ssu

233
235

A fourth Lohan at Chhiung-Chu Ssu achieves salvation through

children .

236

Theoretical diagram by a contemporary physiological alchemist,

It6 Mitsutoshi (I), in his book Yang Sh&g Nei Kung P i Chueh
(Confidential Instructions on Nourishing the Life Force by
Gymnastics and other Physical Techniques), published in
1966 .

238

A drawing of Chang San-Fing, physiological alchemist of the

M. + 1400);from Lieh Hsien Chhuan Chum, ch.

c.
early Ming
8, p. 24b .

241

A drawing of Lii Tung-Pin, the famous adept of the +8th

century, sailing majestically in a cloud over the ocean of
samsara, with his bottlegourd containing the elixir of
immortality, and his Taoist sword slung across his back.
.
Page from the Hui Ming Ching (Manual of the Achievement of
Wisdom and Lengthening of the Life-Span) written by Liu
Hua-Yang in I 794 .

253

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

An earlier form of Fig. I 620;the circulation diagram in Hui Ming

Chiw ( + 1794) .
Anatomical diagram from the Hui Ming Ching showing T u MO
ascending from the reins to the brain and Jen MOdescending
from the latter to the former, the first dorsally, the second
frontally .
Some of the yogic postures, from Behanan (I). Here the lotusposture (padmGsana) .
The 'completeness' posture (samGffgcisana)
The 'plough' posture (halGsana)
T h e 'bow' posture (dhamrGsana)

.
.

A yogin co-operating in oxygen-consumption experiments

Drawing of Jung Chhcng, from Lieh Hsim Chhuan Chuan, ch. I,

P. 9 a -

Urine as a medicament; part of a I 3th century Japanese scrollpainting showing the urine of the Buddhist priest Ippen being
distributed by nuns to kneeling believers, in the belief that it
would cure blindness and illnesses of the gastro-intestinal tract

L I S T O F TABLES
121A Natural symbolic correlations according to the Fu-Hsi (Hsim
Thien) kua pattern
.
I 2IB

PaRe53

Natural symbolic correlations according to the W& W a q

(Hou Thim) kua pattern
.

I2IC

Counter-natural inverted Nei Tan correlations

I 22

Chang PO-Tuan's 'Precious Mirror of the Enchymoma

Laboratory (i.e. the Body)' .

I 23

Urinary steroid sex-hormones preparation methods.

I 24

Analysis of urinary steroid sex-hormone preparation

methods according to complexity
.

Page55

PaRe 60
Page 98

pages 3 2 6 7
PaRe330

L I S T O F ABBREVIATIONS
T h e following abbreviations are used in the text and footnotes. For abbreviations used
for journals and similar publications in the bibliographies, see pp.339 ff.

CCIF
CCYF
CHS

CLPT
CSHK

CTPS
EB
HCCC

HCSS
HFT
HHPT
HHS
HNT
ZCK

Bretschneider, E. (I), Botanicon Sinicum.

Chia Tsu-Chang & Chia Tsu-Shan (I), Chung-Kuo Chih W u Thu
Chien (Illustrated Dictionary of Chinese Flora), 1958.
Sun Ssu-MO, Chhien Chin I Fang (Supplement to the Thousand
Golden Remedies), between + 660 and + 680.
Sun Ssu-MO, Chhien Chin Yao Fang (Thousand Golden Remedies),
between + 650 and + 659.
Pan K u (and Pan Chao), Chhien Hun Shu (History of the Former
Han Dynasty), c. + 100.
Juan Yuan, Chhou Jen Chuan (Biographies of Mathematicians and
Astronomers), + 1799. With continuations by Lo Shih-Lin, Chu
Kho-Pao and Huang Chung-Chiin. In IICCC, chs. 15gff.
Thang Shen-Wei et al. (ed.), Chhg Lei P& Tshao (Reorganised
Pharmacopoeia), ed. of + I 249.
Yen Kho-Chiin (ed.), Chhiian Shang-Ku San-Tai Chhin Hun SanKuo Liu Chhao W t n (Complete Collection of prose literature
(including fragments) from remote antiquity through the Chhin
and Han Dynasties, the Three Kingdoms, and the Six Dynasties),
1836.
F u Chin-Chhiian (ed.), Ch&g Tao Pi Shu Shih Chung (Ten Types
of Secret Books on the Verification of the Tao), early 19th cent.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Yen Chieh (ed.), Huang Chhing Ching Chieh (monographs by Chhing
scholars on classical subjects), 1829, contd. 1860.
Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (Ten Rooks on the Regeneration of the Primary
Vitalities, physiological alchemy), c. + 1250.
Han Fei, IIan Fei Txu (Book of Master Han Fei), early - 3rd cent.
Su Ching et al. (ed.), Hsin IIsiu Pen Tshao (Newly Improved
Pharmacopoeia), + 659.
Fan Yeh & Ssuma Piao, Hou Hun Shu (History of the Later Han
Dynasty), + 450.
Liu An et al., Huai Nun Txu (Book of the Prince of Huai-Nan), - 120.
Taki Mototane, I Chi Khao (Iseki-k6) (Comprehensive Annotated
Bibliography of Chinese Medical Literature [Lost or Still Existing]),
finished c. 1825, pr. 1831 ; repr. Tokyo 1933, Shanghai 1936.

L l S T OF ABBREVIATIONS

KCCY
KHTT

LPC

MCPT
N

NCNA
PPTINP
PPT] WP
PTKM
PWYF
R

RBS
RP

SHC

Wang KhCn-Thang & Chu WCn-Chen (ed.), I Thung C h h g MO

- Chhiian (Complete Collection of Works on Medicine and
sphygmology),- + I 601.
Karlgren, B. (I), Grammata Serica (dictionary giving the ancient
forms and phonetic values of Chinese characters).
Chhen Yuan-Lung, KOChih Ching Yuan (Mirror of Scientific and
Technological Origins), an encyclopaedia of + 1735.
Chang Yii-Shu (ed.), Khang-Hsi Tzu Tim (Imperial Dictionary of
the Khang-Hsi reign-period), + 1716.
Kraus, P., Le Corpus des Euits Jiibiriens (Mkmoires de Z'lnstitut
d'Egypte, 1943, vol. 44, pp. 1-214).
Lung PO-Chien (I), Hsien Tshun Pen Tshao Shu Lu (Bibliographical
Study of Extant Pharmacopoeias and Treatises on Natural History
from all Periods).
TsCng Tshao (ed.), Lei Shtw (Classified Commonplace-Book),
+ 1136.
Shen Kua, M6ng Chhi Pi Than (Dream Pool Essays), + 1089.
Nanjio, B., A Catalogue of the Chinese Translations of the Buddhist
Tripitaka, with index by Ross (3).
Hsii Kuang-Chhi, Nung C h h g Chhiian Shu (Complete Treatise on
Agriculture), + 1639.
New China News Agency.
KO Hung, Pao Phu Tzu (Nei Phien) (Book of the Preservation-ofSolidarity Master; Inner Chapters), c. + 320.
Idem ( Wai Phien), the Outer Chapters.
Li Shih-Chen, P& Tshao Kang Mu (The Great Pharmacopoeia),
1596.
Chang Yii-Shu (ed.), Phei W& Yiin Fu (encyclopaedia), + 171I.
Read, Bernard E. et al., Indexes, translations and prCcis of certain
chapters of the P& Tshao Kang Mu of Li Shih-Chen. If the reference is to a plant see Read (I) ; if to a mammal see Read (2) ;if to a
bird see Read (3); if to a reptile see Read (4 or 5 ) ; if to a mollusc
see Read (5) ;if to a fish see Read (6) ;if to an insect see Read (7).
Revue Bibliographique de Sinologie.
Read & Pak (I), Index, translation and prCcis of the mineralogical
chapters in the P& Tshao Kang Mu.
Stein Collection of Tunhuang MSS, British Museum, London,
catalogue number.
Ssuma Chhien, Shih Chi (Historical Records), c. -90.
Thao Tsung-I (ed.), Shuo Fu (Florilegium of (Unofficial) Literature),
c. + 1368.
Shan Hai Ching (Classic of the Mountains and Rivers), Chou and
C/Han.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SIC

SKCS

SNPTC
SSIW

STTH
SYEY
TCTC
TF Y K
TKKW
TMITC
TPHMF
TPKC
TP Y L
TSCC

TSCCI W

xxi

Okanishi Tameto, Sung I-Chhien I Chi Khao (Comprehensive

Annotated Bibliography of Chinese Medical Literature in and
before the Sung Period). Jen-min 'CVei-sh&ng,Peking, 1958.
Ssu Khu Chhiian Shu (Complete Library of the Four Categories),
+ 1782; here the reference is to the tshung-shu collection printed
as a selection from one of the seven imperially commissioned
MSS.
Chi Yun (ed.), Ssu Khu Chhiian Shu Tsung Mu Thi Yao (Analytical
Catalogue of the Complete Library of the Four Categories), + 1782;
the great bibliographical catalogue of the imperial MS. collection
ordered by the Chhien-Lung emperor in + 1772.
Shen Nung Ptn Tshao Ching (Classical Pharmacopoeia of the
Heavenly Husbandman), C/Han.
Toktaga (Tho-Tho) et al.; Huang Yu-Chi et al. & Hsu Sung et al.
Sung Shih I Win Chih, Pu, Fu Phien ( A Conflation of the Bibliography and Appended Supplementary Bibliographies of the
History of the Sung Dynasty). Com. Press, Shanghai, 1957.
Wang Chhi, San Tshai Thu Hui (Universal Encyclopaedia), + 1609.
Mei Piao, Shih Yao Erh Ya (The Literary Expositor of Chemical
Physic; or, Synonymic Dictionary of Minerals and Drugs), + 806.
Ssuma Kuang, Tzu Chill Thung Chien (Comprehensive hlirror (of
History) for Aid in Government), + 1084.
lf'ang Chhin-Jo b Yang I (eds.), Tshe"Fu Yuan Kuei (Lessons of the
Archives, encyclopaedia), + I 013.
Sung Ying-Hsing, Thien Kung Khai Tl'u (The Exploitation of the
lVorks of Nature), 4- 1637.
Li Hsien (ed.), Ta Ming I Thung Chih (Comprehensive Geography
of the Ming Empire), + 1461.
Thai-Phing Hui Min Ho Chi Chii Fang (Standard Formularies of the
(Government) Great Peace People's lf'elfare Pharmacies), + I I 5 I .
Li Fang (ed.), Thai-Phing Kuang Chi (Copious Records collected in
the Thai-Phing reign-period), + 978.
I,i Fang (ed.), Thai-Phing Yii Lan (the Thai-Phing reign-period
(Sung) Imperial Encyclopaedia), + 983.
Chhen M&ng-Lei et al. (ed.), Thu S h CJII' Chhtng (the Imperial
Encyclopaedia of + 1726). Index by Giles, L. (2).
References to 1884 ed. given by chapter (chiian)and page.
References to 1934 photolitho reproduction given by tshe" (vol.)
and page.
Liu Hsii et al. & Ouyang Hsiu et al. ; Thang Shu Ching Chi I Wtn Ho
Chih. A conflation of the Bibliographies of the Chiu Thang Shu
by Liu Hsii (H/Chin, + 945) and the Hsin Thang Shu by Ouyang
Hsiu & Sung Chhi (Sung, + 1061). Com. Press, Shanghai, 1956.

xxii
TSFY

TTC
TTCY

v
WCT YICC
YCCC
YHL
YHSF

LTST O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S

Ku Tsu-Yu, Tu Shih Fang Yii Chi Yao (The Historian's Geographical Companion), begun before + I 666, finished before
+ 1692, but not printed till the end of the eighteenth century
(1796 to 1821).
Wieger, L. (6), Taoime, vol. I , Bibliographie GCnCrale (catalogue of
the works contained in the Taoist Patrologlr, Tao Tsanq).
Tao T t Ching (Canon of the Tao and its Virtue).
H o Lung-Hsiang & PhCng Han-Jan (ed.). Tao Tsang Chi Yao
(Essentials of the Taoist Patrology), pr. 1906.
Takakusu, J. & IVatanabe, I<., Tables du Taishd Issaiky6 (nouvelle
Pdition (Japonaise) du Canon bouddhique chinoise), Indexcatalogue of the Tripitaka.
Verhaeren, H. ( 2 ) (ed.), Catalogue de la Biblioth6que du P&-T'ang
(the Pei Thang Jesuit Library in Peking).
Tstng Kung-Liang (ed.), Wu Ching Tsung Yao (Chhien Chi),
military encyclopaedia, first section, + 1044.
Chang Chiin-Fang (ed.), Yiin Chi Chhi Chhien (Seven Ramboo
Tablets of the Cloudy Satchel), Taoist collection, + 1022.
Thao Hung-Ching (attrib.), Yao Hsing IJun (Discourse on the
Natures and Properties of Drugs).
Ma Kuo-Han (ed.), Yii Han Shan Fang Chi I Shri (Jade-Box
Mountain Studio collection of (reconstituted and sometimes
fragmentary) Lost Rooks), 1853.

AUTHOR'S NOTE
It is now some eighteen years since the preface for Vol. 4 of this series (Physics
and Physical Technology) was written; since then much has been done towards
the later volumes. We are now happy to be able to present a further part of Vol. 5
(Spagyrical Discovery and Invention), i.e. alchemy and early chemistry, which
go together with the arts of peace and war, including military and textile
technology, mining, metallurgy and ceramics. T h e point of this arrangement
was explained in the preface of Vol. 4 (e.g. pt. 3, p. I). Exigencies not of logic but
of collaboration are making it obligatory that these other topics should follow
rather than precede the central theme of chemistry, which here is printed as
Vol. 5, parts 2, 3, 4 and 5 , leaving parts I and 6 to appear at a later date.
T h e number of physical volumes (parts) which we are now producing may
give the impression that our work is enlarging according to some form of
geometrical progression or along some exponential curve, but this would be
largely an illusion, because in response to the reactions of many friends we are
now making a real effort to publish in books of less thickness, more convenient
for reading. At the same time it is true that over the years the space required for
handling the history of the diverse sciences in Chinese culture has proved
singularly unpredictable. One could (and did) at the outset arrange the sciences
in a logical spectrum (mathematics - astronomy - geology and mineralogy physics - chemistry - biology - psychology- sociology) leaving estimated room
also for all the technologies associated with them; but to foresee exactly how
much space each one would claim, that, in the words of the Jacobite blessing,
was 'quite another thing'. We ourselves are aware that the disproportionate size
of some of our Sections may give a mis-shapen impression to minds enamoured
of classical uniformity, but our material is not easy to 'shape', perhaps not
capable of it, and appropriately enough we are constrained to follow the Taoist
natural irregularity and surprise of a romantic garden rather than to attempt
any compression of our lush growths within the geometrical confines of a
Cartesian parterre. T h e Taoists would have agreed with Richard Baxter that
"tis better to go to heaven disorderly than to be damned in due order'. By some
strange chance our spectrum meant (though I thought at the time that the
mathematics was particularly difficult) that the 'easier' sciences were going to
come first, those where both the basic ideas and the available source-materials
were relatively clear and precise. As we proceeded, two phenomena manifested
themselves, first the technological achievements and amplifications proved far
more formidable than expected (as was the case in Vol. 4, pts. 2 and 3), and
secondly we found ourselves getting into ever deeper water, as the saying is,

xxiv

AUTHOR'S NOTE

intellectually (as will fully appear in the present part, and in the Sections on
medicine in Vol. 6).
Alchemy and early chemistry, the central subjects of the present Volume,
exemplified the second of these difficulties quite well enough, but they have had
others of their own. At one time I almost despaired of ever finding our way
successfully through the inchoate mass of ideas, and the facts so hard to
establish, relating to alchemy, chemistry, metallurgy and chemical industry in
ancient, medieval and traditional China. T h e facts indeed were much more
difficult to ascertain, and also more perplexing to interpret, than anything
encountered in subjects such as astronomy or civil engineering. And in the end,
one must say, we did not get through without cutting great swathes of briars and
bracken, as it were, through the muddled thinking and confused terminology of
the traditional history of alchemy and early chemistry in the West. Here it was
indispensable to distinguish alchemy from proto-chemistry, and to introduce
words of art such as aurifiction, aurifaction and macrobiotics. It is also fair to
say that the present subject has been far less well studied and understood, either
by Westerners or Chinese scholars themselves, than fields like astronomy and
mathematics, where already in the eighteenth century a Gaubil could do
outstanding work, and nearer our own time a Chhen Tsun-Kuei', a de
Saussure, and a Mikami Yoshio could set them largely in order. If the study of
alchemy and early chemistry had advanced anything like so far, it would be
much easier today than it actually is to differentiate with clarity between the
many divergent schools of alchemists at the many periods, from the - 3rd
century to the 17th, with which we have to deal. More adequate understanding would also have been achieved with regard to that crucial Chinese
distinction between inorganic laboratory alchemy (wai tan2)and physiological
alchemy (nei tan3), the former concerned with elixir preparations of mineral
origin, the latter rather with operations within the adept's own body; a
distinction hardly realised in the West before the just passed decade. As we shall
show in this present part, there was a synthesis of these two age-old trends-when
in iatro-chemistry from the Sung onwards laboratory methods were applied to
physiological substances, producing what we can only call a protobiochemistry.
Let us now, as an introduction to pt. 5 , take a look backward over the way we
have come. First, then, we had to write a very careful preamble (Sect. 33h, in
Vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 9 ff.) on concepts, terminology and definitions; because once
one has obtained a clear idea of the distinctions between aurifiction, aurifaction
and macrobiotics everything that one encounters in the proto-chemistry and
alchemy of all the Old World civilisations fa116 into place. There is a parallel
here with the history of time-keeping, for the ,rsdical gap between the clepsydra
and the mechanical clock was only filled by half-a-dozen centuries of Chinese
hydro-mechanical clockwork. S o in the same way the radical gap between

AUTHOR'S NOTE

xxv

Hellenistic aurifictive and aurifactive proto-chemistry at one end, and late

Latin alchemy and iatro-chemistry at the other, could only be explained by a
knowledge of Chinese chemical macrobiotics.
After that beginning the argument developed in several directions, among
which the reader might take his choice. How could belief in aurifaction ever
have arisen when the cupellation test had been known almost since the dawn of
the ancient empires? Look at Sect. 33h, 1-2, especially pp. 44 ff. in pt. 2. What
was the position of China in this respect, and what were the ancient Chinese
alchemists probably doing experimentally? Read 33h, 3-5; and c, 1-8 (pt. 2, pp.
47 ff., 188 ff.). Why were they so much more occupied with the perpetuation of
life on earth, even in ethereal forms, than with the faking or making of gold? We
tried to explain it in Sect. 33h (pt. 2, pp. 71 ff.). Such an induction of material
immortality was indeed the specific characteristic of Chinese alchemy, and our
conclusion was that the world-view of ancient China was the only milieu
capable of crystallising belief in an elixir ( t a n 1 ) ,good against death, as the
supreme achievement of the chemist (see especially pt. 2, pp. 78, 82, I 14-1 5).
This was the nub of the argument, and in the last part (Sect. 33i, 2-3 in pt. 4,
pp. 323 ff.) we followed the progress of that great creative dream through
Arabic culture and Byzantium into the Latin Raconian and Paracelsian West.
Differences of religion, theology and cosmology modified it but they could not
stop its dourse. There can be no doubt that it was born within the bosom of the
Taoist religion, and hence the reader was invited to participate in a speculation
that the alchemist's furnace derived from the liturgical incense-burner no less
than from the metallurgical hearth (Sect. 33h, 7, see pt. 2, pp. 128 ff., 154).
Finally something was said on the physiological background of the ingestion of
elixirs (Sect. j3d, I , see pt. 2, p. 291); why were they so attractive to the
consumer initially and why so lethal later? Here belongs also the conservation of
the body of the adept after death, important in the Taoist mind in connection
with material immortality (Sect. 33d, 2, see pt. 2, pp. 106 ff., 294 ff., 303-4).
In the sub-section giving the straight historical account of Chinese alchemy
from beginning to end, chishihpP"nmo2asthe phrase was (Sect. 33e, 1-8) in pt. 3,
no passage was really more significant than any other. Yet special interest did
attach to the oldest firm records of aurifiction and macrobiotics expounded in
( I ) , pp. I 2 ff. and to the study of the oldest alchemical books in (2) and (6, i), pp.
50 ff., I 67 ff. Now and then the narrative was interrupted by passages of detail,
especially in ( I ) , (z), (3, iii) and (6, vii) which readers not avid for minutiae may
have liked to pass over; such is the wealth of information not previously
available in the West. T h e sub-sections in the next part on chemical laboratory
apparatus and alchemical theory (Sects. 33f, g, h in pt. 4) explained themselves
from the contents table, and again no passage stood out as crucial; though many
matters of considerable importance for the history of chemistry revealed
themselves on the way. One thinks of the earliest tubular cooling devices (pp. 26

xxvi

AUTHOR'S NOTE

ff.), the radical differences between the Chinese, Hellenistic and Indian types of
still (pp. 80 ff.), the fascinating story of the first appearance of 'ardent water'
(strong alcohol) whether by freezing-out or by distillation (pp. 121 ff.), the
many ramifications of the term 'nitre' (hsiaol) in the history of the recognition
and separation of soluble salts, leading to the isolation and use of saltpetre and
copperas (pp. I 67 ff.), and the industrial precipitation of metallic copper from
its salts by iron (pp. 201 ff.).
Outstanding theoretically was the relation of the Chinese alchemist to time
(33h, 3-4, pt. 4, pp. 221 ff., 242 ff.). His was indeed the science (or protoscience) of the Change and Decay Control Department as one might say, for he
could (as he believed) accelerate enormously the natural change whereby gold
was formed from other substances in the earth, and conversely he could
decelerate asymptotically the rate of decay and dissolution to which human
bodies, each with their ten 'souls' (hun2andpho3;cf. Fig. I 306 on p. 91 of pt. 2),
were normally subject (cf. Fig. I 5 I 6 on p. 244 in pt. 4). Thus in the words of the
ancient Chinese slogan (33e, I , pt. 3, p. 27) 'gold can be made, and salvation can
be attained'. And the macrobiogens were thus essentially time- and ratecontrolling substances - a nobly optimistic concept for a nascent science of two
thousand years ago.
T h e historical narrative in pt. 3 was drafted in the first place by our
collaborator Prof. H o Ping-Yii4 of Brisbane, who also had a large part to play in
the epic of Chinese chemical and alchemical apparatus; and the study of the
theory of Chinese elixir alchemy in pt. 4 was essentially the work of another
collaborator, Prof. Nathan Sivin, then of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, now of Philadelphia. All of us are agreed that the most important
single source for Chinese alchemy, whether chemical or physiological, is the
Taoist patrology, the Tao TsangS. During the second world war I was
instrumental in securing for the Cambridge University Library copies of the
Tao Tsang and its Szechuanese version the Tao Tsang Chi Yaoh,which is much
more than the collection of excerpts suggested by its title. Most of the
alchemical books and tractates in these vast compilations were then microfilmed for the East Asian History of Science Library, and somewhat later
(1951-5) D r Tshao Thien-Chhin7, then a Fellow of Caius, made a valuable
study of them. After his return to the Biochemical Institute of Academia Sinica,
Shanghai, of which he has been for a number of years past Vice-Director, these
notes were of great help to D r H o and myself, forming the basis for the subsection in Vol. 5, pt. 4 on aqueous reactions (q). Still later, Prof. H.B. Collier of
Edmonton, Alberta, who had taught chemistry for many years at the West
China University at Chhingtu in Szechuan, presented to our Library the
alchemical books in the Tao Tsang Chi Yao which he had collected there, and
these proved of great use to D r L u Gwei-Djen8 and myself since many of them
deal with physiological rather than laboratory alchemy. Again, before he left

AUTHOR'S NOTE

xxvii

Cambridge in 1958, D r Wang Ling1 accomplished a good work by making an

analytical index of the names of chemical substances mentioned in the Shih Yao
Erh Ya2(Literary Expositor of Chemical Physic; or, Synonymic Dictionary of
Minerals and Drugs), written by Mei P i a o v n the Thang ( + 806), one of the
most valuable alchemical books in the Tao Tsang. It still helped D r L u and
myself even for the present part, because so many concepts of physiological
alchemy were fond of hiding themselves under chemical nomenclature. Lastly,
when we were facing the interesting but difficult study of the evolution of
chemical apparatus in East and West (Sect. 33, f ) , D r Dorothy Needham put in
a considerable amount of work, including some drafting, in the intervals of her
own work on the history of muscle biochemistry. And she has continued to read
all our pages - perhaps the only person in the world who ever does so!
If there is one question more than any other raised by this present Section 33
on alchemy and early chemistry, now offered to the republic of learning in these
volumes, it is that of human unity and continuity. In the light of what is here set
forth, can we allow ourselves to visualise that some day before long we shall be
able to write the history of man's enquiry into chemical phenomena as one
single development throughout the Old World cultures? Granted that there
were several different foci of ancient metallurgy and primitive chemical
industry, how far was the gradual flowering of alchemy and chemistry a single
endeavour, running contagiously from one civilisation to another?
It is a commonplace of thought that some forms of human experience seem to
have progressed in a more obvious and'palpable way than others. It might be
difficult to say how Michael Angelo could be considered an improvement on
Pheidias, or Dante on Homer, but it can hardly be questioned that Newton and
Pasteur and Einstein did really know a great deal more about the natural
universe than Arisiotie or Chang HCng4. This must tell us something about the
differences between art and religion on one side and science on the other,
though no one seems able to explain quite what, but in any case within the field
of natural knowledge we cannot but recognise an evolutionary development, a
real progress, over the ages. T h e cultures might be many, the languages diverse,
but they all partook of the same quest.
Throughout this series of volumes it has been assumed all along that there is
only one unitary science of Nature, approached more or less closely, built u p
more or less successfully and continuously, by various groups of mankind from
time to time. This means that one can expect to trace an absolute continuity
between the first beginnings of astronomy and medicine in Ancient Babylonia,
through the advancing natural knowledge of medieval China, India, Islam and
the classical Western world, to the break-through of late Renaissance Europe
when, as has been said, the most effective method of discovery was itself
discovered. Many people probably share this point of view, but there is another
one which I may associate with the name of Oswald Spengler, the German

xxviii

AUTHOR'S NOTE

world-historian of the thirties whose works, especially The Decline of the West
( I ) , achieved much popularity for a time. According to him, the sciences
produced by different civilisations were like separate and irreconcilable works
of art, valid only within their own frames of reference, and not subsumable into
a single history and a single ever-growing structure.
Anyone who has felt the influence of Spengler retains, I think, some respect
for the picture he drew of the rise and fall of particular civilisations and cultures,
resembling the birth, flourishing and decay of individual biological organisms,
in human or animal life-cycles. Certainly I could not refuse all sympathy for a
point of view so like that of the Taoist philosophers, who always emphasised the
cycles of life and death in Nature, a point of view that Chuang Choul himself
might well have shared. Yet while one can easily see that artistic styles and
expressions, religious ceremonies and doctrines, or different kinds of music,
have tended to be incommensurable; for mathematics, science and technology
the case is altered -man has always lived in an environment essentially constant
in its properties, and his knowledge of it, if true, must therefore tend towards a
constant structure.
Nevertheless, in presenting to the world this part of Volume 5 , we are
conscious that it is rather different from those which have gone before it and
from those which will follow it. In order to understand the physiological
alchemy of China, one has to enter a world of natural philosophy entirely unlike
that of Western tradition, and to attune oneself to a theology and a realm of
religious feeling quite foreign to the common presuppositions of the ' Peoples of
. ~h e sheer un-European-ness of Chinese physiological alchemy
the R ~ o k ' T
deeply impresses. True, it had some connections with Indian thought and
belief, yet it was very clearly itself and nothing else, essentially materialist in
character because it conceived of the enchymoma of immortality as a real
chemical substance formed from the juices and pneumata of the body, psychosomatic perhaps but certainly not psychological alone. In view of the deep
contrasts between Western and Eastern spirituality, a leap of sympathetic
understanding is required in approaching Chinese physiological alchemy, a
readiness for new experience of the 'other', as was so well seen by C.G. Jung in
the passage which we have quoted on our half-title page.
T h e techniques which the physiological alchemists believed they could use
for their purpose will be described in due course, the control of respiration, the
mastery of neuro-muscular coordination and the effects of particular forms of
bodily rest and movement, the recognition of sexual activity as part of the T a o
of the sage and the adept, the utilisation of bodily exposure to light, and the
management of the mind in methods of meditation and mental concentration.
Today the younger generation, the people in the 'counter-culture', are
a A phrase used by Muslims to denote Jews and Christians as well as themselves, all those in fact deriving
from ancient Hebrew monotheism.

AUTHOR'S NOTE

xxix

rediscovering and re-exploring many of the ways of altered consciousness

which the nei tan experts were seeking, "so that the present time is appropriate
enough for a pioneer survey of their systems as extensive as we have had time
and space to make it, even though the subject is far from exhausted and there
remains still much to be done.
Yet physiological alchemy was not wholly antithetical to modern science, as
has sometimes been thought. It is but a truism to say that the Yang and Yin
principles are present wherever there is positive and negative electricity today,
and this means in the very foundations of the natural world, the sub-atomic
elementary charged particles, the protons and electrons. T h e Five Elements
can reasonably be taken to prefigure the states of matter recognised today, the
solid, the liquid and the gaseous; and they served as a symbolic language for
expressing subtle inter-relationships manifested in natural phenomena. There
may be nothing in modern science exactly corresponding to the Taoist
emphasis on reversion, counter-current flow, regeneration and return, but it
does evoke the many and pressing mysteries of growth, differentiation, dedifferentiation and re-differentiation, seen for example in insect metamorphosis, and well known in modern biological science. It is not impossible that
with greater knowledge of enzymology, and especially physiological genetics,
we may hope to arrest the ageing process and even retrace its steps; already
rejuvenation is not an ostracised word, for the process can be seen to be real in
tissue-cultures of plant and animal cells. T h e conservation of secretions seems
strange to us at first, but we shall ultimately suggest that it meant the
retention of many substances, from amylases to prostaglandins and other
hormones, which might benefit the body. T h e three 'primary vitalities' of the
Taoists are not precisely translatable into terms of modern science - no
characteristically medieval formulations ever are - but shenl did some justice to
the mental components of man, while chh? denoted the dissolved gases in his
body-fluids, and ching3 those fluids themselves; only the solid structures had
little representation here. Chhi also included all those invisible processes like
diffusion and the nervous impulse; and it was a penetrating insight to see that
shen depended upon chhi and ching. A tripartite division of vital force came into
Western physiological thought by the time of Paracelsus and Glisson; it was
prominent in the Naturphilosophie movement, and even as late as Claude
Bernard. We suspect that the three primary vitalities of China were not
unconnected with it. Then long before Freud and Jung the Chinese physiological alchemists understood the importance of sexual health for the integrated
personality, and made it a part of their macrobiotic programme. And there are
many other physiological priorities to be assigned to China beyond what can
appear in this book, for example the discovery of circadian rhythms in bodily
a Neither dietary techniques nor psychotropic drugs were really part of physiological alchemy. On the
former see pt. 3, pp. 9 ff. ; on the latter see pt. z, pp. I 16 ff., I 21 ff., r 50 ff.

xxx

AUTHOR'S NOTE

function, both normal and pathological; and the discovery and codification of
the viscero-cutaneous reflexes. "
For all these reasons, we believe that most of physiological alchemy merits
the name of proto-science rather than pseudo-science. Of particular interest
here are the theoretical convictions voiced by so many of its practitioners, for
example that 'man's fate is in his own hands, not those of Heaven'; and they
speak also of 'robbing Nature's workshop to accomplish good for humanity'.
Strangely Promethean words, these, from a culture which even some of its
own interpreters have believed bound to the view that ethical self-discipline
alone mattered. ' T h e Chinese philosophers', wrote FGng Yu-Lanl long ago,
'had no need of scientific certainty because it was themselves that they wished
to know; they had no need of the power of science, because it was themselves
that they wished to conquer." It is true, as we shall see, that some philosophers, such as the Neo-Confucians, were unhappy about the audacious protoscientific programmes of the alchemists and other technologists, but death
itself was what these men intended to conquer, and selfhood was only one
obstacle on their way of certainty and power to the sagehood of the Holy
Immortals.
T h e truly proto-scientific character of their endeavour appears moreover at
the end in that tour de force of medieval achievement, the preparation of active
hormones from urine, worked up in almost manufacturing quantities. Here
the synthesis of iatro-chemistry, starting several centuries before Paracelsus,
transcended the wai tan-elixirsand the nei tan enchymomas by applying wai tan
methods to nei tan materials. In later volumes we expect to return to similar
achievements of the iatro-chemists, but here this forms a fitting concrete
conclusion to the description of a tradition which might at first sight seem to
have been no more than wishful thinking.
Although the other parts of Vol. 5 are not yet ready for press we should like to
make mention of those who are collaborating with us in them. Much of the
Section on martial technology for Vol. 5 , pt. I has been in draft for many years
now,d but it has been held up by delays in the preparation of the extremely
important sub-section on the invention of the first chemical explosive known to
man, gunpowder, even though all the notes and books and papers necessary for
this have long been collected. At last we can salute the advent of a relevant
draft of substantial size from D r H o Ping-Yii at Brisbane, recently Visiting
Professor at Keio University in Tokyo, aided by D r Wang Ling (Wang ChingNing2) of the Institute of Advanced Studies at Canberra. Meanwhile Prof. L o
a O n these subjects see I,u Gwei-Djen & Needham (S). as also in due course Vol. 6, pt. 3.
C Sect. 33k, 1-7.
d Including an introduction on the literature, a study of close-combat weapons, the sub-sections on archery
ana ballistic machines, and a full account of iron and steel technology as the background of armament. T h e
first draft of this last has been published as a Newcomen Society monograph; Seedham (32). (60).
e A preliminary treatment of the subject, still, we think, correct in outline, was given in our article in the
L e ~ a c yof C'hina eleven years ago; Needham (47). This has recently been re-issued in paperback form.
h Quoted by Seedham (47). p. 3 0 1 .

AUTHOR'S

NOTE

xxxi

Jung-Pang', of the University of California at Davis, spent the winter of

1969-70 in Cambridge, accomplishing not only the sub-section on the history
of armour and caparison in China but also the draft of the whole of Section 37 on
the salt industry, including the epic development of deep borehole drilling (Vol.
5 , pt. 6). Other military sub-sections, such as those on poliorcetics, cavalry
practice and signalling, we have been able to place in the capable hands of D r
Korinna Hana of Munchen. About the same time we persuaded D r Tsien
Tsuen-Hsuin (Chhien Tshun-HsunZ), the Regenstein Librarian at the
University of Chicago, to undertake the writing of Section 32 on the great
inventions of paper and printing and their development in China; this is now
completed. For ceramic technology (Section 35) we have obtained the
collaboration of M r James Watt (Chhu Chih-Jen3), Curator of the Art Gallery
at the Institute of Chinese Studies in the Chinese University of Hongkong. T h e
story of these marvellous applications of science will be anticipated by many
with great interest. Finally non-ferrous metallurgy and textile technology, for
which abundant notes and documentation have been collected, found their
organising genii in two other widely separated places. For the former we have
Prof. Ursula Martins Franklin assisted by D r Hsu Chin-Hsiung4 at Toronto;
for the latter D r Ohta Eizo5at Kyoto and D r Dieter Kuhn in Cambridge. When
their work becomes available, Volume 5 will be substantially complete. This by
no means exhausts the list of our invaluable collaborators, for many others are
concerned with Volumes 6 and 7; but they will be introduced to readers in due
time.
As has so long been customary, we offer our grateful thanks to those who try
to keep us 'on the rails' in territory which is not our own; Prof. D.M. Dunlop
for Arabic, D r Sebastian Brock for Syriac, Prof. E.J. Wiesenberg for Hebrew,
D r Charles Sheldon for Japanese, Prof. G . Ledyard for Korean, and Prof.
Shackleton Bailey for Sanskrit. a
Three or four years ago it became clear that our working library and its
operations had grown so much in size and complexity that a full-time
Amanuensis (chcng chen shu tshao" or Librarian was needed. For this we first
recruited a physical chemist, D r Christine King (Ting Pai-Fu7), who gave us
much assistance; being succeeded after some time by a valued former associate,
the Japanologist Miss Philippa Hawking. Her organising abili~iesstood us in
good stead during the moves of the library mentioned below. T h e best
Librarians are born, not made, and she is of that company.
Next comes our high secretariat - Miss Muriel Moyle, who continues to give
us impeccable indexes; Mrs Liang Chung Lien-Chuywife of another Fellow of
Caius, the physicist D r Liang Wei-Yaog),who has inserted many a page of wella For further advice on linguistic and cultural matters we are also indehted to Dr I<dithJachimowicz, Prof.
R.R. Serjeant and.Dr Felix Klein-Franke.

xxxii

AUTHOR'S NOTE

written characters and made out many a biographical reference card, as well as
editing the typescripts of collaborators to conform with project conventions.
And just as Mrs Liang keeps an eagle eye on the Chinese of the footnotes in
proof, so we now welcome the collaboration of Major Frank Townson who has
undertaken the press work formerly done by Mrs Margaret Anderson. We are
also happy to acknowledge the skilled and accurate typing help of our Secretary,
Mrs Diana Brodie, and Mrs Evelyn Beebe.
All that has been said in previous volumes (e.g. Vol. 4, pt. 3 , p. lvi) about the
University Press, our treasured medium of communication with the world, and
Gonville and Caius College, that milieu in which we used to live and move and
have our being, has become only truer as the years go by - their service and their
encouragement continues unabated, and so does our heartfelt gratitude. If i t
were not for the devotion of the typographical - and typocritical -masters, and
if one could not count on the understanding, kindness and appreciation of one's
academic colleagues, nothing of what these volumes represent could ever have
come into existence. We have taken pleasure on previous occasions in paying a
tribute to our friend M r Peter Burbidge of the University Press, and as we do so
again we would like to associate with his name all those in that unique
organisation who deal so faithfully, accurately and elegantly with our very
difficult work.
Down to the summer of 1976 the library which constitutes the engine-room
of the project was housed in Caius, but upon my retirement from the
Mastership it was moved to a temporary building in Shaftesbury Road just
outside the 'compound' (as one would say in Asia) of the University Printing
House. Later we were installed in a spacious house in Brooklands Avenue. This
building belongs to the Press, and is leased by the Syndics to the East Asian
History of Science Trust (U.K.)protern. We acknowledge with warmest thanks
a generous installation grant from the British Museum Library Ancillary
Libraries Fund, and a special grant from the Sloane Foundation in America.
Since that time there have been further liberal benefactions from the Ford and
Mellon Foundations, and from the National Science Foundation, so much so as
to assure, in all probability, the financial backing needed for the remainingeight
or nine volumes of the series; and these funds are held in part by our East Asian
History of Science Trust (U.S.A.). We should like to take this opportunity of
offering our warmest gratitude to all those who serve as Trustees of these
charitable organisations.
Particular continuing gratitude is due to the Wellcome Trust of London,
whose generous support upheld us throughout the period of preparation of
these chemical volumes. Since the history of medicine is touched upon at so
many points in them -and especially now with regard to physiological alchemy
-we are not without some sense of justification in accepting their unfailing aid.
It can hardly be too much emphasised that in China proto-chemistry was elixir
alchemy from the very beginning (as it was not in other civilisations of

AUTHOR'S NOTE

xxxiii

comparable antiquity), and by the same token alchemists there were very often
physicians too (much more so than they tended to be in other cultures). For the
basic elixir and enchymoma notions were pharmaceutical and therapeutic ones,
even though Chinese optimism regarding the conquest of death reached a
height which modern medical science dare not as yet contemplate.
In recent times our project has received notable benefactions from the CocaCola Company of Atlanta, Georgia, through the kind intermediation of its then
Senior Vice-President, the late D r Clifford A. Shillinglaw, first Chairman of
our American Trust; and for this and many other kindnesses our most grateful
thanks are due. T h e support of the Company's benevolent fund met the
expenses of D r Li Li-Shingl when he spent some time in Cambridge working
on Section 34 (the chemical industries), a first draft of which had been made
some years before by Prof. H o Ping-Yii. T o Thames Television Ltd we
acknowledge a useful grant for the support of our amanuensis, and to the Lee
Foundation of Singapore (founded in memory of the late Dato Lee KongChian2) several most welcome grants for general project expenses. Help on a
lesser scale has also been forthcoming from the American Philosophical
Society. Certain private persons, too, have sent us truly notable donations from
time to time; and here we cannot forbear from offering our warmest thanks to
Mrs Carol Bernstein Ferry and M r W.H. Ferry of Scarsdale, N.Y.; as also to
M r and Mrs P.L. Lam (Lin Ping-Liang3 and Lin Ma-Li4) of Hongkong.
So now at last, in this our part 5, we pass from the 'outer elixir' (wai tan ) to
the ' inner elixir ' ( nei tan ), from proto-chemistry to proto-biochemistry, from
reliance on mineral and inorganic remedies to a faith in the possibility of making
a macrobiogen from the juices and substances of the living body. For this new
concept we have had to coin a fourth new word, the enchymoma; its synthesis
was in practice the training of mortality itself to put on immortality. T h e basic
ideas of this 'physiological alchemy' will be found in two places, Sect. 3 3 ' (2)
especially (i, ii), and (4). It was not primarily psychological, like the 'mystical
alchemy' of the West, though it made much use of meditational techniques.
Our conclusion is, at the end of (4) and in (S), that most of its procedures were
highly conducive to the health, both mental and physical, of the follower of the
Tao.

3 3 . ALCHEMY AND C H E M I S T R Y
G) T H E O U T E R A N D T H E I N N E R MACROBIOGENS;
T H E ELIXIR AND T H E ENCHYMOMA

T h e science of alchemy (ars alchimica) [said Martin Luther in the middle of the + 16th
century],a I like very well, and indeed it is truly the natural philosophy of the ancients. I like
it not only for the many uses it has in melting and alloying metals, and in distilling and
sublimating herbs and extracts (in excoguendismetallis, item herhis et liquorihus distillandis ac
suhlimandis), but also for the sake of the allegory and secret signification, which is exceedingly fine, touching the resurrection of the dead at the Last Day. For as in a furnace the fire
extracts and separates from a substance the other portions, and carries upward the spirit,
the life, the sap, the strength, while the unclean matter, the dregs, remain at the bottom, like
a dead and worthless carcase.. ." even so God, at the day of judgment, will separate all
things through fire, the righteous from the ungod1y.c

And a similar thought was committed to paper about

Browne wrote, in his Religio Medici:"

+ 1641,when Sir Thomas

The smattering I have of the Philosophers' Stone (which is something more than the
perfect exaltation of gold), hath taught me a great deal of Divinity, and instructed my belief,
how that immortal spirit and incorruptible substance of my Soul may lye obscure, and sleep
awhile within this house of flesh. Those strange and mystical transmigrations that I have
observed in Silk-worms, turned my Philosophy into Divinity. There is in these works of
nature, which seem to puzzle reason, something Divine, and hath more in it than the eye of
a common spectator can discover.

These interesting quotations may serve to remind us that beside the current of
practical laboratory experimentation in Western proto-chemistry and alchemy
there was, perhaps from the beginning, a parallel current of mystical, allegorical,
symbolic, ethical, even psychological exegesis. At many places in the foregoing
volumes the reader will have come across somewhat mystifying references to 'inner' or 'spiritual' alchemy within the Chinese story, and the question that now has
to be faced at last is whether or not there was similarity between the distinctively
Tischredm, I, I 149, quoted by Montgomery (I), p. 79, who demonstrates, as others such as Hubicki ( I ) also
do, the very favourable influence which Lutheranism had upon the development of alchemy and early chemistry.
For other sciences see Miall (I); Pelseneer (3, 4, 5) and Xlason (2, 3). On the general subject of the relations
between Protestant theology and the natural sciences Dillenberger ( I ) is well worth reading. We have already
referred (Vol. 2, p. 92) to the preponderance of scientific men on the side of the Reform at this time.
h Here Luther illustrates further by speaking of the preparation of urine, cinnamon, nutmeg and the like.
C Though I.uther
is in no way to he compared with the Gnostics of the early Christian centuries, one cannot
help being reminded here of the close connections between Gnostic ideas and Hellenistic proto-chemical thought.
This we duly emphasised in Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 376ff., 385ff.. but we would have been justified in putting the case a
good deal more strongly, as may he seen from the texts of Basilides, Ptolemaeus and the Sethians among others,
translated in Foerster ( I ) , vol. I, pp. 64s.. 135, 304-5 etc.
"acmillan
ed. p. 64.

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

non-laboratory traditions in China and the West. As we know, practical laboratory

alchemy tends to be described in Chinese texts as the search for the 'outer elixir'
(wai tan1), besides which there was, especially in Thang times and later, later increasingly, a parallel search for an 'inner elixir' (na' tanz). The exact significance of
this distinction has been a matter of much uncertainty among those few sinologists
who have ever wandered near these fields,a and indeed at the present time it would
be impossible to point to any monograph or book which deals, even inadequately,
with the nei tan complex. Was it basically allegorical, food for the soul of the adept
on his difficult path towards perfection? Or was it something entirely different from
the mystical psychology of the West? We are now fully assured that it was entirely
different, and that a radical distinction must be made between the two kinds of
'alchemy' in the West and the two kinds of 'alchemy' in China. We shall find it
necessary to introduce an entirely new word for the 'inner elixir', since it was a
physiological rather than a psychological achievement. But first it is necessary to
take a closer look at the spiritual alchemy of Europe.
As is well known, the eminent psycho-analytic philosopher C. G . Jung published in 1944a book called 'Psychologie und Alchemic' ( I ) which has had a great
deal of influence." He followed it up by other works such as 'Alchemical Studies'
(3) and 'Mysterium Conjunctionis' (g), but in all these books the general idea is the
same. Jung suggested that the practical chemical element in medieval and Renaissance European alchemy had been much over-rated, believing that a great deal,
if not most, of the description in the alchemical writings was essentially mythology,
consisting of allegories, metaphorical formulations, poetical analogies and symbolism. The alchemist achieved what Jung called the process of psychological individuation by meditating on the phenomena of chemical change;c he freed himself
from the inner contradictions, conflicts, etc. which lead to obsessions, anxieties,
neuroses and psycho-somatic disorders--attaining psychological wholeness, balance and integration-by following chemical reactions or descriptions of them, and
identifying these with universal 'archetypes'd instead of his own inner world alone.
Thus Western psychological alchemy was concerned not so much, if at all, with
actual chemical operations as with states of mind, catharsis, sublimation, purification and the attainment of unity and equilibrium--almost like an auto-psychoanalysis before psycho-analysis had been invented.
Now evidently it could be but a short step from the multifarious poetical and
secretive cover-names in which alchemy, both West and East, was so rich (for
example in China the 'elegant girl by the riverside', ho shang chha nu3 for r n e r c ~ r y , ~
One may refer, for example, to the recent eccentric but knowledgeable paper of Liu Tshun-Jen ( I ) , baaed
upon a range of literature somewhat different from that used by us herein. It will prove more understandable if
read after the study of the present sub-section.
h Much has been written on the life and thought of Jung; here we should like to refer only to the perceptive
essay of Staude ( I ) .
(1).~~.3.27.
* See p. 7 below.
C E.g. in TT99o, ch. 2, p. 280, TTgg3, ch. 2, p. 250.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

and we have seen a thousand examples already) to all sorts of metaphorical formulations and symbols.a One finds in Jung's expositions of the alchemical writings,
therefore, a veritable farrago of imagery, parallelisms, patterns, visions, and sym,~
bolic formulations, drawn from Orphism, Gnosticism,b the Hermetic C o r p u ~the
Alexandrian proto-chemical philosophers,d the Kabbalah,e and many other sources, not excluding the apocryphal Gospels' and similar quasi-Christian legendary
material; where almost every possible statement seems to be made, however contradictory, valued indeed sometimes because of its very paradoxical contradiction.
T h e method was uncomfortably Forkean or Granetian,g statements of all kinds
from all historical periods being inextricably mixed. Jung's defence against this was
that human nature is everywhere the same, with human activities and the human
condition at all times comparable, having an essential similarity of neurotic and
psychotic content;" but it is doubtful if this can justify the ignoring of historical
There is no lack of descriptions of the 'Great Work' as the later European alchemists conceived it, whether in
the form of albums of their allegorical illustrations, such as those of Fabricius ( I ) or Alleau ( I )or Ploss et al. (I); or
as textual expositions such as that of Evola (4). Some are more overtly psycho-analytic than others; some make
comparisons with the experience of persons under the influence of hallucinogenic drugs. For example, Fabricius
finds a sexual conjunctio between each of the stages of descending and ascending colour-chanm, and has much to
say on incest, birth trauma and primal anxiety. How much wiser the attentive reader will be after studying this
material is a moot point.
Cf. pt. 4. pp. 376ff. There was also a connection with later Manichaeism since it regarded matter as something
essentially evil from which all spirits were trying to escape.A classical account of this religion, quite distinct from.
and o p p d to, Christianity, was given in + 1707 by J. C. Wolf (I). Rut since his time there have been enormous
advances in our knowledge of these world-views. Reginning with Rurkitt ( I , 2). one can now find reliable general
accounts in Doresse (I); Rudolph ( I ) and Foerster ( I ) . Puech (5) has a brilliant essay on the ideas of the Gnostin
about time, and Bianchi ( I )bringsout other aspects of their thought. The Coptic Gnostic library of Nag Hammadi
(Chenoboskion) has been edited in English by Robinson (I).
See the definitive editions of Scott ( I) and Nock & Festugikre (I), as also the expositions of Kmll (I) and Mead
(I). This Corpus, which bears the name of the legendary Egyptian philosopher-god Hermes Trisme~istus,consists of the theological writings of 3rd-century Graeco-Egyptian philosophers. One of the documents (Asclepius
Lat. 111) is datable to +z70 almost exactly. It is only now becoming clear that the 'Christianisation' of these
writings, with their emphasis on redeemed man's power over Nature, by the I 5th-century Italian philosophers
Manilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola, had a p a t deal to do with the appearance of the Renaissance magus and
the birth of modem science (d.Yates, I).
"Al
in Rerthelot & Ruelle (I), cf. Berthelot ( I , z). Cit. as Corpus Alchm. Gr. ( - 1st to +7th cents).
Another Corpus, of Jewish mysticism and magic, systematised first in the
13th century, but with roots
going back clearly to Gnosticism (see Rlau (I); Scholem (3,4); Yates (I), pp. gzff.; Waite (12). (2) pp. 377ff.). We
have already referred to the Kabbalah (or, as the Renaissance scholars called it, Cabala) in Vol. z, pp. zgtff.,
drawing attention to parallelisms between its system and that of the Chinese symbolic correlations. The datings of
the two chief books there given are perhaps too early, for the Sefer Yesilah (Rook of Creation), tr. Stenring (I),
should be placed rather in the I ~th-century,and the Zohm (Book of Splendour) towards the end of the 13th.
Rut there had been a centuries-long development within the framework of oral tradition since the 3rd-century.
The Zohar is attributed to a 2nd-century Palestinian writer, R. Simon ben Yochai, but its author was almost
certainly .Moses ben Shem Tob de Leon (d. 1305). The central doctrine could perhaps be called a system of
creation by remote control, and the ten sephimth (names of God) or emanations, remind one at times, by their
) the much earlier I Ching (Rook of Changes).
independent status as creative forces, of the eight trigrams ( k m 1of
This parallelism has long been dimly realised, as by \Vaite (12). p. 68. 'The Kabbalah was another ancient system of
mysticism 'Christianised' at the Renaissance, and it had a deep influence on some of the early figures in the
scientific revolution. In particular its doctrine of the 'creative word' has been found relevant again in modem times
bp Rather (I), who has brought it into relation both with the infinite possibilities of anangements of atoms in the
molecules of o w i c chemistry, and with the semantophore molecules of DNA base sequences in the genetic code.
See the collection of James (I), and the more recent and elaborate work of Hennecke & Schneemelcher (I),
together with particular studies and translations such as that of Menard (I).
a Cf. Vol. z, pp. z16ff.
h ((8). p. xviii, e.g.

"

+
+

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

periods, because the same words could hardly always mean the same things. In
fact, he drew his material largely from the 14th to the 18th centuries, from the
texts of that great burgeoning of allegorical alchemy at the Renaissance when
proto-chemical alchemy had come to an apparently dead check;a yet it was not
entirely so confined, for the Hellenistic aurifactors had been mystical enough, Zosimus more so, and Stephanus of Alexandria completely so.b What first put Jung
upon this trail constitutes a paradox of paradoxes, but that we shall see at the conclusion of this sub-section.
For those who are not learned in modem introspective psychology the conceptions which Jung applied to the explanation of alchemical allegory are difficult
to grasp, but we must do our best.c Processes of 'projection'd took place in the
psyche of the individual alchemist suggested to him by the peculiar behaviour of
the chemical substances with which he carried on his operations, changes of colour
and physical property, volatility, solidification, solution, precipitation, resistance
to heat, and so on. He found, to his relief, that his own complexes (as we should say)
were mirrored in them, and therefore acceptable as natural, no more demanding
feelings of sin or guilt.
On psychological projection it is best to quote Jung's own words.

As we know from psycho-therapeutic experience, [he wrotee] projection is an unconscious, automatic process, whereby a content that is unconscious to the subject (the person)
transfers itself to an object, so that it seems to belong to that object. The projection ceases
the moment it becomes conscious, that is to say, when it is seen as belonging to the subject.
Or, as his disciple Goldbrunner, put it:'
Something external is held responsible while the real cause lies in the subject himself or
herself. The effects of the complexes lying within the unconscious are projected outwards.
What has to be done in such cases is to detach the projection from the object and make clear
to the patient that the. . . imaginations and fears come only from the. . . forces in his or her
own psyche.
Our task is not, said Jung,K
to deny the archetype, but to dissolve the projection, in order to restore their contents to the
individual who has involuntarily lost them by projecting them outside himself.
It is the mechanism of projection, as Goldbrunner says," which relates the picturebook of human traditions to the inner happenings of the psyche.
( I ) . P .217.
Cf. JunR's account in (3), p. 206.
For a psychological commentary see Harding (I),pp. 377ff., 414ff.;Jambi ( I ) ;Goldbrunner ( I ) .There is also
the book of Jung ( I 2). an introduction to his own psychological philosophy.
* It should be noted that this technical term in Jungian psychology has nothing whatever to do with the physical
process of 'projection' descriptions of which are found in all alchemical and proto-chemical literature, namely the
conversion of a mass of material into one of the precious metals by the throwing in of a very small quantity of a
chemical substance (the philosopher's stone). 'mis Roes back at least as far in China as in the West, cf. Vol. 5, pt. 4,
p. 7, and pts. 2 and 3, passim.
p (13). PP. 59ff.
( I ) . P .33.
P (13). P. 84.
(1). PP. 73R.
a

"

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

A process or content residing in the unconscious can confront us as a quality of objects,

our fellow-men, or the environment. The influences of the unconscious seem foreign to the
ego, they appear to come from outside, from the objects; they have been (in a word) projected.

Thus the powers of Nature were once personified as spirits or demons under
whose despotic sway man was a helpless victim, gods of disease or of the passions of
war or sex. That was the archaic identity of subject and object which has been
called 'participation mystique' (Evy-Bruhl). The magic rites and the myths of
ancient and primitive peoples reflect this stage of 'psychological identity' with the
outside world. But eventually there came a recognition and a resumption or 'introjection' of the psychic forces. As this withdrawal happened in human history,
and whenever it happens in the life of the individual, the conscious ego takes in new
contents, increases its domain, and can differentiate more and more between itself
and the environment.8 The withdrawal can be intensely therapeutic, for frightening symbols, due for example to anxiety unacknowledged, are replaced by selfknowledge, relief and calm-yet new problems and efforts now face the conscious
eg0.h
Alchemy was found by Jung to be a case in point, for in the ancient and medieval
laboratories the adepts had certain psychological experiences which they attributed
to the chemical processes, not realising that these had nothing to do with material
elements and compounds as we know them today, but were projections from them,~
his projection as a property of
selves. The alchemist, wrote J ~ n g 'experienced
matter, but what he was really experiencing was his own unconscious'. Again,d
in order to explain the mystery of matter (the alchemist) projected yet another mystery-his
own unconscious background-into what was to be elucidated.. . This was not of course
intentional, it was involuntary. Projections are never made, they happen.
This process, at that stage, was also in its way therapeutic, so long as it was possible;
because the images from the unconscious, with their affective tone for which the
men of that time had no name, were transplanted into the contents of the
alchemist's vessels, so externalised in fact that they could be seen as part of the
natural world and therefore felt as not alarming. This was the 'scapegoat function'
of natural objects,e helpful in certain circumstances when applied to things, harmful always when applied to people. Moreover, 'during the practical work, certain
events of a hallucinatory or visionary character were perceived, phenomena which
cannot have been anything but projections of unconscious content^'.^ This one can
easily imagine, for in the behaviour of substances undergoing physical and chemical change there are many happenings which nowadays we know how to neglect as
subsidiarysolid or liquid surface-films, interference colours, clouds formed
when immiscible liquids are brought together, or fortuitous shapes assumed by

" Cf. Goldbrunner (I),p. 127.

c

Cf. Jacobi (l), p. 118.

(I), P. 234.

(1).

P.233.

Jacobi (I),p. 21.

Junp;(1). P.239.

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1539. Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy; the idea of parricide hypostatised into chemicsl reactions. From the M a ~ ~ a r iPrctiosa
ta
Nmella ( I 546) of Petrus Bonus. Cf. Silberer (I),pp. 84-5; Jung (I),
Eng. ed., p. 210.

vapours in evaporation or distillation, bubble masses that take strange forms, etc.
Indeed the whole transition from alchemy to modem chemistry might be seen
from the psychological point of view as fundamentally the withdrawal of a mass of
projections. They had doubtless eased the spirits of the first chemical explorers
from Zosimus and KOHung onwards, but if man was ever to see Nature clear and
plain they had to be recognised in a higher therapy as a veil which he himself had
created.
In the texts of spiritual alchemy there were also always admonitions that the
adept should look within himself and follow the 'inner light', a light which would
illumine, as we might say, the dark places in the subconscious mind normally hidden from introspection. Moreover there was the idea that 'meditation' (an internal
dialogue with the unconscious self) and 'imagination' (the use of the Paracelsian
astrum, or light that lighteth every man that cometh into the world) would actually
set free forces which would enable the operator in the Great Work to impose alterations on matter.&Above all the alchemist was engaged upon an 'individuation
process', nothing less than his own liberation from the inner contradictions and
~ changing
conflicts which give rise to neuroses, obsessions and a n ~ i e t i e s .In
Nature, he was, more importantly, changing himself, and whether engaged in
transmuting ignoble substances into the noblest of substances, gold, or whether
following the voluminous writings of those who thought that they had done so, he
was in fact walking along the path of an ennobling salvation of himself. Individual
Cf. p. 16below on the ideas of Mary Atwood.
'The alchemist projected what I would call the process of individuation into the phenomena of physical
, 462. Cf. the discussion of Jacobi (I),pp. 137ff.
change', J u n g ( ~ )p.
D

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. I 540. Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy; the idea of incest hypostatised into chemical
reactions. Third woodcut of the Rosorium Philosophorum, + 1550(Anon. 156). The scrolls name the two Sol and
Luna, consenting to marriage, and over the dove is written: 'It is the Spirit which gives life'. Cf. Jung (16). pp.
45off.

mental health, in psychological terms, was what he was really after,a the integration
of the personality, with freedom from fear, depression, oppression, and 'all evil
thoughts which may assault and hurt the soul'.h
T h e attainment of this, for Jung, was not dependent only on the overcoming of
sexual or other traumata received in early youth or infancy, but also on the harmonising of the 'archetypes' of the collective unconscious. Archetypes might be
said to be the idea-patterns that all people spontaneously have, occurring in variant
forms in all civilisations and often repressed into the unconscious-for example,
incest, castration, suicide, the virgin-mother, the father eating the son, parricide,
impotence, the dragon or wild worm, the unicorn, death and resurrection, female
and male, darkness and light, the Yin and the Yang (Figs. 1539, 1540). 'So long',
wrote Jung, 'as the alchemist was working in his laboratory, he was in a favourable
position, psychologically speaking, for he had no opportunity to identify himself
with the archetypes as they appeared; they were all projected immediately into the
chemical substances'.c The disadvantage was that the ultimate incorruptible was a
a

Though not of course consciously.

P.37.

c (1).

BCP, Collect for Lcnt 2.

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

chemical product and they could never get it, so the alchemical quest could never
completely succeed,&though both modem chemistry and modern psychology are
in a real sense the inheritors of it.h
Jung found in alchemy a veritable treasure-house of symbols the knowledge of
which was extremely helpful for the understanding of neurotic and psychotic
p r o c e s ~ e sMuch
.~
of his work lay in analysing the dreams of his patients, and rightly
or wrongly he was constantly reminded of alchemical symbolical terminology,
probably because both were so often concerned with the problem of 'irreconcilable'
opposites, naturally in archetypal f0rm.d
As the alchemists, with but few exceptions, did not know that they were bringing psychic
structures to light, but thought they were explaining the transformations of matter, there
were no psychological considerations to prevent them, for reasons of sensitiveness, from
laying bare the background of the psyche, which a more conscious person would have been
nervous of doing. It is because of this that alchemy is of such absorbing interest to the
psycho1ogist.e

Archetypal images of the unconscious, related to motifs of folklore and mythology,

arise in dreams, displace each other, overlap, interconnect and fuse in a bewildering
manner, but the imagery of the alchemical writers shows hardly less waywardness.
This is what makes it so difficult for us to understand alchemy. Here the dominant factor
is not logic but the play of archetypal motifs, and although this is 'illogical" in the formal
sense, it nevertheless obeys natural laws which we are far from having explained. In this
respect the Chinese are much in advance of us, as a thorough study of the I Ching (Book of
Changes) will show. Called by short-sighted Westerners a 'collection of ancient magic
spells' (an opinion echoed by modernised Chinese themselves), the I Ching is a formidable
psychological system that endeavours to organise the play of archetypes, the 'wondrous
operations of Nature' into a certain pattern, so that a 'reading' becomes p ~ s s i b l e . ~

We have already given our opinions on the I Ching at an earlier stage,g and must not
return to it here, but Jung's evaluation of that concept-repository is of much interest. In all this he probably did not wish to imply that the late European
allegorical-mystical alchemists never engaged in any laboratory operations at all.
The point is that while the proto-scientific character of such experiments is quite
clear in the Hellenistic aurifactors and the Jibirian and Geberian alchemists, the
later alchemist went on doing practical operations not so much with any aim of
understanding the natural world in the scientific sense, as rather for the purpose of
purifying, integrating and perfecting himself by the contemplation of the mechanisms of change in God's creation; in other words he saw for himself what kind of
things happened in chemical transformations, and projected upon these the archetypes which welled up from his own unconscious-thus becoming an individuated, fully adjusted or balanced totus h o m o . The analogy with the chenjenl or
(3). pp. 90.91. Cf. pp. 223ff.. 298ff.
One could say of the Hellenistic aurifaaive writings that chemistry has inherited the Physica and psycholo~y
the Mystica (cf.p. I I). Jung ( I ) ,p. 218.
C (W), pp. xviii, xix.
* (1),pp.41ff.,(z),p.xvii.
(W), p. xvii.
a Vol. 2, pp. 322ff., 335ff.
(g), PP. 293,294.
b

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

'realised man' of Taoism springs to the mind, but what follows will indicate the
grave danger of all such identifications.8
Since European allegorical-mystical alchemy developed within the bosom of
Christendom it is natural to ask what relation it had with the ideas of that organised
religion. Now alchemy was always recognised as the art of taking to pieces and
putting together again. Solve et coagula was one of its great watchwords. Separation
and analysis (the realm of Ares) was followed by synthesis and consolidation (the
realm of Aphrodite).b This is the origin of the seventeenth-century Latin word
'spagyrical' for alchemical, for osr&o,osrapd~~civ,
spao, sparattein, means to rend,
P ~ ~ ~ ,is to bring, unite or collect
tear, separate or stretch out, while & Y ~ I ageirein,
t0gether.c Conflict was thus subsumed in unity, melanosis followed by xanthosis,
with the attainment of all the longed-for ends-permanence, incorruptibility, androgyny, spirituality yet corporeality, divinity, the beatific vision, and (last but not
least) the Chinese-Arabic components of longevity and immortality. Hence the
immense significance of the 'union of contraries' in alchemy, the coinci'dentia oppositorurn, of which so much more will have to be said. And since 'uniting symbols'
tend always to have a numinous character one is in no way surprised to find Christ
continually identified with the philosophers' stone, whether in the context of the
eucharistic liturgy or n0t.d True, the latter was celebrated by those in need of redemption who gained the fruit of grace by the work done on their behalf (ex opere
opmato), while the alchemist laboured for the redeeming of the divine soul of the
world slumbering in matter and yearning for redemption, gaining an elixir of life
by his own activity (ex opere operantis).e Many similar contrasts have been formulated by Jung and his expounders; 'the alchemists ran counter to the Church in
preferring to seek through knowledge rather than to find through faith'.e Alchemical allegory restored the bridge to Nature which the Church had cut when it alienated consciousness from its natural roots in the unconscious, for alchemy allowed
the recognition of archetypes that could not be fitted into Christian theo1ogy.g Alchemy was to Christ~anityas the undercurrent to the surface, or as the dream to the
consciousness, compensating the conflicts of the waking mind." Besides, there was
the great contrast that the Church was a collective while the adept's quest was
solitary and individual; he would find out his own salvation. All the same, the
imagery of alchemy did not fail to inspire some of the best religious poetry of the
seventeenth century. The Anglican parish priest, George Herbert, wrote:'
There is no agreed or satisfactory translation for the important and widely used term chmjm, and we tend to
say 'adept' instead of 'real man', 'true man' or 'perfected man', all of which have been used by others. The basic
sense of it is given in ch. I of the H u m Ti Nei Ching, Su Wen as 'he who has understood the interaction of the Yin
and the Yang in the workings of the universe, harmonising and nourishing the ching and rhhi of his body, and
guarding hisshm . . .' In other words, chm here is used in the sense of hsiu rhen, 'restoring the primary vitalities' (cf.
p. 46). and hence attaining longevity. Moreover, as mentioned above (pt. 2, p. log), the term was originally applied
chiefly to immortals of high grade, and only gradually came to siqify an adept still in this mundane world. All this
will be better understandable as the reader proceeds.
Loc. cif. See also von Lippmann (12).
h Jung (8).p. xiv.
* Cf. Jung (1). p. 343.
(1). p. 35 et s q .
g ( ~ ) , p34.
.
(1),~.457.
(1),P.23.
Verses 4 and 6 of 'The Elixir', no. I 56 in 'The Temple' (EH,485). The Gibson edition contains also the 'Life
of Mr G. H. [ + 1593 to 16321' by Izaak Walton.

"

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

All may of thee partake;

Nothing can be so mean,
Which with his Tincture (for thy sake)
Will not grow bright and clean.
This is the famous Stone
That tumeth all to Gold;
For that which God doth touch and own
Cannot for less be told.
What then were the dominating themes or motifs in Western allegoricalmystical alchemy? One can distinguish two in chief, both arising quite naturally
from meditation on the behaviour of chemical substances undergoing change.
There was the theme of death and resurrection to eternal life, with its associated
motifs of a descent into hell, and the liberation or redemption of the spirit imprisoned within base matter. And there was the sexual theme of the conjunction of
opposites,&the union which brings forth a higher product or state of equilibrium,
so tending upwards step by step towards an absolute perfecti0n.h Associated with
this was the employment of hermaphrodite beings as symbols,c and the depiction of
the unity of all things in cosmic diagrams analogised by Jung with the mandalas of
Indo-Tibetan religious art.d It is easy to see how both themes arose naturally in the
first place from the observation of laboratory phenomena, for the alchemist (from
Alexandrian times onwards) often had to destroy the pleasing properties of one
substance or metal in order to gain the still more pleasing properties of the other
which he was preparing, while in every chemical reaction the properties of the two
reacting substances disappear as those of the product or products take their place.
First, as to death and resurrection, it will be remembered that the Alexandrian
aurifactors or proto-chemists conceived of chemical and metallurgical change as
the withdrawal of certain 'forms' (in the Aristotelian sense) from 'matter as such',
followed by the imposition of certain 0thers.e Since all matter as such was thought
to be identical and homogeneous, one could, as it were, hope to be able to replace
one coat of paint on a lump of it by a paint of an entirely different colour. Hence
they (and many alchemists in subsequent centuries after them) thought in terms of
a 'deprivation of forms' (solutio, separatio, divisio, putrefactio) of the materia prima
(;A7], hule'), followed by a progressive 'addition of the forms' (ahlutio, baptima).f
The lowest stage, when matter as such, or something like it, was reached (mortifimelan~sis
catio, calcinatio) was a blackening (Fig. I S ~ I ) ,the famous p~A&vwrr~s,
(nigredo), but after this the ascent towards the golden, the purple, or the perfect
Cf. our discussion in Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 363ff.
This was what Waite (5). p. xxix, called the 'alchemical doctrine of evolution', the 'processes of the develop
ment of inherent energies'.
C Cf. Pagels (I).
d The mandala of Hindu and Buddhist tradition is a discoidal cosmic diagram or image of the univem, but also
a theophany in so far as it could be the habitation, temporary or permanent, of the gods or Bodhisattvas themselves. It played an important part in 'Isntric initiation and other liturgies, and is particularly prominent in
Tibetan MahZyZna. See Eliade (6). pp. z q f f . , 392, and the monograph of 'I'ucci ( 5 ) .
Cf. Leicester ( I ) ,pp. 27,41. I 10.
Junu (1). P. 304.
a

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. I 541. Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy; calcination imaged as the breaking-up of the
dried dead bones of the royal hermaphrodite. From .Mar~aritaPretiosa IVmella ( I 546). Cf. Jung (I), pp. 506ff.

state was begun, passing through that series of colour changes which the Alexandrians had first laid down.8 First came the whitening, AE~KWO~S,
leuc6SiS (albedo),
then the yellowing, ~&vOoacs,xanth6sis (citrinitas) at which gold or a gold-like
colour or substance was produced, and finally a rather mysterious final stage of
i6sis ( r ~ b e d o )It. ~lay near at hand to analogise this succession of
purpling, LWOLS,
stages with the renewal of the life of the soul just as the chemical substances passed
through the 'torments of death and hell' of the reaction-ves~el.~
This thought was not at all foreign to the Alexandrians, as the visions of Zosimus
and Stephanus bear witness," but in later Christian alchemical allegory the analogy
of the lapis-Christus, the powerful reagent symbolising Him who had gone on
before, conquering death and harrowing hell, fitted naturally into place.e It was left
for Jung to point out that these conceptions paralleled, adumbrated, or in fact represented, the descent into the snake-pit of the unconscious.f The abysses, the
'depths of the sea', contain not only evil but also a great King who awaits redemption, and will at the end of the Work emerge in all glory and accomplished
peace.g
Allied with such symbolism was the idea of the liberation of the spirit slumbering or prisoned within matter.h This was connected both with the archetype of the
Cf. pt. 2, p. 23 above, and Jung (I), pp. 218ff. Cf. Leicester (I), p. 42; Sherwood Taylor (2). p. 135. (3). p. 49;
Holmyard ( I ) , p. 25 following Rerthelot ( I ) pp. 242, 277, (2) pp. 263, 264. Corpus Alchnn. C r . IV, xx, 5 ; 111,
xxxviii, XI,in Rerthelot & Ruelle ( I ) ,vol. 3. pp. 27gff.. 202, 204 respectively.
h 'There is always doubt whether this meant 'purpling' or 'de-rusting' so as to gain a brilliant polished surface.
c As we know (pt. 4, p. 76) the term 'Hades' was regularly used by the Hellenistic proto-chemists for the liquid
at the bottom of the khotakis reflux condenser vessel; see Corpus Alchm. C r . I\.'. xx. 7ff. (the book of Comarius
and Cleopatra), text in Rerthelot & Ruelle(1). vol. 2, pp. 292ff. Fr. tr. vol. 3, pp. 281 ff.; Eng. tr. Sherwood 'I'aylor
(3). pp. 5Xff. cf. p. 47. Cf. also his descriptions in (2). p. 133, (7). p. 41.
* Cf. Sherwood Taylor (8) and (g).
(I), p. 313. Cf. Sheppard (5).
(1). p. 322.
J u ~ K ( I PP.
) . 332ff.
h This was partly a Manichaean idea, based on Gnosticism; see the book of Wolf ( I ) , and all the recent literature.

I2

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

'lowly origin of the redeemer'" and with the theology of the eucharistic liturgy in
the West," especially the Latin doctrine of transubstantiation, which had an obvious connection with the medieval natural philosophy of forms and primary
matter.c The salvator microcosmi of the Church was paralleled by a salvator macrocosmi of the alchemists. There are many references to the presence of spirit in the
'vilest matter', in stercore indeed,d and sulphur, with its evil-smelling compounds,
was often taken as a Christ-symbol-paralleling, says Jung, the 'dirty unconscious',
a realm which yet the spirit also pervades, as can be understood if sufficiently meditated upon and unravel1ed.e All this was in a way a defence of the sooty character of
the spagyrical art, yet not devoid of deep philosophical truth. And one may note too
how extremely European it was, since China made no such stark antithesis between
spirit and matter, the lotus and the mud.f
At various stages of the colour sequence (often called collectively or separately
cauda-pavonis, the 'peacock's tail'), but especially before the depth or nadir of the
melan6sis, the alchemist brought about, in actual practice or allegorically, a fusion
of opposites in which male and female reactants gave rise to something new (conjunctio, conjugio, matrimonium, coitus). The importance of what the Chinese would
have thought of as Yin and Yang throughout Western alchemy, and all that that
involves, can hardly be over-estimated.g In spite of the Manichaean element in
Christianity, so inimical to sex, the sexual symbolism of alchemy was highly
prominent,h and the Iep& y&pos (hieros gamos), or consecrated union, often depicted extremely frankly (Fig. 1542).Essences in conflict were transcended in the
mysterium conjunctionis,i opposites personified (rex and regina, Adam and Eve, fire
and water, lead and mercury, above and be1ow)j were united in the 'chymical
marriage'.k All this was perfectly natural, not only because of the facts of chemical
(I), p. 28; (8). pp. 360.366ff.i 'the dominant subjected to transformation'.
SO much so that more than one devout alchemist drafted a Hermetic Mass, with proper collect, epistle and
gospel, special antiphons, introit, gradual and the like. Sicholas Melchior of Hermannstadt (d. 1531)did this
(Jung (I), pp. 380ff.), as also Renedict Topfer or Benedictus Figulus c. 1608 (Waite (2). pp. 260, (9). p. 81; cf.
Ferguson (I), vol. I, p. 275); and there is a Requiem Mass for alchemists in one of the collections like the M u a m
Hermeticurn Refmmotum et Ampli'catum of + 1678, translated by Waite (8).
c (I), PP. z22,283ff., 293ff.. 295.
Jung (I), p. 300 (g), p. 554; and note the close parallel with C+
Tzu,ch. 22, tr. Leg@ (S), vol. 2, p. 66,
quoted in Vol. 2, p. 47.
(a), p. 122.
With his usual perspicacity Jung remarked (S), p. 536, that 'the alchemist's labours elevated the body into
proximity with the spirit while at the same time drawing the spirit down into matter. Ry sublimating matter he
concretised spirit'. Hence the synthesis gave a third thing, 'our Stone which is no stone'(Ar0os 06 AcOos, lithos ou
lithos). In other words, the alchemists were searching for something characteristically Chinese, for in China the
concept of chhi covered everything from the crassest matter to the most tenuous spirit. S o desperate effort was
required to join them.
Jung (I), pp. 21 ff. 31. Good and evil, he says, tended to be absolute in Christian thinking; alchemy relativised
them (just as Chinese thought would have wanted to).
h In Jung ( I ) see fi-.
72,78, I 18, 159, 167, 218,225,226, 237,268(2), fig. 7. In Jung (R) see pp. 3ff. at length,
and 6ff.
J u n u ( ~ ) , p103.
.
j (8). PP. 258ff.. 382ff., 457%.
(8). pp. 39ff. One recalls that the 'Chymical Vv'edding, of Christian Rosencreutz' was published at Strasbourg
in 1616, at the beginning of the Rosicrucian furore in that century, and became the model for the second part of
Goethe's 'Faust'. l'he context of it is well described in Yates (3). A new edition of the English translation bv
Ezechiel Foxcroft of King's, is projected by Xlr S. I. Abrams.
a

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. I 542. Psychological projection in Western allegorical alchemy; sexual union as symbol of chemical reaction.
Fifth woodcut of the Rosarium Philosophorum ( 1550). Cf. Jung (I), p. 448.

observation, but because the alchemists, always more or less mystical, were seeking
a sort of dialectical synthesis, the 'individuation' of ever new and more perfect
equilibria, in fact 'a unity purified of all opposition and therefore in~orruptible'.~
Moreover the sexual relationship resided not only in the objects of alchemical manipulation but also in the subjects themselves, the operators, who were often taught
that the Work would not succeed unless the alchemist had a soror mystica to collaborate with him." Presently we shall see how extremely Chinese this was, though
in an utterly different context. The effects were doubtless similar, for in Europe, in
so far as the alchemical work was a pattern of the purification or individuation of the
soul, the value of the progressive reconciliation of contradictions is psychologically
manifest. The chemical reactions and the psychic adjustments were typified by
hermaphrodite beings,c and the final syntheses were symbolised by the mandala
charts and pictures of Boehme and many 0thers.d
In order to be clear about the contribution of Jung to the history of alchemy and
early chemistry in the West before proceeding to the Chinese parallels which we
have to explore, it is necessary to look both at the criticism of him and at his antecedents. There can be no doubt that Jung himself under-estimated the extent to
PP. 34.37.
In Jung ( I )see figs 2, 124. 133, 143,462. On this subject Waite (2). pp. 398ff. has an interestingexcunus.
P In Jung ( I )see, e.g. fig. 125,but the symbolism is frequent.
* Including Jung's own patients. (I), pp. 91 ff.; though it has to be admitted (from the orientalist point of view)
that he was liable to describe almost any sort of symbolical picture or painting as a mandala.
(I),

I4

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

which alchemy embodied primitive chemistry and later gave birth to the techniques of Renaissance and modem chemistry.8 In his Elementa Chymiae of + 1732
the great Hermann Boerhaave wrote as fo1lows:h
T o speak my mind freely, I have not met any writers on natural philosophy who treat of
the nature of bodies, and the manner of changing them, so profoundly, or explain'd them so
clearly, as those called alchemists. T o be convinced of this, read carefully.. .Raymond
Lully . ..you will find him with the utmost clearness and simplicity, relating experiments,
which explain the nature and action of animals, vegetables and fossils.. . We are exceedingly obliged to them for the immense pains they have been at, in discovering and handing
to us many difficult physical truths.

And in

1750Albrecht von Haller, in his Vorrede to the German translation of

Buffon's works, speaking of the value of hypotheses in science, even if wrong, remarked:
T h e alchemists conceived for themselves mirages, golden mountains, and metamorphoses passing those of Ovid, yet labouring to approach these visions they found on the way
many valuable truths, knowledge indeed even more useful to man than the secret of turning
lead into gold would have been; for that would have made us all poor in a very short time,
though surrounded by heaps of the precious metal, and in order to carry on our economy we
should have been obliged to replace it with diamond or any other thing, so long as it was
scarce and durable enough.

While soon after 4 1600 John Donne employed the same idea in a charming if
rather rueful analogy:r
And as no chymique yet th'Elixir got
Rut glorifies his pregnant pot
If by the way to him befall
Some odoriferous thing, or medicinall;
So, lovers dream a rich and long delight
But get a winter-seeming summers night.

The first of these passages was quoted by Pagel ( I I ) in a critique which still best
represents the views of historians of science on the work of Jung. Pagel agreed that
Jung had placed alchemy in a quite new perspective relative to the history of chemistry, medicine, theology and general culture, and that he had given an illuminating
psycho-analytical explanation of the elaborate traditional symbolism of the alchemists, previously very puzzling; but this was the Nachtseite of alchemy, not the
whole. Alchemy contained a great deal more than psychology and symbolism, for
there was real practical proto-chemistry and laboratory technique all the way from
the Alexandrians onwards; nor could its philosophical foundations in Plato, Aristotle and Plotinus be overlooked. What Jung revealed, said Pagel, constitutes a
monumental reminder of the part played by non-scientific motives in the history of
a
c

We have already quoted, in pt. 2, p. 32, the classical statement of Francis Bacon on this subject.
Eng. tr. by P. Shaw ( + 1753).vol. I , pp. zooff. Biography by Lindeboom ( I ) .
'Love's Alchyrnie', Nonesuch ed., p. 28.

33. P H Y S I O L O G I C A L A L C H E M Y

I5

science, and a salutary warning against the tendency to build 'stepladders of continuously progressive and "correct" results extricated and juxtaposed today regardless of the philosophical, psychological and historical background from which
they sprang.' Nor did Jung's ideas themselves spring from nowhere. Their origins
are worth a glance.
In the forties and fifties of the last century a certain regular officer of the American army might have been met with at frontier posts from Maryland to California
and Oregon, taking command of garrisons, crossing the deserts of the South-west,
or defending the interests of the Indians against rapacious traders." He was evidently a very strange man, for wherever he went he took with him trunkloads of old
books, Spinoza and Basil Valentine, Plato, Paracelsus and Jacob Boehme. This was
none other than Major-General Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who produced in 1855
and 1857 two memorable books on alchemy and and the alchemist^.^ He propounded the idea that the real subject of alchemy had been the improvement of
man himself; Man had been the true vas philosophorum, and 'our mercury' his
conscience. Hitchcock took the symbolism to conceal distinctively moral and ethical teachings, and believed that the medieval alchemists had resorted to concealment because they feared persecution for heretical ideas. 'The works of the alchemists', he wrote, 'may be regarded as treatises upon religious education.. .and
under the words gold, silver, lead, salt, sulphur, antimony, arsenic, orpiment, sol,
luna, wine, acid, alkali, and a thousand other words and expressions, infinitely
varied, may be found the opinions of the several writers upon the great questions of
God, Nature and man, all brought into or developed from one central point, which
is Man, as the image of God'.C Aurum nostrum non est aumm vulgi, 'our gold is not
ordinary gold'.
Jung never mentions Hitchcock, but the latter's work was well known to
Silberer (I), whose book on the symbols of mysticism, published at Vienna in 1914,
was one of the seminal influences on Jung.d From Hitchcock's diaries we know that
the original stimulus for him was the strange book of Gabriel Rossetti (I), written
in 1834, which held the Inferno of Dante to have been an anti-Catholic or at least
anti-Roman allegory written in secret figurative language in the interest of some
persisting underground Manichaean sect or doctrine. Hermetic and Gnostic elements in Dante need not be denied, but Rossetti's conception of a secret sect has
not been substantiated. Nevertheless, it was only one aspect of a general movement
of 'euhemeristic' interpretation in the first half of the nineteenth century.
Aroux (I), for example, pursued a connection between Dante and the Albigensians, Templars and Freemasons, seeking also (2) to show a Manichaean allegorical
symbolism in the Platonic 'courts of Love' and the Grail C0rpus.e Hitchcock in his
See the biography of Hitchcock by Croffut (I),based on lifelong diaries.
These and the rest of his work are considered in the illuminating m o n m p h of Bernard Cohen (I).
c (I),P.~.
* It was also discussed by Craven ( I ) in 1910, who took the same judicious position as Waite (cf.p. 17)affainst
the exaggerations of Hitchcock. Practical alchemy had always played a large part, yet Hitchcock waa right that
there had been an 'esoteric teaching' too. In later work (3) he studied the ideas of Emanuel Swedenborg, and
sought to enrol his religious mysticism in the company of the hermetic philosophers.
T o this last, Waite (3) devoted an interesting but long-winded and mystagogical book.

I6

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

way was part of this, though we know that he was also influenced by many older
writings, notably the
17th-century mystical and alchemical works of Thomas
Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes) and George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philaletha),a and
. ~ little notice was taken of Hitchcock until the followcertainly Jacob B ~ e h m eVery
ing century, and he is not exactly well known even now, but in 1868 a scientific
journalist in France, Landur (I), propounded similar ideas, though without mention of him. Reviewing a communication on alchemy to the Acadimie des Sciences
by Chevreul, Landur wrote:

As for the doctrines of the old alchemists, I think I ought not to let pass what
M. Chevreul says without making a fundamental observation, even though it is not the
custom of the journal Z'Institut to intervene with personal opinions in scientific discussions.
I have studied the alchemists from a point of view quite different from that of M. Chevreul,
and I soon arrived at the conviction that they were not chemists, but rather philosophers
having a secret doctrine for which chemistry served only as a veil, just as expressions taken
from the building trade sewed as a veil for freemasonry. When they speak of making gold,
of solidifying mercury, etc., they are alluding to works of a purely moral character; and the
materials on which they work, the 'metals of the philosophers', are not (as they constantly
say) ordinary metals, but 'living metals', that is to say, men. Many of the most celebrated
alchemists such as the Cosmopolite[Eirenaeus Philaletha], and [Eugenius]Philalethes, etc.,
were only chemists in order to mislead the vulgar, and made no chemical discoveries whatever; others, such as Basil Valentine (the most cabalistic of all) were in fact at the same time
true chemists. Just like the cabalists from whom they derived, the true alchemists gave
multiple meanings to their words; the text, often insignificant, sometimes inept, has also
sometimes a chemical meaning, but the real sense is the hidden one.
S o far we have been dealing with historical scholars,c but there was also a strain
leading to Jung which passed through certain writers who believed that some form
of the classical alchemical transmutation of metals was, or had been, possible. In
I 850 a young woman, Mary Anne Atwood, published a very peculiar book entitled
'A Suggestive Enquiry into the Hermetic Mystery.. .', one of the curiosities of
literature, learned enough but exceedingly obscure and confusing. She readily admitted the practical experimentation of the early alchemist^,^ and affirmed that
gold could have been made by their methods,e but nevertheless maintained that the
greatest treasures in their writings were those of religious mysticism. 'This', she
wrote, 'is the Grand Hermetic secret, that there is a Universal Subject in nature,
and that Subject is susceptible of nourishment in Man; and this is the greatest
Mystery-of all mysteries the most wonderful, that man should be able not only to
find the Divine Nature but to effect it.'' When one can disentangle her meaning
from the speculations about 'Mesmerism' (then a novel discovery)g and her preoccupation with the elucidation of the Eleusinian Mysteries, it seems that Mary
b Ibid. p. 99. See p. 18 below.
Cohen ( I ) , pp. 74. 108.
The stow has also been briefly told by Martin (I).
* (1). PP. 62, 136.
So far as can be made out through the clouds of her style of writing, she supposed that they had exercised some
kind of mental control or manipulation of chemical substances,a supra-normal influence suggested by the phenomena of hypnotism. See Waite (2). pp. 17ff., 30, 395ff., 397. perhaps the most thorough attempt to analyse her
ideas.
g (I), p. 175 for example.
(J).P.s~~.
L
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PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I7

Atwood interpreted alchemical allegory in a more religious sense than Hitchcock

and yet not of course psychologically like Jung.
There followed the work of A. E. Waite, also a curious character but one who
worked at a higher scientific level. Waite, the translator of Paracelsus(6), was a
substantial scholar, but liable to be discounted because of his self-confessed belief
in theosophy, magic, theurgy and 'the occult'; if he has been less read than he
deserved, the fault must partly be attributed to his copious, not to say wordy, style,
which often appears designedly vague and mystifying. He is particularly interesting today because his criticism of Atwood and Hitchcock was essentially the same
as that of Jung by Pagel, namely that they were carried away by their belief in
allegorical alchemy and failed to do justice to their practical laboratory aspect of the
search for the Stone and the Elixir, the 'Medicine both of metals and of man'. In
1888 he published a book of biographies of famous alchemists(~),now indeed
totally outdated as history, but containing criticisms of Atwood and Hitchcock still
valuable today. Here he upheld the work of the hands.
M y object, F e wrote], in publishing this book is to establish the true nature of the Hermetic experiment by an account of those men who have undertaken it, and who are shown
by the plain facts of their histories to have been in search of the transmutation of metals.
There is no need for argument; the facts speak sufficiently. It is not to the blind followers of
the alchemists that we owe the foundation of chemistry;it is to the adepts themselves, to the
illustrious Geber, to that grand master Basilius Valentinus, to Raymond Lully, the supreme hierophant. What they discovered will be found in the following pages.a

Nevertheless Waite in no way rejected the view that allegorical-mystical alchemy

had at certain periods and in certain authors been paramount. In 1926, two years
before Jung began his collaboration with Wilhelm,b ten years before Jung's first
publication on these subjects,c and twenty-two years before Pagel's parallel criticism, he set out to try to discover 'whether we can trace from the beginning the
presence of any spiritual intent in the (alchemical) literature at large'. This was his
'Secret Tradition in Alchemy'(2). After a very full review of Atwood and
Hitchcock, in which he drew attention to the latter's wilful neglect of worthy historians of chemistry of the period such as Figuier (I), he passed in review the Alexandrians (by then well known through the work of Berthelot, I , z), the Arabs (still
then very imperfectly understood), the early Latin technicians, the Latin Geber
and his descendants, and many other alchemists of the 16th century and later.d
In all these cases he concluded in favour of a practical chemical rather than an
allegorical-mystical meaning. Among the Greek texts there are none 'which are to
be understood solely in a spiritual and high mystical sense, and their symbolical
language of physical alchemy was never transferred to veil a science of the soul'.e

( ~ ) , p26.
.
Wilhelm & Jung ( I ) ,on which see p. 243 below.
Jung (g), associated with Remoulh (I).
* He also (2). pp. 5 5 f f attempted to deal with the Chinese alchemical tradition, but as he had to depend on
hardly anything more than the pioneer article of Martin (8) dating from 1868, and reprinted in 1879and 1880, the
results could not be very illuminating.
P (2). pp. 85, 86. Here he was undoubtedly wmng, for the Hellenistic Corpus is impregnated through and
thmugh with Orphic, Gnostic, Hermetic, and perhaps even .Manichaean, mystical and religious influences (cf.
Festugihre ( I ) ;and Sheppard's ( I .2.4.5) well-documented papers).
a
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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

'Syriac and Arab alchemy was not a science of the soul in veils.'&'The early Latin
literature is that of pure physicists, expounding the principles and practice of a
purely physical work.'b
Yet a turning-point there was, and Waite found it at the period of the Reformation, towards the end of the I 6th century. He took 1608as the threshold,c the
date of the death of John Dee,d for it was just about this time that the man whom
Waite regarded as the first of the truly mystical alchemists, Heinrich Khunrath
( I 560 to I 605) published his Amphitheatrum Sapientiae Aetemae ( I 602 and
many later editions). From this, he said, 'it emerges with complete certainty that
Khunrath is concerned solely with an itinerarium mentis in D a m , and that because
he was an alchemist he used things seen, imagined or reported in the process of the
Stone to illustrate-as he understood them- the states and stages of the soul's
ascent'.e Thus alchemy had two aspects from the days of Khunrath onwards.'
Then in the next generation came Jacob Boehme ( I 575 to I 624)R and Robert
Fludd ( I 574 to 1637),a great contrast, the one a visionary German shoemaker,
the other a polymathic Kentish gent1eman.h Fludd's chief work of this kind, the
Tractatus Theologo-Philosophicus, was published in 1617, while Boehme's 'Epi1649. The new direction was well recognised. For
stles' were in English by
example the author of an anonymous 'Beytrag zur Geschichte der hohern Chemie'
in I 785 remarks that

it cannot have been with M r Bohm's will that he has been transformed into a gold spyer. He
was a dreamer and a spirit seer, but a gold maker--certainly not. His dark writings, like
those of the cabalists and theosophists, turned the heads of the alchemists so that they
dreamed their system into it.'

This general finding links up closely with the quotation from Martin Luther with
which the present sub-section opened. Mystical and individualist religion was so
obviously and profoundly a part of the Reformation that its massive penetration
into the alchemical literature at this time should have no need to cause us any
surprise; and there may well have been subsidiary factors also, such as the yearning
for a liturgical beauty which the reformers had regrettably felt it their duty to cast
away, now to express itself perhaps not only in the luxuriance of alchemical illustration but later in the actual rites and ceremonies of Rosicrucians and
Ibid., p. 102.
h Ibid., p. I 19.
Ibid., p. 236.
* B. 1527; see the biography by French (I) and in Holmyard (I), pp. zooff. Dee was one of the foundation
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge, and famous as a makcian, albeit magic natural, like that of da Porta. The
story of his collaboration with Edward Kelly has elements of interest for the role of sexual imagery and practice in
Western alchemy. But he was also a genuine mathematician and astronomer, a man of many parts, almost the type
of the Renaissance magus, on which see Yates (2).
Waite (2). p. 257. See also the long account in (g), pp. 61 ff. Cf. the formulation in (S), p. n i x , referred to on
p. 10 above.
Ibid. p. 287.
g Boehme, the Teutonicus Philosophus, was not, says F e w s o n (I), vol. I, p. I I I, an alchemist, but he employed alchemical phraseology and imagery to illustrate his religious views, There is a special monograph by von
Harless ( I ) on Boehme's relations with the alchemists.
h cf. Waite (2). pp. 5ff., xoff.; Partington (7), vol. 2, pp. 324ff.
Anon. (84), pp. 522,642,670.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

I9

ALCHEMY

Freemasons.8 Nevertheless we know today that the 'spiritual' tradition cannot be

taken as beginning only with Heinrich Khunrath. Jung himself, in his welldocumented work, based on the study of a wide range of Western alchemical manuscripts and treatises, discovered that the identification of the Philosopher's Stone
with Christ is much older than Khunrath and Boehme. The mystical strain undoubtedly begins with the gnostic redemption visions of Zosimus ( 3rd century)
and continues with the Christian ones of Stephanus ( 7th).b The identification is
present already in the treatise of Petrus Bonus of Ferrara, the Mmgarita Pretiosa
Nwella,C written about + I 330, and the Aurora Consurgens from the first half of the
14th century.d
Thus Western alchemy may be said to have had two aspects from the time of the
Alexandrian proto-chemists onwards, though its allegorical manifestation grew
enormously and generated a popular literature in and after the Renaissance and the
Reformati0n.e Radically different though the two kinds of alchemy in Chinese
culture were, as we shall duly see, it is rather striking that just in the same way, both
strands were present almost from the beginning, and that the non-laboratory
aspect also burgeoned and flourished at later rather than earlier dates. '
It remains only to add that Waite was not so scientificallyorthodox as to deny all
credence to the possible success of medieval metallurgical transmutations. By his
time nuclear physics was coming to birth, and he could appeal, though only
rhetorically, to the transformation of chemical elements into one another. 'If cumulative evidence can be held to count for anything in such a subject, one would feel
disposed to think that metallic transformations have taken place in the past. . .',he
concluded,f adding that 'all alchemy testifies to the fact that the so-called
Philosopher's Stone was a physical object composed of certain material substances
by those who had claims to adeptship, and certified as such by persons who had
seen and handled it.'g Thus in a way Waite stood rightly with Pagel against the
Jungian over-emphasis, though prepared to believe what no contemporary scientist or scholar would admit. But here we must leave the curious story of allegorical
and psychological alchemy in the West, and turn to examine what corresponded to
it in Chinese culture. What in fact was the 'inner elixir'?
This the rest of the present volume will attempt to explain, but meanwhile it is
fair to say that the tradition of 'inner alchemy' still interests philosophers of science.

H q s e e Waite's books (g, 10) and those of Amold ( I ) and B. E. Jones (I). How far there really was a Rosicrucian secret society before the eighteenth century remains problematical; it may have been started by the followers of Giordano Rmno at Wittenbe---at any rate those who did not disdain the label were, like the polymathic
R o k r t Fludd, Protestant and Paracelsian, Hermetic and iatro-chemical. mystical and numerological. .See the
discussion in Yates (I), pp. 312ff.. 407ff., 446ff. ?'here was also an Arabic flavour about t k early Rosicmcian
pronouncements which has not yet been explained; cf. Waite (g), p. 127.
Cf. Sherwood Taylor (8) and (g) respectively.
Cf. l ~ i c e s t e (I),
r p. 86, and the translation of Waite (7); with Crisciani ( I , 2).
d Anon. (85), in Anon. (86) and Morgenstem (I); but especially the version in Codex Paris Lat. 14,006 and
Rhenanus (I).
Particularly during the century and a half between Libavius and Priestley, when the classical hopes of alchemy were being abandoned and modem chemistry had not yet come to birth, ( 1600to 1750).
(z), p. 318; cf. ( I ) , pp. 33ff.. 36. They 'thought they succeeded, though the secret in now lost'.
(2). P. 332.

''

'
"

20

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

For example, it has inspired Goodwin ( I ) in a striking essay on the problem of

providing modem science with an ethic of contemporary validity. Knowledge
should be developed within a context of universal cosmic meaning, not simply for
the purpose of domination and power over Nature. Knowledge and power have
been too much separated from meaning and morality. But now the idea of man as
the perfect observer, and hence the all-powerful controller, has broken down, because observation is known to imply perturbation, necessary paradigms are liable
to be fundamentally incompatible, and science without ethics will clearly lead to selfdestructive situations. The inner alchemical tradition, says Goodwin, 'attempted
to fuse knowledge and meaning by combining scientia, the study of natural process,
with morality, man's attempt to realise his own perfectibility and self-fulfilment,
itself a continuous process'. The essence of the alchemical process was 'a two-way
relationship between the adept and Nature, both undergoing transformation together, as occurs in a true dialogue'. If this view of things could be transmuted into
an ethic appropriate to modem science, it might lead to a 'responsible creativity' in
which the search for meaning would be paramount, and the application--or nonapplication--of assured knowledge would be under the sign of true human benefit
rather than private profit or public dominance. How to combine wisdom with
power is the great problem now before humanity. The medieval 'inner alchemists'
were not faced with this as we are, but perhaps their ethos has still a message for us.

The existence of two parallel traditions in Chinese alchemy has now been known or
glimpsed in Europe for more than a century. In his pioneer paper of 1855 on
Taoism Edkins (17) was perhaps the first to mention it.
The Taoists b e wrote] call the process of manipulating substancesto obtain the elixir lien
wai tan,' 'the obtainingby purification of the external elixir'. The corresponding process for
rectifying the mind is denominated lien na' tan,' 'to obtain by purification the inner elixir'.
By the former the rank of earthly genii is attained, ti hsim.3 But those who succeed in the
latter become thien h i & or celestial genii,&and instead of enjoying their immortality in a
grotto on some legendary mountain, they fly upward to Yu Ching,s the abode of Yu Tih[the
Jade Emperor], or to Tzu Wei Kung,' his lower residence.h

Edkins could not explain very clearly however what the second process consisted
in. He knew indeed of a Taoist 'mode of self-training called lien-yan?' which had
been founded by Chhih Sung TzuQ and Wei PO-YanglO-refining and
nourishing-but conceived that it 'consisted of a hermit life and sitting crosslegged in a mountain cave' while repressing the passions. He realised however that
This distinction has been studied already in pt. 2, pp. 106ff.Cf. Fig. 1308.
It will be remembered that this is the astronomical name for the region of the circumpolar stars (cf. Vol. 3,
PP. 259ff.).
b

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

21

'making the breath return in a circle' had something to do with it. He was aware,
too, of another phrase, yang hsing,' but associated it only with late ethical Taoism
deeply influenced by Confucianism. The double pattern was also brought out clearly by Martin (8) in his address to the American Oriental Society in 1868, often
subsequently reprinted, and notable for the emphasis with which he supported
Edkins' belief in a higher antiquity of alchemy in Chinese than in any other civilisation (cf. pt. 4, pp. 491, 504). Although Martin could not give any more precise
account of the nei tan tradition than Edkins, he provided a slightly different formulation of it:
In the Chinese system F e wrote] there are two processes, the one inward and spiritual,
the other outward and material. T o obtain the greater elixir, involving the attainment of
immortality, both must be combined; but the lesser elixir, which answers to the
philosopher's stone, or a magical control over the powers of nature, might be procured with
less pains. Both processes were pursued in seclusion; commonly in the recesses of the
mountains-the term for adepts signifying 'mountain men' (hsien2).8

From what will appear in the following pages it is evident that Martin had been
studying some nei tan texts, for he quotes (without precise reference) a sentence
from Lu Tsu3 (the late 8th-century Patriarch Lu, Lu Yen,4 Lii Tung-Pins): 'You
must kindle the fire that springs from water, and evolve the Yin contained within
the Yang.' Those who read this, such as Waite,b were duly baffled, and he wrote,
quite understandably, 'We need to know much more than Dr Martin has told us
about spiritual processes in China which passed under the name of alchemy before
we can take them into consideration on a quest of their (possible) correspondences
with the groups of European texts.'
Of the two Western-language books on Chinese alchemy in the early part of this
century, Chikashige (I), as a plain blunt metallurgist, ignored the nei tan tradition
altogether, but Johnson ( I ) devoted a chapter to it which constituted a slight further advance in understanding. He translated nei tan as 'esoteric drug' and wai tan
as 'exoteric drug', associating the former purely with the attainment of longevity
and immortality, and the latter purely with the transmutation of metals. Nevertheless he knew that the nei tan procedures involved 'a comprehensive regimen of
mental and physical discipline', gymnastic techniques, a regulated and selective
diet,c and respiratory exercises including long holding of the breath. But he also
thought that the 'esoteric drug' was a compound derived from minerals and
meta1s.d
Only two years after Johnson's book came the more scholarly contribution of
Waley (14). After discussions of the Han material, the Tshan Thung Chhi and the
Pao Phu Tzu book, which we have already taken into account (pt. 3, pp. off.,

In (3), vol. I , p. 246.

(2),P P .57.58.61.

Including abstentions e.g. from cereals,and also the consumption of unusual plant substances.
(1),~.64.

22

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

75ff.1, he directed attention to the commentary of PhGng Hsiaol on the Tshan

Thung Chhi written in + 947 and entitled Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi F& Chang
Thung Chen IZ(TTgg3), and to another work by him, the Huan Tan Nei Hsiang
Chin Y o Shih3 now but half a chapter in the Yun Chi Chhi Chhien colle~tion.~
Here
we meet, wrote Waley,
with the distinction between exoteric alchemy (wai tan4)which uses as its ingredients the
tangible substances mercury, lead, cinnabar and so on, and esoteric alchemy (nei tans),
which uses only the 'souls' of these substance^.^ These 'souls', called the 'true' or 'purified'
mercury, etc., are in the same relation to common metals as is the Taoist Illuminate (chen
j d ) to ordinary people. Presently a fresh step is made. These transcendental metals are
identified with various parts of the human body, and alchemy comes to mean in China not
an experimentation with chemicals, blow-pipes, furnaces, etc. (though these, of course survived in the popular alchemy of itinerant quacks), but a system of mental and physical reeducation.

And he went on to quote one of the writings of Su Tung-Pho7 (ca. + I IOO),entitled

Lung Hu Chhien Hung Shuo8(Discourse on the Dragon and the Tiger, or Lead and
Mercury), as fo1lows:c
T h e dragon is mercury. He is the semen and the blood. He issues from the kidneysd and
is stored in the liver. His sign is the trigram Khan.PT h e tiger is lead. He is breath and bodily
strength (lino). He issues from the mind (hsin") and the lungs bear him. His sign is the
trigram Li.I2When the mind is moved then the breath and strength act with it. When the
kidneys are flushed then semen and blood flow with them.

Waley then pointed out how in later times Taoist nei tan alchemy was much
influenced by Buddhism, especially of the Chhan or Zen school, as the case of KO
Chhang-KCng,'3 also known as Pai Yii Chhan,'4 whose Hsiu Hsien Pien Huo LunlS
(Resolution of Doubts concerning the Restoration to Immortality) written about
1218, shows explicitly. Thus Waley touched the very essence of the matter by

Ch. 70, pp. I aff.

This is U'aley's formulation; we have hardly, if ever, noted in Chinese nk tun texts the statement that 'true
mercury' or 'true lead' are the 'souls' of ordinary mercury and lead. Perhaps he was influenced by Western
alchemical ideas in this.
c It was addressed to his younger brother Su Tzu-Yu (cf.pt. 3, pp. 193-4). and is printed in TSCC,Shen I
Tien, ch. 300. ching k
m pu, i W& I , p. 6h. We should not translate this passage exactly as Waley did, but it
deserves to stand as one of the first pronouncements on physiological alchemy to appear in any Western language.
d Here Waley translates the word shen,'" and here for the first time in this context we come upon a difficult
anatomical term which will be of great importance in what follows. It can be translated 'urino-genital system' (if
the importation of a fairly exact modem concept is not objectionable), for in medical literature neishen" means the
kidneys and wm'shenlXor shen tmIqthe testes; but for our present medieval purpose a vaguer expression may he
better, and we have one at hand in the old biblical word 'reins'. Dictionaries (such as Webster's, 1832)define this as
the kidneys, the lower part of the back, the waist, the loins; this last another old and vague word embodying
distinctively sexual significance, for besides 'girding up one's loins' they also say, 'kings shall come out of thy loins'
(Gen. 35. I I ) and 'he was yet in the loins of his father' (Heh. 7. 10). We shall therefore generally use the word reins
for shen, remembering that its meaning is at least as much sexual as excretory.
8

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

23

demonstrating that alchemical terminology had been transferred from a specifically chemical-metallurgical context to a psycho-physiological one, nei tan 'elixirs'
and their components not being in crucibles or retorts but in the actual organs and
vessels of the human body. And then he spoilt it all by reverting to a purely mystical
explanation.
T h e interest [he wrote] of this purely mystical phase of Chinese alchemy is that whereas
in reading the works of Western alchemists one constantly suspects that the quest with
which they are concerned is a purely spiritual one-that they are using the romantic
phraseology of alchemy merely to poeticise religious experience-in China there is no disguise. Alchemy becomes there openly and avowedly what it almost seems to be in the works
of Boehme or Thomas Vaughan.

Waley would certainly have known of the books of Waite, but it is interesting that
he wrote this half a dozen years before Jung began to publish his psychologicalallegorical interpretations of Western alchemy. Subsequent writers who followed
Waley closely, notably Eliade (S), were able to profit by the fundamental monograph of Maspero (7) on which we have often drawn, and shall still draw; so they
did not fall into the non sepitur of Waley, though always allowing ample room for
psycho-mental techniques of meditation, etc. alongside the more important physiological exercises designed to prepare an 'elixir' of life within the organs of the
human body itself. When Eliade pointed to a Yogic-Tantric connection he was
really on the right track-but more of that later.
Thus if the Western companion of metallurgical-chemical alchemy was
psychological, its Chinese companion (natan) was essentially physiological. The
Chinese adept of the 'inner elixir' did not seek psycho-analytic peace and integration directly, he believed that by doing things with one's own body a physiological medicine of longevity and even immortality (material immortality, for no
other was conceivable) could be prepared within it.8 Thus there opens out before
us the whole field of Taoist physiology, a proto-science not exactly the same as the
physiology of the physicians down through the centuries, but not very far different
from it. No greater mistake could be made than to analogise nei tan with the 'spiritual alchemy' of the West; it was physiological through and through, and though
certainly not without parallelisms or even connections with Indian Yoga, it was
generally more moderate, with more emphasis on hygiene, and always infused with
characteristically Chinese sanity, sobriety, empiricism and rationality.
As already adumbrated, one of the basic features of Chinese wai tan and nei tan
alchemy was that many of their principles and technical expressions were held and
In recent years great advances have been made in our knowledge of the physiology and biochemistry of
human ageing, and it is advantageous to have a knowledge of these at the back of one's mind in considering the
prolongevity techniques of the Taoists. Excellent general accounts are to be found in Roscnfeld ( I ) ; Thorbecke ( I )
and Rockstein, Sussman & Chesky ( I ) . The onset and continuance of cell impairment is discussed in collective
works edited by Cristofalo & HoleEkovi ( I ) and Goldman. Rockstein & Sussman ( I ) . The gradual breakdown of
molecular genetic mechanisms is traced in Rockstein & Baker (I). Neuro-physiology and neuro-chemistry is
treated by the writers in Ordy & Hrizzee ( I ) and Rockstein & Sussman (2). Endocrinological changes are the
subject of Cristofalo, Roberts & Adelman ( I ) ; while the relation of longevity to nutritional factors is treated by the
group in Rockstein & Sussman ( I ) . T o all this one may add another look at the references given on the gerontological page of Vol. 5 , pt. 4, (p. 507).

24
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
used in common. While it is possible, therefore, to categorise without hesitation
certain particular texts as wai tan and others as nei tan, there are a good many where
it is sometimes very difficult to be sure whether the writer is talking about laboratory operations or physiological techniques. Some texts indeed give the impression of having been designedly written ambiguously so that readers of either
persuasion could take their choice. At a later stage (p. 218 below) we shall take a
closer look at this piquant situation. One has only to realise that chemical terms
such as 'reaction-vessel' or 'distillation' or 'potable gold' were freely applied to
physiological processes; as also to remember that the viscera and the metals were
strictly associated together within the Five-Element symbolic correlation ~ y s t e m , ~
to see that interpretation may not always be easy. And here it dawns upon the
investigator that nothing short of a dual translation system will ever cope with the
problems presented by nei tan alchemy in China. In wai tan contexts chin il, literally 'gold juice', has often been translated 'potable gold' (cf. pt. 3, pp. 40, 82-3,
178-9 above), but study reveals that in the nei tan context the two words must be
englished in an entirely different way, even involving the creation of a new, or the
use of an unfamiliar, word; so that here what we ought to say is 'metallous fluid', for
it refers to the saliva,b which was thought to be prepared by the lungs,c which
belong to the element Metal. Thus we need special adjectives, other than those in
common use, for the five elements, and we must be prepared to have 'aquescent', or
some such coinage, to convey the idea of something under the sign of Water. As for
the overlap of terms, it could almost be said that the nei tan experts took pleasure in
punning usages which could put the uninstructed totally off the trai1.d
Of course the nei tan texts can often be recognised because they give no clear
instructions for manual chemical operations; it then becomes evident to the reader
that they are using an abundance of chemical terms with purely physiological
meanings. Here there is an interesting difference from Western writings. When a
European alchemist speaks of 'true mercury' or 'our mercury' or 'philosophical
mercury' we know that he is referring to some hypothetical entity or un-isolated
constituent believed to exist invisibly behind the ordinary inorganic substances
which he is handling in the laboratory. Just of this sort were the Tria Prima, the
mercury, sulphur and salt, the 'three hypostatical principles' which Boyle combated in the 'Sceptical Chymist' as well as the four Aristotelian e1ements.e But
See Table 12 in Vol. 2, p. 263. The correspondences shown there are not the same as those which the Taoist
nn' tun alchemists used, for more than one set existed at different times. What they followed was the system of the

H u u q Ti ,Vei Ching,S u W&, i.e. the medical set of correspondences rather than that of the ancient philosophers.
See on this Hsieh Kuan (I), vol. I, p. 15h. Here the liver belongs to Wood, the heart to Fire, the spleen to Earth, the
lungs to Metal and the kidneys (or urino-genital system) i.e. the reins, to Water.
As one of the bodily secretions orjuices (i2) this was believed to contain pre-natal Yang chhi. As we shall see,
this was symbolised by the Yang lines (yao') in the trigrams (kua')Chhien and Tui, both of which were associated
with the Metal element (cf. Fig. 1550).
Or, more correctly, at a point along the Cheirotelic pulmonic Thai-Yin5 tract (cf. Vol. 6).
* Indeed they were bound not to transmit their knowledge except to disciples under an oath of secrecy (cf. p. 39
below, cf. pt. 3, p. 74, and Ware (5) pp. 75,302).
Cf. Leicester(]), pp. 97ff.. I off.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

25

when a Chinese writer speaks of 'true mercury' or 'true lead' he is likely to be

speaking about the secretion, chhi or emanation of some physiological organ or
tissue." Exactly what, we shall see as we go on.
Take for example the basic idea of reversion, regeneration and return. For the
proto-chemical alchemist the term huan tan1 meant an elixir or part of an elixir
prepared by cyclical transformation, such as may be brought about by repeated
separation and sublimatory re-combination of mercury and sulphur, reducing cinnabar and re-forming mercuric sulphide. If this were accomplished nine times it
could be the chiu chuan hum tanZdescribed in many of the books. On the other
hand, the phrase huan tan1was applied by the 'physiological alchemists' as we may
henceforward call them, to a chhi or substance generated by techniques purposefully within the human body which would bring about a reversion of the tissues
from an ageing state to an infantile state. When presently we look at the history of
these ideas we shall see that they go back far into Chinese antiquity; here it is
necessary only to recall that pregnant phrase from the - 4th-century Tao Te"Ching:
'Returning to the state of infancy. . .'b It was indeed one of the most ancient slogans
of Taoism, and while the methods were more and more elaborated as the centuries
went by, the fundamental idea probably changed but little, namely that there could
be a reversion to youth, an attainment of longevity because of continued
rejuvenation-fan lao huan thung3 in the proverbial phrase-worked for by means
of hygienic and other physiological techniques.c
There is no single key to physiological alchemy more important than the idea of
retracing one's steps along the road of bodily decay. The old English political cry of
'retrenchment and reform' constantly recurs to the mind in reading nei tan texts,
and the technical terms stand out like signals. Huan and fan, regeneration and
reversion, we have just met with, but there is also (and very prominently) hiu,4
repair, as well as f ~ replenishment,
, ~
and several more.
restoration, or hsiu
Further, this concept gradually generated two others almost equal in importance,
first a counter-current flow of some of the most important fluids of the body opposite to their normal directions, and secondly a thought-system which envisaged a
frank reversal of the standard relationships of the five elements. The first idea, of
flow in a direction opposite to the usual, is expressed by such terms as ni liu7or ni
h ~ i n gand
, ~ was applicable, as we shall see, particularly to the products of the salivary and testicular glands. The second concerned the power which the physiological alchemists believed that their techniques could attain over the natural processes
of mutual generation of the five elements (hsiang s h h p ) and of mutual conquest
(hsiang sh&gI0 or hsiang khol').d They dared to believe that by their efforts the
The terms do also occur from time to time, however, in theoretical discussions of war' tan alchemy. Then the
most usual meanings are, respectively,mercury prepared from mercuric sulphide, and silver extracted from lead.
Cf. pt. 4. PP. 254,257-8.
b Cf. Vol. 2, p. 58 above, and Waley (q), p. 178.
C See again Vol. 2, p. 140.
6 See Vol. 2, pp. 255ff.

26

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

normal course of events could be arrested and set moving backwards; this was
called tien tao,' 'turning nature upside down'.&Thus 'to become as little children'
was the nei tan ideal, and though one must not minimise the undertone of holy
innocence which all true Taoists would have wished to recapture, the physiological
alchemists of medieval China had, in our view, far more in common with those who
attempt to halt the ageing of tissues and bodies today by biochemical means,b endocrinological treatments and hygienic exercises than with those who think in terms
of a purely psychological 'return to the womb'.c
How did the nei tan alchemists talk about the condition of vitality to which they
wished to return? One just has to know the key, for the terms were ordinary words
used as veils for a special meaning. Encountering san p a n Zor san chen3 the uninitiated would write down immediately 'the three originaIs' or 'the three true things',
but here in fact yuan and c h a are synonymous and mean 'primary vitalities', the
primary vitalities with which the young human organism, like that of all animals,
is endowed. This endowment, in a common usage with many medical writers, was
called hsien thien,4 a phrase which we have come across before in connection with
,~
one of the ancient alternative azimuthal arrangements of the eight t r i g r a m ~but
here with a quite different sense, namely what was bestowed upon the embryonic
organism before it came forth from womb or egg into the light of day. There were
in all bodies three great vitalities, first the yuan ching5 or primary ching, which
degenerates to the seminal essence of intercourse (chiao kan chine), secondly the
yuan chhz' or primary chhi,e which degenerates to the hu hsi chhis or respiratory
pneuma of exhalation and inhalation, and finally the p a n shenqor primary shm,
which degenerates to the ssu lii shenI0 or mental activity eaten up by anxiety and
worry. The first of these vitalities was correlated with the peripheral parts of the
body (sha") as a whole, the second with the heart (hsinIz)or the thorax in which it
centered, and the third with the mind (i13).The whole complex was called the i ling
c h a hsing,'4 the 'numinous triune natural life endowment', or thien chen,'5 'original
vitality' or simply pin, ping.l6,I 7 It is no good trying to find adequate English equivalents for ching and shm, they can only be left untranslated, like chhi, but in view of
a There are echoes of this in Western alchemy, though they have originated quite independently. For example,
the late medieval writer Salomon Trismosin speaks of a stage in the Great Work when the normal natural
1598, on which see
processes reverse themselves and flow in the opposite direction. His Splendor Solis of
Ferguson ( I ) , vol. 2, pp. 469ff.. has been re-translated by London (I). It may be significant that Trismosin was a
particularly macrobiotic Paracelsian, believing in rejuvenescence as well as prolongevity, and for women as well as
men.
h Just take the first gerontological example that comes to mind. Nummular m
a tends to occur in the aged
because the skin loses fats and lipins as it becomes older; this can be corrected by simple inunction.
There is much in the works of Jung and others on the regressus ad utero in psychology, but it has little or
nothing to do with the Chinese attempt to reverse ageing.
* See Vol. 4, pt. I , p. 296.
On this untranslatable word, corresponding to pneuma nearer than anything else, we have had much to say in
previous volumes (v. sub vote). The analysis of its meanings by Hiraoka Teikichi (I, 2) are worth careful study. Cf.
also Kuroda Genji (I).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

27

its wonderful generative properties (which no one understood before modem

times) it seems not at all surprising that a 'semen-as-such' should have been raised
to equal rank with the 'breath of life' and the pervading intellectual powers. Nor is
it much good trying to situate shm in the context of the Aristotelian vegetative,
sensitive and rational souls and their Chinese counterparts, a problem to which we
gave some attention long ago;&it can only be said to have included all of them. The
hunl souls, upward-floating, were no doubt its Yang parts, and the pho2 souls,
downward-seeping, its Yin 0nes.b Such was the complement of dazzling youthful
vitalities at which the Taoist physiological alchemists set their sights.
After it was borne in upon us, therefore, that we were face to face with a physiological (indeed at bottom a biochemical) elixir, to be prepared by physiological,
not chemical, methods, out of physiological constituents already in the body, it
became clear that in order to do justice to the Chinese nei tan conceptions it would
be desirable to introduce an entirely new word for 'the elixir within'. For this purpose we have settled upon the term 'enchymoma'. This is satisfactory in many
ways; its prefix indicates at once that it is within the body, while its second and third
syllables come from the Greek word xvP6s, chumos,juice -connected obviously not
only with the term chyme, still current in modem physiology, but also one of the
possible origins of the very name of chemistry itself (cf. pt. 4, pp. 349ff.above).c
Enchymoma (= egchym&na, IYX&p~pa)
would be a pouring in, and indeed the
noun enchymosis ( = egchym6sis, byX&pwots)occurs already in hippo crate^,^ defined as 'the infusion of vital humours into the solid parts, such as takes place in
anger, shame, joy, etc., also a sudden injection of blood into the cutaneous vessels,
as in blushing'. Since the infusion of vital humour, the restoration of the primary
infantile vitalities to ageing muscles, joints and organs, was just what the Taoist
physiological alchemists were aiming at, the word seems eminently suitable to
place beside 'elixir', which we can reserve for the external preparations, whether
made from metallic and mineral substances or from plant^.^ Furthermore it is interesting that a closely related word, 'enchyloma', in old pharmacy 'an inspissated
juice' (from chulos, ~vXds,also juice, hence the chyle of modern physiology) was
actually used in the sense of elixir by the great iatro-chemist Nicholas Lemery
Vol. 2,p. 22. Cf. Fig. 1306.
See Vol. 2, p. 4 9 0 Jung (3). pp. 38ff. has a very peculiar discussion of the hun and pho souls in terms of aimus
and anima, conscious rationality and affective prejudice. I have no authority to criticise so great a philosophical
psychologist, yet this instance does seem to me a good example of an attempted Chinese-European correspondence which carries no conviction whatever. We do ourselves use the two words in translation now and
then, but with every reservation against further implications (cf. pt. 4, pp. 228,238,260).
It is interesting too to recall that 'enchyma' was the word used by J. E. Purkinje (Purkyn;) in 1837 for the
material or contents of living cells before coining two years later the term 'protoplasma', still in use today. See
Teich (I), pp. logff, I 15, (2).
"Epid.
2. 1037 F.
One must be careful not to confuse in the mind the t e r n enchymoma with the old medical expressioriccchymosis, which physicians of my father's generation used to designate bruises, humours seeping beyond their
.
out. This
vessels, livid swellings, or extravasations of blood; for it derives from ekchym6ma. i ~ ~ 6 p w paapouring
also has the authority of Hippocratic usage, both in the -6ma and the -&is forms (Frart., 759.760). Correspondingly, ecchymoma arteriosum was an old term for the false aneurism, and ecchyloma, in pharmacy, an extract.
a

28

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

1644 to I 715).&His 'Cours de ChymieP, which first appeared in 1675, was

perhaps the most celebrated chemical treatise of its time, a time of transition, for
though Lemery still thought in-terms of the Tria Prima plus two passive principles
(phlegm and caput mortuum, water and earth), he followed Descartes and Gassendi in using an early form of atomic theory. We shall perpetuate him therefore in
our enchymoma. In the texts which concern the external elixir it is interesting that
the theme of rejuvenation is relatively infrequently spelt out, though it certainly
does occur there, but in the physiological enchymoma descriptions it seems always
to be the essence of the matter, invariably present; so it is desirable to have an
additional technical term at hand when special emphasis needs to be laid on the
regenerative property. Accordingly 'anablastemic' will be useful as a term for the
means to burgeon again, to
restoration of youth. Anablastanein, hva/3Xao~dv~iv,
spring anew, to grow afresh, and if this evokes for us too vividly the marvellous
totipotence of plant cells, how much the Taoists would have wished that animal
organisms could escape from their determination into the same liberty. Anablastemic, then, has obvious connections with the blastema of regeneration and embryonic growth, and it will be useful for elixirs as well as enchyrnomas when the
idea is present in such contexts. Lastly, what shall we call the class of elixirs and
enchymomas? The answer springs to the mind from the Hippocratic adage quoted
in the preface to Vol. 4-'The craft is long but life is short'.b If we have in our time
the less lovely carcinogens and hallucinogens why should not the Taoists of old be
allowed their macrobiogens? Let us only hope that some day, but under reason and
right judgment, we may have the substance of their shadow.
(

(I) The questfor material immortality

When we examine the principal component parts of the nei tan complex as it appears from the literature we see that it was essentially a development in certain
particular directions from the classical Taoist techniques of ancient times for the
attainment of individual material immortality or at least enduring longevity. Some
traditional practices were excluded but other new ones were introduced, while at
some particular periods some practices were dominant, then declined giving place
to other^.^ In Section 10, at a much earlier stage, a discussion of the classical Taoist
techniques was preceded by a list,d but here a new list is needed,e partly because the
types of technique had changed a good deal by the early Middle Ages, and partly
See Partington (7), vol. 3, p p 288.
Vol. 4. pt. I , p. xxxi; Vol. 4, pt. 2, p. li.
C The classical descriptions are those of Maspero (7). reprinted in (32). A brief survey is that of Kaltenmark ( 5 )
which omits, mysteriously, only the sexual techniques.
* See Vol. 2, pp. 143ff. The reader is referred to this discussion for many detailed references, e.g. to the ancient
literature, which cannot be repeated here.
The book of Huard & Huang Kuang-Ming (7) discusses some of these in considerable detail, adding however
a miscellany of information on acupuncture, moxa, sphygmology, bodily hyp;iene, bathing and balneology, wrestling, the medical aspects of various sports, and even 'cosmetology'. It attempts, moreover, to cover not only
Chinese civilisation, but also European, Japanese and Indian. Conceptions of physiological alchemy are touched
upon only v e n briefly. This interesting work is unfortunately less helpful than it might have been because the text
is not clearly distinguished from the translations (which seem often to be abridpents or paraphrases) and no
Chinese characters are given, except in the illustrations (the origins of which are not always clearly stated).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

29

because a novel nuance is present, the idea that what these practices do is to produce a physical enchymoma of salvation, as it were, within the body of the practitioner. Thus we may list the techniques designed to give rise to one or other form
of anablastemic enchymoma as follows:&
(I) What one may call 'redemptive' mental and bodily hygiene (chu chhu fa1) in all
aspects. Here the keynote was to avoid excess in everything, to live the most healthy
kind of life, to cultivate ataraxia and to banish all passions from the mind (yang
~ h & I gyang
, ~ hsing,3 she*sh&g,4 she*yang5). The physicians of ancient Greece in the
Hippocratic tradition of p7j6;v hyav would have comprehended this regimen
perfectly,b but one must understand that it included much which we would now
regard as distinctively hygienic, such as cleanliness and sanitati0n.c At the same
time it assumed engagement in special practices intended to 'preserve and nourish
the ching, the chhi and the shen' (pao yang ching chhi shenh). Such a life could
theoretically have been lived anywhere, but it would have been much more convenient in the service of a Taoist temple remote in the mountains, and that is the
setting which most of our adepts preferred. That is where one has to imagine them.
(2) Respiratory exercises and techniques ('harmonising the chhz9, thiao chh9).
These, as we saw in Sect. I O , were
~
of great antiquity and became highly elaborated. Breathing in various rhythmic ways (thun chhzx), reducing expiration and
inspiration (hu hi9)to the utmost; or long holding of the breath (pi chhilO),accompanied by the counting of heart-beats, even till anoxaemia produced abnormal
mental states; or chasing a theoretical inner chhi (nei chhil'), not the same as the air
of in- and out-breathing, around its believed circulatory course in the body-these
were some of the methods at which we may look a little closer in due c o u r ~ e . ~
(3) Allied with the respiratory exercises were others intended to assist actively the
~ ) . were designed to
circulation of the chhi and the fluids in the body ( p ~ n y u n ~These
bring about 'regeneration by internal transmutation' (huan tan nei lien13).
(4) Passing to exercises requiring still greater muscular exertion, one reaches the
large field of remedial gymnastics (taoyin14),in which the Chinese were great pioneers. Closely connected with this was what might be called gymnastics practised by
one adept upon another, namely massage (an m0I5).Together with the respiratory
exercises, all these methods of encouraging the preparation of an enchymoma were
called in later times kungfu16 and nei kung17(interior achievement).
( 5 ) An exceptionally important role was played by the conservation of certain secretions, for example saliva, the swallowing of which (thun t h u ~ ''9~) .was accomplished in ritualised ways which included the gnashing of the teeth (khou chhihzO).
b
C

Cf. Figs. 1552,1553,1591.

Miden agm, 'do nothing to excess'.
Cf. Sect. 44 below, and meanwhile, Needham & Lu Gwei-Djm ( I ) .
Vol. 2, pp. 143 ff.
P.142 below.

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3O

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

The physiological alchemists were clearly of the opinion that the spitting out of
saliva (probably a common usage in ancient and medieval China just as it was there
until recently) involved a dangerous loss of vitality from the body, and they greatly
emphasised therefore the necessity of its conservation-indeed, as we shall see, the
Yang chhi within it formed one of the essential ingredients for the inner elaboration
of the enchyrnoma.8 Moreover there was a certain parallelism between the conservation of the saliva and the long retention of the air which had been breathed into
the lungs.
(6) Sexual techniques (fang chungpu i'). In part these were concerned with another
aspect of the conservation of secretions, the retention of the semen, but their general significance was much wider than this. It cannot be too often emphasised that
sexual activity was highly important in the world-view of Taoism,b and hence of
the physiological alchemists. The place of a female component in the world of
Nature, forming one of the two fundamental forces, the Yin being the equal and
opposite partner of the Yang, was basic to Taoist natura1ism.c A sexual element
was descried in the most intimate structure of the natural universe itself, and since
men and women must behave in the closest accordance with their true natures in
seeking rejuvenation by the enchymoma, techniques of sexual intercourse were a
was the mutual nourishlogical and reasonable part of the Taoist scheme.-is
ment of Yin and Yang, but besides there was a further technique available to the
male, namely 'making the semen return upwards to nourish the brain' ( h u m ching
pu
It is fully understandable as yet another instance of the emphasis on
Tears, ear wax, nasal mucus and sweat could also theoretically have been regarded as products the conservation of which should have been beneficial to the organism, but one encounters little about them in the
literature, probably because they wereso much more difficult to collect (cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (I). vol. 2,p. 451).The
first and the last, at least, would have been regarded as undesirable losses caused by excesses of grief or gaiety, and
of physical labour. It is often enjoined that gymnastic exercises, for example, should stop at the onset of perspiration. Nasal mucusoccun therapeutically in the S u Shm Limg F q , ch. 6, p. 136,but there isnoentryfor it in
PTKM, ch. 52.
Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 150-1.
C See further Vol. 2,pp. 273ff.Cf. Figs. I 545,1572-4. I 579 below.
d This had nothing to do with sacrificial religious asceticism or reactions against it, charismatic celibacy, phallic
worship, temple prostitution, or social promiscuity; it was simply that the moral valuations associated with various
(often dominant) forms of Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity were not recognised. Nor does it mean that
all Taoist physiological alchemists were bound to engage in sexual activities; there were many possible ways
towards salvation by the enchymoma, and some of these involved abstention from all sex, just as others involved
abstention from cereals or other foods. It may be worth adding that in the Middle Ages, or at least the earlier
Middle Ages before the influence of Buddhism became too strong, all Taoists were expected to marry (and in some
of their sects they still do to this day), while there were always Taoist 'nuns', or feminine adepts, as well as the
Taoist 'monks'. These terms are so wildly inappropriate that they should never be used, and one should speak
rather of men and women Taoists, though often priests and priestesses would not be inappropriate. It is essential
not to see all these phenomena through conventional Western eyes, and indeed the presence of sexual techniques
among the means for achieving longevity will hardly be likely to be condemned by either the physiological or the
psychological sciences of the present day.
See Vol. 2,p. 149.At the moment of ejaculation, pressure was exerted on the urethra between the scrotum
and the anus, thus diverting the seminal secretion to the bladder, whence it was later lwt with the urine upon
excretion. This the Taoist physiological alchemists of course did not know; they thought that the seminal essence
was raised actively up the spinal column so as to nourish the brain and to produce an enchymoma with the saliva
somewhere in the abdomen.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

3I

reversion, restoration, regeneration, counter-current motion and cyclical

transformation.&
(7) Techniques of meditation, trance and ecstasy (tso wang'). Here much remains to
be investigated. It is certain that in late times Taoism was much influenced by
Buddhism, and by the Sung period had taken over meditational practices of Indian
origin, but something of the kind had always been there though perhaps less prominently than afterwards. There is also some reason for thinking that anciently use
was made of hallucinogenic fungi and other plants to induce mystical or religious
experiences.b Indications of the use of techniques of hypnotism also demand a
special study. But at the simplest estimate, periods of quiet recollection and mental
concentration would have contributed to psycho-somatic calm, health and equilibrium.
All these were the nei tan procedures. A word must now be said about the other
macrobiotic methods mentioned in Sect. 10 which could not have been numbered
among them.
(I) First among these would come the dietary complex (fu shihz),ancient but very
persistent.c This included the prolonged consumption of all kinds of unusual plant,
mineral and even animal substances, from pine needles to peach gum &l~ucommia
resin, and from mica powder to avian b1ood;d but also specific abstention for prolonged periods from certain foods, notably cereals (pi KU~),
or plants of the Allium
genus. There were endless ramifications of the peculiar diet which the adept might
find helpful (Figs. 1543, ISM), and we cannot go into them here,e but diets were
never part of nei tan.
(2) Nor, obviously, was the way of the alchemical elixirs (wai t&) which gradually
arose out of them as time went on.' Nei tan adepts were never concerned with all the
pharmaceutical complications which followed from the use of metallic and mineral
substances as medicines of immortality.
(3) Lastly, there was what may be called the actino-therapeutic complex, the exposure of the body to the rays of the sun and moon. This was important in early
times but gradually declined later; one may find indications of it, for instance, in a
list of macrobiotic techniques given in the Thai Phi% Chings (Canon of the Great
Peace),g the important, though incomplete, sacred book of a Taoist church, written
, ~ the
about I 50. There the absorption of the sun rays is called thun jih ~ h i n gand

If the secretions were to be so conserved, what of the excretions? Ideas about these form a separate chapter,
but the drinking of urine was counselled from ancient times onwards, and did in fact lead to significant discoveries
concerning hormones; see Lu Gwei-Djen & Needham (3); Needharn & Lu (3) as also pp. 308 ff. below.
We shall have more to say of this in Sect. 45. Meanwhile, see pt. z, pp. I 16, 121, 150.
C A classical account is given by Maspero (7). reprinted in (32). pp. 365ff.
d See the opening sub-sections of the historical description of the development of alchemy in Sea. 33, especially
Vol. 5, pt. 3, p. I I.
Something more will be said of the nutritional a s p m of them in Sect. 40, devoted to that subject.
See again in Sect. 33 how the search for the herb of immortality (pu snr chih yao') gradually changed into the
golden elixir (chin t a d ) . Especially pt. 3, pp. 19, zgff., 45ff., 48ff.
a The history of this work is rather complex; for the background of our bibliographical entry see Hsiung TGChi (I); Urang Mina (5).

"

32

33. A L C H E M Y

AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 543. Drawing of a plant often eaten by adepts seeking prolongevity or material immortality, the shu (in this
case from Chhichow). The manuscript is the H s i q Yao Chhao (Ke6-sh5, Memoir on Aromatic Plants and

Incense), written by the monk Kuan-Yu (Ken-i) shortly before

plant is a composite, Atractylndes (Atractylis) mlara.

+ I I 5 6 Ch. 2, p. 74a; cf. Vol. 5, pt. 2, p. 330. The

absorption of those of the moon is fu yueh hua.' a It is possible that in some texts
actinotherapy may have been included within nei tan procedures, because after all
no obvious material substance was introduced into the body from outside. Men
adepts 'absorbed' the rays of the sun, woman adepts those of the moon.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. I 54.4. Drawing of a fungus often eaten by adepts weking prolongevity or material immortality, the fu l m (in
~
this case from Kunchow). The manuscript is the Yao Chung Chhao ( Y a h h i - s h 6 , Memoir on Several Varieties of
Drug Plants), written by the monk Kuan-Yu (Ken-i) shortly before I 156. P. 60, cf. Vol. 5 , pt. 2, p. 361. The
fungus, Polyporus ( = Pon'a, Pachyma) cocos, parasitixs the roots of pine trees. Here it is calledfu shen. Cf. Burkill
(I). vol. 2, p. 1618.

It is interesting to note that the basic technical terms given in the preceding
paragraphs have been derived from sources of widely differing dates in Chinese
Taoist and medical history. T o show the continuity of the tradition, it may suffice
to say that one can find essentially the same headings in the Chhien Chin Yao Fang1

34
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
(Thousand Golden Remedies) written by Sun Ssu-MO' in the neighbourhood of
+ 652, and in the Tonpii Pogamz (Precious Mirror of Eastern Medicine),&written
by the Korean physician H6 Chun3 about 1 6 0 0 . ~
Nevertheless, the impression of unity and simplicity which one might gain from
this statement alone would be illusory. The nei tan palace was in fact a house of
many mansions, and over the two millennia of its existence there grew up a multiplicity of teachers, schools and sects, embodying the traditions of a number of Taoist
centres. Each of these had a favourite terminology of its own, and specialised in
particular techniques. In all the discussions which follow, the reader must understand that we have taken our exemplifying texts from writers of many different
persuasions, and that if some of them had actually met, they would no doubt have
disagreed quite strongly with one another. Contradictions of this kind can in fact be
found within the bounds of single collections of tractates of physiological a l ~ h e m y . ~
Even so, there was a consensus of opinion on the basic beliefs, both in time and
space, and it is this that we have tried to delineate in the present Section.

(ii) Rejuvenation by the union of opposites; an in vivo reaction

In order to give a properly rounded idea of na' tan physiological alchemy we shall
have to draw upon many interesting texts as examples, some strange, some surprising, some poetical and some of striking interest for the history of science. Let us
begin with three passages, very short, from texts which define the nei tan and the
wai tan. The Tao Tsang contains a work of the Thang period entitled Thung Y u
Chueh4 (Lectures on the Understanding of the Obscurity of N a t ~ r e )which
,~
says:
'The (primary) chhi can preserve (the invisible) life, hence it is called the enchymoma (chhi n&g tshun shhg, nei tan yeh5). The chemical substances can
strengthen the visible body, hence (their combination) is called the elixir Cyao n&g
ku hsing, wai tan yehh)'. Some centuries later a Sung adept, Wu W U ,wrote
~
another
book of the same kind entitled Chih Kua' ChP (Pointing the Way Home to Life
and also preserved in the Tao Tsang. The preface, written
Eternal; a C~llection),~
about I I 65, says:

The theory of the Nei Tan (enchyrnoma)is nothing more than the mutual conjunction of
the heart and the reins (hsin shen chiao h&), the circulation of the ching (seminal essence)
and the chhi (ching chhipan yiinTO),
the preservation of the shen and the retention of the air
(tshun shen pi chhil'),exhaling the old and breathing in the new (thu ku na hsingL).
Besides
this, one may practise the special arts of the bedchamber (huo chumfang chunf chih shu13),
We always quote this title, and others by Korean authors, with the Korean pronunciation, though it will be
understood that they wrote their books in classical Chinese.
h And indeed in Japanese medicine and hygiene also, as witness the Yqdkun," written by the famous Kaibara
Ekikenr5about + 1700.
E.g. the Hsiu Chen Shih Shu, on which see pp. 79 ff. below.
6 TT9o6, p. 18b. Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), Vol. 2, p. 370.
C TTgrq. We had occasion to refer to this book already at an earlier stage, in pt. 4, p. 233.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

35

or take the rays and emanations of the sun and moon (huo tshai jih yueh ching h w ' ) , Or
consume particular vegetable substances (huofu o h tshao mu2),or again, it may be, abstain
from cereal grains, or practise celibacy (huo pi ku hsiu chhi').a
Here some of the additional alternatives are not strictly nei tan, but were included a6
facultative helps to the practice of it.h T h e formulations in this passage occur over
and over again in the n d tan texts, so that it becomes fairly easy to recognise what
procedures the adepts are recommending.
It must of course be understood that the activities of elixir-making and
enchymoma-making generally ran parallel, and most of the Chinese alchemists, at
any rate before the Yuan period, pursued both objectives at the same time,
believing them to be essential to each other. Presently (p. 209) we shall quote from
the Pao Phu T z u book passages which indicate this mutual dependence; sometimes
the enchymoma procedures were considered ancillary in the sense that they would
give sufficient longevity for the mastery of the immensely complex and timeconsuming elixir procedures. This viewpoint was rather characteristic of the earlier
periods, Han, Chin, Liu Chhao and Thang; later disillusion with the results of
proto-chemistry took physiological alchemy to a position of superiority and independence, as we shall see. Broadly speaking, one may say that the search for the
elixir predominated during the earlier times, perhaps down to the end of the golden
period of laboratory alchemy in the Thang, before 800, while the search for the
enchymoma became dominant during subsequent times, e.g. the later Sung and
Yuan periods, continuing through Ming and Chhing, and still faintly alive within
living memory.c Of course there always remained also a few of the traditional wai
tan practical alchemists (not at all confined to Waley's 'itinerant quacks', but sometimes learned scholars). And now we are beginning to perceive a third period or
current which was in a sense the synthesis of all that had gone before, namely the
iatro-chemical development, from the Sung onwards, but we must reserve for a
while yet the discussion of this application of wai tan techniques to nei tan
materials.
Besides the commonplace ordinary usage of the term wai tan for laboratory elixir
alchemy and nei tan for physiological enchymoma alchemy there grew up, certainly by the end of the Thang, a sophisticated usage, even more esoteric and confusing, of distinguishing between a wai and a nei tan within the nei tan realm. We
can illustrate this by a passage from a book called Hsiu Chen Pi Chiieh4 (Esoteric
Instruction on the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities). The writer of this text is
unknown, but it can be dated without fear before I 136, because parts of it were

T r . auct.
Cf. the remarks of Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, pp. 389,390.
C Cf. p. 179below. Naturally the expression nn' tan did not always mean exactly the same group of practices. In
the Sui period it referred mainly to the circulation of the chhiand the gymnastic techniques, in Thang and Sung
'embryonic respiration' replaced the chhi circulation;and by the Southern Sung there was a broader spectrum of
methods including the swallowing of saliva and the retention of semen. Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. z, p. 389.

3 t5

33.

Fig. 1545. Knowledge of N

Pao-Kuang Ssu, near Hsint
symbol. On the history of th., ,,

,.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

ay of salvation; a Rudd hist arhaiI, one of the 5 x 1 Lohan, at the temple of

tan (orig. photo. 1972). He holdsi a scroll with a version of the Yin-Yang
-2 Needham (76).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

37

incorporated into the Lei Shuo florilegium compiled in that year. It runs as
f0llows:a
The Inner and the Outer Macrobiogens.
Lao Chiin (Lao Tzu) says that the changes in the atrnological realm of the heavens and
the earth are very difficult to fathom. There are two chhi, one Yang, represented by the
dragon, by the element Wood, and bp secretions (lung, mu, il);the other Yin, represented by
the tiger, by the element Metal, and by essences (hu, chin, ching2).bWhen these two chhic are
brought into conjunction and made to react with transformation-then what results is called the outer macrobiogen (wai tan3).d
But (the practices of) conserving and harmonising (the secretions), working alchemical
transformations within the viscera (han ho lien tsaw), exhaling the old and breathing in the
new, transmitting upwards to the brain (ni wans), then showering downwards to the regions
of vital heat (tan thienh),restoring and transforming in endless cycles, passing through the
heart (chiang Kung7) and there collecting the five chhi (of the viscera) in order to nourish all
the vitalities of the body (lit. the hundred archaei, paishen8)e-this is called the inner macrobiogen (nei tan0).
For those who follow the Tao, the inner enchymoma can lengthen one's life, but the
outer enchymoma can make one ascend to become an immortal. If the inner enchyrnoma
succeeds, the outer enchymoma will necessarily be accomplished (lit. must respond to it, pi
yinglO),and this being so, the inner enchymoma will necessarily be strengthened. But even
so, the inner one alone will never succeed in effecting ascension.

The nei tm system of ideas was a complex one, and it must be allowed to unfold
itself gradually; this it will do as we proceed. But in the quotation just given there
are several points worth retaining in the mind. The first paragraph means that the
outer enchymoma, derived from the two primordial chhi of the respiratory exercises, is formed by the chyrnical marriage of the elements Metal (Chhien chinJ1)and
Wood. The inner enchymoma, on the other hand, is produced by the conjunction
and transmutation of the chhi, fluids and secretions within the body.f 'Transmitting upwards' and 'showering downwards' are phrases referring to the important
'counter-current' and circulatory procedures of the physiological alchemists which
a Lk Shuo, ch. 49, pp. 5b,6a (vol. 5, p. 3212)~
tr. auct. The same passage occurs, in a slightly abridged form, in
the Thi Kho KO" (Song of the Bodily Husk), collected in Hsiu Chm Shih Shu'l (TT260), ch. 18, p. 7a.
This refen to the aasociation of elements and t r i p m s in the WPn Wang arrangement of the h a (cf. Vol. 4,
pt. I, p. 296). Metal corresponds to Chhienl'and Wocd to Sun1'(cf. Fig. I 550). In these kua there is little ornoYin
within the Yang; this is why the outer macrobiogen is here depicted as so powerful in raising the adept to the
heavens.
Cf. Fig. 1574.
The imagery of dragon and tiger here goes far to show that the whole passage is concerned with two enchymomas and not with an elixir and an enchymoma. The motif is quite absent from the Pao Phu T m book, but
characteristic of early nn' tan writings. The attribution to Lao Tzu is of course fictitious.
P More will be said about the internal archaei or body-spirits on p. 79 below.
Saliva, semen and other secretions enter in here, as well as chhi. The chymical marriage involved is that of
Water and Fire, because of the kua Khan and Li, on which see pp. 42.60, below. We have already encountered the
importance of these kua in other alchemical contexts in pt. 4, p. 271.

38

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

we encounter again and again. Then there are two other technical terms in the Hsiu
C h a P i Chiieh passage demanding each a paragraph of explanation.
Since it is here that we meet for the first time in the present context with the
technical term ni wan,' so important in Taoist anatomy and physiology, a few
words must be said about the 'ball of mud', the human brain. As Maspero pointed
out,a a11 Taoist texts write the characters as here given, while those of Buddhist
authors and translators write ni h u ~ nwhich
, ~ is the same as the standard transcription of nimc?na.bBuddhist quotations of Taoist texts in anti-Taoist writings always
change ni wan, taking ni hum as the orthography. Maspero suggested that the
Taoist name was not older than the 3rd or 4th-century, and that it had been
adopted from the Buddhist concept, further that the written form ni wan was
perhaps stabilised by the Taoists only in and after the 7th-century, to differentiate their ideas from those of the Buddhists. We feel doubt about the cogency of
these conclusions. Why should the Taoist term not have been a descriptive one
from the beginning? Brain tissue is in fact of a whitish grey colour, and elsewhere
we shall come upon several Chinese parallels to the old Greek idea that 'the father
sows the white, the mother the red'.c In any case the brain was always an organ of
cardinal importance in Taoist anatomy and physiology."
The so-called 'cinnabar fields' (a translation which we ourselves eschew) or regions of vital heat, tan thien,3 were another important element in Taoist physiology.
Three were universally recognised, the upper one in the head, the middle one in the
thorax, and the lower one in the abdomen. Here tan should be taken in its meaning
.~
one could
of red (hung+),signifying Fire (huo5),and vital internal ~ a r m t hHence
think of the tan thien as centres of production of 'animal heat'. They were considered the areas from which the chhi set out on its circulatory paths through the
body, and to which it returned,f a process which itself came to denominate the
'cycled enchymoma' (hum tan6)-very different from the cycled repetitions of
chemical changes meant by wai tan practitioners. Moreover the Taoists envisaged
a considerable anatomical complexity in these three calorific power-houses, as
Maspero so well e1ucidated.g Each region consisted of nine cavities or spaces, arranged in two rows of four and five each, the cephalic set horizontally, the thoracic
and abdominal sets vertically. We have the full details of nomenclature of the cephalic cavities in a 4th-century text called Ta Yu Miao Ching7 (Book of the Great

(7). P. '94.
Though later m m'is also found for this among the Buddhists, and wan in ni wan can be read hua. Ni Wan
was also the hno name of the archaeus of the brain (Nao S h d ) .
c Cf. p. 207.
d Exactly what ita functions were considered to be is not so easy to say. We shall return to all these matten in
Sect. 43 on physiology, in Vol. 6, and must not too greatly anticipate here what belongs to that discussion.
e But in physiological alchemy the word regained its meaning of elixir, since the enchymoma when formed
radiated its life-giving warmth in the neighbourhood of the (lower) tan thirn. This was certainly connected with
subjective sensations experienad by the adepts.
On microcosmic circulations in wai tan alchemy see pt. 4, pp. 281 ff.
E ( 7 ) PP.
~ 192ff.~
(13).PP. 92ff.
b

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33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

39

Mystery of Existence)a by an unknown Chin author, explained by Thao HungChing' himself in his T&g Chen Yin ChiiehZ(Confidential Instructions for the
Ascent to Perfected 1mmortality)b of the late 5th or early 6th-century. But the
description and full names of the other two sets of cavities, thoracic and abdominal,
have not come down to u s CIn general the system was by no means without objective anatomical basis, for almost certainly the horizontal cephalic set was based on
the ventricles of the brain, while the vertical thoracic set originated from the auricle~
and ventricles of the heart (perhaps also the pericardial and pleural cavities);
lastly the vertical abdominal set would have arisen from early observations of the
many obvious cavities among the viscemd
The tan thien system undoubtedly grew up during the Later Han and San Kuo
periods, for a locus classicus about it can be found in the Pao Phu Tzu book, about
300. There KOHung says:e

Thus it is that we read in the manuals of the immortals (hsien chin@):

'He who wishes to obtain longevity and immortality
Must hold fast to the (Great) Unity.'
Meditating on it and reaching comprehension of it,
It will be food enough to satisfy all hunger
It will be drink enough to satisfy all thirst.'
Now this (Great) Unity has a material manifestation (lit. name, dress and colour). In men it
is nine-tenths of an inch long, in women six-tenths. One of its locations is two and fourtenths of an inch below the navel; this is the lower region of vital heat. Another is in the
crimson palace (chiang kungr)a or the metallous gateway (chin chhuehs) below the heart; this
is the central region of vital heat. The third is in the space between the eyebrows; one inch
behind this is the cosmic palace (ming than@), two inches behind it is the arcane chamber
(tungf q 7 ) , and three inches behind it is the upper region of vital heat. Such things have
been emphasised by the Taoists generation after generation, transmitting the technical
terms (lit. names) orally only, to disciples bound by a blood seal of secrecy.

Here the terms given are exactly the same as we find in the later Ta Yu Miao Ching.
Of course, this brief discussion is far from exhausting the subject of the tan thien;
they figure considerably, for example, in later medical literature, partly because
But
they were sometimes identified with the 'three coctive regions' ( s a n ~hiao").~
the idea may well go back as far as the Warring States, for in the bronze figures of
dancers from the Shih-chai Shan culture in Yunnan, and from its derivative culture of Han times, one sees very prominently discoidal 'breastplates' worn on the
TT1295.
b TT418.
Except part of the thoracic set in YCCC, ch. 12,p. 18a.
d For further information on this subject Sect. 43 on anatomy may be msulted, in Vol. 6 below.
Ch. 18,p. I b. tr. auct., adjuv. Ware (S),p. 302; Schipper (5).Another, passing, mention occurs in ch. 5, p. zb,
cf. Ware (5). p. 100.
Here this is a collectiveterm for the calorigcniccentres in the body, m the Taoists conaivcd them.
g This term is normally one of the most prominent nama for the heart itself in the literature of physiological
alchemy.
h Cf. Seaions 43 and qq below.
C

4O

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

abdomen.8 Archaeologists call them 'heart protectors' (hu hsin ching'), b u t m a y

they not have had something t o d o with the lowest tan thien?
L e t u s now examine another statement of the doctrine of the inner a n d outer
macrobiogens, all within the enchymoma realm. I t is found in Chhen Chih-Hsii's
Chin Tan Ta Yaoof
1331.~

Shang Yang Tzu says that ever since the days of old the great sages and immortals have
not been willing to indicate clearly (the ex* identification of) even a single medicinal entity
in their enchymoma mamals. The Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth elements, together
with lead, mercury, cinnabar and silver, as mentipned therein, were all used as metaphors
(pi M).Nevertheless ordinary people, thinking that they were directly referring to the
operations of forging and transmuting, processing and refining (tuan lien3), used ordinary
mercury, cinnabar and sulphur as medicinal substances. This was even worse than the
blind leading the blind. But I shall now clarify this and reveal the secret to the world.
What are (the true) medicinal entities? One should first understand that they all come
forth from the invisible (wu chunp); they are not ordinary physical things of the metal,
mineral, plant and vegetable categories. They also lack the categories of form (hsings) and
substance (chih6),yet they are derived from things with form, resembling Metal but not
ordinary metal, resembling Water but not ordinary water. Moreover, (among them) there
is an interior medicinal entity (nk yao7)and also an exterior medicinal entity (waiyao8).
For the exterior medicinal entity the Water of the primordial unity of the pre-natal endowment ( k e n thien chen i chih shuiq)is sought from within the kua Khan.Io From this
Water the undeteriorated lead of the pre-natal endowment is taken, and from this lead the
chhi (primary vitality) of the great unity of the pre-natal endowment is obtained. This chhiis
thus the white within the black and the Yang within the Yin. This is what the Wu Chen
Phim means when it says that the solid (line) within the kua Khan is to be taken, since the
Water of the primordial unity is the ching and chhi of the primary vitality. This chhi is the
very Mother of Heaven and Earth, the Root of Yin and Yang, the Source of Water and Fire
(elements), the Ancestor of the Sun and Moon, and the Forefather of the Myriad Things.
The Chhi Pi Thu" C says that Khan kua represents the Water (element) and the moon. In
man it refers to the reins, and there the ching (semen or seminal essence) is produced.
Within this seminal essence is the chhi of the Principal Yang (chhg YangIz),which rises up
and heats what is ab0ve.d This is the Yang chhi generated within an accumulation of Yin.
Hence lead is pliable and silver is hard. By nature the tiger belongs to the Metal (element),
and this element can produce water.e But in the process of inversion (tien tao13)'the mother
conceals her own male offspring, and therefore (we say that) the tiger is born from (the
element) Water. Thus the tiger is equated with lead, and is called the Yang within the Yin.
All this refers to the exterior medicinal entity.
We had the opportunity of examining many of these in the Museum at Kunming during the summer of 1972;
the full-size ones do not exceed I ft in diameter. We are glad to offer our best thanks to the Curators, Mr Chang
Tshing-Chhi and Mr Hu Chen-Tung for their many k i n d n e w .
b Ch. I, pp. 3 I bff., tr. auct.
c There is a Ta Hum Tan ChhiPi Thu in YCCC, ch. 72,but these p a ~ a g e are
s not in it.
d One appreciates the parallel with the laboratory alchemy where the reactants are heated from below. CMng
Y a g is of course a synonym of chm y q . "
Cf. Vol. 2,p. 257.
The nn't
atheory of the reversal of the normal relationships between the elements. See p. 60 below.
f

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

4I

As for the interior medicinal entity, we search for the secretion (ir)of the pre-natal endowment within the h a Li.2 Within the secretion moves (or circulates) the long-accumulated
cinnabar (sha") of the pre-natal endowment, while the cinnabar carries with it the most real
mercury of that endowment. This mercury is the black within the white, the Yin within the
Yang. This corresponds to what the Wu Chen Phien calls the transmutation of the Yin
within the belly of the Li h a . The Chhi P i Thu saps that Li h a represents the Fire (element) and the sun. In man it refers to the heart. The heart viscus produces blood, within
which is the secretion of the primordial unity (chm i chih id). This secretion flows downwards. Now blood is a Yang substance and the secretion is Yin. Hence cinnabar is Yang and
mercury Yin. The dragon by nature belongs to the Wood (element), and this produces fire.8
But in the process of inversion the mother conceals her own male offspring, and therefore
(we say that) the dragon is born from (the element) Fire. Thus the dragon is equated with
mercury, and is called the Yin within the Yang. All this refers to the interior medicinal
entity.
Ying Chhan Tzu5 says:h 'Those who learn the Tao must first begin with the exterior
medicinal entity before coming to the interior medicinal entity. T h e advanced adept understands (the Tao) because of the innate virtue which he possesses, and therefore without
having to transmute the exterior medicinal entity he can restore himself by the use of the
interior medicinal entity alone. T h e interior one is inactive (W w k 6 )because there is nothing it can use for its action;c the exterior one is active because there are things on which it can
act. The interior one is without form (hsing7)and substance (chihR)and yet it fully exists.
T h e exterior one has matter (thig) and function (yungI0)and yet it is full of non-existence.
T h e exterior one is concerned with the affairs of the material body ( s i shenl1),while the
interior one concerns the affairs of the ethereal body (fa hen'^). The former is the Tao of the
earthly immortals, the latter is the Tao of the heavenly immortals. The first improves the
life of theyin parts of the organism (ming13),the second advances the vitality of the Yang
parts of the organism (hsing14)'.It is because the Tao embraces both Yin and Yang that the
medicinal entity is of two kinds, the interior and the exterior.

The foregoing passages, embodying doctrines current over some five hundred
years, from the 10th to the 15th-centuries, will be enough to show something
of the complexities of the two kinds of enchyrnoma. They can only be understood
in the light of explanations which will follow a little later in this Section; here for the
moment it must suffice to say that the writers were talking about processes which
'~)
the trigrams (kua'" of the I
were symbolised by the exchange of lines ( y a ~ between
Ching17(Book of Changes),Qhe object being to disentangle the Yang from within the
Yin, and the Yin from within the Yang. A delicate analytical separation indeed.

Again cf. Vol. 2, p. 257.

This was Li Tao-Shunr8U.+ 12go to + I ~ Z Oauthor
),
of Chhiia-Chm Chi H s i i a A' YUO'~
(TTz48) and
Ying Chhm Tzu Yii Lum(TT1oq.l).
c Emendingpuzrto iz2
here, to conform with his other statements, esp. e.g. p. 176.The mistake would have been
very easily made by a copyist because of the inverted echo of Tao Te^Ching, ch. 37.
* See Sect. 13 in Vol. 2.
b

42
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
In general the idea was to re-create the pure Yang of the primordial pre-natal endowment, i.e. to rebuild the h a Chhien,' recapturing the Yang lines which had
escaped to Khun2with the formation of other (mixed) h a trigrams during the wear
and tear of life. By the same token Khun would be restored to its original purity.&
But the expositions of the schools were, it can be seen, at some variance with one
another. In the Hsiu Chen P i Chueh passage the mutationist emphasis is on the
conjunction of the mu i,3 the chhi of the secretions pertaining to the element Wood
(and the h a Sun4)b with the Chin ching,5 the chhi of the essences pertaining to the
element Metal (and the h a Chhien'); cf. Fig. 1550. The result it calls the outer
macrobiogen (wai tan); this is a chhi or Yang thing. What it calls the inner one (na'
tan) is a macrobiogen formed of internal body fluids, and therefore a Yin thing. On
the other hand the Chin Tan Ta Yao's 'exterior medicinal entity' (waiyao) is mutationally the Yang line of the h a Khan6 (corresponding to Water), i.e. a chhi; and
its 'interior' one is the Yin line of the h a Li7 (corresponding to Fire), i.e. a secretion. The former is thus the Yang within the Yin, the latter is the Yin within the
Yang. Meanwhile the Chhi P i Thu correlates Khan h a with the reins and Li h a
with the heart, emphasising the principle of inversion (on which see pp. 60 ff.). And
Ying Chhan Tzu goes over the same ground, using technical terms less Taoist,
more Buddhist and Neo-Confucian.
T h e last sentence of Chhen Chih-Hsii's text explains brilliantly why there had to
be a nei and a wai tan within the enchymoma realm itself (of. Fig. 1546). But the
descriptions of them varied. The Hsiu Chen Pi Chueh passage has an inner and an
outer enchyrnoma (nei tan, wai tan), the former leading only to earthly immortality,
the latter giving ascension to the status of heavenly immorta1.c But in Chin Tan Ta
Yao there are two medicinal entities, an inner and an outer (neiyao, waiyao; called
in a just subsequent passage Yin tan8and Yang tan9respective1y)d only the former,
according to Ying Chhan Tzu, giving ascension, while the latter just preserves the
material body. How should one understand this seeming discrepancy? What the
Hsiu Chen Pi Chueh writer had in mind was the universally admitted correlation of
Yang with externality, and indeed in the Chhien - Sun h a pair the outer Yin line
had to be got rid of. In the Chin Tan Ta Yao Chhen Chih-Hsii followed exactly the

The fullness of time has brought us vastly deeper insight into the real processes of biochemistry, but the most
recent concepts of ageing sometimes strangely recall these intuitive medieval formulations. On the Orgel theory,
for example, ageing is an irreversible b d d o w n in the accuracy with which proteins are formed by the genetic
coding mechanism of the nuclear system. Protein anabolism continues but as the organimn ages it loses its efficiency and the wrong types of protein are made. If this is true, and if this 'error catastrophe' pattern could ever be
reversed, it would be like restoring Chhien and Khun to their pristine perfection, and abrogating the mixed krra,
symbols of degeneration and inefficiency. The Taoists believed that this could actually be done; we do but dare to
live in hope.
'Lignic secretion' is also often associated in nei tun texts with Chen'" h.
The renson for this can be seen from
Fig. I 55 I below, which shows their own characteristic systems of relating the kra to the five elements.
C Cf. Vol. 5,pt. z,pp. lo6ff.
P. 33a.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

43

Fig. I 546. A scholarly adept meditating on the inner and the outer enchyrnomas. From Hsiqq Ming Km'Chih
+ 1615). ch. I , p. 286. In the explanations above there is reference to the three primary vitalities, shcn, chhi and
ching (see text).
(

44
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
same idea, only with regard to the different kua Khan and Li, where the two key
lines were both 'inside', yet one, the Yang, was 'external' in the fundamental correlation sense, and the other, the Yin, 'internal' in that sense. Thirdly, Ying Chhan
Tzu also had in mind mainly the Yang line in Khan kua, but for him its most
important feature was its 'internality' in the kua, hence his emphasis on the 'interior
medicinal entity' as the more important of the two, conferring ascension. All three
writers were deeply intent on restoring the Yang force of the organism, but they
spoke about it in different ways. Ying Chhan Tzu was of course more than half
Buddhist, and therefore committed to a primacy of nei ideas, as in meditation (nei
kuan'), hence his ways of talking.
A passage echoing the words of the Chhi Pi Thu just quoted is found in the Chou
I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu by an anonymous Sung commentator. In this he says:"
As for the meaning of the two terms 'superior virtue' (shang t?) and 'inferior virtue' (hsia
tP)," (we know that) the kua Li represents the heart, and occupies an upper position (in the
body). Inside it is found a 'jade fluid' Cvu i4) which can be made into an anablastemic enchymoma beneficial to man. Hence it is referred to as the 'superior virtue'. On the other
hand the kua Khan represents the reins, which occupy a lower position (in the body).
Within them is found a 'golden fluid' (chin i5)c which can also be used for making an anablastemic enchymoma beneficial to man. Hence the name 'inferior virtue'.

Here the terms 'upper virtue' and 'lower virtue' refer both to the anatomical position of the relevant organs in the body, and to the nei yao and wai yao of Chhen
Chih-Hsii respective1y.d
One more quotation from the Hsiu Chen P i Chiieh. It takes the form of a typical
Chinese s0rites.e
Whoever wishes to nourish the shenhmust first nourish the chhi,' but in order to nourish
the chhi one must first nourish the brain (naoR),and in order to nourish the brain one must
first nourish the seminal essence (chinp), and in order to nourish the ching one must first
nourish the blood (h.GehIo),and in order to nourish the blood one must first nourish the
saliva (thuoli),and in order to nourish the saliva one must first nourish the element Water.'
These are what are called the Nine Regenerations (chiu huaniz).Rut if one talks about the
Seven Reversions (chhifani'), the greatest takes place in an annual cycle and the least in a
diurnal cycle. Within the diurnal cycle, under the turning of the heavens and the earth,
from the yin double-houra to the shen double-hour," these are the seven reversions. Or if
you go backwards to the tzu double-hour,' you have the nine regenerati0ns.j
TT991,ch. I , pp. 14b, 15a,tr.aua.
b

Cf. Too Te*Ching, ch. 38.

C Here we do not translate 'metallous fluid', for that meaning is more usually applied to the saliva, connected as
it was in Taoist physiology with the organ ofthe Metal element, the lungs.
* For more Buddhist interpretationsof shang te*and hsia t i see Chin Tan Ta Yao, ch. 2, p. 3 I b.
A similar chain connecting ching, chhiand shen, occurs in TT275, ch. I , p. 3a,b, which may be a Thang text.
Variations on the theme are naturally common in these writings.
I.e. the reins or urino-genital system, which provided the semen.
h Ending at g p.m.
g Beginning at 3 a.m.
1 In Lei Shuo, ch. 49, p. 6a,b, tr. aua.
1 Centred on midnight.
f

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

45

Fig. 1547. Portrait of the physician Sun I-Khuei, prefixed to his Chhih Shui H s i i a Chuof + r 596.

From this one can see that the Taoists were paying great attention to carrying out
their physiological exercises at different particular hours of the day and night. This
constant vigilance calls to mind the complicated cycles of heating (the 'fire-times',

46
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
huo hod) which were so prominent in wai tan laboratory alchemy.&And indeed, we
may see that this expression was in fact used metaphorically by the nei tan physiological alchemists, who even went so far as to use directions about weights of
ingredients as part of their hidden language (p. 58). How prominent the conception
of 'regenerating, restoring or repairing the primary vitalities' (hsiu chen2)was, can
be gauged by the large number of books which have this phrase as part of the title. A
good deal needs saying about these and their content, but first we should like to
conclude this introduction by giving a translation of a fundamental passage on nei
tan alchemy by a medical writer of the late + 16th-century. It was this passage
which first enlightened us about the basic meaning of rebuilding, or reverting to,
the primary vitalities.
It occurs in a work called Chhih Shui Hsiian Chu3 (The Mysterious Pearl recovered near the Red River), a system of medicine and iatro-chemistry by the
eminent Ming physician Sun I-Khuei4 (Fig. I 547). This was finished in + I 596,
the same year that saw the publication of the great P& Tshao Kang Mu of Li ShihChen, so often quoted in these volumes. Towards the end of Sun I-Khuei's book,
in chapter 10, he has an important section entitled Fang Wai Huan Tan5 (Regenerative Enchyrnomas beyond all ordinary Prescriptions), and he tells us that he had
been searching these out for the previous fifty years. The passage which we shall
here give forms a prelude to a longish section on sexual practices and related iatrochemical preparations. It is prefaced by a long paragraph on the principles of redemptive hygiene bang shAy). Here Sun contrasts the Buddhist acceptance of
fate (thien ming7) and the idea that chance and prayer alone determine whether
death occurs a little earlier or a little later, with the Taoist attitude, to which he
himself inclines, that people can do something actively and successfully about their
life-span. Only usually they do not start taking care soon enough. 'One cannot
entirely attribute events to fate' wrote Sun I-Khuei, 'on the contrary man can act in
such a way as to conquer Nature'.b Accordingly he counsels moderation in everything, and gives detailed instructions on diet and regimen; only after this are plant
drugs any good at all, let alone the elixirs, even the most precious. The passage is
entitled Huan Tan P i Yao LunR.C
d

A Discussion of the Mysterious Principle of the Anablastemic Enchyrnoma.

What can one say about the anablastemicenchymoma (huan tun)? It is the Tao of reversion
to the original state, the Tao of regeneration of the primary vitality (fan*, hum yumQ).d
All human life has an endowment coming from the semen of the father and the blood of the
m ~ t h e rThe
. ~ child at the time of its birth (possesses) the primary ching, the primary chhi
and the primary shen-all in a state of perfect purity (shun chhlihnlo). But as it gradually
a

Cf. Vol. 5 , pt. 4, pp. 266ff.

FU kho chin wei chih thiea ming; km'jrn ttkg i kho-i sh&g thim yeh. ''
C

Ch. 10,pp.zob, 210,tr. suct.

* Cf. Vol. 2, p. 76.
An Aristotelian dwtrine also; s e t Needham (z),p. 42ff.

IkR
=@!R
'&%+E%
'X&
5%ff $l,g $2
' 154i iT R
" FFT%%2X&%h?Z$~LJWAB

*%-P
'" R $?

'7iflEff

"RY

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

47

grows up, this numinous triune natural life-endowment (i ling chm hsingf) is attacked and
corrupted by the temptations of the four senses caused by colours, sounds, perfumes and
tastes, acting continually day by day and year by year. T h e primary ching deteriorates into
the seminal essence of sexual intercourse (chiao kan chingz);the primary chhi changes into
respiratory pneuma (hu hsi chhi3); and the primary shen is 'sicklied o'er by the pale cast of
thought' (ssu lu shen4). These three primary endowments being thus dribbled away, it is
exceedingly hard to regenerate the original innocence (thien chen5).a
Therefore the teachers of old handed down their words in formulated doctrines, explaining in the various elixir and enchymoma manuals (tan chine) the methods of repair (for this
damage). Where the ching is deficient it must be restored with (primary) ching, where the
chhi is deficient it must be restored with (primary) chhi, and where the shen is deficient it
must be restored with (primary) shen. This is applying the principle of 'reverting to the
origin and regenerating the primary vitality'.
Such is replenishment (fu'), but what really is replenishment? T o bring back the ching to
perfection is like providing (a plant with) deep roots, to bring back the chhi to perfection is
like giving it a firm stalk, and to bring back the shen to perfection is like the bestowal of a
marvellous harmony. T o be able to perfect (chhiians) (once again) these three (endowments), this is indeed (to use) the primary medicinal substances (i.e. the enchymoma) existing within the body itself. For example, many people have spoken of heaven and earth as
'furnace and reaction-vessel', of sun and moon as 'fire and water', of crow and rabbit as
, ~ Yin and Yang as the 'mechanisms of change' (hua chip), of
'medicines and ~ u b s t a n c e s 'of
dragon and tiger as the 'mysterious application of techniques', of tzu and W as 'the two
solstices',c of mao and yu as 'the two e q u i n o x e s ' , k l l this is symbolism and parables, but
in truth it does not go beyond the body, the heart and the mind (shen hsin iI0). Of these three
things the body is correlated with the ching, the heart with the chhi and the mind with the
shen.
Now what is this reversion (fun")? It is a renovation of these three things, contrary (ni
hszhgl2)to the normal course (of ageing). What is regeneration (huan13)?It is to bring about a
replenishment (fu14)of the three primary endowments. T o make these three vitalities perfect
and primary (as they were at the beginning of life)-that is what is meant by the anablastemic enchymoma.

Thus what the physiological alchemists were talking about essentially was rejuvenation, and they believed that by their techniques they could 'make all things
new' (Fig. 1548). However we may judge their physiological theories now, there
is no reason for doubting that under appropriate conditions they could perfomr
miracles of restoring physical and mental health.
Before taking a survey of the Hsiu Chen books, and other parts of the nei tan
literature, it may facilitate understanding of its fundamental ideas if we explain
them in tabulated form. Table 121 A,B,C shows the main reagents of physiological
Chen andyuzn's are always equivalent in these domains.
A referenceto the legendary animals in the sun and moon respectively, hence to the Yang and the Yin, and the
organs in the body corresponding to them; but especially to the Yang within the Yin and the Yin within the Yang
(cf. p. 40 and Fig. X 574).
I.e. the two double-hourscentering on midnight and midday.
* I.e. the two double-hours entering on 6 a m . and 6 p.m.
b

48

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1548. Emblematical illustration showing an adept holding the three interlinked primary vitalities, shen,chhi
and chin~(seetext). From Hsing Miqq Kuk Chih ( + 1615),ch. I ,p. 366. The left-hand verses adjure the alchemist
to have nothing to do with the five metals and the eight minerals, but rather to transmute his own interior, and so to
produce the enchymoma of immortality which will be soft like a ball of willow-floss or tree-cotton, and flaming,
brilliant like the sun.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

49

alchemy, including the chhir and secretions (iZ)of the body, such as saliva and
semen. It was out of all these things that the primary or vital Yang (Chm Yang3)
and the primary of vital Yin (Chen Yin4) had to be regenerated, and these two were
the entities which the physiological alchemists designated as 'true mercury' (chen
hungS)and 'true lead' (chen chhimh).*The union of these produced the enchymoma
of immortality.
In all the formulations there was much synonymy, so that every term could be
explained by another on the same or a different level of analysis, but unless the
existence of the different levels had been fully understood by the disciple beforehand in the course of oral instruction, complete confusion could easily result. The
physiological alchemists certainly had a subtle and elaborate system of natural philosophy, but in those days the scientific and the technological were not yet wholly
differentiated from the aesthetic and the religious, so that there developed a great
abundance of terms and cover-names, often very poetical. This meant that they
could preach, as it were, without undue repetition, but it makes the system seem
sometimes more complex than it really was."
The table has been drawn up from statements in many of the texts which we
name in this sub-section, but certain books in particular deserve mention, for
example the Thien Yuan Ju Yao Ching7 (Mirror of the All-Penetrating Medicine
(i.e. the Enchymoma restoring the Endowment) of the Primary Vitalities), written
by Tshui Hsi-FanRin 940.This is a prose text without ~ o m m e n t a r yquite
, ~ different from his more famous and much commented production in verse, which has
as its title the last three characters alone, Ju Yao Ching.d Another book with relatively clear explanations is the Tho Yo Tzug (Book of the Bellows-and-Tuyi.re
Master) very deceptively chemical in its title, written by some unknown author of
the Sung or Yuan peri0d.e It concludes with a useful appendix entitled Yin Tan
Nei Phienlo (Esoteric Essay on the Yin Enchymoma). And one must not forget the
catechetical questions and answers in the Chin Tan Ta Chh&gl' (Compendium of
the Metallous Enchymoma),' composed by Hsiao Thing-ChihIz just before
1250.Finally, much profit is to be gained from the tradition which culminated in
Shang Yang T z u , ' ~Chhen Chih-Hsii,'4 whose Chin Tan Ta Yao ThulS (Illustrations for the Main Essentials of the Metallous Enchymoma; the true Gold Elixir)g
of 1333 incorporated many diagrams and succinct explanations derived from a

It is interesting to note how the basic imagery for m'tun was taken from the making of lead amalgam, not from
the combination or decompositionof mercury and sulphur. We may return to this point later on.
b This links with a point which will arise presently; cf. pp. 228,291 below.
C In Hsiu Chm Shih Shu (TTzh), ch. 2 1 , pp. 6bff.
d TT132 and TTC'Y, hsii chi 5 . Also in Hsiu Chm Shih Shu, ch. 13, pp. ruff., and in Tao Hm' Chin Liang,
PP. 35aff.
TT1 174and TTC Y, hsia mao chi 5 . It describes physiological alchemy in particularly mutationist terms.
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu, ( T T z h ) , chs. 9 to 13incl.; TTCY, maochi4, pp. ~ o a f f .
TT1054, and in TTCYasch. 3, pp. 26ff. ofchin Tan Ta Yao. Cf.
1581, 1582.

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 549. The eight trigrams in the Fu-Hsi arrangement,from Chang Chieh-Pin's Ln'Ching Fu I ( + 1624).ch. I ,
p. 2h. The text at the bottom is a quotation from the Great Appendix of the I (,.hing (Hook of Changes).

succession of predecessors, going back through Chang Po-Tuan' a and Lin ShenFSngZ to PhCng Hsiao3 in the middle of the 10th-century. PhCng's most important work in the present context was his Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Ting Chhi KO
Ming Ching Thu4 (An Illuminating Chart for the Mnemonic Rhymes about
Reaction-Vessels in the 'Kinship of the Three and the Rook of Changes')" finished
in + 947 and commenting extensively on the rhymes, which themselves might be
placed c. + 140. Chhen's Chin Tan Ta Yao5 itselfd is also indispensable.

"

a
C

Cf. pp. 89.92.

TTggq, cf. Fig. I 55 r

Cf. Fig. 1582.

TT1053, and in TTCY, maochi, 1-3.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. I 5 5 0 . The eight trigrams in the W8n Wang arrangement, from the Lei Ching Fli I ( 1624). ch. I , p. q h . This
is the Hou 'I'hien system, that in the preceding Figure the Hsien l'hien system (see text).

p
p
-

N.
Khan

N.
Khun
Ken

Chen

W . Khan
Sun

Tui
Chhien
S.

The ' Fu-Hsi' system

Chhim

Ken

Khun

Sun

Chen E.

W . Tui

Li E.

Li

S.
The ' Wen Wang ' system

52

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

The first thing which must be said about the fundamental ideas of nei tan alchemy is that without giving serious attention to the ideology of the I Ching (Book
of Changes)a there is no hope of understanding them. It has been necessary accordingly to divide Table 121 into three separate parts. In Part A we have placed the
normally expected natural symbolic correlations of the kua trigrams arranged according to the Fu-Hsi system.
This, we recall, was one of the two classical patterns in which the trigrams were
ordered relative to the four directions of space, with all that that implied for the
symbolic corre1ations.b We show a typical illustration of it in Fig. 1 5 4 9 . ~
T o make
the two patterns clear we reproduce also the diagrams already given in Vol. 4, pt. I ,
p. 296; and in comparing this with Figs. 1549 and 155od it is only necessary to
remember that while in the Chinese illustrations the south is always at the top we
show it in the diagrams at the bottom, in accordance with universal modem usage.
Summarising the conclusions to which we came in the Sections on natural philosophy and on magnetism ( 1 3 and 26), one could say that though the trigrams themselves, derived no doubt from the long and short sticks used anciently in divination,
may well be as old as the time of Confucius ( - 6th century) if not earlier, their two
azimuthal patterns can hardly have crystallised much before the Han, and may not
be older than the - 1st century, the time of the diviners Chiao Kan' and Ching
Fang,zwhen the relevant part of the I Ching called the Shuo Kua" was written. The
attributions of that in Fig. I 549 to the legendary sage Fu-Hsi, and that in Fig. I 550
to the semi-legendary emperor W i n Wang, are frankly much later, probably connected with the Taoist-Confucian philosophers Chhen Thuan4in the 10th and
Shao Yungs in the + I rth centuries. The Fu-Hsi pattern, traditionally the older,
was in fact very likely the later (though in a way more logical), because the
diviner's board (shihh,7),e ancestor of all magnetic compasses, was marked on the
W i n Wang pattern,f and early geomantic discussions indicate that this came to be
thought unsatisfact0ry.g Both patterns were associated with the ancient magic
squares,h Fu-Hsi's with the Ho T h u and W i n Wang's with the Lo Shu; but what is
much more significant for us here is that Fu-Hsi's was always called the Hsien
ThienR system and W i n Wang's the Hou Thieng one. The conventional translations of these two phrases as 'Former Heaven' or 'prior to heaven' and 'Latter

See Vol. 2,pp. 304ff.

Vol. 2,pp. 261ff.
Taken conveniently from the Lei chin^ Fu I" (Supplement to the 'Classics Classified'; the Institutes of
Medicine), written by Chang Chieh-Pin" in + 1624.
Also from Lei chin^ Fu I.
See Vol. 4, pt. I , pp. 262ff.
Ibid., Fig. 326.
8 'I'he eventual geomantic compass (10 p h a " ) generally showed hoth arrangements, retaining the Win Wang
(Hou 'Ihien) system for the written names of the kua, and adopting the Fu-Hsi (Hsien Thien) system for the kua
as depicted with their long and short lines. Fig. 333 in Vol. 4,pt. I , however, shows a mariner's compass with the
depicted kua in the W6n \Vang pattern.
h See Vol. 3, pp. 56ff.

"

33.
Table I 2 I

A.

53

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Natural Symbolic Correlations according to the

Fu-Hsi (Hsien Thien) kua pattern

Yan~

Yin

Chhien kua(south)

---

@ Khun kua(north)

thien

heaven

ti

& earth

shag

upper, ascending

hsia

7; lower, descending

yiieh

fi moon

[g south

pei

;It: north

shui

7 f ( water

jih
nan
huo
chiu, i

1 sun
+

fire

h - nine, one

liu, pa f;;

soft, pliable

ching
chhen

minister

mu

mother

f l l hard

jou

tung

chun

B activity, movement
E ' prince

fu

K father

nun

husband

$, male

lu
wai
piao

--

fi

nu
ting

outer

nei

grjffi Li kua (east)

R
k
yr',
rq

fu

furnace

superficial

six, eight

g
8

kang

fu

'

wife
female
reaction-vessel
inner
deep-seated

li

rest, immobility

& Khan kua(west)

I
-

Heaven' or 'posterior to heaven' are practically meaningless, and have come down
to us from the pioneer or dead-pan period of Western sinology; what matters now is
that both in medicine and in physiological alchemy the former always refers to the
'pre-natal endowment' or hereditary constitution full of health, the latter to the
psycho-somatic organism during and after ageing.
Here we come close to the significance of Table 12 I A and Figs I 549, I 550 for the
physiological alchemists. Their essential aim was symbolised by, or verbalised as,
the reconstitution of the two h a Chhien and Khun (Yang and Yin of pristine
purity) on their south-north axis, but with positions inverted to be in the north and
south respectively; and this was to be effected by the exchange of Yin and Yang
lines between Khan (here in the west) and Li (here in the east), as already adum-

54
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
brated above (pp. 22,41). Such was the way in which it was possible for the nei tan
adepts to talk about the separation and restoration of pure Yang and pure Yintransforming, as it were, the greybeard to the zygote.
With our eyes thus opened, it is worth while to read again the passage quoted in
1254 on the Fu2
Vol. 2, pp. 332-3 from Chhen Hsien-Wei's' commentary of
(cauldrons or reaction-vessels) chapter of the Kuan Yin Tm3 book,a written b y
some unknown Taoist of the Thang. There is the intercourse between Khan and
Li, the boy and girl within them, the antagonism of Water and Fire, the transformation of dragon and tiger within one's own viscera, and other similar images,
mixed however (as was the wont of so many alchemists) with descriptions which
would recall the phenomena to be seen in proto-chemical laboratories.
Every natural object and entity was, for the Taoists, in the last analysis, a mixture
of Yin and Yang. All manifestations of varying qualities and shapes were the results
of the different quantitative proportions of these two 'components' existing within
them;c for example, the sun has within it more Yang than Yin (like Li h a ) , but the
reverse is true of the moon (resembling Khan kua).A more precise or sophisticated
expression of this quantitative doctrine, enriching the realm of nei tan theory, was
found in the extension of these considerations so as to include not only the trigrams
but also the whole system of the hexagrams.We shall see something more of this
presently.
We turn now to the second classical arrangement of the trigrams (Fig. ISSO),the
W i n Wang (Hou Thien) system; here Li kua is situated at the south and Khan h a
occupies the north. Nei tan alchemy was primarily concerned with the attempt to
recast one's own body to a state like that of the Hsien Thien Chen I chih Shui,4 the
'Water of the Primordial Unity of the Pre-Natal Endowment'. Nei tan training also
aimed at converting the degenerating 'worldly' chhi which circulated round the
body through all the viscera into the essential Hsien Thien Chen 1 chih Chhi,s the
'Chhiofthe Primordial Unity of the Pre-Natal E n d ~ w m e n t 'Why
. ~ the W i n Wang
arrangement of the kua was so important for physiological alchemy was because the

W& Shih Chen Ching, ch. 3, p. r b. (ch. 7).

\I1e noted at the time that the passage was at least as much n k tun as u9ai tan, but in those days we thought of
the former as mystical, spiritual or psychological rather than physiological.
C 'This is irresistibly reminiscent of the + 9th-century Jiibirian 'Rooks of the Balances', which we have discussed already in pt. 4, pp. 393,459ff.. and raises again the question of Chinese influence on Arabic alchemy.
* Every one of these, it will be remembered (cf. Fig. 41, opp. p. 276 in Vol. 2) was predominantly either Yin or
Yang. How deep the insight of the mutationists went in visualising an infinite regress of Yjn-Yang compositions,
positive and negative being inseparable even in the smallest natural things, could hardly have been appreciated
before modem nuclear physics. Of course they knew about the poles of magnets.
P This was the condition of the embryo at conception, rejoicing in the pure Yang and pure Yin of the paternal
and matemal contributions. S o far the thought was truly Taoist. Rut beyond this again, in later syncretistic
formulations. one could remount to the Thai (%I" realm of primordial unity before the differentiation of Yin and
Yang, and be absorbed into the 'rao, the llother of the Myriad Things (lt'un ll'u rhih M t t 7 ) ; cf. Vol. 2, pp. 460ff.
This idea might look Neo-Confucian, but was evidently influenced also by the Buddhist conception of extinction
in nirrcina.
As for the paternal and matemal contributions, it is not surprising, when one thinks of them in this way, that the
iatro-chemists later on applied themselves to processes starting with semen and menstrual blood. Cf. pp. 301 ff.
a

33.
Table I 2 I

B.

Natural Symbolic Currelations according to the W& Wang

(Hou Thien) kua Pattern
Yang

55

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Yin

Li h a (south)

-&

Khan h a (north)
lead

hung

mercury

chhien

$?

shmg

upper, ascending

hsia

7; lower, descending

jih

sun

yueh

moon

south

pei

;It

north

Fire (element)

shui

7 f i Water (element)

fi

nun
huo

h11 Khun kua (SW)

Chhien kua (NW)

nun

male

nu

hsin

,L\

heart

shen

pneuma

thuo

blood

ching

red

hei

,,,>

chhi

611
fi

hsiieh
hung
s h w

t;&tzsuperior virtue

fa

iJfi

chu

k
F

chhen

host

pin

reins
saliva
semen

v-black

hsia te^ 7;

floating, volatilising

feFnale

fz inferior virtue

fii

sinking, seeping
pest

WO

$2

self

Pi

shhg

ft.

rising, transmitting upwards

chiang

m. descending,
showering
down

chhing
lung

g 8 caerulean dragon (east)

pai hu

other

a & white tiger (west)

Five Elements came to be incorporated in it (Fig. I 55 I), and their participation was
obviously a sine qua non for any natural (or counter-natural) process. In Table 121
Part R we have placed the normally expected natural symbolic correlations of the
kucz trigrams according to the WCn Wang system. Furthermore, a special chart
designed to elucidate nei tan theory was drawn up in + 947 by Phtng Hsiao' and
captioned Ming Ching ThuZ(Bright Mirror of Physiological Alchemy).&This table
and the discoidal chart we must now examine.
TTggq, p. 8a.b; reproduced in the TTCYed. of Chin Tan Ta Yao, ch. 3 ,

pi.336,34a.

s6

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Any distribution of the five elements among eight trigrams necessarily resulted
in three duplications. These were as follows: Metal was distributed both to Chhien
and Tui, Water both to Khan and Chen, and Earth both to Ken aAd Khun. This
left Li with Fire and Sun with Wood. It will be remembered that in the Hsiu Chen
P i Chueh passage quoted above (p. 37) we encountered the expression mu i1(lignic
secretion) and chin chingZ(metallous essence). The chhi of these two gave rise to an
'outer macrobiogen' (wai tan) which was superior to its companion 'inner macrobiogen' (nei tan) because only the former could affect ascension. This is now
explained by Fig. I 55 I . The 'lignic secretion' was represented by the Yin line in the
kua Sun, and the 'metallous essence' by the corresponding Yang line of the kua
Chhien. Exchange generated a new Chhien, filling the bodily secretions with the
Yang force required for the ascension of the immortal into the heavens.
In the Ming Ching Thu, however, the number of directional element places was
reduced to four. The innermost circle of Fig. 155I (i.e. the first ring) shows Water
below with Fire above, Wood to the east and Metal to the west, Earth being situated at the centre of all." The function of Earth is to facilitate the interaction and the
a

This was an extremely classical correlation, the same as that in Table

12

in Vol. 2, p. 262.

33.

57

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

union of the opposites-Fire and Water, or Wood and Metal.8 ?'he new relationship of elements and kua can now be seen by comparing the first ring with the
eighth. The Wood element of Sun h a in the south-east (on the W6n Wang pattern)
has been moved to the east under Chen h a , while the Chhien Metal of the northwest has been combined with Tui Metal and stands in the west. Similarly the Chen
Water of the east has been combined with Khan's Water and occupies a purely
north position." Continuing outwards from the centre, the further rings are concerned with the passage of time; the second one shows the four seasons of the
annual cycle and the third the twelve double-hours of the diurnal cyc1e.c Next
comes, in the fourth ring, the round of months, each with its corresponding hexagram both depicted and named in writing. Inspection of these immediately shows
that at the north direction (tzul) stands the first h a , FuZ(no. 24),d in a clockwise
series of steadily increasing Yang content; this becomes maximal at the sixth position thereafter (inclusive) where the hexagram Chhien (no. I ) is reached. After that
follows Kou3h a (no. 44) with one Yin line, and so the process goes on till the fully
Yin hexagram Khun (no. 2) is reached, again in the sixth position forwards. Thus is
delineated in other terms the sine curve of rising and falling Yang and Yin forceqe
the advancing phase being called chin Yang h ~ othe
, ~retiring phase thui Yin f ~
One complete revolution was termed in parable a 'firing-' or 'heating-time' (huo
hou6). Continuing outwards, the fifth ring shows the hundred quarter-hours of day
and night (distinguished as white and black respectively),f while the sixth gives a
graphic representation of the waxing and waning of the moon, one picture for each
day of the lunar month, and all in phase with the advance and retirement of the
Yang. From the new moon onwards the waxing period was called 'rising crescent'
(shang him'), while the waning in the third and fourth quarters was called 'falling
crescent' (hsia hsims); these two terms are often met with in the texts of physiological a l c h e m y q n d for a good reason, because the triumphant Yang on one side
came forth from within the Yin, and the prospering Yin on the other still contains
some of the Yang of the full moon. Hence the expressions hu chih hsien chhi,g 'the
(rising) crescent chhi of the Tiger', i.e. the Yang coming forth from within the Yin,
and the lung chih hsien chhi,I0'the (falling) crescent chhi of the Dragon', i.e. the Yin
coming forth from within the Yang. Hence the veiled usage of 'two eight-ounce
amounts of lead and mercury (erh pa liangI1)';a secret way of referring to the lunar
Cf. pp. 82,92 for other names of this central arena of the hieropmy.
We reproduce in Fig. 1552 an illustration from the Hsing Ming Kuk Chih of 1615 (on which see p. zzq
below) showing the four symbolic animals of the azimuth directions, dragon, tiger, tortoise and bird, surrounding
the reaction-vessel in which the enchymoma is being prepared.
See Needham, Wang & Price ( I ), pasrim.
* Cf. Table 1 4in Vol. 2.
Cf. Fig. 277 on p. 9 in Vol. 4, pt. I .
See Needham, Wang & Price (I).
K E.g. Chin Tan Ta Yao, ch. 1,pp. 36a to 3 7 a
a

. ~

5 I!3

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 552. An illustration from Hsing Mim Kun' Chih (ch. I , p. 376) showing the symbolical animals of the four
directions surrounding and influencing the bodily reaction-vessel in which the enchymoma is being prepared.
The tortoise of the North is at the bottom, and the red bird of the South at the top; the dragon of the East and the
tiger of the West are inverted-like so much else in physiological alchemy. The four beasts mirror the four organs:
liver, reins, heart and lungs, which participate in the achievement of the enchymoma. On the background of the
expression wu lou at the top of the right-hand inscription, see p. 252.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

59

quarters (two eight-day intervals) already mentioned.8 Then the seventh ring
.~
the eighth
shows the 28 lunar mansions (hsiul)around the celestial e q ~ a t o rLastly,
ring shows the eight trigram kua, both depicted and named, in the W i n Wang
arrangement. Thus Phing Hsiao, as his title indicates, revealed in this diagram the
basic theory of physiological alchemy.
As for Table 121 R, most of the first eight entries have already figured in Part A.
But mercury and lead now make their appearance, together with a number of physiological organs, fluids and processes. How these were dealt with by the nei tan
adepts brings us to the third part of the Table.
All the correlations discussed so far were compatible with the assumption that
processes were following (shun2)the ordinary course of Nature; and in elixir alchemy this idea almost always prevailed. But in enchymoma alchemy the adept was
vowed to a 'way of upside-downness' (tien tao3). Both in practice and in theory he
applied a counter-natural or widdershins principle in physiology, seeking to go
against (ni4)the normal course. The arrest and reversal of the ageing process with
its ultimate end in death was after all something apparently contrary to Nature. So
in counter-current style he not only retained and conserved secretions usually lost
from the body, but obliged the Yang within the Yin of saliva-lead to go downwards,c and raised up the Yin within the Yang of semen-mercury.Vhese are just
two examples of the expressions 'showering down' upon the central and lower
regions, and 'nourishing' the upper regions. Where the vital pre-natal Yin and
Yang (true mercury and true 1ead)e met and reacted, in the centre of the body
(chung thus) corresponding to Earth, close by the spleen, there would the anablastemic enchymoma (huan tanh) be formed (Fig. 1553).f Inversion would bring reversion-to eternal youth.
In Part C of Table 121 we have assembled the chief terms and symbols of the
counter-natural inverted correlation system. It will be noted that the columns are
no longer headed by Yang and Yin, but by Chen Yang and Chen Yin, the vital prenatal 'prelapsarian' Yang and Yin. It is now significant that the h Khan and Li
have crossed over and changed their places. This is because their inner lines represent Chen Yang and Chen Yin respectively, and if these could be made to return to
Note also the two and eight in the fourth circle.
See Vol. 3, pp. 23 I ff. Although it is not shown here, the Great Rear constellation (Pet' tou7)is found in many
nn'tan diagrams, often at their centre, on account of the regularity of its apparent diurnal and annual revolutions.
Paralleling the circulation of the rhhi, this double movement was taken as an earnest of the possible compression of
a year's physiological work into the twelve douhle-hours of one day and night. On such accelerations in wai tan, cf.
Pt. 4. PP. 242ff.
\Vhich Yang normally should not do.
"Which
Yin normally should not do.
Xlany synonyms and poetical cover-names for these are listed in Chin Tan Ta Yao. ch. 3, pp. 36a, 37a,
respectively, following Il'u (,'hen Phien (in HCSS, TTz60, ch. 26, pp. s h , 6a).
7'here was a wealth of synonyms for this too; see (,'/rin Tan To Yao, ch. 3, p 36a, h, following Wu Chen Phien
(in HCSS, TT260, ch. 26, p. ha). Some are particularly tricky. T h e terms 'baby boy' (ving erhK)and 'currentdriven water-raising machine' (ho chhP) were used both for true lead and for the enchymoma itself. Another
enchymoma synonym again was 'autumn mineral' (chhiushih'"), on which much more will have to be said in due
course (pp. 3 I I ff.).

60

33.
Table I 2 I

C.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Counter-natural Inverted Nei Tan Correlatiuns

Chen Yang

--- &
P

?$,

Khan nun

Fb 2 B

Yang chung chih Yin

(the Yin within the Yang)

true lead

chen hung

above

hsia

the 'Lad of Khan'

(in the moon)

Li nii

@ R the 'Baby Boy'

ying erh

- $$$ Li kua

Khan kua

Yin chung chih Yang

(the Yang within the Yin)
chen chhien

Chen Yin

B$ 2

true mercury

7;

below

$$& the 'Maiden of Li'

(in the sun)

chha nii

g&

the 'lovely Girl'

nun

south

&

;I[: north

shui

7fC Water

huo

Fire

chin ching

$i

metallous essence

mu i

7(r:

lignic secretion

chin i

&

metallous fluid

yiii

jade fluid

(HsiS h )
pm. hu fi

White Tiger (of the

(Tung Hm)
chhing g
lung

Caerulean Dragon
(of the Eastern
Ocean)

hu chih R 2'%
hsien chhi

((rising)crescent chhi
of the tiger

lung
2
chih hsien chhi

m a E Western Mountains)

(falling) crescent chhi

of the dragon

chhen

fl

sinking, seeping

fa

@ floating, volatilising

chu

host

Pin

pi

other

WO

chiang

descending,
circulating
downwards

sh&

chin lu

$i @ metallous furnace

guest
self

rising, circulating
upwards

3R jade reaction-vessel
7; @ A R 'eight ounces of

yii ting

shang '% 5% 11
R1eight ounces of
hsien chin pa liang rising-crescent gold

hsia
hsien yin pa liang

tipho

j&

earthly anima

thien hun

wuthu

rfi&
fl R
B

wuEarth

chithu

& chihrth

outer enchymoma

nei tun

Yang enchyrnoma

Yin tun

wai tan

Yang tun

huo chhE

jnJ @ 'current-driven
water-raising
machine'

niu chhg

RR

falling-crescent
silver'
celestial animus

inner enchymoma
Yin enchymoma

+$

'ox-driven waterraising machine'

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

6I

their original homes (as it were by an exchange between Khan and Li), then the
pristine purity of Chhien and Khun kua could be reconstituted, as in the pre-natal
endowment. T o express the prbcess in mutationist terms the first operation in the
tien tao inversion system was to bring the h a Khan to the south and to take the h a
Li to the north (cf. Fig. I 55 I).&Next came the movement of the central lines, Yang
and Yin, the Yin one from Li being made to go up anti-clockwise, and countercurrent (ni hsing'), via the West, and along the hsia hsienZhalf-circuit; the Yang one
from Khan being made to come down similarly via the East and along the shang
him3 half-circuit. Thus Chhien is finally reconstituted, but in the north, while
Khun is also reconstituted, but in the south. As Chhen Chih-Hsii said: 'Following
the course of Nature leads to common birth and death, but going against it leads to
immortality (shun tse"fan, ni tse"hsi&)'b--a crystalline epigram indeed. And how
profound a truth lay hid in this exaltation of the feminine qualities and virtues to
the highest place, perhaps nothing less than the key to all human social evolution in
its sublimation of intra-specific aggressiveness, can be sensed if we see in the enthronement of Khun an echo of the Magnificat-'He hath put down the mighty
from their seat, and hath exalted the humble and meek.' And in the individual lifespan it must certainly have contributed to serene longevity, even if it did not lead to
the immortality that the Taoists visualised.
As for the specifically alchemical aspects of nei tan, it was necessary, we know, to
extract the Chen Yin from within the Yang, and the Chen Yang from within the
Yin.c For the physiological alchemists the Yin line of Li represented the 'true, or
vital, mercury' (chen bungs), and the Yang line of Khan represented the 'true, or
vital, lead' (chm chhien6). 'Our' mercury and 'our' lead were thus the vital chhi and
essences extracted by internal work from juices, chhi or secretions of the opposite
sign. And true mercury and true lead were the two precursors or proximate components of the anablastemic enchyrnoma.
This meant, as we have seen, that Khan and Li had to be, as it were, operated on,
and their central lines drawn out and despatched in directions opposite to their
natural tendencies. The Yang central line in Khan would of itself tend to rise, the
Yin central line of Li would of itself tend to sink, but just the opposite was to be
effected. Take another look at the Ming Ching Thu in Fig. I 5 5 I . If no inversion of
Khan and Li's positions had taken place Chhien would be re-formed in its natural
locus, the south, as in the Fu-Hsi pattern (Fig. 1549). But 'naturalness' was not
what was wanted. Chhien was to be kept under and brought into subjection so that
Khun might spread its beneficent influence. Just the same thing was borne out
This was just the opposite of the arrangement in the WOn Wang pattern.
Chin Tun T a Yao, ch. I , p. 47a
c One cannot help feeling that this whole idea was the result of a true intuition, that there is female in what
seems male, and male in what seems female. Not only has modem psychology come to appreciate the truth of this,
but also in human anatomy we know that all the sexual organs and structures of the opposite sex are present in each
body, though in reduced and vestigial fonn. And to a large extent, sometimes indeed a paradoxical extent, the same
is true of the sex hormone molecules themselves, though not necessarily the competence to react to them.
B

62

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 553. Image of Mei-Than Tsang Wang, one of the SW I ~ h a nat the temple of Pao-Kuang Ssu, near Hsintu
in Szechuan (orig. photo. 1972). 7'he enchymoma is personified as the 'divine embryo' or 'baby boy' Cving erh or
chhih tzu), formed in the lower area of vital heat (ton thim) or central 'Yellow Court' (huung thing).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

63

when one looked at the hexagrams formed by the combinations of Khan, Li,
Chhien and Khun. Li upon Khan gives the hexagram Wei Chi (no. 64); if Li's
centre were allowed to sink and Khan's to rise, as they would according to 'Nature',
the result would be Phi (no. 12),i.e. Chhien upon Khun:

--

Jk --

- Qt

F
-

This manifestation, with maleness so much in the ascendant, is not auspicious, for
Phi stands for evil and decay, the beginning of autumn, stagnation and even retrogression, 'the way to dusty death'. 'm? the alternative. Khan upon Li forms the
hexagram Chi Chi (no. 63); now if Li's centre is made to rise and Khan's centre is
made to sink (according to counter-nature) the result will be Thai (no. I I), i.e.
Khun upon Chhien:

a hexagram full of the promise which the physiological alchemists wanted. Femaleness was now in the ascendant, as in Taoist thought it should be. This kua betokens
prosperity and springtime, peace and upward progress, growth and youthfulness,
bearing even in its character-structure evidence of the fertilising living waters flowing down from the sacred mountain Thai Shan (Fig. I 554). It only remains to
mention that Chi Chi and Wei Chi themselves, respectively definable as consummation or perfect order, and disorder potentially capable of consummation, perfection and order, are terms important in quite different but related departments of
alchemy, as we can see elsewhere (pt. 4, pp. 70ff.).
How exactly the physiological alchemists visualised their interior work with the
forces which were symbolised in the kua and the mutations it is now extremely
difficult to say. The movement of the kua and their lines was used as a language&for
talking about those inner chemical operations by means of which vital Yang (Chen
Yang') and vital Yin (Chen Yinz), under the names of the two sets of entities in
Table I 2 I c above, could be made to react to give a new birth, just as they once had
done in conception and development. Moreover it is important to realise that
whether a writer speaks of a 'true' chemical substance, or a kua, or a representative
animal, or one of the symbolic correlations,b what he has in mind is the extraction
of vital Yang from seemingly Yin things and vital Yin from seemingly Yang things,
B From sources such as Shang Yang Tzu's ' commentary on Wu Chen P h i m , ch. 2 , p. 36, and Chin T u n Ta
C h h A x (in T T 2 6 0 , ch. 9, pp. r aff.) we know that the kua were regarded as images or symbols (hsiunp) of the Yin
and Yang and the four spatial directions, while 'sun' and 'moon' were equally images of Khan and Li. Similarly
'true lead' and 'true mercury' were called the 'substance-names' (thi.) of Chen Yang and Chen Yin. The many
synonyms in Table 1 2 1 A,R,C, were considered metaphon (phi+',), while some other terms such as nun and nu,
male and female, were called 'vague expressions' (hsii minx7).See further on p. 223 below. Hsiao Thing-Chih ends
up by saying(ch. 9, p. 126) that all the terms of art in physiological alchemy apply to things invisible, not capable of
use like material substances.
Cf. Vol. 2 , pp. 2 6 1 ff.

64

33.

ALCHEMY AND

CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1554. An adept meditates upon the inversion of the trigrams Khan and Li (see text). From Hing Miw Kun'
Chih (ch. I , p. 3Xh). It is entitled 'Bringing the (feminine lines of the) kua Khan to fill up the h a Li'. The verses
above describe elegantly the re-formation of the h a Chhien (and Khun), just as the enchymoma involves a regeneration of the primary vitalities dominant in infancy.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

b5

more especially both from our own body-fluids, then and only then to react with
the formation of the enchymoma, the primal unity (chen i') of immortal life. Thus
would the last dispensation of death be reversed to regain the original endowment
(hsien thien2)ain its perfection. And finally it should be noted that all this led to the
iatro-chemical movement (see pp. 301 ff.) which attempted to extract vital materials from human secretions, fluids and tissues, using the methods of chemical
alchemy.
There does also seem something interesting in the insistence, for such it reveals
itself to be, on the pre-eminence of the feminine and the regulation of the masculine
characteristics. Perhaps we need do no more here than ask the reader to take a
glance once again at what was said in Sect. 10 about the stand the Taoists took
against male domination, rationality, intolerance and aggressiveness, and in favour
of female receptivity, gentleness, affection and intuiti0n.b Hence their favourite
symbols of Water and the Feminine, the 'Valley Spirit that never dies'. If then they
were on the side of meekness against wrath, of Aphrodite against Ares, was not that
a prescription for longevity in itself? And may it not be that the triumph of feminine
peace within the body and soul (for they would have made no distinction) was
somehow involved in the meditations with which they accompanied their physiological practices?
Turn back, 0 Man, forswear thy foolish ways,
Old now is earth, and none may count her days,
Yet thou, her child, whose head is crowned with flame,
Still wilt not hear thine inner god proclaim'Turn back, 0 Man, forswear thy foolish ways'.r

Perhaps in other contexts it is a programme for our time as well as theirs.

In the light of the foregoing explanations many statements which might otherwise seem incomprehensible or even contradictory become relatively easy to
about
understand. For example, Shih Thai in the Huan Yuan Phien (cf. p. 1 0 2 ) ~
I 140, takes 'true, or vital, lead' aspai hu chih,3 the fat of the white tiger, and calls
, ~marrow of the caerulean dragon. This
'true, or vital, mercury' chhing lung ~ u ithe
is obviously reasonable from Part C of Table 121, fat and marrow representing in
parable the inner or central lines. So also Hsiao Thing-Chih in the Chin Tan Ta
Chhhg (see p. 120)e says about 1250, in the Song of the Bellows and Tuyere
(Tho Yo KO),that this lead-dragon must go up and this mercury-tiger must come
down (chhien lung shhg hsi, hung hu chiangS).f And again: 'the lead rises and the

a Much more will have to be said on this important term and its antithesis in Vol. 6; meanwhile one may turn to
Vol. 4, pt. I , p. 296.
Vol. 2 , pp. 57ff.
c Clifford Rax, set to music by G U S Holst,
~ ~ in 'Songs of Praise', no. 197.
In TTz60, ch. z , pp. I h, 2a.
In TT260, ch. 9, p. 7a.
This is a good example of the double way of talking so often met with. Hsiao is here referring to Khan and Li
kua before their positional inversion and the extraction and despatch of their central lines.

"

66

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

(quick-)silver sinks' (chhien fou erh yin chhen yehl).a This refers to the counternatural (tien tao2) process explained above (Table 121, Part c). The same association is also very clear in the 14th-century Chin Tan Ta Yao," as may be seen in
the long quotation already given (p. 40). An earlier statement can be found in the
Huan Tan Nei Hsiang Chin Yo Shih (cf. p. 22), which goes back to +950, here
already 'true' lead is associated with ~ h i n R JAnd
. ~ as we shall note in due course
(p. 225), various commentators on the Tshan Thung Chhi indicate that it is 'our
lead' which has to be conveyed up the vertebral axis to the cephalic end of the body.
The 'biochemical' reaction between the essential enchymoma components was
thought of as a conjunctio oppositorurn and expressed in sexual imagery without
reserve. For example, the Thien Yuan Ju Yao Ching gives a diagram including the
kua Khan and Li, entitling it Khan Li chiao kou chih thu,4 'chart of the intercourse
between the kua Khan and Li', and embodying two lines of verse which say:d

T h e Yin tiger shall revert to the position it had before Khan,e

And the Yang dragon claim its original home at the centre of 1 i . f

And the Ju Yao Ching says in one place:g

If the water is true water, and the fire is true fire,
And if you can bring them to bed together,
Then you will never see old age.

Here is a reference to the 'true mercury' and 'true lead' of the two great ingredients,
and the reaction which produces the enchym0ma.h And in another:'
Bearing is in the sign of Khun5
Sowing the seed is in the sign of Chhien,h
If you can work in the purest sincerity
You will be follow~ingthe way of Nature itse1f.j

Always one finds the two processes mentioned thus in parallel, as in another book
of the Thang or Sung, the Shang- Tung Hsin Tan Ching Chueh7 (An Explanation of
. ~ text
the Heart Elixir and Enchymoma Canon; a Shang-Tung S ~ r i p t u r e )This
T T z t h , ch. 10, p. 7 h .
Ch. I , pp. 3 1 h f f .
Chin chin,@ in Table I 21 c. Also chen i chih thing: an expression quite often found equivalent to Hsien-Thim
C h m I chih Shui and Hsien-Thien Chen I chih Chhi (cf. p. 54 above). This same character, ching, means of c o u ~
also the actual semen itself, as in the expression 'making the semen return upwards to nourish the brain' (p. 30).
Rut it would be a great mistake to read ching as always referring only to the material secretion itself.
V T z h o , ch. 21, p. 96.
I.e. before Khan h a was born from Khun h a .
r Li h a , thus restoring Chhien kua.
K P. 166. Shui chen shui, huo chen huo, shui huo chiao, yung pu tao.'"
h On p. 8 a the writer says that nei tan adepts regard their own bodies as the reaction-vessel (ting"); they
represent the ching and the chhias lead and mercury, and Khan and L,i kua as water and fire.
P. 126. Chhan tshai Khun, c h u n ~tshai Chhim, tan chih chhhg,fa tzlrjan."
1 We shall quote some further verses from this book on p. 203 below.
TT943. ch. 2, p. 8h, quoted by Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, p. 435.
h

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

67

contains an important section entitled Hsiu Nei Tan Fa Pi Chiieh.I After describing
the embryonic respiration (see on, p. 145), the gnashing of the teeth, and the exercises for the circulation of the chhi, it goes on to say that 'one feels a happy harmony
in the muscular system, limber and light-footed, like the feeling of bodily wellbeing after sexual satisfaction-this is a proof (that the net tan practices are being
done rightly)'.
(iii) The Hsiu Chen books and the Huang Thing canons
How prominent the conception of 'regenerating, restoring or repairing the primary
vitalities' (hsiu chenz)was, can be gauged by the fact that no less than nineteen books
in the Tao Tsang have (or had) this phrase in their titles, mostly as the first two
words. Eight of them are lost from the Patrology as we have it now, but of the others
several contain interesting and elaborate diagrams of physiological alchemy, indicating the role of the enchymoma within the interplay of mutual influences
among the viscera and the glands. Curiously, the book with the nearest title to that
from which we have been quoting, the Hsiu Chen hTeiLien Pi Miao Chu Chiieh"
(Collected Instructions on the Esoteric Mysteries of Regenerating the Primary
(Vitalities) by Internal Transmutation) is not in the Tao Tsang but is listed in the
bibliography of the Sung Shih. It also occurs in the Thung Chih Lueh bibliography,a a work of about I I 50, which thus confirms our earlier dating; so that on
the whole the book is not likely to be much earlier than the Wu Tai period or the
beginning of the Sung, c. +960. Most of the books with similar titles in these
bibliographies appear to be of Wu Tai or Sung date, but there is (or was) one, the
Hsiu Chen Chiin W u Ching Lun4 (Discourse on the Five Ching Essences (of the
Viscera) by the Adept of the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities) which is attributed to the Later Han and ascribed to Yin Chhang-ShGng." already menti0ned.b
Whether or not we may be disposed to accept this, there is no reason to think that
the conception of the regeneration of the primary vitalities was not already beginning at that time.
There is no better way to gain familiarity with the ideas of the physiological
alchemists than to look through the Hsiu Chen books in the Tao Tsang, some of
which are abundantly illustrated with diagrams. These are clear enough once the
basic technical terminology has been understood. Take the Hsiu Chen Thai Chi
Hun Yuan Thuh(Illustrated Treatise on the (Analogy of the) Regeneration of the
Primary (Vitalities) (with the Cosmogony of) the Supreme Pole and Primitive
Chaos)c composed by Hsiao Tao-Tshun7 about I 100,and evidently influenced,
as its title implies, by the Neo-Confucian philosophy that had arisen during the

a Ch. 43. pp. 21 a. h, zza; the ~Vei

Tun section. It is interesting to note that this has 40 titles, while the Wm' Tan
section (pp. zzaff.) has 203 titles.
h Cf. pt. 3. p. 77 above. This is also in Thung Chih Lueh and was recorded by Yao Chen-Tsung (I) in his Hou
Han bibliography (Erh-shih-wu Shih Pu Pim, vol. 2, p. 2443).
''
7-1'146. 7'he writer's philosophical name was Hun I T Z U . ~

68

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1555. An illustration from the Hsiu Chen Thm' Chi Hun Y u a Thu (Treatise on the Analogy of the Regenenition of the Primary Vitalities with the Cosmogony of the Supreme Pole and Primitive Chaos), written by
, It analogises the circulation of rhhi in the body with the annual
Hsiao Tao-Tshun about I too ( T T I ~ ~p.)36.
cycle of solstices and equinoxes (see text).

previous c e n t ~ r yThe
. ~ preface has a stirring phrase: the practice of nei tan, says
Hsiao, 'can rob the power of the natural order of things ( n h g to thien ti tsao hual).b
The opening part of the work is concerned with macrocosm-microcosm doctrine
in its universe form,c the three heavens and persons of the Taoist Trinity being
C

Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 460ff.

Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 294ff.

P. 20. Or, 'can act like the Shaping Forces of Nature themselves'. Cf. pt. 4, p. 234.

'E%X&;Sik

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

69

analogised or even identified with the three regions of vital heat (tan thien) in the
human body, and the five layers of the sublunary world with the five elements
operating within the human viscera.8 Next comes an interesting diagram analogising the chhi and other cycles in the human body (Fig. I 555) with the annual cycle of
fortnightly periods,b solstices and equin0xes.c In this representation, captioned
Thien T i Y i n Yang S h h g Chiang chih Thul (The rise and descent of the Yin and
Yang within the microcosm), 'heaven' above stands for the heart and 'earth' below
for the reins; on the left we see a white channel through which the Yang chhi ascends, and on the right a black channel through which the Yin chhi descends. T h e
accompanying passage of text is worth giving in tran~lation.~
T h e Ling-Pao Chen I Ching2sayse 'Heaven is like a covering basin. I t is hard for the
Yang to rise further, so it piles up and generates Yin. How can this be? It is because the
Yang of the earth bears a true Yin hidden (within it); this is why (a Yin) can rise upwards.l
T h e earth is like a flat base of rock. It is hard for the Yin to descend into it, so it piles up and
generates Yang. How can this be? It is because the Yin of the heavens hides and envelops a
true Yang; this is why (a Yang) can come downwards.When Yin is at its maximum Yang is
born, when Yang is at its maximum Yin is born-but Yin and Yang can be generated in a
manner contrary to normal Nature; this is why the reversion (fan3) of the Tao of heaven and
earth can be brought about (i.e. the arrest and reversal of the ageing process). If a man
understands the pattern-principle of the rise and descent of Yin and Yang, knowing that he
can practise the Tao of reversion within (his own body's) heaven and earth, then he can
and recast (liens) (the chhz]. If the chhi is recast, the primary ching can
himself repair (h&)
be formed; within the ching arises the chhi, his own (primary) chhi, and within the chhiarises
the shen, his own (primary) shen.'
Liu I6h says that the heart corresponds to heaven and the reins to earth, the chhiis like the
Yang and the fluid ( P ) is like the Yin. If the chhiand the i d o not come into conjunction there
can be no union. When the ching (seminal essence) enters into the womb of a woman, then
there occurs what is called the generation of a human being. But when the ching enters the
Yellow Courts (huang thing,Ra region near the spleen)' of a man, there occurs what is called
the generation of the (primary) shen. When this shen is collected, the (primary) chhi brought
P. I h. Here we find references to the ancient theory of centrifugal cosmogony (p. zb), on which see Vol. z ,
pp. 371ff. By this time, however, nine heavens (hsiaoP) are being balanced by nine underworlds (chhualo),possibly
owing to Buddhist influence.
h Cf. Table 35 in Vol. 3, p. 405.
C Cf. pt. 4. p p 264ff. on temporal correspondences in w m ' t a .
d Pp. 3b, 4,tr. auct.
This 'Canon of the Primal Unity, a Ling-Pao Scripture' is not easily identifiable. There is a Chm I Ching in
one of the parts of the Thai-Shag Sa-shih-liu Pu Tsun Ching" (Canon of the Thirty-six Scriptures revealed by
the Three Pure Ones) TT8, but this may not have been part of it. There was also a Tung Hriia Ling Pao Chm I
Pao En Ching," but this has been lost from the Tao T s a g . A Thai-Shang Chen I Pao Fu Mu kn Chhung ChingI3
exists, but is a still less likely source.
One would expect it to sink from the empyrean to its appropriate lower regions.
8 One would expect it to ascend to its appropriate celestial regions. Rut both these mysteries have been explained in terms of the lines of the kuu (p. 61 above).
h A little later (p. 50) this adept is referred to as the twelfth patriarch of the Hsi Shan" school.
1 On the Yellow Courts, see further, pp. 82ff. below.
f

7O

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1556 Another diagram from the same work (p. 40.6) in which the chhicirculation cycle is paralleled by the
diurnal rotation of day and night, and with the lunation. At the centre is the crow representing the sun, at the top
the constellation of the Great Rear, representing the night. Relow, the birth of the hun and pho souls at dawn and
dusk is marked, as also the rising crescent side on the left and the falling crescent side on the right (cf. Fig. I 551and
the explanation on p. 57).

together, and the embryonic chhi released from its husk (the shell, kho,' of the physical
body), (a man can) ascend (to the heavens) as an immortal.

This is a good example of I rth-century theorising. It emphasises that when the

Yang and Yin reach their extreme points they undergo a change of sign, Yang
beginning to generate Yin, and Yin beginning to generate Yang. This was seen
already in Fig. I 55 I , the tzuZand m 3 points marking these moments of instability
and change-over.8 Only by realising that each of the two great forces carries within
it the other, and by remembering the inversion principle, was the way of reversion
possible.
Hsiao Tao-Tshun continues with a macrocosmic-microcosmic diagram (Fig.
1556) in which the chhi cycle is analogised with the diurnal cycle and the waxing
and waning of the lunation; this is reminiscent of the Ming Ching Thu in Fig. I 55 I .
Compare Fig. 277 on p. 9 of Vol. 4, pt. I . In strict accordance with the wave conception, when one influence
attains its maximum it must inevitably begin to decline, and at the same time its opposite begins to increase. This
has elsewhere been called by Nathan Sivin 'the First Law of Chinese natural philosophy', cf. Vol. 5, pt.4,
pp. 225ff.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

7*

Fig. I 557. Another diagram of Hsiao 'Tao-'I'shun's (pp I r h, 120). showing the relative positions of the six organs
concerned with physiological alchemy (brain, heart, liver, spleen, lungs and reins) and three regions of vital heat
(tan thim).

Another diagram attempts to depict the deterioration of the yuan chhi' or primary
vitalities, and the reverse 'clearing' of the seven emotions (chhing2)and the six portals (kuan3) of sense-perceptions Cyu,4 cf. 'the lust of the eyes and the pride of life').*
Then comes a useful chart (Fig. 1557) of this Taoist physiology, captioned San
Thien Wu Hsing Ch&g Tao chih Thus (The normal pattern of the three regions of
vital heat and the five elements, i.e. viscera).b The spleen occupies the central position, therefore associated with yellow Earth; to the right are the lungs, white and
Metallous, with the liver, caerulean and Lignic, to the left. Below are the reins,
corresponding to black Water, and above, the heart, corresponding to red Fire.
The three regions of vital heat (tan t h i d ) find their places between the organs of
the middle line, but above the uppermost tan thien the skull or head (thien kung,'
celestial palace) is shown, not correlated with one of the E1ements.C This diagram is
worth bearing in mind when reading any discussions of physiological alchemy
from the Han onwards.
a At this point (p. 70) there appears a diagram which has already been reproduced in Vol. 3, Fig. 84 in a
mathematical connection. Actually it concerns a gradation of Taoist hells and paradises, doubtless much influenced by Buddhism, and has little relevance to the present subject.
h Pp.1rh.12~.
C Authorities quoted for this physiology are a T
q WO'Chic and Liu I of Hsi Shanq(cf.p. 69), neither readily
identifiable in the indexes of the Too T s m .

72

33.

A L C H E M Y AND C H E M I S T R Y

Fig. 1558. 'Eclipse' diagram from the H A Chm Thm Chi Hun Y u a Thu (pp. 15b, 16a), illustrating the key
process of physiological alchemy in the I ~ t century;
h
'transmitting upwards' from the reins, and 'showering
down' from the brain and heart. The semen has to be sent up, and the saliva has to be sent down, to meet at the
Yellow Court and form-with other constituents-the enchymoma. On the extreme left are marked the three
'bottlenecks' (h);
and round about are the participating organs-lun~s, liver, spleen, gall-bladder, etc.

The last diagram in the book (Fig. I 558) is also of particular interest.&At first it
looks like a representation of an astronomical eclipse, but in fact what it illustrates
to perfection is the phrase 'transmitting upwards to the brain and showering downwards to the regions of vital heat' which we read on p. 59 above. Lungs, stomach
and spleen are shown on the right, and liver on the left. The reins, shown in black,
are shooting what looks like a white ray upwards; this whiteness signifies the ascent
of the Chen Yang. So also the heart, shown in white, is sending what looks like a
dark ray downwards; this blackness signifies the descent of the Chen Yin.b At the
centre where the 'rays' meet (on the level of the spleen) there is a white diamond
representing the enchymoma itself, and it is so drawn as to show very clearly the
principle of the Yang within the Yin (and vice versa). Above the heart a legend
explains that the top of the head is called thien kung,' celestial palace, and the brain
, ~sea of marrow. Right at the bottom, on the right of the reins,
within it sui h ~ ithe
are the words nei tan, which in this case must mean 'inner macrobiogen'. The title
a Pp. I 5 b, 16a.A similar diagram is to be seen in the Kun' Chwtg Chih Nun3 of late Sung or Yuan date (p. 3 a).
Cf. also the 12th-century Wu Hsiirm Phien.'
Cf. what has been said above on Fig. 155I and p. 69.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

73

Fig. 1559. 'l'he circulation of pneumata (chhr) and juices ($1through the nine organs (from top left: gall-hladder,
heart, small intestine, liver, spleen, lungs, bladder, reins and large intestine). It is interesting that the alchemists
felt tied neither to the ten viscera of the natural philosophen nor the orthodox twelve of the physicians. Pp. 146,

Iga.
of the diagram is Phi Phei Yin Yang Thai Hsi Chiieh Thul (Diagram of oral instructions for the simple mating of Yin and Yang by means of embryonic respiration).* It thus illustrates one of the great nei tan systems, that of 'foetal breathing'
(on which see pp. 145 ff.), but its doctrine of the 'conjunction of heart and reins'
(hsin shen chiao huiz) was applied by other schools both to sexual practices (cf.
p. 184) and to techniques primarily meditationa1.b
All the viscera drawn or marked round about, including the gall-bladder, the
small intestine, and the three coctive regions (sun chiao3) have reference to more
complicated systems of circulation of the chhi and i through the organs and channels of the body which are described earlier in the same tractate and in the following
one. On the extreme left of the diagram three great gates or bottlenecks in the chhi
circulation through the spinal column are indicated, the upper one called yz2 ching
the middle one chia chi,5 and the lower one wei
this last in the neighbourhood of the coccyx.CThese are not involved in the present procedure, but we
Unfortunately this diagram seems to have lost (perhaps designedly) its explanation. It is called simple because
it does not involve the circulation of the chhi through the viscera or the spinal column.
Cf. pp. I 16 and 179. Exponents of this last-named too often substituted the term shm' for ~ h m . ~
It will he remembered from Vol. 4, pt. 3, pp. 548ff.that this term also had a cosmological, almost geographical, significance, as the 'world cloaca' in the Eastern Ocean. The other two could be translated 'jade mountainheight (pass)' and 'vertebral strait-gate' respectively.

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

-F

Fig. I 560. A diagram from the Hsiu Chen Thai Chi H u n Yuan Chih Hsiian Thu (TTr47)written by Chin Chhiian
Tzu about + 830 (p. rb). It shows the head and trunk of the body as if in sagittal section, depicting the several
organs concerned in the formation of the enchymoma. Explanation in text.

shall shortly meet with them again; they can be seen more graphically in Fig. 1563.
The preceding passage has the title Chen Wu Hsing Chiao Ho Chhuan Sung Thu'
(Diagram of the true interaction and union of the five elements (i.e. the viscera) and
what they give and transmit). The text for Fig. 1559 is a discussion of the organ chhi
and i continuously circulating, and states the situation corresponding to each
double-hour of day and night. The standard circulation was thought of as a microcosmic clock dial (cf. Fig. 1551), the reins corresponding to the tzu point and the
heart to the wu point, i.e. to the decisive moments of change-over as between chhi
and i, Yang and Yin. The yuan chhi2started from the reins and passed through the

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAI,

ALCHEMY

75

bladder, liver and gall-bladder to the heart. Here it turned into yuan i' and passed
through the small intestine, lungs and large intestine back to the reins. During each
one of the intermediate periods each of the viscera in question generated and contributed its o u n chhi or i to the circulation, and passed all on to the next member of
the series. These viscera, either drawn symbolically, or marked as names, will be
found constantly present in Figs. I 557 to I 564. The passage ends?
Success in repairing and recasting (hsiu lienz)(the chhi, so as to re-create the primary
vitalities), is achieved by combining the chhiof the Five Elements (corresponding to the five
viscera, for rejuvenation)-that is what is called the reverted or anablastemic enchpmoma
(huan tanl). Selecting and collecting the prima^) chhi of Yin and Yang-that is what is .
called the enchpmoma (nei tan+).When this is completed longevity will be achieved. When
the (primary pre-natal) chhi has been sufficiently collected then the husk can be cast off,
and ascension as an immortal will ensue.

Many pictures are to be found which show the enchymoma forming in the midst
of the body. A closely similar tractate, the Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Chih
Hsiian Thus ( T T I ~has
~ several
)
of these.h Fig. 1560, for example, interestingly
shows the Yellow Courts (huang thin@)Cin the centre of the abdomen, flanked by
the small and large intestines. The diagram is captioned Chen Lung Hu Chiao Kou
Nei Tan Chueh Thu7 (Diagram of oral instructions concerning the (formation of
the) enchymoma by the intercourse of the vital dragon and the vital tiger),hnd the
accompanying text describes seven different macrobiogens made by selecting and
extracting the vital Yang and Yin chhi from one or another of the viscera and their
juices. There are two legends on the left; the upper one says: 'the fluid ( t ] of the
heart embodies the chhi of Chen Yang, so it is called the Yang dragon'; the lower:
'the chhi of the reins embodies the water of the primordial unity of the pre-natal
endowment, so it is called the Yin tiger'. A legend to the right of the heart in the
'cephalic' region says that the union of dragon and tiger gives indeed the metallous
enchymoma (chin tanR).Beneath the heart we read: 'the fluid (2) of the heart is called
the 'lovely girl' '; and alongside the reins: 'the chhi of the reins is called the 'baby
boy".e These are just synonyms of Chen Yin and Chen Yang respectively (cf.
Table 121 C). Thus one sees that just as the reins were a complex of urino-genital
a

P. I 5 b. tr. a u a .

Cf. on this the discussion of Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, pp. 447ff.
See pp. 8zff. below.
* P. I b.
These two cover-names belong to a set of four which constantly recur, the 'Four Images' (sm hsimp), p a n lleling the Five Elements (W hsingIO)as applied to the five viscera (cf.Fig. 1552). Chin a g , " the Metallous Greybeard, stands for the ching chhi" of the lungs (hence pertaining also to the saliva); chha ~ , I the
J
Imvely Girl,
symbolises the cavities and chhior fluids of the heart; ying erh,'' the Baby Boy, refers to the chin,q chhi in the reins
(or testes, as we should say); and hwng pho.15 the Yellow Dame, images the chiw chhiof the most central organ, the
spleen. For further discussion see Chou Wu-So's + 12th-century ('hin Tun C'hih Chih (TT1058), referred to on
p. 219 below; and Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, p. 451.
In wai tun proto-chemical alchemy the 'Four Images' seem to be more usually the elements, with the exception
of Earth (cf. TTz30, pref., p. I h).
b
C

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1561.A similar diagram (p. 5b) of rejuvenation, i.e. the re-casting and re-creating of the bodily form (lim
bring). Explanation in text.

organs and structures, so also the thoracic group which produced the saliva and
other fluids was also complex, involving heart, lungs and salivary glands. It was
precisely out of this background, and in the conviction that every organ contributed something valuable to the circulation, that the later iatro-chemists devoted
such efforts to working up urine, semen, blood, placenta, and other secretions and
products. T o this we shall return (pp. 301 ff. below).
Other diagrams are equally interesting. Fig. I 561 shows the Lien Hsing Pi Chueeh
Thu' (Diagram of secret instructions for recasting the bodily form). The accompanying text describes four different macrobiogens capable of improving health

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

77

Fig. I 562. Another diagram (p. 4a.b) showing the successful formation of a greater and a lesser anablastemic
enchymoma. Explanation in text.

and giving physical perfection. The legend at the top on the right says in effect:
'Recasting the bodily form is what happens when the (Chen Yang of the reins) in
the jade juice (yli il),circulating up through the viscera to the lungs, is allowed to go
on upwards (and outwards, to the limbs, to make blood to nourish the body, etc.),
instead of going downwards and completing its circuit to form the anablastemic
enchymoma.' This is shown at the centre and right of the diagram. Similarly, on
the left, the Chen Yang of the reins is driven up through the three gates of the spinal
column, but stops in the brain and goes no further.
In contrast with this, Fig. I 562 shows the successful formation of a greater and a
lesser enchymoma. It is called H u m Tan Chti'eh ThuZ(Diagram of the reverted, or
anablastemic, enchymoma). Here the chhi of the reins is made to rise through the
viscera (liver, heart and lungs) as in the previous case, only now it is decisively sent
downwards to the middle region of vital heat at the level of the spleen where the
macrobiogen is formed;a this is called the Lesser Anablastemic Enchyrnoma. Similarly in a larger circuit the Chen Yang of the reins is made to rise up the spinal
column through tbe three gates to the brain, where it combines with the shen shui3
The spleen was not one of the organs through which the visceral chhi and i normally circulated; it corresponded to Earth element, as we know (cf. Fig. 1557), and played an essential part in the formation of the
enchymoma, appearing under many synonyms (chwrg thu,' huang thing.5 etc.; cf.p. 59 above). Was it not because
the spleen contains neither duct nor cavity that the ancient Chinese anatomists set it aside from the other thoracic
and abdominal organs?

78

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1563. An 'eclipse' diagram from the same work (p. 66) expounding the theory of perfected equalisation in
enchymoma formation. Explanation in text.

and is made to descend to the same central regions; this is called the Greater Anablastemic Enchymoma. The thickened black line in this outer circle at the top
indicates the change-over from chhi to i as the Yin appears when the wu point is
reached by the Yang.&
From Fig. 1563, entitled S a n Thien Chi Chi Chueh Thul (Diagram of the oral
instructions for perfected equalisation in the regions of vital heat) we have a further
expression for the development of the enchymoma, here to be accomplished purely
by imaginative meditation. We see again the three gates in the spinal column, the
enchymoma in the centre among the viscera, and a 'mutual irradiation' pattern
Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. z , p. 450.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

79

above. This last is not unlike the one we have seen in Fig. 1558, but it differs in
three ways; it connects the brain with the central region of vital heat (not the heart
with the reins), its Yin-Yang characteristics are inverted (white pointing down and
black pointing up), and it is associated with the ascent through the spinal column.
The chhiof the viscera is circulating as usual from the reins (the tzu point) round its
course; but now the meditational effort is directed to the special use of the chen chhi'
of the lungs (marked in symbol as an organ on the right). This is to be carried down
(in thought),&along with the chhi of the reins, to the reins, whence it must circulate
up the spinal column through the three gates to reach the brain, joining there with
the shen shuiZto give a pure Yang chhi; and this it is which is made to 'shower down
upon' the central region of vital heat. At the same time, this chhi-which has suddenly turned into Yin, according to a principle which should by now be obviousis 'transmitted upwards'. Where the streams meet, a legend just to the right says:
'When Water is above and Fire below, this is called 'perfected equalisation' (chi
~ h i 3 ) . ''Water'
~
here stands for the shen shui, and 'Fire' for the heat of the heart
region beside the chung tan thien.
Finally, in Fig. 1564 we see the enchyrnoma in all its glory surrounded by little
human figures representing the archaei (shm4) of the five viscera, complete with all
their names and cogn0mina.c Once some of the enchymoma has been formed the
adept can use its Chen (Yang) chhi to transmute the chhi of the viscera into sha4
with all their ascensory power. Meeting in the brain with the yuan chhi,5 as if in
audience with the emperor, they will descend again and manufacture more of the
reverted anablastemic enchymoma (huan tan). Ordinarily the visceral chhi go
round perpetually in their circuit (cf.Fig. 1559 and p. 73), but in this case each one
is converted into a shen, and so shunted upwards out of the cycle to the brainliberated, 'as the sparks fly upwards', as it were-to that ouranic region, whence,
fortified by the shen shui, they will return to accomplish their mission in the spleen
or the central region of vital heat.
A whole chunk of writings on physiological alchemy is embodied in the Tao
Tsang under a single title, the Hsiu C h a Shih Shuh(Collection of Ten Tractates
and Treatises on the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities).d Comparable in importance to the Yun Chi Chhi Chhien itself, this was put together by an unknown
It is noteworthy that some of these n d tan actions could have been envisaged as effected by mental concentration alone. Perhaps it indicates the growing influence of Buddhism, though the phenomena of hypnotism
could always have induced ideas of this kind.
h This is of course one of the hexagrams, no. 63, see Vol. 2, p. 320. It was also an important technical term for
certain types of alchemical laboratory apparatus (especially those for distillation and sublimation). Cf. pt.4,
pp. 70- 1,284.
P. 70. There is now a special study by Homann ( I ) of these 'body-spirits' or archaei in the Huang Thing
canons (p. 86 below). See also Schipper (5) on the 'Taoist body'. Not only could these spiritus rertores be seen by
adepts in visions or meditation; the microcosm also possessed its starry lights and constellations visible to the inner
eye of faith. These are described in the Thim Lao Shen K u q Ching7 (The Celestial Elder's Canon of Spirit
Lights, TT859) newly translated by Sivin (16). It constitutes a veritable physiological astrology. The tractate is
attributed to a Taoist general of the Thang, Li Chin$
618 to 649).
* T T z h , d.Maspero (7). pp. 239.357. It actually contains many more than ten.

v. +

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1564. The enchymoma in all its glory (p. 7a)surrounded by the archaei of the organs. Explanation in tea.

editor about 1250.It includes material of great value from the Sui to the southern
Sung in date, and much of it calls saliently for closer investigation; here it will be
worthwhile to describe briefly its contents, moving in roughly chronological order.
One of the oldest components is a work derivative from the Huang Thing Ching
tradition, to which reference will shortly be made, and this will conveniently afford
an opportunity for explaining it. In the Hsiu C h m Shih Shu, then, we find a Huang
Thing Nei Ching W u Tsang Liu Fu Thul (Diagrams of the Five Yin-viscera and the
Six Yang-viscera (in accordance with) the ('Jade Manual of the) Internal Radiance
of the Yellow Courts'), written in the Thang period ( 848)a by a Taoist anatomist
and physiologist, Hu An,Zwhose fame was to have been taught by Su Nii (the

On the dating see Watanabe Kozo (I), pp. I 12ff.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

8I

Fig. 1565. One of the 500 Lohan at the Pao-Kuang Ssu temple near Hsintu in Szechuan (orig. photo. 1972).He
points to the anablastemic enchyrnoma forming in the Yellow Court of the abdominal region, symbolished by a
roundel on his gown. He holds a toad on his knee, emblem of the moon (which it shares with the drug-pounding
rabbit) and therefore of the Yin force, so vital for the making of the enchymoma. The flesh of the toad, moreover,
was valued as an aid to prolongevity and immortality by some ancient Taoists, and could cause a man to escape
invisibly from captivity (R78,under chhrm-chhu).

82

33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
Immaculate Girl) on Thai-pai Shan,a or somewhere in the Wei Valley near the
capital, Chhang-an. Unfortunately the illustrations have been lost,h but the book is
full of therapy and pharmacy, throwing valuable light on the borderline between
medicine and Taoist physiological alchemy. H u An speaks of the application of
respiratory techniques (thu nu') for healing, and understanding the principles of the
use of drugs (thung yao liz),gymnastic postures and exercises (tao yin chhii shen",
diagnostic inspection (chha se"hsiin ch&@) and dietary abstentions (shih chis).
According to the title of the book one would expect that it originally contained
diagrams and discussions of each one of the five Yin viscera (tsane) and the six
Yang viscera (fu9.C The text as we have it now still contains all the sections for the
tsang, but only one for a fu, the gall-bladder; we do not know whether the remaining five were excluded or accidentally lost. There is much on the anatomy of the
viscera, including weights and measurements.* Each of the existing descriptions is
followed by an account of how nei tan practices (hsiu
hsiu yane) relate to that
particular organ, an account of the pathology and aetiology of its disorders (ping
yuanIo), then in most cases the therapeutic action of breathing exercises, the best
prescriptions, appropriate massage, regimen of food and drink, etc. The intimate
connection between nei tan and clinical medicine clearly appears in this book, expounding as it does the significance of each organ for medical physiology as well as
for physiological a1chemy.e It has not so far received the attention it desewes.f
But what were the Yellow Courts? By now it should be evident that the term was
often used in an abstract generalised way for the central theatre of enchymoma
formation (Figs. I 560, I 565, I 567, I 571).R Physiologically however they were certainly three in number, one for each of the three anatomical regions, cephalic,
thoracic and abdominal; and by their colour clearly thought of as central, hence
undoubtedly the region of the spleen below, and that of the eyes above.h This

From Vol. 2 , p. 147,the significance of his title Thai Pai Shan Chien Su Nii" will not be lost upon us. And cf.
pp. 187 ff. below.
Except some which are preserved in MS. at a temple in Japan; cf. Watanabe, loc. rit. These must have been
copied before 985.
C These we shall discuss further in Sect. 43 (Vol. 6). In medical tradition the tsang comprised heart, liver,
spleen, lungs and reins, together with a sixth entity which has been approximated to the pericardium and of which
we shall say no more here. In Taoist physiology, as we have noted, the spleen occupied a special position on its
own. In medical tradition thefu comprised large and small intestines, stomach, bladder and gall-bladder. while the
three coctive regions made the sixth. Here the classical five all had large and obvious internal spaces, evoking the
concept of storage. The least important in Taoist physiology seems to have been the stomach.
d This was a very old feature of Chinese anatomy. Again see Sect. 43 below.
e The Tao Tsang contains another book by Hu An, entitled H u m T h i q Nn' Chny!...PuH&h Thu" (TTq29).
T o this we expect to return in Sects. 43 and 44.
And any information on the biography and background of Hu An (or Yin) would be of p a t interest.
P The Humg Thinx ~ V rChing
i
Yu chin^, in HCSS ( T T ~ ~ ch.
o ) 5, 5 , p. I h, emphasises the microcosmic character of the Huang Thing, its outer aspect represent in^ the cosmos and its inner aspect representing the human
body.
h The middle Yellow Court was the region of the heart, judging from YCCC, ch. I I , p. gb.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

83

ALCHEMY

Fig. 1566. A fresco of Lohan at the Fo-Kuang Ssu temple in the foothills of Wu-thai Shan in Shansi (orig. photo.
1964). Here the main hall is one of the oldest extant wooden buildings in China, dating from 857. The frescoes
are in the north hall dedicated to Manjusri (\V&-Shu l'ien), and the picture shows 14 out of the 3m or more
Lohan. Third from the right in the bottom row, one of them draws aside his abdominal wall to show the enchymoma of immortality in the form of a twice-born face within; he is squinting in one of the ek&ratd methods of
mental concentration (cf. p. 269 below). This hall is of the JIChin period. dating from I I 13, but the frescoes are
considerably later.

optical connection has to do with an element of light-mysticism in ancient

Taoism,a explaining in its turn the important word ching,' regarded by all these
,~
luminous, and therefore translated in what
texts as equivalent to k ~ a n gbrilliant,
follows as 'radiance'." The oldest surviving text on this subject is the Huang Thing
Wai Ching Yii Ching3 (Jade Manual of the External Radiance of the Yellow
court^),^ a work in verses which must go back to the Later Han, San Kuo or Chin
periods, i.e. the 2nd or 3rd-centuries.d It was current before 300 because
Ko Hung lists it in his alchemical bibliography,e and it is mentioned in the life of
Chu H u a n p in the Lieh Hsien Chuan;f but no author's name has come down to us.

' Cf. pp. 181ff.. 249.

There were eight of these ching or radiance, but the commentators differ in their enumc.ations: cf. Maspero
(7). PP. 195ff..428ff.
TT329.
d This is vouched for by the internal evidence of the rhymes and style.
PPTINP, ch. 19, p. 5a(Ware (S),p. 3Xo). Ko Hung used an abridged title.
Ch. 2, p. Rh (Kaltenmark ( 2 ) . p. 177.I {ere 1,ao ChCn precedes the rest of the title.
f

84

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1567. The 'divine embryo' or enchymoma seen again in an image of one of the 500 Lohan at the Pao-Kuang
Ssu temple near Hsintu in Szechuan (orig. photo. 1972). The Lohan's name is Ta-Hsiang, and a label says:
'openingthe heart and revealing a buddha' (khai hsin chimfo).

33.

g5

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Whoever he was, his work is now the oldest text which describes in detail the
various practices of the na' tan school which developed from the older Taoist techniques for obtaining material immortality; the circulation of the chhi, the swallowing of saliva, the method of 'making the ching return', the ways of increasing the
amounts of chhi and ching, the uses of diet and drugs, and the formation of the
'divine embryo' (Fig. 1567), in a word, the preparation of the anablastemic enchymorna.&The seven-character verses are however designedly obscure, and the later
commentators therefore particularly important; of these there were chiefly two,
one in the Sui or early Thang, (+7th-cent.) who adopted the pseudonym Wu
Chhtng Tzu,I and the other later in the Thang ( 8th or 9th-cent.), also pseudon.~
their interpretations often disagree.
ymous, Liang Chhiu T Z UUnfortunately
Examples of these stanzas, not only ancient, but also extremely poetic, esoteric and
allusive, require annotation for almost every phrase, and we could not in any way
improve upon the pieces already translated by Maspero," so we shall be content to
refer to those here. Probably it was because of the obscurity of the Wai Ching text
that some unknown Taoist in the 5th or 6th-century was moved to compose a
new version, also in seven-character lines, under the title Huang Thing Nei Ching
Yii Chin@(Jade Manual of the Internal Radiance of the Yellow Courts).C This also
was commented on by the two Taoists just mentioned (Fig. 1568)~
but most of the
explanations of Wu ChhCng Tzu have failed to survive.d Still, we do have elucidations for the whole series of new poetical cover-names which occur in this w0rk.e

We may here recall what was said in pt. 3, p. 167, about the predilection of Koreans for physiological alchemy,
in contrast to the Veitnamese (p. 75). and the Japanese (pp. 174ff.), who seem rather to have favoured wai tun
chemistry and its elixirs. So for example Yun Kunphy6ng' in the + 16th-century became a noted expert in the
Humg Thing Ching tradition (Ch6n SangGn (I), p. 264). Already in the Thangperiod Kim Kagi5Cfl. c. 850)~and
the scholarastronomer Chhoe Chhiwhn6(+858 to +91o), had ended as eminent Taoist adepts in China (ibid.,
p. 258); while the IshinhBof 982 ascribed to the masters of the Korean State of Silla two secret pharmaco-sexual
Pcgam7(Precious Mirror of Eastern
techniques of physiological alchemy; ch. 28 (p. 655). By the time of the Tonguongui
Medicine), finished in 1610, we find H6 Chun'ss first chapter full of explanations of physiological alchemy,
including the three primary vitalities, and the means of regaining them.
h (7). PP. 24off., 388ff.
c TT328. This is the generally accepted view, but Wang Ming (4) sought to prove that the Nei Chmg was the
older text, and that the Wai Ching appeared only about 335. The matter is not yet finally settled. The oldest
parts of the Nci Ching go back, it seems, to the Mao Shan school of Taoism, c. 365. Cf. Watanabe K a o (I),
p. I 14; Strickmann (6). p. 333.
Cf. Maspero (f), p. 239. The commentary of Liang Chhiu Tzu in HCSS, ch. 55, pp. 4a to s b , contains some
queer little symbolic diagrams which the text does not explain. See further on p. I 26 below.
A valuable concordance to both Yellow Court manuals has been prepared by Schipper (6). Here it is necessary to allude to the intimate connections between the Yellow Court tradition and liturgical Taoism, especially
in the Ling-Pao rituals. For example, Saso (5) describes the fourth phase in the Chiao (or Renewal) liturgy as one
in which the celebrant carries out an alchemical meditation refining the Five Elements into the three primary
vitalities, shen, chhi and ching. Meanwhile the four other s a c d ministers are engaged in different activities, sending off petitions and orders, chanting prayers, or offering food, wine, flowers and incense to the Trinity and the
lesser spirits; cf. Vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 129ff. It is precisely in the distinction between liturgy as an expression of the
meditations of internal alchemy, and ritual as a means of exorcism, healing, curse and blessing, that the difference
between orthodox and heterodox Taoism lies. Great advances are now being made in the elucidation of Taoist
liturgiology, as in the interesting work of Schipper (7, 8), and Saso in other studies, e.g. (6,7,8, 10).

86

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1568. A rubbing from a stele inscription of the IIuang Thing S r i ('hing I'u Ching. This was cut in 1591
from earlier copies the calligraphy of which was so exquisite as to suggest to experts of the Sung and Yuan that it
was due to the pens of Wang Hsi-Chih or Yang Hsi, in the + 4th century. Though this would hardly be possible, it
could well be the work of some calligrapher of the + 5th or the 6th.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

87

Fig. 1569. One of the frescoes of the Taoist temple, Yung-Lo Kung, in Shansi, showing Chungli Chhiian in
conversation about the Tao with Lii 'rung-Pin. TOng Pai (I), pl. 17.

88

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

We may have occasion to quote both of these manuals in specific contexts from
time to time below.8
The next oldest part of the Hsiu Chen Shih Shu collection is perhaps the material
relating to Lu Yen' (Lu Tung-Pin2) and his putative teacher Chungli Chhuan,3
belonging to the last half of the 8th-century and the early years of the 9th (Fig.
1569). Thus we find a substantial work called Chung Lu Chhuan Tao Chi,4 a dialogue between these two on the transmission of the Tao and the art of longevity by
r e j ~ v e n a t i o nHere
. ~ the differences between wai tan and nei tan alchemy are trenchantly discussed, and this is a good place to look for Thang nei tan meanings of wai
tan terms.c T h e collection also contains one of the classical works on Taoist gymnastics, that associated with the name of Chungli Chhuan, the Chungli P a Tuan
Chin Fa5 (cf. p. I 58 below). This will also be of the late 8th-century. Then comes
an important work of the Wu Tai period, the Thien YuanJu Y a o C h i n p (Mirror of
the All-Penetrating Medicine restoring the Endowment of the Primary Vitalities),
written by Tshui Hsi-Fan7 and dated 940; we shall discuss it more fully later on
in connection with the sexual techniques (p. 196). It is a prose text without commentary, not the same as Tshui's Ju Y a o Ching, a more famous work in rhyming
verses, on which several commentaries were ~ r i t t e n . ~
All the rest of the material in the Hsiu Chen Shih Shu is of the Sung, beginning
with certain celebrated poems and treatises of the I ~th-century.There is first the
Chin Tan Ssu Pai T z u R(The Four-Hundred Word Epitome of the Metallous
Enchymoma),e twenty verses from the brush of the eminent adept Chang PoTuanq (Fig. I 570), of whom so much has already been said in earlier sub-sections
(pt. 3 , passim). This is considered datable in the close neighbourhood of 1065.
The collection also contains his much longer work in 99 stanzas, the W u Chen
Phien'" (Poetical Essay on Realising (the Necessity of Regenerating the) Primary
Vitalities), written about ten years later.' There can now be no doubt at all that
these were primarily concerned with physiological alchemy. Translations of both
were made some thirty years ago by Davis & Chao Yun-Tshung (2,7 respectively),

a This group of writinm was completed by a work of the Sui period, the Huang Thing Chung Ching Chin&'
(Manual of the Middle Radiance of the Yellow Courts), by Li Chhien-Chhing;'2 TT1382. It has been less studied
than the others, and needs further investigation.
b This was edited before the end of the Thang by Shih Chien-Wu." Another version of the dialogue, the P
m
W& Phien" (Account of the Hundred Questions), is to be found in ch. 5 of the Tao Shu's (Axial Principles of the
Tao, T T I w ~ )a, collection made by T&ng Tshao'" before + I 145. A translation of the dialogue into German has
been essayed by Homann (z), who has added a quite useful glossary of nei tan technical terms.
" The sexual element seems to be rather played down in this text, either because of later bowdlerisation (which
certainly took place as Buddhist influence grew in Yuan, Ming and Chhing), or perhaps more likely because these
practices were from a quite early time a matter of oral instruction.
* TT132. This physiological alchemist is not to be confused with another Taoist of the same name belonging to
the late 12th-centul?., a physician who wrote an important book on sphygmology. Our Tshui's sobriquet was
Chih I Chen-Jen," the other's Tzu Hsii Chen Jen.Is
C
TT1o67.
TT1 38, with many commentaries in succeeding items. Western Zen adepts will not need reminding that the
character u w here is the same as the Japanese satori.

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33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. 1570.Drawing of Chang Po-Tuan, fmm Lieh Hsim Chhiian Chum, ch. 7, p. 23a.

89

90

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1571. Sculptured I ~ h a nin one of the caves at San-fGng Shan, near Hangchow in Chekiang (orig. photo.
1964). The enchymoma is again depicted as a twice-born face peering out from the monk's robe.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

9I

but as they were firmly under the impression that Chang was talking about practical laboratory alchemy, their versions are now classical examples of what happens
when translations are 'not on the same wave-length' as the original author, and
have almost no idea of what he was really trying to talk about.&If the quotations
which we shall now give are compared with the parallel passages in Davis & Chao
the differences will be clearly seen. We select at random half a dozen verses from the
Chin Tan Ssu Pai Tzu.
v. I The (chhi of) vital Earth can capture the true lead; and true lead can control the true
mercury. When (true) lead and (true) mercury return into the vital Earth, the body and the
heart gain rest and move no more (towards decay and death).h
v.6 The 'chemicals' (the chhi and fluids of the organs) come forth from the mysterious
; ~ 'fire-times' (periods of their circulation) ignite the furnace of
orifice (hsiian c h h i a ~ ' )the
(pure) Yangd When the dragon and the tiger accomplish their mutual conjunction, the
precious reaction-vessel produces the mysterious dark pearl (the enchymoma).
v.7 This orifice is no ordinary opening; it is formed by the union of the h a Chhien and
Khun. It is called the cavity of the shenZand the chhi, and within it are the thing3 (essences,
i.e. inner Yang and Yin) of Khan and Li.
v. 8
One drop of Lignic mercury (gives rise to) what is red,e
But Metallous lead's four catties all are black;'
This lead and this mercury, combining, form a pearl,
Shining and glittering with the hue of purple go1d.g
v. 16 Heaven and earth unite the true fluids (i4)together; sun and moon harbour the true
ching.3 When the fundamental powers of Khan and Li meet, then the 'three worlds' ( s a n
~ h i e h sreturn
)~
into a single body (and rejuvenate it).
v.20 When a man and a woman engage in the clouds and rain of the bedchamber a child
will be born each year, and every one of them will be able to soar into the heavens on the
wings of a crane.'
I

This is no great criticism of Davis & Chao in view of the rudimentary state of knowledge of Chinese alchemy
at that time. Resides, we are all much indebted to them for useful biographical and bibliographical material.
'1
In other words, the ~reservativeenchymoma is formed in the 'central earth', the Yellow Court region in the
neighbourhood of the spleen.
'' Commentators refer this to the 'gate of the mysterious feminine' (hciiun phin chih m@) of the Tao Te^C h i q ,
ch. 6.
Cf. p. 221 and Fig. 1551.
Lignic mercury has within it the c h i q of the rimo or dial re-natal unity ( h i m thien chen i chih chinp), hence
the number one in 'one' drop. It gives rise to what is red because Wocd produces Fire in the five-element system,
hence the reference to the colour. 'I'his has nothing to do with cinnabar, but it might well have put those acquainted with wai tan alchemy off the scent, let alone modem historians thinking in terms of elixirs. Resides, 'cinnabar'
does occur in other verses, though not with its plain meaning. This whole verse is a fairly good example of nei tun
ideas being veiled in wai tun terms.
r 'Four' catties, because four is the number assigned to Metal in the symbolic correlation system. Black, because U'ater goes with the colour black, and Metal produces Water in the five-element system.
K T h e enchymoma, of course. On 'purple gold' cf. pt. 2,pp. 257ff. For the essential theory behind this verse one
may re-read the passage from the Chhi P i Thu on p. 40 above.
h I.e. the three primary vitalities, ching, chhi, she+ (cf. p. 46 above). There would be an undertone here of
antithesis to the three factors of death (sun shih,'>'three corpses'), in each living being.
1 This verse is essentially an allegory of the mystmum conjunctionis of Yang and Yin. 'Clouds-and-rain' is the
well-knoun poetical phrase for sexual intercourse. Naturally there is also an oblique reference to the 'baby boy'
(fing mhIh"'),the enchymoma, thought of as a 'divine embryo' to be produced in the body by the procedures of
physiological alchemy. Rut for the exponents of sexual techniques the verse could also be taken more literally as
saying that no children of this world will be born from the commerce between the Taoist man and woman adepts,
but both will attain longevity and immortality. It is often said that the normal flour (shun") produces children,
while the counter-current flow (nil2)produces immortals; cf. pp. 59, I 18,247.

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92

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Once one has found the clue to the system of ideas of the physiological alchemists,
everything falls into place and becomes understandable, even though various fluctuations and divergences remain (after all, the tradition was evolving through a
millennium and a half). But there is nothing here concerning the minerals, metals
and plants of the practical wai tan alchemists.
The same general conclusion holds of the Wu Chen Phien, which formerly puzzled us as it has so many others. Our quotations open with a clarion call to abandon
the chemical alchemy in favour of the physiological.

st.8

st.13

st.18

Desist from compounding and transmuting the Three Yellow Substances (sun
huangl)aand the Four Wonderful Materials (ssu hen^)!^ The common (medicines)
of plant origin are even more different from the true primary (vitalities). Yin and
, ~ respond to each other and come into conYang, when of the same c a t e g ~ r ywill
junction. 'Two' and 'eight' (i.e. the Yin and the Yang meeting under appropriate
conditions) will spontaneously unite in kinship and affection. Just when the Yin is
strangely (and seemingly) destroyed, a red sun will appear at the bottom of the lake,"
and the sprouts of the new medicine (the enchymoma) will appear like the white
moon rising over the mountains. It is essential that people should recognise what is
true lead and true mercury; they are nothing to do with common cinnabar and
common mercury.
Those who do not understand the mysterious principle of the inversion of the natural order (tim tao3)deny that one can plant lotuses in a sea of fire.e Let the white
tiger (the chm Yang) be brought home (to the centre of the body), then a glittering
pearl round like the moon will be produced (the enchymoma). Let the 'chemical
furnace' (the body) be watched with every care, and the 'fire-times' (periods of circulation of the chhz)' strictly kept; calm in the mind, look to the maintenance of the
respiratory rhythm, (and refrain from worldly anxieties)-thus Nature will be able
to take its course. When all the Yin has been completely eliminated (and pure Yang
formed), then will be achieved the enchymoma which enables a man to escape from
the cage of the commonplace to a longevity of ten thousand years.
First set up Chhien and Khun as the reaction-vessel and the apparatus, then heat
together in it the crow (of the sun) and the rabbit (of the moon) as the chemical
substances. When these two things are driven into the Yellow Way (huang tao4),gthe
metallous enchynoma will be formed, and you need fear dissolution no more.

Sulphur, orpiment and realgar (according to Shang Yang Tzu, and TT91 I , ch. 6 , p. 13a).
Cinnabar, mercury, lead and alum (according to Shang Yang Tzu). Rut T7X74 gives two lists. including
variously malachite, magnetite, stalactitic calcium carbonate, and quartz, with orpiment and realgar. TT91 I adds
cinnabar and resublimed mercuric sulphide to the 'three yellows'. As Sivin (I), p. 152. says, this only shows the
variability in content of numerical categories even within the same book. The two expressions are older than Sun
Ssu-Mo but were not used by KOHung.
l' On the category conception cf. pt. 4, pp. 305ff.
* Here of course the reference is to the bringing out of the Yang within the Yin (cf. p. 69 above).
e This graphic phrase is yet one more example of the paradoxes of Yang-Yin theory, equivalent to saying that a
male adept can produce a baby boy within himself (Fig. I 567).
Cf. p. 46 above.
g Not of course here the ecliptic ( d . Vol. 3, p. 179). but the central region in the neighbourhood of the spleen.
b

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

93

Fig. 1572. One of the 5 0 0 Lohan at Pao-Kuang Ssu, Hsintu, stretching out his arm to bring down the Yang from
the heavens (or rather, the Yin within the Yang). X label says: 'reaching heaven with one's own hand' (rhih shou
ching thien). Orig. photo. 1972.

94

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

",. ...,

Fig. 1573. One of the 500 Lohan at Pao-Kuang Ssu, Hsintu, stretchin,
,.m to fish up the Yin from the
depths of the sea (or rather, the fang within the Yin). A label says: 'searching for the moon at the bottom of the
ocean' (hai ri lao4Geh). Orig. photo. I 972.

33.

st.30

st.32

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

95

T o swallow saliva and to inhale chhi are well-known practices, but without the
(right) reagents nothing truly vital can be brought into being. If the true seeds are
not put into the reaction-vessel, the operation will be as useless as having water and
fire yet heating an empty kettle.8
Khan's lightning (vividly flashes),b with seething and rumbling in the (northern and
western) regionsCof Metal (the lungs) and Water (the reins); (Li's) fire breaks forth
at the top of the Khun-Lun mountain (the head),d bringing Yin and Yang into
confrontation. When these two things have accomplished their reverted and regenerative union, the enchyrnoma will spontaneously ripen and fill the whole body
with p e r f ~ m e . ~
T h e sun, in the Li h a position (the south) turns over to femininity; the moon (lit.
the Toad Palace), matched with Khan h a ,becomes masculine. Whoever does not
understand the principle of inversion of the natural order (tim taol) is like a man
scanning (the broad heavens through a narrow) sighting-tube,' and should cease to
talk learnedly (about physiological alchemy).g

From all this language, once understood, it is clear that the 'Poetical Essay' on
awakening men and women to the necessity of cultivating their bodies and synthesising in them, as it were, the remedies for delaying old age indefinitely, even
indeed for overcoming death, can never have been intended, however obscurely, as
instructions for laboratory a1chemists.h
Among the prefaces and other preliminary materials at the beginning of the Wu
Chen Phien we find a series of pictures and tables entitled Tan Fang Pao Chien chih
T ~ Ui.e.
, ~'Precious Mirror of the Enchymoma Laboratory'. From the reproduction of the first picture, in Fig. 1575, one can see that the Yang dragon stands
opposite to the Yin tiger,' Li opposite to Khan kua, each having a list of synonyms

This refers to the Yang and Yin of the inner lines of the kua Khan and Li (cf. pp. 61 ff. above).
I.e. the Yang within the Yin, the Fire within the Water. One expression for this was Yinfu;' another was hu
chih hsim chhi4(cf. p. 57 above).
Cf. Fig. 1551above.
d This is the obvious converse, the Yin within the Yang, set free by the former activity.
As the Shang Yang Tzu commentary shows, this is a poetical expression for the sense of perfect well-being
which the Taoist adept attained by the practice of all the psycho-physiological and hygienic exercises and regimen.
He also explains that the Water-Fire relationship denotes further the antithesis of the 'other' and the 'self (cf.
Table 121 c), especially of 'her' and 'me'. When 'her' chm chhi is generated, 'my' chm Y m g is quickly liberated to
form the enchymoma.
Cf. Vol. 3, pp. 332ff. The analogy was a literary commonplace based on a useful astronomical technique.
S Here we reproduce two striking illustration (Figs. I 572, 1573)of temple images depicting the snatching of the
Yang from the heavenly height and the Yin from the depths of the sea. Also (Fig. 1574) the picture from Hsing
Ming KuPi Chih ( 1615) showing the triumphant adept with the sun in one hand and the moon in the other, Yin
and Yang united in the enchymoma.
h Our interpretations of the U'u C h m Phim are closely similar to those of some other modem students of it, for
example Imai Usabur6 (I);
i The dragon and tiger symbolism runs like a thread throughout the present volume, but one must find room
somewhere to mention the many amulets which circulated in China formerly, depicting these two symbols of the
Yang and Yin. See for example Ku Chhuun Hui, t d 15, p. 40. There is now a superbly illustrated monograph by
Hou Chin-Lang ( I ) on Taoist religious currency, both paper and metal.
h

'

96

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 574. The adept holding the moon (Yin) in his right hand, and the sun (Yang) in his left. An illustration from
Hsirrg Ming Kuei Chih ( 1615) entitled 'Universal Radiance' (Phu Chao Thu). Note the reaction-vessel for the
enchymoma in the lower abdomen. Ch. I , p. 2ob.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. I 575 The celebrated p p h i c tabulation of reagents in physiological alchemy pivm in the W u Chm Phim
(Poetical Essay on Realising the Necessity of Regenerating the Primary Vitalities), composed by Chang PO-Tuan
about + 1075 (TTz60, ch. 26, p. ga,b). For the elucidation see Table 122. The chart is entitled Tan Fang Pao
Chien chih Thu, i.e. 'Precious Mirror of the Enchymoma Laboratory'.Below, the following pages tabulate the
synonyms or cover-names respectively for (true) mercury on the right, (true) lead on the left, and the enchymoma
in the centre.

Table

I 22.

Chang PO-Tuan's 'Precious Mirror of the Enchymoma Laboratory (i.e. the Body) '.

YIN

YANG

Khun kua

Chhien kua

Feminine Portal

Mysterious Gate

shm

chhi

blood

ching
Li kua

Khan kua
hardness

deep-seated moon's
anima

C h M - c h i w tiger of Tui white tin

(small inktra
(tin)
testine)

malachite
(copper
carbonate)

d w o n of
Chen kua

Mt. Khun- sun's

Lun (head) animus

number r

wu Earth

rabbit's
marrow

completed
number h

completed
number 7

north

Sombre
Warrior
(northern
sky palace)

black

jade rabbit
(in the
moon)

Moon

Metallous
tiger

superficial

softness

crow's liver chi Earth

number 2

rain

cinnabar

south

white

caerulean

pm-natal
golden crow red
Yang (poeti- (in the sun)
cal term)

west

east

Water

number 4

cyclical character tzu

cyclical character k&

number 3
cyclical character chia

Metal

completed
number 9

completed
number 8

Wood

black tin
(lead)

wind

mountains
and marshes

thunder
and
lightning

pre-natal Yin
(poetical
term)

Red Bird
(southern
sky palace)

Pyrial
dragon

Sun
Fire
cyclical character wu

N.B. The columns on the Yang side have been interchanged so as to bring out the originally intended mirror-image pattern; in the
Chinese they occur in the order 4,3,2,I , 6 , s .

33.

99

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

corresponding with it.8 The principle of the arrangement is just the same as that of
our Table 1 2 1 A,B,Cabove. Chang PO-Tuan's terms are translated in Table 1 2 2 . b
Here one can see at once that among them there are some which could be mistaken
for those of laboratory elixir alchemy, yet there can be no doubt that the whole plan
is essentially psycho-physiological. Between the two sides there is a poetical epigram on the 'true (or vital) Earth', the enchymoma in its central place of formation:
'(This) Earth has no fixed form, but if you marshal the Four Image$ in the right
way, the true (or vital) Earth will be generated, that is to say, the Metallous Fluid
and the Great Anablastemic Enchyrnoma.' Underneath, its manifestations
(chuang') are described: 'Like bright window-dust," like a grain of millet, like a
mysterious dark pea^-l.'e
After this come three further charts (Fig. I 576), the first explaining a 'suspended
womb reaction-vessel' ( f i a n thai ting2),with details of its exact dimensions, and
the third describing a 'crescent moon furnace' (yen yueh lu3), again with specifications for its size and shape.f These captions have already been translated in pt. 4
on pp. 17, 1 2 , in the context of elixir laboratory apparatus, but by now it will be
clear that they had a completely double meaning, and that just as cinnabar, lead and
mercury could be names applied to physiological entities, so the dimensions and
shapes here given made sense-but quite a different sense--in physiological alchemy. Furnace (lu) represented the Yang, reaction-vessel (ting) the Yin (cf. Table
121 A, C ) . 'Suspended womb' recalled the elaboration of the divine embryo, 'crescent moon' the cycles of the chhi (cf. Fig. I 577). Of course there was no reason why
wai tan alchemists could not make and use apparatus with the given dimensions;
and the double meaning doubtless also applied to the oldest extant description of
all, the Ting Chhi K04 in Wei PO-Yang's +2nd-century Tshan Thung Chhi (cf.
pt. 4, p. 16). In between the two pictures just discussed comes an 'iron ox' (thieh
nius), symbol in popular Buddhism of the subduing of evil passions, but also of the
Taoist 'water-raising machines' involved in the circulation of chhi and i in the body
(cf. Table I 2 I c, and pp. I I 5-6).
Although this pictorial section is thus to be understood primarily in terms of
physiological alchemy, some of the tabulated terms, especially 'dragon' and 'tiger',
are to be found also in later proto-chemical texts. The process of borrowing worked
in both directions, for we have seen how some proto-chemical terms had been
a TT260, ch. 26, p. 5a, b. These pictures have come down to us only in the Hsiu Chen Shih Shu edition of the
W u Chen Phien.
The array was also studied and translated by Davis & Chhen Kuo-Fu (2), but many of their pioneer interpretations cannot now stand. The version of this table reproduced in the Chin Tun Ta Yao Thu ( 1333)~TT1054,
containing slight rearrangements of the names and terms, will be found reproduced in Ho Ping-Yii & Needham
(2), but they too discussed it in a context only of elixir alchemy and category theory.
Cf. p. 58. But here they refer to the four directions of space, and all the symbolic correlates that those imply.
Cf. Vol. 5, pt. 3, pp. 73, 149ff.
Hereafter there follow (ch. 26, pp. 56, 6a) the three lists of synonyms referred to on p. 97 above, i.e. of true
mercury, then (in the middle) of the enchymoma, lastly (on the left), of true lead.
Ch. 26, pp. 6h. 7 a .

33.

I00

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1576a,b,c. The three explanations of the Wu Chcn Phim (TTz60, ch. 26, pp. 66 7a). On the right (a) the
'suspended womb aludel', in the middle (6) the 'iron ox', and on the left (c) the 'crescent moon furnace'. The
captions on the right and left have already been translated in Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. I 7, I 2 in the context of real laboratory
apparatus, and that is their superficial meaning; but they also carry esoteric meanings relating to the kua of the I
Ching and to the several respiratory, gymnastic, heliotherapeutic and sexual techniques (cf.pt. 3, p. 201). 'The
central caption takes the ox extrinsically in the Buddhist sense as the beast of evil desire which has to be ridden and
controlled by Everyman; only if this is done will the alchemical 'yellow sprouts' appear and the 'baby boy' be
formed. This parallels the emphasis placed both in East and West upon the high moral character required of
alchemists (cf. pt. 3, p. 101 and passim, as also p. 15 above). Intrinsically the ox is the motive power for the
circulation of chhi and i in the body which permits the Yin tiger to drink frum the pool of 'true' mercury and to
approach the Yang dragon in the fiery clouds. Then the herdboy, rejoicing, smiles with pleasure, and the enc h p o m a of immortality is achieved. There is deep psychological truth lurking somewhere in all this, expressed
today perhaps by saying that the power generated by the id can appear as libido or else as mortido, according to the
organising success of the ego, guided by the superego. The three explanations also appear in the Chin Tan Ta Yao
Thuof 1333(TT1054), TTCYed., maochi. 3, ch. 3, pp. 34h to 35h.

adopted by the physiologicaI alchemists, and indeed here we have had mention of
'white tin', 'copper carbonate' and the like, brought in as cover-names for the colours associated with directions, elements, organs, etc.
Over the years a number of other illustrations accreted round Chang PO-Tuan's
original set of about 1070. The words Tzu- Yang' were added to his Yang-Yin
diagram to show that it had been due to the Adept of the Purple Yang (Tzu-Yang
Chen Jen,z Chang's sobriquet), and it was incorporated (Fig. 1578) in the set of
illustrations called Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu3 (TT1o54) which Chhen Chih-Hsii4
(Shang Yang TzuS) put together in + 1333 for the Chin Tan Ta Yao (Main Essentials of the Metallous Enchymoma, the true Gold Elixir)&written by him in

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I01

Fig. 1577. The 'crescent moon furnace' in Hsing M i w Kun' Chih ( + 1615), ch. I, p. 276. The title refers to
reaction-vesscl and furnace as the 'greater' and the 'lesser', i.e. the body itself, and the real apparatusfanned by the
boy. The poems speak of the forging and re-casting of the primary vitalities.

I02

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 578. Another ~crsionof the graphic tabulation of Chanp. Po-'I'uan, from the ('htn T a n 7h ).h0 Thu,ch. 3,p.
3 4 a Elucidation in Tahle 1 2 2 . ' I I e title was now ( + 1333) prefaced by the words Tzu Yang, to indicate that it had
indeed been drawn up by the Adept of the Purple Yang (Tzu-Yang Chen-Jen). From TTC'Y, mao chi 3.

I 33 I . Here we find, among many other matters, including adapted versions of

the Neo-Confucian Thai Chi Thu,a the famous 'Diagram of the Mutual Stimuli
(and Responses) of Forms and Things' (Hsing Wu Hsiang Kan chih Thu') reproduced in Fig. 1579, where the masculine dragon of Yang confronts in love the
feminine tiger of Yin between the flames of the red south and the 'sombre warrior'
(the snake and tortoise) of the black n0rth.b Shih Thai'sz verse is apposite:
8

TTCYed.,p. 28a. Cf.Vol. z.p.461.

A later version of this is given in Fig. 1580.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I03

Fig. 1579. Diagram of the Mutual Stimuli and Responses of Forms and 'I'hings (Hsing \Vu Hsiang Kan chih
Thu), from Chin Tan T a Yao Thu, ch. 3 p. 32 a (TT(' Y , mao chi 3). In this conjunctio oppositmum or matrimornomum
alchyminrm the man with the dragon faces the girl with the tiwr, Yang in love with Yin, between the flames of the
South and the tortoise-serpent of the North. Clouds and rain in the right-hand top corner add their symbolism.

The Elegant Girl rides upon the tiger of lead,

And the Master of Metal bestrides the dragon of rner~ury.~
Other striking illustrations accompany this, for example, a portrayal of physiological alchemy (Fig.1581) in which the body is seen as a mountain (Yuan Chhi Thi
Hsiang Thu') up and down which the chhi circulate^.^ Khan is in command at the
H u m Yuan Phien,' in T T z 6 0 , ch. 2 , p. z a . Cf. p. 65 above.

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P.28h.

I04

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1580. A later representation of the same pattern, from Hsing Ming Kuk Chih ( 1615), ch. 2 , p. 33 b. Rut this
is more sophisticated, for it is the girl who ridesupon the dragon (the Yin within the Yang), while the young man is
mounted on the tiger (the Yang within the Yin). Roth animals exert their influence on the enchymoma developing
within the reaction-vessel. The picture is entitled 'The Love-Making of Dragon and Tiger'; the surrounding
poems amplify the theme.

base, with Thai Hsiian' at the top, where we see the head as Khun-Lun mountain
containing the 'ball of mud', the brain. Towards the lower part the important Yellow Court (huang thing2)can be seen, with paths that evidently meet there, as one
would expect. Some of the Kuan,3 or gates, in the circulation of the chhi are also

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. 1581.The body depicted as a mountain up and down which the chki circulates;from Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu
(TTlo54, TTCYed., maorhil, ch. 3, p. 286). Low down in the middle is the Yellow Court(HuangThing) where
all roads meet.

I 06

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 582. A fanciful draw in^ due to Lin Shen-FCng analogising the exercises of physiological alchemy with a set
of arrows used in the pitch-pot game. This was something likedarts, but all the projectiles had toenter the neck ofa
large vase. Further explanations in text. Fmm Chin Tan Ta I'ao Thu (TT1o54,TTC'Y ed., mao chi 3, ch. 3, p.
3 w .

33.

I07

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

easily made
Another curious picture (Fig. 1582) is due to Lin Shen-Fing,'
some late Sung or early Yuan Taoist, who fancifully likens the nei tan exercises to a
set of arrows in the pitch-pot game.b In this Chin Tan F a Hsiang Thou H u ThuZ
each of twelve arrows (mu chien3)is marked like a tablet or phai tzu4with the name
of a particular exercise, and he would be the winner, presumably, who could combine them all to the best advantage. However, it is clear from the accompanying
oral instructions that Lin was a syncretistic Buddhist-Taoist, and that all the exercises were conceived of in purely meditational terms. For example, on the right we
see an arrow marked kuan pi thiao hi,' i.e. 'gazing at the tip of one's nose and
harmonising the respiration'. And on the left there is another marked ching ting wu
i.e. 'setting one's mind at rest and refraining from worldly activity'. Some
others are designated phang m&,' ancillary disciplines, while at the centre there is a
, ~ as we should say, 'royal road'. Here are two arrows,
label marked chung k ~ n gor,
one labelled yu i huan tan,9 'the regenerative enchymoma of the jade fluid', and the
other chin i huan tan,IO'the regenerative enchymoma of the metallous juice'. Finally
we note another marked jih yiieh kaop&,ll 'the rapid circulation of (the body's) sun
and moon'. This then is as much as we need say for the present about the work of
Chang PO-Tuan and Chhen Shih-Hsii.C We must now return to our consideration
of the Hsiu Chen Shih Shu.
We have skipped into the + 14th-century, but must now return to the 13th,
since all the rest of the works in the collection date, so far as we can see, from the
first half of that century. Pai Yu-ChhanfZ(whose other, probably secular, name was
KO Chhang-Kingi3)was active between + 1205 and + 1226, and many chapters
consist of his prose and poetry on physiological alchemy;%ut we need not enlarge
upon it here. Much more interesting for us is a work called Thi Kho Koi4(The
Song of the Bodily H u ~ kand
) ~ the deliverance from its ageing, by a Taoist whose
pseudonym was Yen Lo Tzu15(the Smoky-Vine Master).f This contains a number
of interesting anatomical diagrams. For example, Fig. 1583a shows the head

It should be noted that the picture contains a number of Buddhist terms.

I , p. 328. T h e term was later used figuratively for a symposium or supper at which
elevated topics were discussed.
'' As we may not have the opportunity of mentioning them again, it may be recorded that Chhen Chih-Hsii
appended to his hook two interesting traaates on the histon of the schools of adepts and immortals (TTros5,
1056). T h e titles and details of these will be found in the bibliography. There has heen no adequate study so far of
this liturgical and hagiographic material.
Notably Shang ('hhinx Chile and K7u I Chi" (see bibliography).
HCS.7. ch. I 8.
'I'he 'Huming-Bush Master' comes to mind as a translation, but the idea was not exactly that. T h e second
word applies to vines like Mrtaplexis, but also to U7istaria,the blossoms of which could look like a cloud of blue
smoke in the distance. 'Ihe same sobriquet was also home by a philosopher or artist of the early Chhing, Kao ShuChhi.ng,'Hhut we have not heen able to find out much about him.
b

P. 386. Cf. Vol. 4, pt.

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I 08

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1583a,b. Yen Lo Tzu's drawings of the head region; that on the right gives the names and synonyms recognised in physiological alchemy, that on the left shows the relevant spirits and animals, favourable and unfavourable. From Thi Kho KO,in Hsiu Chm Shih Shu (TTt6o).ch. 18, p. 2a.b.

region, with many names and synonyms for the structures and functions recognised by Taoist physiological alchemy there. It is followed by a Chhao Chen
Thu' (Fig. I 5833) reminiscent of the picture already given in Fig. I 564. Then Fig.
1584a,b shows the thorax and abdomen in sagittal section, seen from the right (a)
and from the left (b), with the dragon and tiger meeting to form the 'baby boy', the
enchyrnoma, near the spleen region, and the routes which connect the reins with
the heart for the chhi circulation. Furthermore, the two lower centres of vital heat
(tan thien2)are shown, and at the top above the lungs the trachea, marked by its
famous names shih-erh chhung lou3and shih-erh huan,J the 'twelve-storied tower' or
the 'twelve rings'. On the dorsal side the vertebral column (chia chi h" appears,
along with the spinal cord (sui tao6),a 'marrow path' along which the chhi circulates
up, as in the T a Huan Tan procedure (cf. Fig. I 562, p. 77). The mechanisms for the
raising of the chhi are shown along the backbone on the left, the niu chhe^,7'oxdriven machine', at the top, the lu ~ h h e ^'deer-driven
,~
machine', below it, and right
at the bottom a third which is indistinctly labelled yang chhe^,g'goat-driven machine'.
Lastly, Fig. I 585a,b shows the same regions from the front (a) and from the back

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

109

Fig. 1584a,b. Yen Lo Tzu's sagittal sections of the thorax and abdomen, giving ine names of many structures
recognised in physiological alchemy. On the right the dragon and tiger are seen near the Yellow Court, and on the
left the 'baby boy' (the enchymoma) which is born there. From Thi Kho KO,in Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TTz6o).ch.
18,pp. zh, 3a.

(b),giving the names of the viscera. The principal organs of the body are discussed
systematically,&and the tractate ends with a few talismans in Pao Phu Tzu style.&
In these anatomical drawings and discussions there is much more than meets the
eye. They stand, so to say, in an intermediate position, linked on the one hand with
the scientific anatomy of the age, indeed with the revival of dissection in the Sung
p e r i ~ dand
; ~ on the other with a kind of mystical microcosmography which served
As usual in medieval Chinese anatomical works, and as weshall show in Sect. 43, the scientific level in the text
is better than that of the illustrations.
b The Han and the Sung were the two great ages of anatomy in ancient and medieval China.

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

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Fig. I 585a.h. Yen I,o 'I'zu's drawings of the front aspect (right) and dorsal aspect (left) of the viscera of the thorax
rooo if not earlier. 'l'he names of the organs are all given. Fmm Thi Kho Ko, in Hsiu Chen
and abdomen, about
Shih S h (TTzho),ch. 18, p. 3a, h.

the Taoist nd tan alchemists well enough to continue in a traditional form down to
our own time. Let us consider the former aspect first; it will incidentally help us to
date Yen Lo Tzu's book.
Without anticipating here too much the historical account of anatomical dissection and illustration in China which must necessarily come in Section 43, it may be
said that the 10th to the 13th-centuries constituted a time of great activity in
these fields. Much is now known of this, and in the light of it, Yen Lo Tzu's pictures of thorax and abdomen are clearly Wu Tai or Sung in date (if not indeed
possibly earlier). A very similar drawing, in which the head of Fig. 1583 has been
united, as it were, with the trunk of Fig. I 584, appears in the Shih Lin Kuang Chil
encyclopaedia; this we illustrate in Fig. 1586 from the unique copy of the 1478
edition preserved in the Cambridge University Library. From that work itself one
can learn little more, since the picture is not accompanied by any explanatory text,
nor can we tell when it was incorporated in the encyclopaedia, because the early
editions, from c. I 130 .onwards, are of extreme rarity, perhaps not now extant
anywhere. The picture is identical, however, with one in the book of Li K u n g Z
Huang Ti Pa-shih-i Nan Ching Tsuan Thu Chii ChiehVDiagrams and a Running

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I11

Commentary for the Manual of Explanations concerning Eighty-one Difficult

Passages in the Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal Medicine).a The preface of
this is dated + 1270, so either one of the later encyclopaedia editors copied from
him, or he copied from some common source. Quite probably he constructed the
picture from Yen Lo Tzu's diagrams, because his drawings of the viscera from the
ventral and dorsal aspects are practically identical with those in the Thi Kho KO.Li
Kung's late Sung book is a medical work of conspicuous value, and we shall speak
of it further in Vol. 6. Meanwhile this is as much as we can say here of the intermediate tradition in which scientific anatomical knowledge, so far as it went at that
time, was blended with the ideas of Taoist physiological alchemy.
What exactly was the background of this movement or upsurge of anatomy in
the Sung? Its full circumstances must be left for the appropriate S e ~ t i o nat; ~present it may perhaps suffice to report that between the years 1041 and 1048 a
civil official, Wu Chien,' ordered the dissection of the body of a famous rebel leader
Ou Hsi-Fan,2 and of those of many of his companions, draughtsmen (hua kung3)
being commissioned to make drawings of all the viscera and other partsc This was
the time at which there arose the mistaken belief that at the base of the throat there
were three passages, one for the chhior air (trachea and bronchi), one for solid food
(oesophagus), and a third for liquids. Earlier Chinese anatomists had not fallen into
this error.
Then, between I 102 and I 106, in good emperor Hui Tsung's golden days,
and those of his learned court of virtuosi," governor named Li I-Hsing4 arranged
for further dissections; and not long afterwards, probably partly as a result of this,
the physician Yang Chiehs produced in + I I 13 what is now the oldest extant illustrated anatomical treatise in Chinese, the Tshun Chen Huan Chung Thuh (Illustrations of the True Form of the Body). We do not have the text now in its original
version, but only incorporated in other books and MSS, notably in the Japanese
works compiled by the priest-physician Kajiwara Shozen,' the Ton-IshG (Medical
Excerpts Urgently Copied) of 1304, and the Man-Anpc7 (Myriad Healing Pre~ illustrations also occur, however, in a number of Chinscriptions) of I 3 1 5 . The
ese books, as we shall see. Now according to the preface which Chia Wei-Chiehl"
wrote for Yang Chieh's treatise, all earlier anatomical texts and illustrations were
carefully studied by him, including those of Yen Lo Tzu;f and to the pictures of the
viscera he added diagrams of the twelve tracts of circulation of the chhi; hence the
words Huan Chung in the title. Thus Yen L o Tzu was clearly the older writer, and

TTIOIZ.The illustration is found in a pkliminary tractate entitled H u m Ti.. .Nun Ching Chu I Thu,"
P. 4 0 .
In the meantime there are excellent papcn by Hou Pao-Chang (I); Ma Chi-Hsing (2); Watanabe Kozo (I);
and Miyashita Sabur6 ( I ) .
The names of the prosectors have not been preserved, but the Chief Illustrator was Sung Ching."
* Cf. Vol. 4, pt. 2, pp. 501-2.
Cf. Sugimoto & Swain (I),pp. 143ff..379.
1CK.p. 235.

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1586. The diagram of Taoist anatomy and physiolcqy in the Shih Li Kuang Chi encyclopaedia, from the
edition of 1478 The picture is probably of the early 13th century. Several wheels of water-raising machinery
for circulating the chhi are seen, with the co-operation of Yang dragon and Yin tiger to produce the 'baby boy'
enchyrnoma. The upward passage of the ching to nourish the brain is drawn in a railway-line convention, and at the
top on the right the 'three corpses (or worms)' of death and decay are seen leaving the regenerated body.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

113

he must have worked before the Ou Hsi-Fan dissections in the mid I I th-century
because at one point in his book as we now have it there is a statement saying?
Recently there have been dissections of criminals, the reports of which maintain that the
throat has three passages; this is very wrong. . . And they say therefore that Yen Lo Tzu's
Chhao C h m Thuh is in error-but that is not so.

This occurs in a piece entitled Chu Thi Tien Nei Ching Lun.' C Perhaps this was
written by the eminent physician Chu H u n g Zwhose Nei Wai Erh Ching Thu3
(Illustrations of Internal and Superficial A n a t ~ m y )appeared
~
in
I I 18, very
shortly after the book of Yang Chieh.
So much for the borderline with scientific anatomy. The lesson is that the physiological alchemists were not entirely (as one might sometimes be tempted to think)
withdrawn into the practice of strange ritual and magico-liturgical observances, the
management of peculiar physiological exercises, and an absorption in meditational
quiescence-they were extremely interested in the most advanced anatomy of their
day. But we cannot conclude without the briefest of references to the possible relation of this with the history of anatomy in Europe. In Section 7 (Vol. I) we had
something to say of the Tanksuq-nctmah-i Ilkhctn darfumin-i 'ultim-i Khigii (Treasures of the Ilkhan on the Sciences of cat ha^),^ that remarkable encyclopaedia
prepared at Tabriz in Persia under the auspices of Rashid al-Din al-Hamdani
about the year I 3 I 3; and we even reproduced a drawing of the viscera very obviously Chinese in character.f More recently Miyashita Saburo (I) has compared
all the illustrations of thoracic and abdominal anatomy in this encyclopaedia with
those of the possible Chinese sources, and convincingly concludes that they were
based on the drawings of Yang Chieh in the Tshun Chen Huan Chung Thu, though
probably not copied directly from that book. Besides the Japanese texts above mentioned which have preserved Yang's text and illustrations, the latter were incorporated not only in Chu Hung's Nei Wai Erh ching Thu (of which we have also
spoken), but furthermore in the Yuan edition ( + 1273) of the Hsiian M& MO
Chueh Nei Chao Thu' (Illustrations of Visceral Anatomy for the Taoist Sphygmological Instructions; sometimes called Hua Tho Nei Chao Thu5)g edited by Sun
H u a q h and thirdly in the I Yin Thang I Chung Ching Kuang Wei Ta Fa7 (The
Great Tradition of Internal Medicine. . .; sometimes called I Chia Ta F d ) , h compiled by the famous physician Wang Hao-Kug in
1294. These, especially

Cf. Fig. I 583a above.

Thi Kho KO,p. gb.
Ibid.. pp. ~ f f .
d ICK, pp. 236,497. The piece would have been inserted by some later editor of Yen Lo Tzu's Thi Kho KO.
Cf. Vol. r , pp. 218-9. See also Adnan Adivar ( I ) ; Siiheyl Onver ( I , 2).
Fig. 34 (6).
8 This book had orirSinally been written by Shen Chu"'in + 1095, i.e. after the first wave of dissections and
before the second. It had nothing to do with the famous physician of the + 3rd-century whose name some versions
of it bore.
h ICK, p. 863. The title commemorates the legendary minister I Yin, patron of potions, and the historical Han
physician Chang Chung-Ching.
P

33.

I4

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

perhaps Sun Huan's book, would have been the sources for the Persian encyclopaedia.
Miyashita does not fail to note that the revival of anatomy in Europe began with
Mondino de Luzzi and his Anothornia of I 3 16, after a few earlier autopsies such
as that at Cremona in 1286. Mundinus had read widely among the Arabian anatomists, says Singer,a and naturally borrowed from them. In pondering such stimuli and transmissions one cannot fail to be struck by the fact that the beginning of
the European
14th-century had been preceded by at least three centuries of intensive anatomical work in China, and that just at the critical period there is clear
evidence of a deep influence of this on Persian and Arabic medicalculture. Though
there had been no Chinese Galen, and the anatomy of Wang Mang's time could not
compare, as far as we know, with that of the Hellenistic age, what was done in the
Sung was something else again, and its time-relations give food for thought. But we
must resume our account of physiological alchemy.
We turn now to the microcosmography. Visitors to the White Clouds Taoist
temple (Pai Yun Kuanl) at Peking have long been accustomed to admire an engraved stone stele entitled Na' Ching Thu;' we reproduce a rubbing of it in Fig.
1587.~
This 'Diagram of the Internal Texture of Man' was made in 1886, as the
inscription says, by a Taoist named Liu Chhing-Yin3 (Su Yun Tao Jen4), who
found it on a beautiful old silk scroll in the library of a temple at Kao-sung Shan,s
together with explanations of anatomical names of joints, tracts, viscera, etc. Realising the importance of this for physiological alchemy (chin tan ta tao,%s he calls
it), he had the picture carved in stone.
T h e general scheme is obviously very reminiscent of diagrams that we have already studied (Figs. 1584, 1586); it represents a sagittal section of the human body
seen from the left, but it is much more fanciful and poetical than any of them. The
body is again pictured as a mountain with crags projecting from the spinal column
and the skull. Without going into too much detail, we can easily distinguish a greater and a lesser circulation of the Chen chhi,' forming reverted regenerative enchymomas. Most of the viscera appear only as inscriptions below and around the
heart, which is represented as a ring of seething blood with the Herdboy (Niulane) in the quiet centre of it; underneath and to the right the reins are symbolised
by the Weaving Girl (Chih-niig)r working at her spinning-wheel, and sending up
and
the chhi to the throat and trachea (the twelve-storied tower, shih-erh lou thaiTO)
the brain (ni wan kungll)where the shen shuil' is added to it before it is sent down to

(25). pp. 74ff. Cf. Choulant ( I ) , pp. 79ff.

U'e are greatly indebted to Mr Rewi Alley of Peking for our copy, done in yellow and red. This diagram,
together with a closely similar coloured scroll-painting, was reproduced and discussed in several publications by
Rousselle ( I , qa,h, 5). His account is well worth reading, but much influenced by Buddhism and Indian yoga, so
that in accordance with the doctrines of a syncretistic group which accepted him as an initiate in Peking in the
twenties his interpretation is almost entirely in meditational terms. This hardly does justice to the whole range of
the tradition of physiological alchemy.
On these two stars, Vega and Altair, cf. Vol. 3, p. 282 and passim.
a

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33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

115

Fig. 1587. T h e Nn'Chiq 'I'hu(1)iarram of the Internal 'l'extureof Xlan), a ruhhinr from aatonestelepre~ervedat
the Pai-Yiin Kuan Taoist temple at I'eking. 'I'he stone was c a n e d in 1886 following an old silk scroll found in a
temple at Kao-sung Shan. It represents the culmination of the traditions of 'Taoist anatomy and physiology, and
shows a fanciful poetical rendering of a sagittal section of the head, thorax and ahdomen seen from the left-hand
side. For a brief explanation of the details see text. Our copy of the scroll is a valued gift from M r Rewi Alley.

16

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

the central region of vital heat. This corresponds to the 'conjunction of heart and
reins' (hsin shm chiao huir)discussed on p. 73 above.
The greater circulation, on the other hand, involves the spinal column. At its
base in Fig. I 587 we see the treadmill water-raising machine ( Yin Yang hsiian cha
chh$) which has to work to send the ching chhi3 upwards-Khan shui ni
as the
neighbouring inscription says. At this point, flames seen bursting forth from a tinp
symbolise the unveiling of the Yang within the Yin of the seminal fluid and its chhi.
Just alongside we see the lowest of the three gates (sun kuan6) of the spinal cord or
column, more prominently depicted than the other two, one of which is visible at
the level of the heart, the other just above that of the trachea-pagoda. Once the ching
chhi has been made to circulate thus upwards it again joins with the shm shui and
finds its way down to the Yellow Courts where the enchymoma forms, this being
symbolised by a glory emanating from a pack of four Yin-Yang symbols, emblems
which represent, together with the 'vital Earth' (chung thu7) at the centre, the five
elements and the four directions of space (cf. Fig. 1552).Near by a ploughboy and
an ox working hard ground symbolise the skill and strength needed for the conduct
and timing of the exercises. A caption says: 'the iron ox ploughs the field where
coins of gold are sown', another reference to the 'golden', or more strictly Metallous, enchymoma of immortality.
If space permitted, many other allegories in the design could be expounded. For
example, in the head sits Lao Tzu, and beneath him stands the 'blue-eyed barbarian monk', supposedly Bodhidharma.8 More interesting for us is the fact that
two of the tracts are represented. Here we cannot properly discuss the dorsal
median tract (tu mos) and the ventral median tract (jen mo9),two of the eight auxiliary tracts or routes of circulation of the chhi important in medical physiology,
because they must be dealt with in their place in Sect. 44 under acupuncture. But
they appear very clearly in the picture as the two curving lines at the position of the
'face', the tu mo coming down over the top of the head as far as the central point of
the maxillary junction above the teeth of the upper jaw, the jen mo coming up to its
last point on the chin,b and having at its origin a pool of chhi d e ~ i c t e d . ~
T o conclude this subject we present a wood-block broadsheet printed at Chhingtu in Szechuan by one Tuan FurOin 19zz.d Again we see the bodily microcosm, but now not exactly sagittal or frontal, rather in the sitting lotus positione yet
On all these matters we must be content to refer to Rousselle, op. n't. Cf. the comments of Schipper (5).
For detailsof these tracts see Chu.Lien(I), opp. p. 339. with pictures copied from a Ming book; and Soulie de
Morant (2). pp. 185ff.
These tracts fiwre considerably in Rousselle's exposition as routes of the 'circulationof the light'. This is late
meditational terminology. The classical doctrine is in I,u Gwei-Djin & Keedham (5). pp. 48ff.
* It was presented to us by my friend Xlr Fan Wu in 1943. For an exposition of the living tradition in the form in
which it continues to be expounded today, see the translation of Chao Pi-Chhen's" Hsing Minx Fa Chueh Ming
Chih" (printed in Thaipei in 1963)by Lu Khuan-Yii (4).
P Cf. p. 266 below.
a

18

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

what might be called passant regardant. The title of the chart (Fig. 1588) is especially significant in the present context-Hsiu Chen Chhuan Thu' (Complete
Chart of the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities). The general idea of the diagram is much the same as that of the Nei Ching Thu, but cruder and even more
influenced by Buddhism. One notes immediately the tracheal rings, the pulmonary
lobes Buddhicised into a lotus flower surmounting the heart, and on the right at the
bottom the two kidneys. The great interest of the chart, however, is that it combines the Nei Ching Thu system with macrocosmic elements as in the Ming Ching
Thu (Fig. I 55 I), especially the succession of lunar phases representing the constant
cyclical changes of Yang and Yin chhiand iin the body, so much so indeed that the
spinal column is marked with all the twenty-four fortnightly periods (chieh chhi2)of
the year.* A very old feature is the appearance of the ching-chhi raising mechanisms
, lu chhe",yang chhe"and niu chhe"being situated approximately at the
(cf. p. I O ~ )the
places of the 'three gates' (san kuan). The symbolical animals of the four directions
of space (ssu hsiang3) are prominent on each side at the top, in accordance with
Taoist physiological alchemy. But elsewhere there is much imagery of a Buddhist
character. The base of the body, for example, is represented as a sharp blade, near
which is a horse and rider; we are told that fools ride to their deaths on this steed
while sages mount it to become immortals-this is mirrored in the famous adage,
marked just above, that proceeding accordance to Nature leads to death while following counter-Nature leads to immortality (shun tse"ssu, ni tse"hsien4).b Just beside
this is an open fan containing the names of nine Buddhist hells. Upwards again the
reins and the heart are represented by two boys each marked with a suitable kua ,as
one would expect, with Chhien kua in the Yellow Court; but on each side (and
elsewhere in the diagram) we find complicated and unusual characters, the printed
forms of the exorcistic talismans (fu5). Lastly, a feature differing from the Nei Ching
Thu is the greater use of medical terminology, a number of acupuncture points
being indicated as well as the tu mo and jen mo tracts. Moreover in the panels of
print at the sides there are relics of the older anatomical descriptions in which even
standard weights of organs can be found mentioned. And although the nei tan
microcosmos has been so much Buddhicised these panels still contain and expound
several texts from the Humg Thing Ching.
T o show the continuity of the macro-microcosmic pattern through the centuries, and as a pendant to this discussion of the Hsiu Chm Chhuan Thu, we reproduce in Fig. 1589 a page from the Nei Chin Tanh (The Metallous Enchyrnoma
Within),c partly completed in 1615, printed in 1622. Here again the body of
man is depicted as surrounded by the lunar phases, participating in the endless

See Table 35 in Vol. 3, and pp. 404-5.

This is a perspicuous reminiscence of the ancient practice of 'sendingthe semen upwards to nourish the brain'
(cf. pp. 30. 197 ff.); or at least a meditational recall of it, conceived entirely in tenns of chhi, and taking its place
within a context of Buddhist cinaya celibacy.
l' We shall have occasion to refer again to this book shortlv (p. 124below).
h

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

119

Fig. 1589. A microcosmic figure from the Nk Chin Tan (The Metallous Enchymoma Within), printed in 1622.
The picture is entitled 'Plucking and Collecting the Outer Enchymoma' (Tshai Chii Wai Yao chih Thu),cf. Fig.
1546. 'Ihe adept is surrounded by twelve lunar phases, each with its appropriate hexagram from the I Chiw, and
these are to govern the practice of the alchemical exercises. p. xgb.

I20

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

circulation of Yang and Yin. It may serve to link in date the Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu
and the Hsiu Chen Chhuan Thu.
Another writer whom we may put at the beginning of the 13th-century was
Teacher Tou of the Western sacred mountain (Hua Shan), who wrote a short piece
in dialogue form entitled Hsi Yo Tou hsien-s&g Hsiu Chen Chih Nan' (Teacher
Tou's South-Pointer for the Restoration of the Primary Vitalities).a This is particularly interesting for the theories of generation which it contains,b reminiscent of
the Aristotelian conception of the roles of semen and menstrual blood, though
without the philosophy of form and matter connected with it.c Tou says that these
two are the creative substances; if the semen advances first to the blood it will be
enveloped by it and a male child will result, but if the blood advances first to the
semen the reverse will happen and a female child will develop. He then gives a
detailed account of the order in which the organs and structures of the body form
during the ten months of development in both male and female embryos, each one
presiding over the formation of the next. He goes on to list the 'seven precious
things' (chhipao2)necessary for the 'seven reversions' (chhifan3), i.e. shen, chhi, mo
(vessels and nerves), ching, hsiieh (blood), thuo (saliva), and shui Cjuices of organs).
And he says that 'if the juices are abundant they can generate saliva, if the saliva is
abundant it can change into blood, if the blood is abundant it can be transmuted the
ching (seminal essence), if the ching is abundant it can (be sent up to) nourish the
brain, if the brain is nourished it can strengthen the chhi, and if the chhi is copious it
can complete and perfect the shen'. Finally he adds some measures of physiological
spaces and times, and ends with a summary of the nei tan respiratory techniques.
Two components remain, and not the least important. At a date which we think
was not much before 1250 Hsiao Thing-Chih4 produced a valuable work entitled
Chin Tan T a Chh&gs (Compendium of the Metallous Enchymoma). This occupies five chapters in the Hsiu Chen Shih Shu," and it might not be a bad guess
that he himself was the editor of the who1e.e Opening with a Thai Chi diagram,
some glyphomantic constructions and a magic square, the book goes on to give a
Tho Yo K O , 'Song
~
of the Bellows and the Tuykre', illustrated by an interesting
emblem reproduced in Fig. 159oa, b. Here we see the body represented by a
bellows bag, with the dragon of true mercury ascending on the left, and the tiger of
true lead descending on the right.f Sun and moon are marked, but in inverted

TT260, ch. 2 1 , pp. I aff.

We may have an opportunity of returning to this in the Section on embryology in Vol. 6. It begins with an
exposition of the relation of viscera to elements, and a detailed microcosm-macrocosm parallel.
See Needham (2).
d TT260, chs. 9 to 13 incl.
Hsiao Thing-Chih's position is particularly interesting because although himself so clearly a physiological
alchemist, he was the direct pupil of PhEng Ssu,' the part author of an outstanding book on chemical laboratory
apparatus in + 1225 (cf.Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, p.441). And Phkng Ssu in his turn derived from Pai YiiChhan, again a nk tan adept. We have drawn attention to this situation already (pt. 3, p. 203, pt. 4, p. 275 above); it
surely implies that the same Taoists practised both nn'and wai tan simultaneously or at least in different phases of
their lives.
Cf. pp. 29,30,66.
h

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

I2I

Fig. I sgoa,b. A page from the Chin Tun Ta Chh& (Compendium of the Metallous Enchyrnoma), written by
, 9,
Hsiao Thing-Chih early in the + 13th century, and soon after included in the Hsiu Chm Shih Shu ( T T z ~ o )ch.
p. 7a. It gives the 'Song of the Rellows and Tuyere' (Tho Yo KO),alongside which is an emblem depicting the
body as a bellows bag. For a brief explanation of the symbolism see text. (a) From the Tao T s q itself; (h) from the
Too Tsang Chi Yai, moo chi 4, p. 8 h.

position, with the enchymoma in the centre, and two personified figures, male and
female, above it.a But perhaps the most useful part of Hsiao's book is what follows;
a systematic glossary in catechism form of the principal technical terms and covernames used in physiological alchemy, reminiscent indeed of the Shih Yao Erh Ya
which Mei Piao compiled mainly for laboratory alchemy (pt. 3, p. 152 above.) The
rest is mostly poetry, expounding the theory and practice, especially the importance of the 'fire-times' in enchymoma technology. There is also an interesting
essay on reading the Tshan Thung Chhi, and the work concludes with a commen10th-century Ju Yao Ching. Finally, to bring full circle
tary on Tshui Hsi-Fan's
our description of the Hsiu Chen Shih Shu, we can finish it by mentioning a work
written in the Yuan period by Lun Chih-Huan' following the instruction of Wang

a The whole picture is rather like that of Chang PO-Tuan reproduced in Fig. I 579; both include the tortoise and
serpent, symbols here of Yin and Yang.

I22

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Chih-Chin,' and concerned mainly with the psychology of Taoist aspirants. This is
the Phan Shan Yu Lu2 (Records of Discussions at Phan Mountain).8 Although
rather Buddhist in character they throw some light on late nei tan meditational
disciplines, including examples of tests of attainment, and the level of psychological
understanding is quite penetrating.
Thus we have now surveyed a mass of Hsiu Chen literature for the light that it
throws on the nei tan system. There are only a few additions to make before we can
take up the question of its historical origins, and then briefly scrutinise in turn the
various particular practices more closely.
It will be understood that all this was not without the backing of a great deal of
classical philosophy, from which further developments, in cosmogony and
microcosm-macrocosm doctrineb for example, had proceeded. A treatise of this
kind fundamental for the nei tan system occurs in the Yun Chi Chhi Chhien though
lost as a separate entity from the Tao Tsang itself; this is the Yuan Chhi Lun3
(Discourse on the Primary Vitality and the Cosmogonic Chhi) by an unknown
writer of the second half of the 8th-century.c Maspero laid it under contribution
for some interesting statements about the cosmic egg and the parallelism between
the primary chhi of man and the cosmogonic chhi which formed the world,d so that
here it will suffice to add a few further quotations. The style of the text is shown by
the following passage:

T h e primary (cosmogonic) chhi Cvuan chhi4) has no appellation, but when change
brought things to birth there arose names (mings). T h e primary chhi doubly embodied
change and generation into the differentiated categories (i leif')(of things). Of this double
embodiment there was no sign, for the chhi was unitary, and yet it may be considered the
home of all original differences. When forms (hsing7) arose, then the myriad names were
given, and their external characteristics were recognised; so that one can say that 'namelessness' was the Beginning of Heaven and Earth,e while 'naming' was the Mother of the Ten
Thousand Things. He who is for ever without desires can penetrate with vision the
Mystery, but he who harbours preconceived prejudices can see only superficialities. These
~ within, and the Within is the foundation of all.
are only the externals, but the M y s t e lies
T h e externals correspond to the beginnings; these can be called 'the Father', but the
Mystery can be called 'the Mother'.' Such is the Ta0.K

The writer presently describes how the natural endowment of pure cosmic chhi in
TT260, ch. 53.

" The most elaborate working-out of this in the n k tan context known to us is contained in the Tao Fa Hsin
C h h ~ m rwritten
,~
by Wang Wei-I"and dated + 1294.I t includes much meteorological speculation and explanation
in terms of Yin, Yang and rhhi (TT1235 and TT('Y). This Taoist is not to be confused with the better-known
+ I th-century physician of the same name.
I

YCCC, ch. 56.

" (7). P 207.

Reminiscent of the 'nothingness' (uwtO)of some Buddhist philosophical schools, which is full of all things in
potentiality.
Note the typical Taoist priority for the feminine.
g P. 3 a, tr. auct.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I23

each human being, almost like a 'light that lighteth every man that cometh into the
world' is dimmed and darkened by time and ageing, the 'shades of the prisonhouse' that begin to close.8
T h e Shang Chhing Tung Chen Phinl says:h 'Man at his birth incarnates the primary chhi
of Heaven and Earth as his mind and body (shen hsing2),and receives the chhi of the primary
unity (yuan i chih chhi3) in his Yin secretions and Yang essences (i chinp). When the chhi of
Heaven wastes and decays the shen becomes dispersed. When the chhi of Earth wanes and
declines the hsing falls Trey to diseases. When the primary chhi ebbs and degenerates the
life-span becomes exhausted. Thus the (wise) emperors used the 'technique of the returning wind' (hui f h g chih taoS),c they opposed the natural directions of flow in the body;
upwards they nourished the brain (pu ni-wan6), downwards they strenghened the primary
chhi. T h e brain being replete the shen was perfected, the s h a being perfected the chhiwas at
the full, the chhi being at the full the hsing7 was made an integral whole, and the hsing being
made an integral whole the hundred gates (kuanx)were harmonised within and the eight
malign influences (hsiehg) diminished outside. When the primary chhi was fully present (in
the body), then the marrow solidified to make the bones, and the intestines (supplied the
means of) change for the muscles and nerves. Thus all was purified (and restored), the true
ching, the primary shen and the primary chhi were not lost from the mind and body. Therefore it was possible for (those wise emperors) to attain longevity (and immortality).'"

Further on, the writer becomes more precise about some of the techniques involved.
T h e manuals of the immortals say: 'One's life-span depends upon oneself. If one can
conserve the seminal essence (chine) and obtain the chhi, one map attain longevity without
end.' And they also say: 'Maintain the form (hsing7) without (harmful) exertion, conserve
the seminal essence (chine) without (harmful) agitation, restore the mind (hsinl")to ataraxy
and peace. That is how longevity can be obtained.' T h e fundamental root of the life-force
and life-span is set in this Tao. Although a man practices respiratory exercises (hu hsill),
gymnastic techniques (tao yin12), charitable acts (hsiu fu13), initiating or assisting works of
public benefit (hsiu yeh14)and a thousand other techniques of experienced knowledge, and
even though he manages to consume exalted medicines (elixirs), it will profit him nothing if
he does not know the Tao of the primary unity Cyuan chhi chih tao15).He will be like a tree
with fine branches and luxuriant foliage which yet has no proper roots, and so cannot endure. Is he not like a man who enjoys the pleasures of music and dancing-girls the whole
night through, as well as all imaginable gastronomic joys? They will profit him nothinge

This is evidently a criticism of those who practise many ancillary techniques while
ignoring the principles of counter-current flow, the enchymoma produced from
secretions made to follow courses opposite to the normal. A little later we read more
of this.
As we have seen (p. 47). this natural endowment was considered to be tripartite.
There is nothing with exactly this title in the Tao T s a n ~now, though eight books have titles beginning with
the first four characters.
c Another way of talking about hum tun. Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu ( I ) , vol. 2, p. 436.
P. I rb, tr. auct.
P. Rh, tr. auct.
a

"

I24
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
T h e primary chhi (yum chhil) is (the main factor of) life and death; life and death depend
on the art of the bedchamber. One must follow the method of the Tao of retention, so that
the chingz can be changed into something wonderful; one must make this chhi flow and
circulate incessantly without hindrance or obstruction. As the proverb says: 'Running
water doesn't rot, and a door often used is not eaten by woodwonns.'a Those who understand the mystery within the mystery know that a man and a woman can together restore
(their vitality), and both can become immortals; this is truly what may be called a marvel of
the Tao. The manuals of the immortals say: 'One Yin and one Yang constitute the Tao; the
three primary (vitalities) and the union of the two components; that is the enchqmoma (san
yuan erh ho wei chih tan3)'. When the flow goes up against the stream to nourish the brain,
this is called 'making the ching return' (huan chinp). When the ching changes into the
primary chhi, this is called a chum5 (a turn in a cyclical transformation), and one chuan is the
same as one 1% (change) and one 27 (benefit).b Every chuan means a longevity of one chi.#C
Every nine chum means a longevity of 108 years.d
Thus the manuals of the immortals say: 'The Tao of Yin and Yang is the prizing of the
, ~from semen) and the Yin secretions
as from saliva). If these are
Yang essences ( ~ h i n gas
well and truly guarded, then longevity will be obtained.' And they also say: 'If you want to
attain longevity you must pay attention to the gate of life, to wander and to dwell therein, to
advance and retreat, in motion and in rest, by the way of leaving and remaining, all this in
measure will bring length of days, and heal all diseases.'e

We can illustrate this by the picture of a nei tan adept in the Hsing Ming Kuei Chih
(Fig. 1591).
Here at the end of our introduction we may draw attention to a singular circumstance, namely that it was the na' tan tradition, not the wai tan one, which developed a symbolism in its texts.' On p. 85 above mention was made of certain
curious little signs which occur in the late 8th-century commentary of Liang
Chhiu Tzu on the Huang Thing Nei Ching Yu Ching; these are not explained but
we illustrate them in Fig. 1592. Then very much later another system of sjmbols
was used by Chhen Ni-WanIo g in his Nei Chin Tan1' of + 1622, part of which is
dated I 6 I 5, and we reproduce a couple of pages of this in Fig. I 593.
This book is a late one, belonging to a school much influenced by Buddhism, and
probably confining its practices accordingly to meditation and some respiratory
techniques. But its phraseology remains extremely Taoist. The author (or authors)
make use of a set of some twenty or thirty symbols incorporated in the text, using
them as a kind of notation to recall the fundamental ideas to the disciples. They are

An early occurrence of this is in Liishih Chhun Chhiu (c. - 240), ch. I z (vol. I , p. 25).
These terms are explained in an immediately following passage as referring to the advantages of the respiratory exercises.
c I.e. one Jupiter cycle; see Vol. 3, p. 402.
* P. 12b. tr. auct.
P. 13a,tr. auct.
On the development of symbols in Western proto-chemistry, alchemy and chemistry from Hellenistic times
onwards see Berthelot (2). pp. roqff.; Zuretti ( I ) ;Partington (7). vol. 2, p. 769, (6):Shemood Taylor ( I I);McKie
(2); Walden (2); Gessman ( I ) ;Cordier (I);Ruska ( II ) ,pts. 2, 3 and 4; Poisson ( I ) ; Liidy-Tenger ( I ) .
g Also called Wu Chhung-Hsii", both names obviously assumed.
8

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I25

Fig. 1591.A nn' tan adept in H s i q Minx Kuci Chih ( + 1615). ch. 2, p. 146. The five poems are on the general
principles of Taoist anatomy and physiology. Note the spinal channel through which the c h i q goes up, and the
reaction-vessel in the abdomen where the enchyrnoma of longevity and immortality is formed. The title is 'Washing the Heart and Storing Inwardly (the secretions)', (Hsi Hsin Thui Tsang).

i 26

33.

ALCHEMY AND "CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1592. Possible beginnings of symbolic notation in physiological alchemy; the small drawing3 on pp. qa,band
5a.b of the Humg Thing ~VeiC h i q Yii Ching Chu (Liang Chhiu Tzu's Commentary on the Jade Manual of the
Internal Radiance of the Yellow Courts), a text of the + 5th or + 6th century, with commentary of the + 8th or
+gth. This is contained in the Hsiu C h m Shih Shu (TTz6o). The text gives no clue to the meaning of the
drawings.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

b % A - t 4 Q

Fig. 1592. (contd.)

I 28

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 593. Symbolic notation in physiological alchemy; a couple of pages from the 1Vei Chin Tun (The Metallous
Enchymoma Within the Body) of 1622,pp. gb, 6a. The chapter discusses the differences between the pre-natal
endowment and the changes and chances which affect the psycho-somatic unit post-natally. The passage is
couched in terms very similar to the passage by Sun I-Khuei translated on p. 46 above, telling how the primary
chhiis changed into ordinary respiratory breath, the primarychikginto the secretions of sexual generation, and the
primary shen 'sicklied o'er by the pale cast of thought'. The symbols are not ornaments because they do not always
come at the breaks in punctuation. The first one at the top on the right seems to indicate the primary shen and ching
since it occurs immediately after these are mentioned; but we have not found any part of the text where the
meaning of the symbols is explained. On the left-hand page the original pre-natal chhi, which the adept must try to
recapture, is called the ancestor of the metallous enchymoma (chin tun chih tsu). In the next column the wn' lar
principle (cf. p. 252). of not letting the semen and the saliva escape, is termed the mother of the metallous enchymoma (chin tan chih mu); but by this time, early in the 17th century, 'not leaking out' may well have come to
mean the 'hermetically sealed personality' sunk in meditation or ascesis and dead to this world.

notational s i p s because they occur many times repeated. The piece of text in Fig.
I 593, ch. I , is headed: 'a discussion of pre-natal endowment and its degeneration
during life ( h i m hou erh thien lun')'. In general it seems that in these signs white
blobs stand for the Yang and black ones for the Yin.
Starting from the top of the second column after the title on the right-hand page
we see a symbol which is said to indicate the primary chhi of the pre-natal endowment ( h i m thien yuan chhiz)while the blobs at its base mean the primary shen, yuan
shen3 (Yang), on the left, and the primary ching, yuan chine (Yin), on the right.
Lower down in the penultimate column (moving left) we have a symbol for the

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

129

hsien thien yuan chhi alone, and in the last column we find two signs. The one at the
top is explained as signifying the degenerated chhi of respiration (hou thien hu hsi
chih chhi') with its Yang and Yin components; while the bottom one represents the
yuan chhi not able by itself to form an enchymoma but needing the chhi of the
respiratory exercises to 'make it rise' and do so. On the opposite (left) page, we see
first (in the third column) another symbol--somewhat like the E in shape--this is
described as in use for the success-bringing combination of hsien thien and hou thien
chhiin the exercises; the radiating lines in the symbol perhaps refer to the chhiand i
of the organs (cf. p. qg), or to the number of 'reversions' practised (cf. p. 124). Halfway down the fifth column there is a sign symbolising something of those circulations already so much discussed, the collection in fact by the practitioners of the
yuan chhi to make the foundation of the enchymoma (chin tan chih tsuz)-the chhi of
the reins being made to go up in order that it may in due course descend to the
Yellow Courts, etc. (cf. pp. 72, 82). Finally in the last column a spiral symbol
denotes the pre-natal endowment before any corruption has set in (hsien thien chm i
chih chhi3). How widespread was the use of notations such as this it would be interesting to know, and the whole subject deserves closer study than it has yet
received.

What was the beginning of the nei tan system, the search for the inner elixir?T o this
question there can be no definite answer, for as has often been said, its roots were in
the miscellaneous longevity and immortality practices of the pre-Han Taoists. At
an earlier stage in our surveya we referred to the work of Wilhelm (6) on a Chou
inscription of perhaps the mid - 6th-century, written on pieces of jade which may
have formed part of the knob of a staff; it deals with respiratory exercises and the
circulation of the chhi.b It therefore testifies to the beginning of nei tan techniques
long before there was any clear idea of alchemy, either external or internal.
Again, in the Chuang Tzu book of about - 290 there is, in ch. 7, the parable of the
lethal effect of 'boring holes in Primitivity'. We previously suggested an interpretation of this as a social criticism of the process of class-differentiation and the
; ~ the 'uncarved block' could also obviously mean
institution of private p r ~ p e r t ybut
the withdrawn adept practising ataraxyhnd conserving the life-force, as indeed
most commentators and translators have so taken it.e Primitivity was a translation
of hun-tun,4 primaeval chaos, a term with very fluctuating orthography, and we
meet with it also at another interesting place in the Chuang Tzu book (ch. 12).
Roaming in the south in Chhu, the disciple of Confucius, Tzu-Kung, met with the

' vol. 2, p. 143.

d

We mention it again shortlv below, p. 142.

Vol. 2, p. 1 1 2 .
Cf. Vol. 2. pp. 63ff.
E.g. Legge(5),"01. 1,pp. 2 6 ~ ; W a l e v ( 4 ) . p p 4 3 f f .116ff.;
,
FingYu-Lan(s),p. 141;Watson(4),p.95.

33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
old farmer who refused to use the swape for watering his plants, insisting on carrying water from the well laboriously in buckets. This Taoist anti-technology complex we explored rather fully at an earlier poinqa but what is interesting here is the
comment of his master when Tzu-Kung returned.
I3O

When he came back to (the State of) Lu, he rold Confucius about the interview and the
conversation.Confucius said: 'Ah, that man pretends to cultivate the Arts of Mr Hun-Tun!
(Hun-tun shih chih shu'). He knows the one but does not know the many. He can control the
inner world but not the outer. He understands (only) what is simple, and how to avoid
acting contrary to Nature; he can return to primitive undifferentiatedness-with body and
spirit unperturbed he wanders through the world of common men. You may well be alarmed at his heterodoxy! Anyway, what should you or I find worth knowing in the Arts of Mr
Hun-Tun?'.b

Such was the Confucian sociological administrative point of view, but it is quite
open to us to see the beginnings of nei tan also in the 'Arts of M r PrimaevalChaos'.c For they can have been nothing other than the embryonic form of those
measures for reversion and return 'to the origin' which form so much of the essence
of the present sub-section.* Presently (p. 154 below) we shall quote Chuang Chou
again to show that he knew quite a lot about the techniques of respiration control
and gymnastic exercise.
The central father-figure of Taoism was of course Lao Tzu, about whom we
long ago had much to saye rallying-point of the philosophers, and in later religion
the second person of the Taoist Holy Trinity (Fig. I 594). So it is interesting to see
what can be got out of the greatest of all Taoist scriptures, the Tao Te^Ching, which
belongs to the - 4th-century. We can learn a good deal by seeing what certain parts
of it meant to the earliest of its commentators,f Ho Shang KungZ(the Old Gentleman by the Riverside), a writer who can be placed with fair certainty in the neigh150, since his work was known, for example, to the great combourhood of
mentator of the Huai Nun Tzu book, Kao Yu.3 Already (p. 25 above) we spontaneously quoted the phrase 'returning to the state of infancy', and indeed the following extracts will show beyond doubt that the ideas of restoration and rejuvenation, of the importance of the yuan chhi and the ching, 'breath' and semen,
were prominent in the minds (and practices) of those ancient Taoists. Some were
quoted in Sect. 10but certain phrases will acquire a different nuance in the light of
what we are learning in the present context. Let us interleave the lines of the Canon
with the commentaries, mostly due to the Old Gentleman by the Riverside.g

Vol. 2, pp. 124ff.

Tr. auct., adjuv. L q g e (S), vol. I , p. 322; Elorduy ( I ) ,p. 86; Jablonski, Chmielewski et al. ( I ) ,pp. 149-50. A
fuller exegesis of the passage is given above in Vol. 2, p. I 14.
An elaborate and interesting examination of this has been carried out by Girardot ( I ) .
d See especially pp. 4 6 7 . 59.69.
See Vol. 2, pp. 35ff.
That is to say, the earliest whose work has come down to us.
a We base our version on the translation bv Erkes (4). HSK means Ho Shang Kung, WP Wang Pi4 ( + 226 to
249). Cf. Vol. 2, p. 432. 'I'he text is complete so far as quoted, but the commentaries are sometimes abridged.
a

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I3I

- . m--

Fig. 1594. Stone statue of Lao Tzu self-dated bv inscription at +719, in the Provincial Historical .Museum at
Thaiyuan, Shansi (orig. photo. 1964). This was formerly a Taoist temple, the Shun-Yang Kung, founded in the
Thang and dedicated to I i i Tung-Pin, hence its other name Lii Tsu lliao. At the back of the plinth there are the
names and portraits of four principal disciples and nine benefactors of Taoism.

I32

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Ch. 28
He who knows the male, yet cleaves to what is female
Becomes like a ravine, receiving all things under heaven.
HSK: Masculinity is considered the exalted, femininity the subordinate.
Though men may attain exaltation, they can only retain it by subordination. Fly from the strength of masculinity, adopt the weakness of
femininity; whoever can do this will find the whole empire throwing itself
into his arms, like water gushing into a deep ravine.
WP: So the sage keeps in the background, yet is ever being brought to the front.
(Thence) the eternal virtue never leaks away."
This is returning to the state of infancy. . .
HSK: One must always have the intention of becoming like a little child,
( ~ e e m i n g l yso
) ~stupid, and without (worldly) knowledge.
Ch. 55
H e who possesses abundant virtue may be likened to a babe;
HSK: A man harbouring the fullness of te^l in his mouth and bosom is protected
by the spirits as if they were protecting a child.r
Poisonous insects will not sting it,
Fierce birds will not seize it,
Clawing birds will not attack it.
HSK: An infant does no hurt to any creature, nor does any creature hurt it. In a
generation entirely peaceful, men are neither esteemed nor despised; all
have humane hearts. Stinging creatures therefore then reverse their
nature,d and poisonous snakes do no harm to man.
WP: A babe has no objectives, no desires, no aggression towards other living
things, therefore dangerous animals show no aggression towards it.e
Its bones are weak,
Its sinews tender,
Yet its grasp is strong;
I t has known nothing of the union of male and female
Yet its penis is sometimes erect
Showing that its vitality is perfected;'
HSK: It tightly grips things because its (unconscious) intention is bent on them,
and it does not change its mind. T h e excitement is caused bp the abundance of the semen.a
WP: It is like the possessor of abundant virtue, nothing on earth can diminish
this virtue, or change its primary softness and weakness (yu chhi chen jou
jo2). It does not contend, and nothing can snap or break it.
B The mental image of the ever-full reservoir is surely connected with the later n k tan idPe $xe about the
maximal conservation of vital juices.
h Waley (4). p. 178; Erkes (4). pp. 57ff. Cf. Vol. 2, p. 58, where the whole chapter is quoted.
c This relates also to the theme of quasi-magical invulnerability so prominent in early Taoism; cf. Vol. 2,p. 140.
d Perhaps we may see here one of the origins of the theme of reversibility and inversion in physiological alchemy.
O n e is reminded of the p a t vision of Isaiah: 'The urolf shall dwell with the lamb and the leopard shall lie
down with the kid. . . They shall not hurt nor destrov in all my holy mountain. . . ' ( I I .6).
Ching chih chih yeh.3 The word which Waley translated as vital force or vitality here is of course our familiar
ching, semen or seminal essence.
a Note already the insistence on the treasuring of precious juices.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I33

It may cry all day long without growing hoarse,

Showing that its harmony is accomplished;
HSK: This is caused by the abundance of harmonious breath (chhil).a
WP: There is no contentious desire in its heart, that it is why it can scream
without getting tired.
T o understand this harmony is (to understand) the unfailing (vital force) ( c h h q Z )
T o understand the unfailing is to be enlightened.
HSK: If a man is able to know the tenderness of the harmonious chhi, this will be
of use to him.8 If a man can know the unfailing circulation of the Tao, he
will daily grow in enlightenment and will penetrate the dark m y ~ t e r y . ~
WP: Neither dazzling white nor jetty black, neither too cool nor too warm, that
is the unfai1ing.c The formless cannot be laid hold of, but to be able to
perceive it is enlightenment."
By succouring the vital force (ishhg3) one (can) become daily happier
HSK: An enduring happiness. Succouring the vital force means daily increasing
the will for 1ongevity.e
The heart (can) cause the breath to become daily stronger.
HSK: The heart especially must harmonise tenderness, then the chhi will really
dwell in it, and the body will become daily gentler. But if on the contrary
wrong and violent things are done, then the harmonious chhi will disappear from the interior, and the body will become daily more ruthless.
Everything first becomes robust and then dwindles to decay
This is called 'being without the Tao'
And whatever is without the Tao soon comes to an end.'
HSK: When living things have reached the height of their growth, then they
begin to wither and become old. That which is withered and old has not
attained the Tao. Whatever does not attain the Tao soon dies.g
Ch. I 0
Can you sustain the hun4 and pho4 souls,h
Hold fast to the unity and never know separation?'
HSK: By sustaining the souls man makes life possible. Joy and anger drive out
the hun, sudden fright injures the pho. Hun live in the liver, pho in the
1ungs.j Therefore overmuch indulgence in wine and delicious foods is
dangerous, as it harms these organs. T o quieten the hun one must maintain
Here are clear references to the importance of the chhiand to the respiratory exercises.
A reference probably to the circulation of the chhi in the body, later so highly developed and systematised.
We might .see in this a brilliant intuitive appreciation of what modem physiology has revealed of the homoeostasis of the internal environment, and of homoeothermy (cf. Vol. 4, pt. 2, p. 301).
* From this point onwards the translation diverges from Vol. 2, p. 140,because Ho Shang Kung was commenting on a text slightly different from that used by Waley and other modem scholars.
Here again is one of the roots of physiological alchemy.
This is a clear statement that there were or could be Taoist techniques of defeating old age and death.
8 Waley (4). p. zog;Erkes (4), pp. 97ff. Cf. Vol. 2,p. 140.
h Pho originally meant the semen, chin^.^ Hun was more related to chhi.7 Thus we have here two of the t h m nn'
tun primay vitalities in their most ancient form.
On the separation of the 'souls' and parts of the body in ancient Chinese thought and its relation to the
conception of material immortality, see the discussion in Vol. 2, p. 153,and, more particularly, Vol. 5, pt. z, pp.
85ff.
j Note this early appearance of Taoist anatomy and physiology.
8

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

calm and strive for the Tao, to leave the pho in peace is to lengthen one's
years and attain longevity. He who embraces unity and can conserve it in
the body will exist for ever.
Can you, when concentrating the chhi, make it soft
And tender like that of a little child?a
HSK: If one can hold the breath without allowing oneself to become confused,
then the body will follow in tenderness and pliancy. If one can be like a
little child, innocent and fearless within, free from violent action without,
then the spirits will not flee away.
Can you purify (the mind) andreduce its flux
(Sitting with) the dark lookb and free from all blemish?
Can you love the people and rule the land, yet remain unknown?
HSK: He who counsels the techniques should conserve his chhi, then the body
will be perfected. He ought to inhale and exhale the chhi without allowing
the ears to hear it. He who governs a country ought to love the people so
that the land is pacified. He ought to diffuse virtue and spread compassion
without letting anyone know about it.
Can you in opening and shutting the heavenly gates
Play always the feminine part?
HSK: In the techniques, the gate of heaven means the nostrils; to open means to
breathe hard, to shut means to inhale and exhale. In the techniques one
must be like a female bird, quiet and still, soft and tender.
Can you in thought penetrate all parts of the land
Yet never take action contrary to nature?
HSK: The Tao is resplendent like the sun and moon, it penetrates the four quarters and fills the world beyond the eight poles.= Therefore it is said: 'If you
look for it you will see nothing, and if you listen for it there is nothing to
hear.'d
(Therefore) of the ten thousand things I say:
Rear them and feed them,
Rear them but not lay claim to them,
Control them but never lean upon them,
Be chief among them, but not lord it over them;
This is called the invisible Virtue.e
HSK: T h e Tao generates all things and nourishes them; if it bequeaths something it expects no recompense. It causes all things to grow but does not
rule them; therefore they become tools in its hands. Tao and T&are mysterious and invisible. The heart of the man who strives for Te resembles
that of the Tao.

The expression used in the text isying erh,' one of the most typical nk tan technical terms later on.
HsGan la,'
a technical term for the ahstraaed appearance of the face in meditational trance.
One suspects here an implicit macrocosm-microcosm reference.
This is a quotation from ch. 14.
This wonderful passage is quoted in ch. 5 1 , whence Vol. 2, p. 37. It must surelv be the origin of Rertrand
Russell's epitome of Taoism: 'production without possession, action without self-assertion, development without
domination,' (Vol. 2,p. 164).
B

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Ch. 59
When governing the people, and making use of Nature,
There is nothing like frugality (S;').
HSK: One must make use of the ways of Heaven and comply with the four seasons. He who governs with love, must cherish the wealth of the people; he
must not be prodigal. He who practises the techniques must cherish the
semen and the breath (ching chhi2);he must not let them escape.
Now frugality means acquiring in good time,
And acquiring in time means doubling garnered virtue,
And doubling garnered virtue means becoming invincible,
And becoming invincible means knowing no bounds,
And only what knows no bounds can manage a whole kingdomAnd even that, not long, unless he reveresa the Mother.
HSK: When the riches of the people are sparingly used, then men are peaceful.
When semen and breath are sparingly used, then the Tao of heaven may
be acquired in good time . . . T h e country is identical with the body, and
the Mother is the Tao. When a man is able to protect the Tao within his
body, he can keep his breath light and the five spirits (of his viscera) untroubled. Then he is able to last long.
This is called the deep root and the firm tree-trunk
I t is the Tao of longevity and perpetual percepti0n.h
HSK: One may regard the breath as the root and the semen as the trunk. If the
roots of a tree do not reach deeply down, it will be uprooted; if the trunk is
not firm, it will fall. This means that one should hide one's breath deeply
and conserve the semen firmly, letting neither of them leak out.C .

The foregoing quotations surely speak for themselves. They clearly show that by
the 2nd-century much in the Tao Tt?Ching was interpreted in a manner foreshadowing the later nei tan system, and the beginnings of this will have been older
still." Notes that we can now unfailingly recognise are struck again and again.
There is of course the exaltation of feminine receptiveness and yieldingness about
which there was so much to say in Sect. 10, and unforgettable words on the immense power of him or her who desires no power or dominance, has no possessiveness, no self-assertion. But for us here the most striking thing is the emphasis on
returning, the return of the physical freshness and perfect vital force of infancy,
childhood, and even foetal life; also to its innocence, with all that that implies. In
this the text is not without undertones of religious belief, the favour of the spirits,
the responses of wild animals, the coming and going of souls; but it shows also
considerable intuitive appreciation of what constitutes bodily health and harmony
in the physiological realm. Already there is much about the pneurna or breath (chht]

Lit. 'has'.

" The last words are rhiu shih.' Erkes translated 'the permanent view' without explanation, while Waley put
'fixed staring', having some evidence that this was a technical term for a method of inducing meditational trance.
We have preferred to see in it a reference to the perpetual perception which was implied in the terrestrial material
immortality of the h&.
" Erkes (4).p p 220ff.. divergingmuch from Waley (4).p. 2 1 3 .
Occasional earlier Han references are not at all difficult to find. For example, Huan Than's W a x Hsien Fu
(Ode on Contemplating the Immortals) of - 13, discussed on pt. 2, p. I I I above, has clear references to the
respiratory and pmnastic techniques. See the translation and discussion by Pokora (3).

136

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

pdn

and the semen or seminal essence (ching), rather less about the third of the son
the shen--apart from the hun 'souls' of ch. 10.The conviction of the importance fo
the individual of conserving carefully these breaths and juices is very clear, and
references to the physiology of the viscera are beginning to come in. Moreover we
find a clear belief in the 'geriatric' possibility of retracing the steps of ageing in a
veritable rejuvenation, for techniques are frankly spoken of, and with complete
optimism and assurance. Lastly there is much on the macrocosm-microcosm parallel, the text generally tending (or purporting) to be talking about the ruling of
human society and the management of a State, while the Old Gentleman of the
Riverside calmly interprets it as having to do with the individual human body--at
least as one of its meanings. This is especially striking in the last of the quotations,
ch. 59. In the light of all this it is interesting, and important, to recall that Wei PoYang may very probably have been an exact contemporary of Ho Shang Kung, so
that there is no reason to be drawn from historical development why the Tshan
Thung Chhi(cf. pt. 3,pp. soff.) should not have been the first book on physiological
as well as proto-chemical alchemy. And indeed this was already our conclusion
regarding it.
H o Shang Kung was living about 150,but in the centuries which intervened
between his time and that of the Tao Te" Ching text itself we can find, if we look,
further evidence of the beginnings of physiological alchemy. For example, during
the past seven years the Han tombs at Ma-wang-tui near Chhangsha have become
world-famous because of the uncorrupt body of the Lady of Tai, who died about
- 166 and was buried, with rich grave-goods, in tomb no. I . & More recently the
sepulchre of one of her sons (d. - 168) has become almost equally renowned, on
account of the wealth of manuscripts which his tomb (no. 3) c0ntained.b These
included three times as much of the text of the Chan Kuo Tshe"' (Records of the
Warring States) as had previously come down to us, together with many technical
texts hitherto completely unknown. Some were on bamboo and wooden slips, in,~
cluding passages from a treatise on prolonging life, not previously r e ~ o r d e dbut
the greater part were written as scrolls on silk, and packed in a lacquer b0x.d Among
these were two un-titled and formerly lost essays on the natural philosophy of
Yin-Yang and the Five Elements, another on the physiognomy of horses, a lost
treatise on astronomy and astrology,e several versions of the Tao Te^ Ching and
Taoist-Legalist writings, and some texts identical in content with the I Ching.
There were also maps which have revolutionised the history of geography in China
by providing evidence of great cartographic skill in the Han.f

i.1

See Vol. 5 , pt. 2, pp. 303-4.

See Riegel (I). Leewe (10) reviews the same literature, but includes Han manuscriptsfrom other places also.
Anon. ( 2 0 4 ) ; Riegel (I).
d Apart from the well-known Chhu decorated MS. on cosmology and religion, they are the oldest manuscripts
on silk yet discovered in China.
Devoted largely to planetary cycles (rather accurately stated) and planetary influences. It gives their positions
between - 246 and - I 77.
See Anon. (205);Hsii Mei-Ling ( I ) ; Riegel(2); Bulling (16).
f

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I37

Here for us the most interesting books, hitherto unknown, are the medical ones.&
There are three on the conduits for chhi and blood (mo'), representing an earlier
phase of the physio-pathological system later expounded in the Huang Ti Nei
Ching, Ling Shu;h and three, some very extensive, on the diagnosis and therapy of
syndromes and traumasc But besides these there is one on prolongevity dietetics,
and one on therapeutic or hygienic ca1isthenics.d We must postpone a description
of the latter until its proper place in the history of nei tan gymnastics (p. 1 5 6 7
below), but since diet was never strictly a part of inner a l ~ h e r n ywe
, ~ may glance
briefly at it here.f Though it, too, has no title, it deals with 'abstaining from cereals
and imbibing the chhi' (chhio ku shih chhi2);git thus belongs to that Taoist alchemical ascesis which we noted in detail earlier 0n.h Thus the roots of physiological
alchemy make an unequivocal appearance in this wonderful manuscript library of
the - 2nd-century.
, Sextus Empiricus of China, Wang Chhung3
There followed, in the ~ s tthe
( + 27 to 97). Although so great a sceptic in most matters,' Wang Chhung considered that one hundred years was the proper length of human life, and said so
several times in his Lun H & p (Discourses Weighed in the Balance).j This was
about 82. And later, in 91, when he was in his sixties, he wrote a special treatise
entitled Yang Hsing Shu5 (Book of Macrobiotics); unfortunately it did not
survive.k This was not because he believed that life could be prolonged beyond the
span allotted by fate, but because he accepted the power of rational medicine, and
some of the techniques of physiological alchemy, to moderate the afflictions of old
age and ameliorate declining days. Accordingly:

to protect himself he nourished the chhi ( y m g chhi t z u s h d ) , drank wine to help the
appetite (shih shih tsi? chiu'), closed the eyes and ears (against all extraneous agitations, pi
ming sai tshun2), cherished the seminal essence to guard his life-force (aiching tzupaoQ),and
wishing
took medicines to help to keep the body on the right track (shihfu fu yao yin ta0'~);1
by these means to attain fully his length of days.m

Thus here in the Later Han there is direct mention of two of the primary vitalities,
chhi and ching, while shen appears implicitly in the third clause. Evidently at this
There is a good survey by Harper ( I ) .
These are transcribed in Anon. (196,197).
C See Anon. ( 1 9 9 )for transcription, and Chung I-Yen & Ling Hsiang ( I )for exposition.
* Reproduced in Anon. (198,204)and Wang Chia-Fu ( I ) ,all with illustrations;cf. Fim. 1596, 1597 below.
Cf. p. 3 I above.
1 Transcription and discussion in Anon. (197)and Thang Lan (3).
g Reading h"of course.
h Vol. 5. pt. 3, pp. g f f .and passim.
1 A full account has been given in Vol. 2, pp. 368ff.
1 Chs. 4 and 56 e.g.,tr. Forke ( 4 ) .vol. I ,pp. 3 14,472.
k We know about it from IVang Chhung's own autobiographical chapter in the Lun H&, ch. 85, tr. Forke (4).
vol. I , pp. 63, 82.
It would be tempting to transpose the last two words here, and see in them a reference to health-giving
physical exercises, but unless the text was corrupted grammar does not allow.
m Tr. auct., adjuv. Forke (4). vol. I , p. 82.
b

1 3 ~

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

time doctrines were brewing which would come to definitive nei tan formulation a
few hundred years later.
It is pleasant to think of the great iconoclastic philosopher 'taking a little wine for
the stomach's sake' in his old a g e T h e Grape, that can with logic absolute
The two-and-seventy jarring sects confute,
The subtle alchemist that in a trice
Can life's lead metal into gold t r a n ~ m u t e . ~

A short while ago we had another occasion to mention the Tshan Thung Chhi of

+ 142.Another book of about the same date is that strange scripture of a Taoist
church, the Thai Phing Ching,' mentioned alreadyb because traces of nei tan practices can be distinctly found in it, as well as early proto-chemical alchemy. So also
we find in a fragment of the Chhang YenZ(Auspicious Affirrnations), written about
zoo by Chungchhang T h u n g , h n enthusiastic statement of belief in the value of
the circulation of the chhi for avoiding hunger, averting disease and bringing about
longevity.': Soon afterwards, probably well before 300, comes the great versified
treatise on Taoist physiology and rejuvenation, the Huang Thing Wai Ching Yii
Ching, a discussion of which has been given on p. 83 above, with the companion
Huang Ti Nei Ching Yu Ching following it in the 5th or + 6th-century.
But before that we have a turning-point not to be overlooked, the vision which
came to Khou Chhien-Chih,4 the first 'Taoist Pope'd in 415. As reported in the
Wei Shu,e it marks a stage in the desexualisation of the nei tan practices and greater
emphasis on respiratory and dietary exercises in them. In the course of a vision of
the heavenly host, Thai Shang Lao Chiins (Fig. I 595) said (inter alia):

'You must proclaim my new discipline for the purifying and reformation of the Taoist
religion. You must banish the false systems of the Three Chang.g Levies of riceh and taxes
in money, with the techniques for the union of the chhi of men and women (nan mi' ho
chhi0)-what could such things have to do with the Great Tao, ineffable and incorporeal?
Above all you must take the rules of personal behaviour in society as the comer-stone (of the
Faith) (i li tu wei shou'), with in addition the private techniques of absorbing the chhi for
nourishment, enclosing it and recasting it (fu shih p i lienR).''
Then Thai Shang Lao Chiin ordered the Jade Girl (a goddess), with Chhang Jung-Chih9
and eleven other (adepts) of Chiu-i Shan, to teach (Khou) Chhien-Chih personally the
Fitzgerald's translation ( I ) of the Ruhajdt of the mathematician and astronomer 'Umar ibn Ibriihim alKhayyimi( + 1040to + 1 1 3 1 )1st
~ ed, stanza 43.
h Cf. pt. 4, p. 558 and pt. z, S.(..
c In ('SHK (Hou Han sect.), ch. 89, p. 86, assembled from PPTINP, ch. 5, pp. 6 6 . 7 ~tr.
. ware(5). p. 107.
Cf. Vol. 2, p. 158
p Ch. I 14.p. 35h, tr. suct., adjuv. Ware(l), pp. zzgff.
Perhaps rather more, however, in relation to the liturgical hierogamies and unions of the participants (see Vol.
2, p. 1 50) than in relation to the private practices of adepts.
a The theocrats Chang Tao-Ling, Chang H&ngand Chang Lu. See Vol. 2, pp. 155ff.
h As we know now, these were at least as much liturgical as fiscal.
Cf. Maspero (7). p. 232.
f

'

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I39

Fig. 1595. Stone monument self-dated by inscription at 517, in the,centuw following the activities of Khou
Chhien-Chih. It is already syncretistic, for the stately bearded figure of Lao Tzu on this side is backed by a niche
with a sculptured Buddha on the other. From Fu-phing Tung-yuan (orig. photo. 1964).now in the Pei Lin at
Sian. T h e lower parts of the monument are covered with small carvings of Taoists and benevolent donors, among
whom many names can still be made out, including that of a Taoist I,i Chhou-Nu and a governor 1.i Yuan-An.
Place-names of origin are always given, and the family names of Chang, Lii and Liu are frequent as well as Li.

I4O

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

techniques of absorbing the chhi (fu chhir) and practising gymnastic exercises (tao yinz).
Thus he obtained the ability to dispense with cereals (pi h3)to
, increase his vital chhi (chhi
sh&e), to etherealise his body (thi chhing5) and to attain perfection of bodily health and
colour (yen scshu lib).Some ten of his disciples acquired these arts at the same time.
T h u s we see here at one and the same time a Confucianisation of ancient Taoism, a
tendency towards its organisation as a preaching church rather than a revolutionary
movement, and a surrender to anti-sexual influencesp yet also a reaffirmation of
the traditional longevity and immortality techniques which were giving rise to
physiological alchemy. And in the following century the actual phrase na' tan first
appears.
It was Waley who noticed this, in a somewhat unexpected place, the Buddhist
Tripitaka ( Ta T s a n ~ )Reading
.~
over the Nun Yo Ssu Ta Chhan Shih Li Shih Yuan
Wh7 (Text of the Vows (of Aranyaka Austerities) taken by the Great Chhan Master (Hui-)Ssu of the Southern Sacred M ~ u n t a i n )he
~ came upon the following
passage:
I am now going into the mountains to meditate and practise austerities, repenting of the
numerous sins and infractions of the Law which have been so many obstructions to the
Tao, both in my present and previous incarnations. I am seeking for longevity in order to
defend the Faith, not in order to enjoy worldly happiness. I pray that all the saints and sages
will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms (chih8)and numinous
elixirs (shen tanq),enabling me to cure all illnesses and to stop both hunger and thirst. In this
way I shall be able to practise continually the way of the Stitras and to engage in the several
forms of meditation. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains,
with enough of the numinous elixirs and medicines to carry out my plans. Thus by the aid
.
in
of external elixirs (wai tanr0)I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within (nei t a n r r ) For
order to bring peace to others I must first bring peace to myself; in order to undo the bonds
of others one must first undo one's own.

This text is of much interest for several reasons. Though the first (c. 565) in
which the internal elixir (the enchymoma) appears, it reads almost as if the expression were a literary trope; if so, as we have already seen, it was soon being taken
very seriously indeed. Another noteworthy point is the parallelism with many
Taoist alchemists' statements that the physiological techniques were but a means
to a lengthened life, within the span of which they could master the complications
and repetitions of the making of the proto-chemical elixir, prime instrument of
immorta1ity.d Only Hui-Ssu's objectives were different. Hui-SsurZ( 517 to
577) was the teacher of Chhen T&-An,'3who as Chih-1'4 ( 538 to 597) was
the actual founder of the Thien-Thai's school of Buddhism.

The trend towards celibacy under the domination of Buddhism from this time onwards has been traced by
Eichhom (6). On the general significance of Khou Chhien-Chih's 'reform' of Taoism see Thang Yung-Thung &
Thang I-Chieh (I).
(14).P. 14.
TaishdShiminiDaizcikyd,vol.46,p.791.3.TW1g33;N1576.
* Cf.pp.209,218.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I4I

An alternative view is that the first appearance of the term na' tan for physiological alchemy occurs in the Chih Tao Phien' (A Demonstration of the Tao), now a lost
book except in quotations, attributed to Su Yuan-MingZ(or -Lang3). If t h e f r m i t
of this elusive figure (cf. pt. 2, p. 273, pt. 3, p. 130) was really, as Chhen Kuo-Fu
was inclined to believe,&the decades between + 570 and 600, then his usage
might have been even earlier than that of the Buddhist m0nk.b At all events the
approximate date would seem to be the Sui time or the period immediately preceding it.
As a pendant to this brief historical account we may refer to two texts of the same
and a little later date. The Hm Wu Ti Na' Chum4 (Inside Story of Emperor Wu of
the Han),c is a Taoist romance, written at some time between + 300 and + 600,
describing a visit of the goddess Hsi Wang Mu to the court of that great ruler and
patron of Taoism (r. - 140 to - 87). In it there are lists of drugs and elixirs which
have usually been taken in a pharmaceutical and protochemical sense,d but some of
them could very easily be nei tan names. For example chiu tan chin i,' instead of
'ninefold cinnabar and juice of gold', could be 'the ninefold enchymoma of the
metallous fluid (saliva)'. Thai chhing chiu chuankould not in any case be 'nine times
distilled cinnabar of the Grand Purity' but it could be a 'nine times circulated
enchymoma', while thai hsii huan tan7 could readily refer to an anablastemic enchymoma restoring the vitality of youth. Of course such fanciful terms are very
ambiguous. Later, probably early in the + 7th century, a Hm Wu Ti Wai ChuanR
was added as a kind of appendix to the other book; it consists mainly of biographies
of the magician-technicians at Han Wu Ti's court, and has some resemblance to
medieval occidental 'lives of the saints'. One of these saints was a queer character
named Wang Chen.9 Collecting firewood, he was heard to sing this song:

Put on the Metallous Headcloth

Make (the chhz) enter the Gate of Heaven,
Exhale slowly and verygently,
Absorb the waters of the Dark Fountain,
Sound the Celestial Drum
And nourish the Ball of Mud above.

Here are clear references to the nourishing of the brain by the chhi of the lungs and
the ching made to ascend from the reins (first, fourth and last lines), to the respiratory techniques (second and third lines), and to the gymnastic exercises (the
fifth).e 'Nobody could understand what he said, except one of the minor officials of
the court, who remarked: "This is a man from the Country of the Living, his words
are indeed recondite"!'

' (I),vol. 2, PP. 389,435.

b

and
C

All the more so if the more traditional dating is followed, which would place him somewhere between
500.
fl Pp. 6bff., cf. schipper ( I ) , pp. 87,88.
TT289.
See further on this text Maspero (t),
pp. 234ff.. where additional translated material is given.

+ 250

I42

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

(i) Respiration control, aerophagy, salivary deglutition and the circulation of the chhi
We are now to have a closer look at some of the chief nei tan processes hitherto only
mentioned. About the antiquity of the respiratory techniques8 there is no need to
say more, as some details have already been given demonstrating that they must go
back to the - 6th-century at least in rudimentary f o n n h The inscription on jade
translated by Wilhelm (6) runs as follows:
In breathing one must proceed (as follows). One holds (the breath) and it is collected
together. If it is collected it expands. When it expands it goes down. When it goes down it
becomes quiet. When it becomes quiet it will solidify. When it becomes solidified it will
begin to sprout. After it has sprouted it will grow. As it grows it will be pulled back again (to
the upper regions). When it has been pulled back it will reach the crown of the head. Above,
it will press against this. Below, it will press downwards.
Whoever follows this will live; whoever acts contrary to it will die.

Some connection has also been surmised with the craft and training of divers for
. ~ techniques
pearls, sponges and other sea ware, itself of age-old a n t i q ~ i t y The
doubtless began with the primary observation of the necessity of the circumambient air for life, and perhaps the idea that the more closely one could hug it to
oneself the more it would contribute to life-thought of in our terms, it was as if by
long retention of the inhaled air one could store an infinite abundance of oxygen.
Air was clearly a highly vivifying agent for the mortal body-therefore (by ancient
logic) it followed that if only one knew what to do with it the body could be made
immortal. After all, before modern physiology, this was not so illogical. We can
take up the story again in the middle of the 2nd-century, when a Taoist neophyte
asks:

'What do they eat, those (immortals) of the higher, middle and lower grades, who have
obtained the Tao and achieved deliverance from this world?'
[Reply] 'The highest live on the breaths of the air (f&g chhi'), the middle ones live on the
sapidities of drug substances, and the lowest consume very little of anything, reducing to
the minimum that which passes through the stomach and intestines'.*

Real people could be found in the mountains following this as closely as they could.
From the +4th-century or somewhat earlier we have the biography of a Taoist
adept named Chou I-Shaq2which says:
T h e most elaborate accounts are those of Maspero (7).(32).pp. 373ff..497ff.

" v o l . 2 , p. 143.

Vol. 4 . pt. 3, p. 674. What may well be an interesting echo of this occurs in Ko Hung's description of his uncle
KOHsuan retiring to the bottom of a deep p l for the afternoon when drunk on a hot summer's day. 'My ancestral
uncle ( K o Hsuan), whenever he was overcome by wine in the heat of the summer would incontinently retire to the
bottom of a deep p l and stay there till the evening-this was hecause he could retain his breath and respire like a
foetus in the womb' ( P P T , ' S P ,ch. 8, p. 3h, tr. auct., adjuv. Ware ( S ) . p. 140).
Thai Phing Ching, Wang Ming ed. p. 716, a fragment of ch. 145,preserved in Sm Tung Chu ih'mg,Jch. 4 , p.
j a . Tr. auct., adjuv. Maspero (7). p. 201.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

I43

Every morning after dawn, when the sun was rising, he stood up straight facing due east,
and having rinsed out his mouth, swallowed (much) saliva, then he absorbed the chhi (fu
chhi1)amore than a hundred times. This being done he turned towards the sun and saluted
it twice. And every morning he repeated these p r ~ c e d u r e s . ~

One inspiration (hsi2*3)

and one expiration (hu4) make one respiratory cycle (hsis),
say the Taoist books over and over again,c but the question was not only just how
these intakings and outbreathings should be made," but how much time should
elapse between them. Generally speaking the air was to be inhaled through the
nose, retained as long as possible and then exhaled through the m0uth.e This was
, ~ it certainly presents
the technique already several times referred to as pi ~ h h iand
an obvious parallel with the conviction that there was vitality in certain secretions
of the body so that all losses of them should be avoided. Some scientific interest
attaches to the ways in which the medieval Taoist adepts measured the duration of
their breath-holdings. In the 9th or 10th-century Huang Yuan-Chiin7 recommended that the best measure was the normal respiration rate of a colleague or
disciple sitting beside the practiser,' i.e. a particular number of standard hsi;5 but
there were also ways which could be used by one person alone. The most obvious,
though not perhaps as independent as was thought, would be the heartbeats, and
indeed the counting of these was described by KOHung himself towards the end of
the 3rd-century.g In Pao Phu Tzu we read:h

By practising the circulation of the chhi (hsing chhtX)one can cure the hundred diseases,
one can walk through the midst of plagues and epidemics, one can ward off snakes and
tigers, stop bleeding from wounds, stay under wateri or walk across it, free oneself from
hunger and thirst, and protract one's years. T h e most important thing is simply to (know
how to) breathe like an embryo. He who can breathe like a foetus will respire (hsu hsi9)as if
still in the womb, without using nose or mouth; thus will the Tao be achieved.
When one first begins to learn how to circulate the chhi, one must inhale through the nose
and then close up that breath. While it is thus hidden within, one counts up to I 20 heartThere is an ambiguity about this expression, on which see p. 149 below, but here we may assume that it means
inspiration into the lungs.
t3 Tzu- Yang ChmJen NkChuan'"(Riography of the Adept of the Purple Yang), by an unknown writer. Chou
I-Shan's sobriquet was afterwards adopted also by Chang PO-Tuan, but they are not to he confused. TT.auct.,
adjuv. Maspero (7). p. 203.
'' For example, T T z h , ch. 21, p. 6a (Mr Tou's
13th-cent. Hsiu Chen Chih Nun).
d Cf. pp. 1 4 6 7 below on the six forms of exhalation.
C The authorities here are numerous. For example, the S h i Yung Chen Chung Chin (Pillow-Rook on Assisting
the Nourishment of the Life-Force), dating from the early 7th-centuw, and attrihuted to Sun Ssu-MO.'"
TT830, p. rob; also in YCCC, ch. 33, p. loa. Or again, the Thai-Chhine Thiao Chhi Ching13(Manual of the
Hannonisingof the Chhi), a +gth or 10th-century work. T7813, pp. 12hff.
In his commentary on the C h q Shun Yu K u k Fu Chhi Ching" (Manual of the Absorption of the Chhi,
found in the Jade Casket on Mt. Chung-Shan), YCCC, ch. 60, p. 9a.
K Presumably by taking the pulse as one sat.
h P P T I S P , ch. 8, pp. zb, 3a, tr. aua., adjuv. Ware (5). pp. 138. 139; Maspero (7). pp. 235,236.
This points the moral about the divers of the sea.

'
f

144

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

beats,&and then exhales it (gently) through the mouth. Neither during exhalation nor inhalation should one hear with one's ears the sound of the breathing, and one should make
sure that more goes in than comes out. A wild goose feather may be placed in front of the
nose and mouth, and during exhalation this should not show any movement. After continual practice one may very gradually increase the number of heart-beats (during which
the breath is held) to as much as I ooo,and when this proficiency is reached," an old man will
be able to grow younger daily, returning (hum')to youth by one day every day.

This must have been current practice for centuries. Another text suggests the use
of counting-rods (chhou2),one being thrown down at short intervals of time and the
.~
pile then counted to reckon the number of respiratory cycles s u p p r e ~ s e dYet
another mentions little white specks or balls (tim3)of chhi like rice-grains.d These
the disciple had to learn to form below the umbilicus and to circulate round the
body. But as the rhythm was used for timing there must have been a counting, so
the practice may well have been inspired by the signalisation of the passage of time
in the annunciator mechanisms of anaphoric water-clocks and hydro-mechanical
clockwork by the dropping of balls into resounding receiveme And indeed a third
textf describes the timing of meditation (and other exercises) by means of a sinkingbowl clepsydra,K with an indicator-rod divided into graduations for hours and
quarters. For the various 'rounds' there were technical terms; I 2 respiratory cycle
suppressionsh were known as a hsiao thung,4 I 20 as a ta thung.5 i It can be imagined
that serious and painful effort was required. 'At the end of 300 respiratory cycles'j
wrote Sun Ssu-MO,'the ears have no hearing left, the eyes see no more, the mind
can no longer think; then one must stop holding the breath.'k Sometimes after long
holding of the breath, said one of the Adepts of Mao-Shan, sweat pours forth and
the head and feet are burning hot, because the chhi is passing through them.' Or
there might be abdominal pains.m
Well there might, for there can be no doubt that this technique produced conPerhaps about r) min.
About 12) mins., difficult to believe possible. Continuing anoxaemia depnsses the heart's action.
C T7830, p. lob; YCCC, ch. 33, p. roa. On counting-rods see Vol. 3, pp. 70ff. The 'stopwatch clepsydra' (Vol.
3, pp. 316,318,326) may well have been used in this procedure.
* Fragment of ancient date, in YCCC, ch. 35, p. 46.
Cf. Vol. 4, pt. 2, p. 499.
Chhua-Chen Tso Po Chieh Fd ( T T ~ z x z )by
, an unknown writer of late Sung or Yuan date. Cf. Chhen KuoFu (I), vol. 2, p. e(4 for another reference.
g See Vol. 3, p. 31s. In this text the sinking bowl is considered superior in time-keeping properties to
combustion-clocks (incense sticks or trails), partly because humidity affects their rate of burning, and partly
because the rate of sinking can be artificially adjusted so easily. It is curious that this description has the bowl
sinking exactly at sunset and sunrise each day, allowance being made for the unequal periods at different times of
year by the addition of small metal weights (coins). This was very un-Chinese, for normally equal double-hours
always prevailed (apart from the night watches, cf. Needham, Wang & Price, I), so perhaps it betrays Indian
(Buddhist) influence at this relatively late time.
h About 36 secs.
About 6 mins.
1 Some I S mins.
k Chhim Chin Yao F a g ( T T e d . ) , ch. 82, p. 5a. Cf. Maspero ( f ) , pp. 204-5.
1 Mao Shun Hsim Chi Fu N a Chhi Ckiieh' (Oral Instructions of the Adepts of Mao-Shan for Absorbing the
Chhi), in YCCC, ch. 58, p. qa.
m Thai-Chhing Thiao Chhi Chihg, TT8 I 3, p. X 3 a.
b

'

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I45

siderable anoxaemia with all its strange effects-buzzing in the ears, vertigo, perspiration, sensations of heat and formication in the extremities, fainting and
headache.8 One cannot help wondering whether there was some connection here
with the ancient use of hallucinogens from plants and fungi, the respiratory exercises reproducing some of their effects in a simpler way.b And a further possibility
presents itself, that sometimes the exercises had intensified effects when carried out
in temples on high mountains, where a veritable induction of partial 'mountainsickness' may have 0ccurred.C This involves further asphyxic symptoms, cyanosis
of the lips and face, nausea and vomiting, intestinal disturbances, great hyperpnoea
on exertion, difficultyin mental effort, and psychical aberrations like those of alcoholic excess, finally torpor with exhilaration, and loss of consciousness which (as
the early balloonists found) may be irreversible. If the Taoist breath-holding was
performed under altitude conditions of low barometric pressure, some of these
further effects may have entered in. At all events there was quite an array of rather
spectacular phenomena to be encountered in induced anoxaemia, though it may
seem strange at first that they should ever have been thought to conduce to longevity and immortality. However, prolonged anoxaemia, as on high mountains,
brings with it loss of appetite, an effect which would have made the restricted diet of
the recluses easier to bear, contributing as it did in its turn to the reduction of
cardiac strain and heightened awareness and well-being consequent on loss of all
excess body-weight.
T h e purposive apnoea was accompanied by an interesting theory, that of 'embryonic respiration' (thai hsi'). KOHung was heard referring to it in the quotation
just now given. But one of the fullest accounts is that in the preface of the ThaiHsi
Khou Chiieh,za tractate probably of the Thang. It sayxd
That which is in the womb is called foetus, that which has been born is called child. As
long as the foetus is in the abdomen of the mother, its mouth is filled with a kind of mud
(khou han ni thu3),e and respiration (chhuan hsi4)does not penetrate there; it is through the
navel (and the umbilical cord) that it receives (lit. swallows) the chhi, and the nourishment
for its bodily form. Thus it is that it arrives at its completion. Hence we know that the
umbilicus (chi5) is the 'gate of destiny' (ming m&6).f Most babies, if they are alive at birth,
fail for a short time to breathe in (the external air), but when the umbilical cord (chi taP)
near the belly, is dipped into warm water three to five times, the infant 'resuscitates' (and
breathes). So indeed we know that the umbilicus is the 'gate of destiny', no mistake about it.
All those who wish to practise the Tao of reversion (hsiu taoR)and to attain embryonic
respiration must first know the source and origin of this, then they can do it themselves,
Any textbook of physiology may be consulted, e.g. Bayliss (I),p. 634.
Cf. Vol. 5,pt. 2,pp. I 16ff.and Sect.45 in Vol. 6.
C We met this before, Vol. I,p. 195.
YCCC, ch. 58,p. Ita,h, tr. auct. adjuv. Maspero (7). p. 198.
A reference to the meconium, etc.
This expression is here used in a non-technical sense, for properly it belongs to one of the kidneys in the
system of the reins.
b

1 4 ~

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

breathing like the foetus in the mother's abdomen. Hence the name (of the technique). It is
in reverting to the origin (fan p&') and regenerating the primary vitalities (huan yuan2)that
old age can be chased away, and that one can return to the state of the foetus. Truly there is a
point in this (exercise). Softly, gently, without holding the breath, that is the way to bring
about the germination of the Tao of immortality.. .

All this fitted together very reasonably. T o understand that the mammalian embryo 'breathes' through the placenta and the maternal circulation as well as gaining
its nourishment, its food materials, through the same route, was an excellent piece
of early biological observation, as also the awareness of the occlusion of the foetal
intestinal tract by the meconium.a It followed that he who would recreate in himself the youthful perfection of the embryonic tissues must also cease to breathe by
the mouth." The subsequent insistence on the swallowing of saliva was also reasonable, as it could help to re-create the aquatic environment of the mammalian foetus.
Yet the 'embryonic respiration' theory involved a physiological fallacy somewhat
parallel to that of 'returning the ching to nourish the brain'; just as the semen was
afterwards voided from the bladder and had no way to ascend to the brain such as
the early Taoist physiologists imagined, so also no retention of the air could compensate for the absence of a placenta in the adult. But the theory persisted indestructibly. Already the early Tao! .T Ching commentators had talked of reducing
respiration to its utmost softness and imperceptibility, and their almost scriptural
authority was venerated for many a century.
During the period of retention the chhi was supposed to circulate throughoq the
body repeatedly-which was certainly no error, little though the old Taoists knew
about oxyhaemoglobin. 'It runs through the entire body, from the nose and mouth
right to the extremities of the ten fingers, and back' says the Yuan Yang Ching,3 a
text of the first half of the 6th-century, known now only by quotations in subsequent b0oks.c The circulation-mindedness of traditional Chinese physiological
thought, so much in advance of the rest of the world, however archaic in form, is
always worth emphasising. The more or less contemporary Huang Thing Nei
Ching Yu Ching describes it as starting in the Long Valley (chhang ku,4 the nose),
flowing down to the Dark Land (yu hsiang,5 the reins), then through the Suburbs
(chiao,"the five or six Yin-viscera) and the Towns (i,7 the five or six Yang-viscera)."
More bizarre was the fact that each of these organs was associated with a particular
manner of exhaling the air after retention. These were the Six Exhalations (liu
chhzR).' Besides the standard hu,q there were also hoi,'" ho" ( = h i u , hu13),hsii,'4

For comparisonswith the growth of emhryological knowledge in other culturn see Needham ( 2 )and Sea.43
in Vol. 6.
The 'breathing' was to he concentrated in the umbilical region. The time elapsing before the onset of perspiration was called one rhungr5(op. cit. p. 13h).
'' Here, in Yang Shkg Yen Ming Lurh(On Delaying the Destiny by Nourishing the Life-Force), between
+ 1013 and + 1 0 6 1ofwhich
,
moreanon. TT831, p. I h.
* P. 7 h , (ch. 2 1 ) .1,iang Chhiu Tzu commentary, in TTz60, HCSS, ch. 56, p. 12a.
P Cf. Y
q Shkg Tao Yin Fa, p. 2 I a,h.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I47

chhui' and hsi2,3 , 4 . The fourth of the six meant to exhale gently with wide open
mouth, and the fifth certainly to blow out forcibly with closed lips; the explanations
have something to do with breaths cooling and warming.&The third probably
meant strong expiration with opened mouth, but there is uncertainty as to how all
were done; what is sure is that they were regarded as of great therapeutic value, each
one with special relation to a particular organ of the body."
We now come to an important turning-point. In his deep and remarkable study
of all this literature, Maspero described a great change which came over respiratory
technology (if we might so call it) towards the middle of the Thang period. Instead
of absorbing the external aerial chhi and circulating it the adept was to circulate and
manipulate the internal chhi(nei chhi" of his own organs, remoulding it thereby, or
recasting it, so as to re-create the chhi of the primary vitality (yuan chhi6) lost since
infancy. About 770 Li Feng-Shih7 epitomised this in his Sung Shun Thai- Wu
hsien-s&g Chhi Chin? as follows:c

T h e most important techniques of Taoism are not to be found in the books but rather in
the instructions orally transmitted. T h e procedures of absorbing the chhi described in the
two 'Manuals of the Yellow Courts', with those called the 'five ya' (myff)d and the 'six
mou' (liu mouI0)e all have to do only with the external chhi (of the air). But the chhi of the
external world is hard and powerful; it is not something coming from the interior (of the
body), and so no benefit is to be gained by absorbing it. As for the internal chhi, that indeed
is what can be called (the breath of) 'embryonic respiration' (thai hsi1]);it exists naturally
within (the body), it is not something which one has to go outside to borrow. But if one does
not obtain the personal explanations of an enlightened teacher, all one's efforts will be but
labour and sorrow, and one will never succeed in one's objective.

Perhaps what happened was that the pre-Thang idea of the circulation of the chhi
gradually came to be more emphasised at the expense of the breath-holdingwhich might indeed have led to certain accidents just as the metallic elixirs didand thus the breathing became secondary to an imaginative voluntary circulation of
the chhi of the internal organs, with the idea that the more this was done the more
the chhi of primary vitality would be re-formed. This was a significant conceptual
expansion, for the 'essences' of all the organs were now emphasised as valuable, not
only the saliva (from the lungs) and the semen (from the reins); and it did embody
the truth that all the organs contribute their products to the blood-stream. This
inner round, it was thought, corresponded with the respiratory cycle though not
part of it; when the external chhi came upwards to be exhaled, the internal chhi also
As is familiar to us, witness the expressions 'blowing to cool one's porridge', and 'blowing to keep one's
fingers warm'.
'1
For a fuller discussion see Maspero (7). pp. 248ff.
YCCC, ch. 59. p p 76.8a, tr. auct. adjuv. Maspero (7). pp. zoo,21I.The authorship of Li Feng-Shih is not
quite certain.
* Respiratory exercises done facing different directions, to absorb the chhi of their several elements into the
appropriate viscera, cf. Maspero (7). pp. 364ff.
Similar, also with attention to special times. In some versions of the H u q Thing texts, liu m m appears as liu
ting."

33.

1 4 ~

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

came up from the lowest region of vital heat (tan thienl), and when the air went
down into the lungs in inspiration so also the internal chhi pursued a downward
path. T h e expression fu chhi2is now increasingly supplemented by the phrase yen
chhi,3*4a more specific term for swallowing; this was one process and the circulation
was another.
There were two ways of making it circulate b u n chhis). Concentrating the will to
direct it to a particular place, such as the brain, or the site of some local malady, was
.~
its flow in thought was 'inner vision' (nei shih,' nei
termed hsing ~ h h iVisualising
kuan8), differentiated (not very convincingly to us) from ordinary imagination.
'Closing one's eyes, one has an inner vision of the five viscera, one can clearly
distinguish them, one knows the place of each. . .'a Such texts give the impression
that anatomical demonstrations may have taken place from time to time in the
Taoist temples,b and of course all possible parts of the domesticated mammals
were eaten, so that there could have been much familiarity with their visceral and
vascular system^.^ The more passive way, of letting the chhi take its normal course
in circulating, was called lien chhi,Qre-casting it. Here the analogy with protochemical and metallurgical alchemy was close, as always when the word lien appears, and the regions of vital heat doubtless represented the action of the fire upon
metals and minerals. At an earlier stage (p. 73) we mentioned the kuanTO
or 'bottlenecks' through which the chhi had to pass, and how this idea was further developed
into a system of obstructions (ko chiehl') which the adept had to break down by his
will and imagination." Furthermore, the ancient retention of the breath was not
entirely given up, but incorporated in milder form perhaps in the whole system of
'employment of the chhzvbung chhiIZ).e
Beyond this it is hardly necessary for us to go. There were elaborate permissions
and prohibitions concerning time, place, and other conditions for the respiratory
exercises, here of marginal interest on1y.l There is also the more important question to what extent the later Taoist adepts pictured their chhi as circulating along
the tracts of the acupuncture physicians; this we may look at again when considerThai-Chh* W- Lao Fu Chhi Khou ChCeh" (The Venerable Wang's Instructions for Absorbing the
Chhi), Thang or Wu Tai period. TT81 5, here from YCCC, ch. 62, p. Iga.
h See further in Sect. 43, Vol. 6.
C Of course besides this sound knowledge there was a considerable lore of archaei in the organs of the body (cf.
pp. 80, 108 above), and other texts recommend imagining a 'homunculus' @ingjm14)and sending him to carry the
chhi to every part desired (Cf. YCCC, ch. 35, p. ga).
* Cf. Thai-Chhing Wang Lao Fu Chhi Khou Chueh, in YCCC, ch. 62, p. I b. This whole tradition of ideas must
have had some connection with the old medical notion of stasis W"),or the blockage of pores;cf. Vol. I , p. 219;
Vol. 2, p. 370; Vol. 4, pt. 3, p. 268.
This is clear from several passages in the Ym-Linghsim-S& Chi Hsin Chiu Fu Chhi C h w b(New and Old
Manuals of Absorbing the Chhi, Collected by the Teacher of Yen-Ling), TT818, a work which may be dated in
the neighbourhood of 745. See the long passages, YCCC, ch. 59, pp. I 8h to zob, ch. 61, pp. 146to 19a. and 19a
to 2oa, translated by Maspero (7). pp. 222, 225 and 220 respectively. But it is still said: 'hold the breath until one
can stand it no longer'.
r See further in Maspero (7). p p 353ff.

'+M
' l+ 6

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33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I49

ing them in Sect. 44. One point more alone remains, a rather curious one.
At a certain point in his study Maspero let drop a suggestion to which he did not
recur, namely that in some of the Taoist techniques a veritable aerophagy took
place, a voluntary deglutition of air into the intestinal tract.a At first we scouted
this, believing that the practices were always restricted to particular forms of breathing alone, but we are now not at all sure that he may not have been right.b The
involuntary phenomenon is a matter of common knowledge in suckling infants; air
is swallowed along with liquid, especially if respiratory sobbing takes place, and
this has to be relieved by 'burping'. But nitrogen and oxygen are normal constituents of the intestinal gases of man and other mammals, and their only source is
the atmosphere, whether via the oesophagus or by diffusion through the gastric and
intestinal wa1ls.c Many foods are rich in air, such as breads and soufflks, while an
apple has 20 96 air by volume, but besides this, the air in the tract may be greatly
augmented by voluntary swallowing, as was first reported by Magendie in I 813.
Significantly, this aerophagy, besides occurring under anaesthesia, can accompany
hyper-salivation and frequent swallowing with an empty mouth in the conscious
subject, and is much increased under certain conditions of trauma, pain and anxiety. Moreover the technique for air-swallowing is said to be easily learned. Initially
air normally present in the pharynx is forced into the oesophagus by elevation of
the chin, extension of the neck to pull the larynx forward, and inspiration against a
closed glottis. Then on relaxing or swallowing naturally, the air mass is propelled
into the stomach. The procedure is carried out more easily in the recumbent position than when erect.d The rationale is that a small opening appears in the superior
oesophageal sphincter at the moment of inspiration with the glottis closed. A skilled subject can aspire as much as 170ccs. with a single effort, and there is no reason
why the Taoists should not have acquired this skill. After ingestion, the air may be
removed in three ways, by absorption into the blood-stream, by eructation, or most
usually, by further passage down the intestinal tract. Traversing the pylorus, it
descends the small and large intestines to issue from the rectum as egested flatus;
and the time taken for the passage is quite short--after addition of I litre to the
stomach in man, that cavity is cleared in 30 mins., flatus begins in about 20 mins.
and the whole canal is cleared in some 45 mins.
If we are to envisage the Taoists swallowing air in the strict sense instead of
simply taking it into the lungs, the various technical terms for 'absorbing the chhi'
which we have encountered above will be seen in a new light, but the most obvious
moment for a change (if there was one) would surely have been that time in the
Thang period when the theory of the circulation of the internal chhi began to supplant the old theory of the hugging to oneself of the external chhi during long

"

(7). P. 212.
An excellent article on gas in the alimentarycanal is fortunately now available, and it is from Calloway (I) that
much of the information in this paragraph is derived.
The dominant gas is neither of these, but carbon dioxide, derived from secreted bicarbonate and some bacterial fermentation.The action of the intestinal flora mainly produces hydrogen and methane, however, apart from
volatile amines and mercaptans.
* This in fact agrees with ancient instructions,e.g. in YCCC, ch. 59, p. 166,ch. 62,p. 3a.
b

*S0
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
breath-retention. From the middle of the 8th-century one begins to get still more
striking expressions such as khungfan,' 'meals of emptiness'.&This interpretation
is supported by words such as the following, from the Fu Nei Yuan Chhi Ching2
(Manual of Absorbing the Internal Chhi of Primary Vitality), due to Huan Chen
hsien-sing3 (Mr Truth-and-Illusion), who was writing about 755.

T h e internal chhi and the external chhi resonate naturally with each other. Following the
expulsion (of the air or external chhi in exhalation) the natural chhi from the Pool of Chhi
(chhi hai,4 in the hsia tan thien) rises up into the throat, but at the last moment when the
throat is expelling the air, one closes the mouth with a snap, one beats the (celestial) drumb
several times, and swallows (yens) (the internal chhi and saliva) which makes a noise like
gurgling water. In men it goes down the left-hand conduit, in women the right, passing the
24 nodes (vertebrae) like water falling drop by drop-you can distinctly hear it. Hence one
can be sure that the internal chhi and the external chhi are different.. . ."

Thus in this conception the external chhi went in and out of the lungs, crossing the
path, as it were, of the more important internal chhi, precisely in the throat and
mouth, whence the latter was actually taken down into the stomach and so returned
.~
in view of the speed of
to its circulatory routes among the ~ i s c e r aFurthermore,
passage of gases through the intestinal tract, urged on by peristaltic movements,
there may be significance in the growing concern of the Taoists about flatus. The
chhi may occasionally escape, we are told, through the lower part of the body (hsia
hsieh" and that is harrnless,e but it must not be swallowed too quickly or it will
accumulate below and give rise to prolapse of the rectum (tho km@).' This last text
goes on to say that during the techniques one should not lie down, because of pain
in the heart and chest; and further that while the chhi of the organs are resonating
with each other there will be noises in the abdomen. The ignorant say that this does
harm, but the Yen-Ling Teacher contradicts them, comparing it with thunder and
lightning among the mountains, where the Yin chhi is melted and recast.g Such
references to intestinal b o r b o r y p s strengthen the impression that the terms of
deglutitions were no metaphors after the middle of the Thang, and that aerophagy
was a standard component of later Taoist 'pneuma technology'. But the question
needs further investigation.
For example, it would be conceivable that the great emphasis on the ingestion of
, ~ pp. 30, 85 above) took its rise in the Thang, when
saliva Cjade juice, yu ~ h i a n gcf.
aerophagy was added to breath-retention. The two are closely connected
In a Yen-Ling Teacher text, YCCC, ch. 59, p. ~ g bMaspero
,
(7), p. 224.
The meaning of this expression is explained on p. I 58 below.
P YCCC, ch. 60, p. I ~ btr.
, auct. adjuv. X'Iaspero (7), p. 213.
d Presumably it must have been supposed that the internal chhifollowed theextemal chhitowards theend of the
expiration, and that one could catch it in time and remit it to the circulation.
l' Thai-Chhing Thiao Chhi Ching, TTT813, p. 13a, which goes on to explain (p. 14a) that one of the reasons for
avoiding 'strong and pungent foods' and cereals is that the chhi would not be malodorous when it did. Usually, of
course, the word hsieh refers to liquids only.
;
(7), p. 226. CKI, p. 2723.2.
YCCC, ch. 61, p. ~ g hMaspero
Cf. Maspero(7).p. 227.
h

33.

Is1

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

physiologically since hyper-salivation makes air-swallowing easier, and it may well

turn out that some of the plant drugs mentioned in the Taoist books have a stimulatory action on the salivary glands. At all events, the words of M r Truth-andIllusion were echoed in Huang Hsiu-Fu's' Mao Thing Kho HuaZ(Discourses with
Guests in the Thatched Pavilion) written some time in the Northern Sung ( I I thcent~ry).~

T h e method of T u Ting-ShPngJbfor swallowing the water of the jade spring (yu chhuan,4
saliva), a method which drives away the three parasites (sun shihs), makes firm the teeth and
hair, and repels the hundred diseases, is as follows. T h e jade spring water is the secretion of
the two vessels (moh)underneath the tongue. Every morning sit up, close your eyes, clear
your mind of all anxiety, gnash the teeth 27 times until the mouth is full, then rinse the teeth
with it and swallow it, keeping in mind that you are sending it (to the lower region of vital
heat) below the umbilicus, through the Pool of Chhi. For some time it makes a noise like a
waterfall flowing in a deep grotto. In this way the circulation in all the vessels and tracts is
harmonised. T h u s the Huang Thing (Ching) says:
'The pure water of the Jade Pool (yu chhih,' the mouth) irrigates the Numinous Root (ling
i.e. the primary ~italities).'~
And again:
'Rinsing and swallowing the Numinous Fluid (ling i,9 the saliva) puts a man beyond the
reach of calamities'."

From these descriptions it seems as if one had to do a kind of gargling with saliva.
T h e quotations from the 'Manuals of the Yellow Courts' show that in its origin at
any rate the saliva-swallowing was not posterior to the Late Han or San Kuo periods ( + 3rd-century), but it may well have awaited the Thang for its full development. By the Sung, as here, one can quote from a scholar's book, the ideas being no
longer confined to the circles of Taoist adepts.
Were they ultimately even confined to Chinese culture? One would hardly expect to come across the circulation of the chhi when reading about the communist
and cooperative colonies in North America, but one does. In 1861 Thomas Lake
Harris founded a Brotherhood of the New Life at Brocton on Lake Erie, which
lasted till 1906. Like so many similar cooperative communities this sprang from a
milieu of evangelical or revivalist protestantism, with the difference that this was
Swedenborgian. It is arresting to read that Harris used to prepare a 'special wine
filled with the divine breath' and that he taught 'a new method of respiration which
would ensure immortality'; but the members, even if married, refrained from
sexual interc0urse.e That the community contained some Japanese members
b
C

In Lri Shuo, ch. 54, p. 23 6, tr. aua.

A well-known calligrapherof the + I rth-century.
T h e quotation is from the Wai chin^, TT329, ch. I , p.

TT3z8, ch. 2, p. z a .

From hk'Ching, TT328, ch. 3, p. za,verbally identical.

See Holloway ( I ) ,pp. 215ff.; Noyes (I), pp. 577ff.. 581-2.

II

a, with slight verbal divergence. Cf. Nei Ching,

I52

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

might at first seem a clue to the origins of these ideas, but in fact they are to be found
in the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg ( 1688 to 1772) himself.

It was shown to me [he wrote] that (before the degeneration of the Adarnites) the internal
respiration proceeded from the navel towards the interior region of the breast, and retired
towards the region of the back and towards the abdomen, thus outward and downward.
Immediately before the flood, scarce any internal respiration subsisted. At last it was annihilated in the breast, and its subjects were choked or suffocated. In those who survived,
external respiration was opened. With the cessation of internal respiration, the immediate
intercourse with angels, and the instant and instinctive perception of truth and falsehood,
were lost.*

And again:
My respiration has been so formed by the Lord as to enable me to breathe inwardly for a
long time without the aid of the external air, my respiration being directed within, and my
outward senses, as well as actions, still continuing in their vigour, which is only possible
with persons who have been so formed by the Lord. I have also been instructed that my
breathing was so directed, without my being aware of it, in order to enable me to be with the
spirits, and to speak with them.*

If this is not the circulation of the chhi, and the breath-retention, as practised by the
T a ~ i s t sone
, ~ can only say, as was said long ago in the hall of Queens' College:
'Verily, thou must needs be Erasmus or else the devil himself!' But to investigate
the influences, whether Chinese or Indian,c which worked upon Swedenborg in
the elaboration of these doctrines and practices would take us too far at this time.
Suffice it to say that Massignon described the use of breathing exercises in the
litany-like dhikr services of the Muslim sufis from the 13th-century 0nwards.d
He conjectured that the sufi philosopher 'A12 al-Daula al-SimnSini ( + 1259 to
1336), founder of the wahdat al-shuhzid (unity of vision) school of idealist
metaphysics,e could have been an important intermediary in the transmission of
Taoist techniques westwards, since in his youth he had served the Mongol Ilkhan
of Persia, Arghun, and would have been well acquainted with Chinese ideas.f The
hesychasm of the Byzantine church was probably the next way-station. This
mystical movement, culminating in the late 14th-century, was partly directed
against the intellectualism of the Latin scholastics, but also partly derived from
Indian and Chinese antecedents. It has been called a 'yogistic quietism',g and
seems to have involved breathing exercises with some anoxaemia, postural control,
auto-hypnosis and visions of light." Its greatest protagonist, Gregory Palamas,i

Quoted by Noyes (I), pp. 590-1.

Even a kind of theory of embryonic respiration was present. Man in his holy state, before the Fall, was
supposed to have been connected with God by a kind of spiritual umbilical cord, suffusing him with airs from
Heaven which kept him in a state of divine purity and innocence. The techniques would restore the respiratory
connection with God.
We shall come across another example of apparent Chinese influence on 18th-centurySweden a few pages
further on (p. 173).
* (5). pp. 320ff. Cf. the excursus of Eliade (6). pp. zzoff.
Nasr(x), p. 338.
Much has been said in pt. 4, pp. 388ff. on the influence of China on Arabic scientific thought and practice.
g Ht%ychia (+ovx;a) is quietness.
h Sarton ( I ) ,vol. 3, pp. 954,584-5.
Op. cif.,vol. 3. p. 588.
h

33.

I53

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

died in I 357, having seen his opponents defeated and anathematised in 1341.
But how did hesychasm find its way to Swedenborg and the American continent?
Whatever the links were, one thing is sure; those who study the communities of
early Taoism in China could find valuable comparative material in the communist
and cooperative experiments of late Christendom.&There are many strange simil a r i t i e ~For
. ~ example, the Woman-in-the-Wilderness Community, formed near
Philadelphia by pietists and millenarianists under Johannes Kelpius in + I 694 and
lasting till 1748, had significant Rosicrucian and Kabbalistic elements (cf. pp. 3,
1 8 3 ) . Kelpius himself made chemical and astrological experiments, and his folThen
lowers believed that they would not die but undergo a physical tran~lation.~
there was the Ephrata Community ( + 1735 to 1786) on the Cocalico River, under J. K. Beissel, which numbered among its members Jacob Martin the alchemist.
The community was celibate in principle, but Beissel spent a great deal of time with
his agapetae or Spiritual Virgins." This was thecommunity which had the honour
of being mentioned by Vo1taire.e Of all the others the most famous, the most numerous and the wealthiest were the Shakers (c. 1785 to the present time, but now
moribund), and the Oneida Community (1844 to 1880). The former, founded by
Ann Lee, was a Quaker offshoot of original beliefs, such as the bisexuality of God;f
they were notable for their religious dancing,g and strictly celibate though living
together in close community." The latter, also of evangelical origin, were still more
original in their practice, inclined under J. H. Noyes to industrial production rather
than agriculture, and neither celibate nor conventional in sex relations, since they
used for a long time successfully a form of group or collective marriage, involving
coitus resmatus and pregnancies planned on eugenic principles.' One after
another, elements of the Taoist life and outlook of the 1st millennium make their
appearance again in the Western world towards the end of the 2nd.
Of course they are alive and well, and living in East Asia, to this day. They came
down through the eighteenth century, traceable in many sources including some
Japanese, such as the Y@.5kun1of the famous scholar Kaibara Ekikeqz about
17oo.j There may well be remote Taoist abbeys in more than one country where
all the techniques of physiological alchemy are practised and taught in their fullness

Set,for example, Gide (I); Nordhoff ( I ) who visited many of the communities in 1874;Noyes (I), himself the
f m g chmg of Oneida; and now Holloway (I).
h It will be remembered that Maspero (e.g. 7) always translated h,'
the ancient Taoist temple communities,
as 'phalansteries', after the term used by Charles Fourier ( + 1772 to 1837) for the vast collegiate buildings he
planned, in which all the workers by hand and brain, with their families, would live. Cf. Holloway (I), pp. 103,
139.
* Holloway (I), pp. 44ff.. 49.
See Holloway (I), pp. 38ff.
Dictionnuire Philasophique, 1789 ed.,vol. 4, p. 81.
Holloway (I), pp. 53ff.; Sordhoff (I), pp. I 17ff.
E There may be some similarity here with Taoist calisthenics (pp. 161ff. below). And there is certainly a striking
resemblance with the rites of the present-day Tenri religion in Japan.
h It is strange that none of them probably ever knew anything of the canons and canoneases of St Gilbert of
Sempringham in medieval East Anglia.
See Holloway (I), pp. 183ff.; Nordhoff (I), pp. 259ff.; and of course Noyes (I).
1 See p. 55 for the respiratory exercises.

'54
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
at the present time; what is certain is that some of the milder forms of the respiratory exercises are widely used in Chinese hospitals as a kind of physiotherapy.
For many patients the meditation techniques (cf. p. 179) are also systematically
taught, constituting an effective relaxation therapy, and many physical factors are
affected thereby, giving decreases in blood-pressure, diminutions of adrenalincontent, and the like. There is a considerable literature on these subjects in
Chinese,&and something too in Western 1anguages.h
In the Chuang T z u book we find an interesting p a ~ s a g eChuang
.~
Chou is criticising the Confucians' attempts to impose their ethics on human society, the Legalists' pursuit of political power, the hermits' total withdrawal from the world, and
the Taoists' belief in techniques of longevity. His own ideal, as he goes on to explain, is what we could call a more Stoic one, that of the Taoist philosopher who
attains liberation while yet playing the part that falls to him upon the stage of life;
and he inveighs against all these other objectives, ambitions, obsessions and idies
fixes, dubbing them in the title of his chapter 'ingrained ideas' (kho it). He goes on:
As for blowing and exhaling with open mouth (chhui hu2),breathing out and breathing in
(hu hsi.'), expelling the old (chht) and taking in the new (thu ku nu hsin4),"oing through the
motions of bears, and stretching and twisting (one's neck) like a bird--all this simply shows
the desire for longevity. This is the cherished aim of those scholars who practise gymnastics
and massage (tao )pins), those men who (believe in) nourishing the bodily form, and those
who make it all their study to find out how Phing Tsu achieved his longevity.

From this we see once more that the roots of the techniques of physiological alchemy are to be found at least as far back as the -4th-century. And the passage
affords an admirable link between the respiratory practices which we have been
examining and those which aimed at a much wider exercise of all the muscles of the
body.
(ii) Gymnastics, massage andphysiotherapeutic exercise
In the foregoing pages there have been many references to the circulation of the
chhi, and to theories of gates, obstructions, and blockage of pores within the body,
impedimenta to this circular flow. The need for its facilitation explains why gymnastic exercises and massage came to play the large part they did in the techniques
of physiological alchemy. The chhi could not make its rounds, and the reagents of
immortality could not meet, if the passages were occluded. Here we must not re~ entrench upon the
hearse the succinct account already given in Section 1 0 , nor
For example, books by Chiang Wei-Chhiao (I, 2 , 3, 4, 5); Chiang Wei-Chhiao & Liu Kuei-Chen ( I ) ; Liu
Kuei-Chen (I); Anon. (77); Chhen Thao (I); Chou Chhien-Chhuan (I) and Hu Yao-Chen (I).
h The most considerable book is that of the Hungarian physician Palos (2); hut there are also interesting articles
such as Anon. (148). The books of I,u Khuan-Yii ( I , 4). and Chang Chung-Yuan (2). pp. 13off.. 146ff.. are less
directly concerned with medical applications; and this is true to some extent also of Stiefvater & Stiefvater (I).
'' Ch. 15. tr. auct., adjuv. Legge (S),vol. 1, p. 364.
This phrase became pmverhial, and appears very often in mneral literature far bevond the boundaries of
Taoist books. Thus in 1969 Chang Hsien-F6ng ( I ) recorded that 'Chairman Mao recently said: "Man's body
works by breathing out the stale and taking in the fresh. A proletarian party must also do the same, for only thus
Vol. 2, pp. 145ff.
can it be full of vitality."'

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I55

closely related and important subject of physiotherapy and medical gymnastics

but there is a clearly distinguishable field
which we shall discuss in Section &;+.I
now needing attention, namely the history of gymnastics as practised specifically
for aiding the formation of the enchymoma of longevity (and immortality), and its
relation to the theory of the three primary vita1ities.b The Thang and early Sung
manuals of nourishing the life-force by gymnastics say that the exercises should be
done both to render the body more supple and to rest it, alternating with the
breath-retention periods and the sexual practices; moreover they assure the free
passage of the chhi and blood, help to expel all malign chhi, and cure a great variety
of diseases.C
The expression tao yin' has often been taken by sinologists as meaning all macrobiotic gymnastics,Qut this is rather loose and inexact, for what it really came to
designate is that part of them which involves self-massage.e Massage done by a
second person has always been called an moZ.fAfter all, tao yin is a 'leading and
guiding', of the chhi in fact; hence Teacher Ning could say 'Hsing chhi3 regulates
(the circulation) internally, tao yin4 regulates it externally'.g The more allembracing and colloquial term for gymnastic and physical exercises was kungf ~ s . ~ ,
'the results of (meritorious) work', or alternatively nei kung,' 'interior achievement'. Kung-fu was the name under which knowledge of it came to Europe in the
I 8th-century, as we shall see. Towards the end of the nineteenth it was given a
monographic treatment by Dudgeon ( I ) quite remarkable for the time,h and it is
interesting that already then the connection with alchemy was recognised.

Alchemy [he wrote] was pursued in China by the priests of Tao long previous to its being
known in Europe. For two centuries prior and for four or more subsequent to our era, the
transmutation of the base metals into gold, and the composition of an elixir of immortality
were questions ardently studied by the Taoists. T h e Arabs, in their early intercourse with
China, thus borrowed it, and they were the means of its diffusion to the West.' Kung-fu
owes its origin to these same investigators, and was adopted at a very early period (as a
means) by which to ward off and cure disease, and for strengthening the body and prolonging life, (a purpose for) which it has been declared a far-reaching and efficacious system.j
In Vol. 6.
Among the most elaborate accounts are those of Maspero (7). (32) p p 578ff.
See YCCC,ch. 34,pp. ~ a , z a , b13h.
,
* ':ven by Maspero (7).
Cf. Anon. (7.7). p. 4, a definition taken fmrn the IChhieh C h h g Yin I, the + 7th-century dictionaryof HsiianYing. Also Anon. (76). ch. 12, p. I 33. It is true thatyin can mean to stretch or draw out, but tao will not pair with it
well as 'contraction'.
T h e expression is ancient. T h e bibliography of the Chhien Hun Shu (ch. 30, p. 52h). lists a H u q Ti Chhi Po
An MO' in ten chapters among the b k s on Taoism. Chhi Po was one of the chief medical interlocutom of Huang
T'i. For an up-to-date account of the principles and practice of massage in Chinese medicine see Anon. (73).
Quoted by TsE-ngTshaoUin Too Shu"' (Axial Principles of the Tao), a + I zth-century work, TTroog, ch. 28,
p. I U . Cf. YCCC,ch. 34,p. 26.
h John Dudgeon was one of the medical officers of the Chinese Customs Service. An earlier paper by his
colleague D. J. McGowan (2). though even less acessihle, is also well worth reading.
l For the prescience of these opinions cf. pt. 4, pp. 388ff.. 491.
J
(I).P. 349.

Isb

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1596 Photographs of two of the figures in the silk document on Taoist calisthenics recovered from the tomb
Ma-wang-tui no. 3, near Chhangsha, and therefore dating from - 168. Anon. (202).

When we first drafted this sub-section no documents were known as early as the
Han, but the finds at Ma-wang-tui tomb no. 3 ( - 168) have since revealed a cardinal one.&It is an un-titled text written on silk and dealing with therapeutic calisthenics, tao yin,' 'the guiding (of the breath) and the (flexion and) extension (of the
muscles of the body)'. Originally it must have contained at least 40 coloured drawings, each with a short caption, but now, because of damage by damp, there are
only 28 (cf. Figs. 1596, 1597). One can see the exercises mentioned by Chuang
T z u , the
~ 'bear rambling' (hsiung chingz)and the 'bird stretching' (niao shen3), but
there are also many other interesting procedures such as 'getting in touch with the
Yin and Yang by the aid of a long pole' (i chang thung Yin Yanp).C Both men and
women are shown carrying out the exercises, both old and young. The manuscript
thus clearly demonstrates that the hygiene and physiotherapy glimpsed in the
Chuang Tzu book and developed so much in later times was very well known in the
- 2nd-century, the time of the Lady of Tai and her sons.
Descriptions and discussions in Anon. (198)and Wang Chia-Fu (I); plate in Anon. (204).
Ch. 15, tr. Legge (S),vol. I, p. 364; the whole passage has been given on p. 154 above. The two exercises in
question are nos. 17 and 28.
This is interesting in connection with Figs. 1572 and I 573. 'stretching out to take the Yang from the heavens
and to fish up the Yin from the depths of the sea'. The exercise is no. I in the scroll.
b

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I57

Fig. 1597. Outline drawings of the twenty-eight remaining postures in the Ma-wang-tui document on Taoim
calisthenics (chhikmg chhiung shm). Anon. (198).

The focal point of the ancient literature on Taoist gymnastics is the Thai-Chhing
Tao Yin Yang S h h g Chingl (Manual of Nourishing the Life-Force by Physical
Exercises and Self-Massage), a collection which must have been made either in the
late Thang or the early Sung.&Herein are several sets of exercises, some bearing the
name of legendary personages such as Phing Tsu2 (the Chinese Methuselah),b
Chhih Sung Tzu3 (the Red Pine-tree Master),c and Teacher Ning, Ning hsienseng4 (Ning FGng Tzu,S patron saint of founders, metal workers and potters);*
others attributed to historical characters of Chou antiquity such as Wangtzu
C h h i a ~a, ~
- 6th-century p r i n ~ e . ~
Most of these exercises were carried out lying down, or sitting cross-legged,
tailor fashion, in the padmGsana or lotus-position, though a few were done
TT81 I , and in YCCC, ch. 34. No writer's name has come down to us.
Cf. Kaltenmark ( z ) , p. 82. A set of ten exercises, tr. Maspero ( 7 ) ,p. 41 5 .
c Cf. pt, 3, p p 9-10 above, and Kaltenmark ( z ) ,p. 35. Also ten exercises, tr. Maspero (7). p. 4 1 5 .
d Cf. Kaltenmark ( z ) , pp. 4 3 , 168. Four sets of exercises, each named after an animal, the toad, the tortoise, the
wild goose and the dragon. The second and the fourth tr. Maspero (7). pp. 4 2 5 f f .
See Kaltenmark ( 2 ) ,p. rog; Pokora ( 3 ) ,p. 363; Hughes ( g ) ,p. 33. Thirty-fourexercises, summarily described
by Maspero ( 7 ) , p. 422. On Wangtzu Chhiao himself, see pt. 2 , pp. 98-9.
a

Isg
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
standing; but some of the motions needed vigour, and the practiser was instructed
to stop as soon as he began to perspire. In all cases there were directions about the
proper type of breathing. No apparatus was used, but in Teacher Ning's 'tortoise'
method the exercises took place under a suspended rope, which the subject had to
grasp and hang from in various ways. Reading these descriptions one is assuredly in
presence of age-old material which must go back at least as far as the Later Han. It
was certainly well known to KO Hung, who has many references to the tao yin'
exercises in the Pao Phu T z u book. Adepts imitate the movements of tortoises and
cranes because of their longevity,a with good results for health and hearing,b but
gymnastics is only one of the macrobiotic arts,c not to be followed to the exclusion
of other^,^ and in the end not to be compared in effectivenesswith chemical e1ixirs.e
There are no illustrations now in the Tao Y i n Yang S h h g Ching, but an interesting set has come down in the Tao Tsang with the text of the Chungli P a Tuan Chin
. ~ author is best placed in the
FaZ(Eight Elegant Exercises of Chungli C h h ~ a n )The
late 8 t h - c e n t u ~the
, teacher and interlocutor supposedly of Lu Yen (Lu TungPin, Figs. I 569, I 598). The following directions accompany the pictures shown in
Fig. 1599:

( I ) Gnash the teeth 36 times to assemble and alert the archaei (of the organs). Clasp the head
(khun-lunJ) with both hands, and beat the celestial drum (thien K u 4 ) 24 times.a
(2) Twist the vertebral column (thien thus) looking at the shoulder (and upper arm) to the
right and to the left, each 24 times.
(3) Stir up (the saliva) to right and left with the tongue against the palate 36 times. Rinse the
mouth with it and gargle 36 times. Separate it into three lots as if it was a hard thing, and
swallow it. After this, one can walk through fire.
[The illustration shows the arms held upward vertically; doubtless this movement took
place after each of the 36 mouth exercises but the instruction dropped out of the text.]
(4) Massage the Hall of the Reins (shm thang,Qhe loins, above the pelvis dorsally) with both
hands 36 times. The more one does this the more wonderful (the effects).
(5) With the single right and left (arms) make a turning movement like a pulley (10-lu7)
revolving (to sweep the lateral costal region), successively 36 times each.
(6) Repeat this using both arms simultaneously, 36 times.
(7) With the two hands joined (in front of the body) make 5 hoRexhalations,h then interlace
the hands above the head in the position of 'supporting the sky' (palms upwards), then
massage the vertex of the head. Repeat the cycle three or nine times.

PPTIIVP, ch. 3, pp. I a, 4 a , tr. Ware (5). pp. 53, 58.

Ch. 15,p. 9h, Ware tr., p. 257.
C Ch. 5. p. 4 0 . Ware tr., p. 103. Here there is mention of the methods of Hua Tho, on which see p. 161 below.
d Ch.6,p.3h,Waretr.p.113.
Ch. 4. p. Xh, ki'are tr. p. X I . Here Ko Hung was quoting a verse from a Thai-Chhing Shen Tan Ching.*
It is in Hsiu (''hen Shih Shu ( T T z h ) ,ch. 1 9 .'I'sPng Tshao's 1,in Chiang 1isien.l" in ch. 23, pp. I h, 2 a of the
same collection, says in a statement dated I 151 that the text was inscribed on stone by I,u Tung-Pin himself and
so handed down.
a This was done by placing the palms of the hands over the ears and knoking on the occipital region of the head
with both index and middle tingers.
h Cf. p. 146above.
a

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

159

Fig. I 598. The shrine of Lu Tung-Pin at the Yun-Lu Kung Taoist temple on the top of Yo-lu Shan, across the
river from Chhaneha in Hunan (orig. photo. 1964). The inscription at the top saps: 'TheVeritable Portrait of the
Venerable Immortal and Teacher Lii', but the shrine is of much later date than Thang.

(8) Make the two hands like hooks, stretch the arms forward, and take hold of the soles of
the feet. Do this (for each alternately) 12times, then retum the feet and resume sitting in the
correct position (i.e. cross-legged)."

These exercises were normally interspersed with breath-retentions and repeated in

cycles of varying permutations and combinations.
Besides Chungli Chhiian and the anonymous ancients who cloaked their identities under the names of legendary immortals, certain other originators of macrobiotic body-training stand out fairly clearly. One was the famous physician and
Tr. auct., adjuv. ~ a s p e r ~pp.
d ,q ~ g f f .Dudgeoh
,
( I ) ,pp. 375ff.The latter givesapamphrased translation of
the preamble, including somdinterpretations which he probably got from oral instruction, e.g. the use of the heel
of the left foot for applying perinea1 pressure at the correct place to prevent seminal emission and 'make the rhing
return to nourish the brain'. The text itself is allusive and obscure in places.
\

I 60

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. I 599. The physical exercises of the Chungli Pa T u a Chin Fa portrayed in two p a p from Hsiu Chen Shih
Shu (TT260),ch. 19, pp. 4a.h. 5a.b. Translationsof the captions are given in the text.

33.

161

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

surgeon of the Later Han and the Wei Kingdom, Hua Tho' (c.
his biography in the San Kuo Chih we read:&

+ 190to + 265). In

Wu Phu2of Kuang-ling and Fan A3 of Phgng-chhCng were both pupils of Hua Tho. Wu
Phu followed exactly the arts of Hua so that his patients generally got well. Hua T h o taught
him that the body should be exercised in every part but that this should not be over-done in
any way. 'Exercise', he said, 'brings about good digestion (lit. causes the dispersal of the chhi
of cereals, ku chhi te^hsiad), and a free flow of the blood (hsiieh mo liu thunp). It is like a
door-pivot never r0tting.b Therefore the ancient sages engaged in tao yinh exercises, (for
example) by moving the head in the manner of a bear, and looking back without turning the
neck. By stretching at the waist and moving the different joints to left and right one can
make it difficult for people (to grow) old. I have a method' said Hua Tho, 'known as the
"play of the five animals (wu chhin chih hsl')", the tiger, the deer, the bear, the ape and the
bird. It can be used to get rid of diseases, and it is beneficial for all stiffness of the joints or
ankles. When the body feels ill, one should do one of the exercises. After perspiring, one will
sense the body grow light and the stomach will manifest hunger.' Wu Phu followed this
advice himself and attained an age greater than go yet with excellent hearing, vision and
teeth.

We do not know of any detaiIed set of instructions for the 'play of the five animals'
from that early time,c but by the Ming period they were well standardised; and
since the possibilities of variance are after all rather limited it is likely enough that
the traditional movements were in fact closely similar to those invented by Hua
T h o himself. Dudgeon translated his setd from the Fu Shou Tan Shu8 (Book of
Elixir-Enchymoma Techniques for Happiness and Longevity) of 1621, but an
earlier version is contained in the Yang Sh&g Tao Yin Fa9 (Method of Nourishing
the Vitality by Gymnastics and Massage)e of I 506, a book to be mentioned again
in a moment. These exercises were of course done standing, with abundant movements of the extremities and of the head and neck.'
Another originator seems to have been Chhen ThuanI0 (Chhen Hsi-I"), the
Taoist adept and mutationist of the Wu Tai period between Thang and Sung
( + 895 to + 989), perhaps the originator of the Thai Chi Thu12 diagram,g and a
man who was consulted by at least two emperors on proto-chemical wai tan alchemy." By the I 5th-century a set of vigorous physical exercises, one for each of

Wei Chih, ch. 29, pp. 6aff., tr. Needham & Lu Gwei-Djen ( I ) . Parallel passage in HHS, ch. I

I ~ R pp.
,

gb,

loa.
On the antiquity of this proverb cf. p. 124 above.
Apart from the pictures in the Ma-wang-tui scroll (p. 156 above).
(I).pp. 386ff.
g.zoaff.
f
Some Liu Chhao and Thang Taoists also studied and imitated the cries of birds and beasts;cf. Belpaire (3).
Though this was done for spells, or for communication with the immortals, it led to some interesting phonetic
developmentssuch as the identificationof palatal, plosive and labial consonants, etc.
See Vol. 2, p. 467.
h See above, Vol. 5, pt. 3, p. 194.
C

I 62

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

the twenty-four fortnightly periods of the year,a had become traditional. The Pao
Sh&g Hsin Chien' (Mental Mirror of the Preservation of Life) in 1506 calls the
set" the Thai-Chhing Erh-shih-ssu Chhi Shui Huo Chzi' San T ~ U
but, the
~ title in the
Ssu Shih Thiao She" Chien3 of + 1591 is Chhen Hsi-I Tao Yin Tso Kung Thu,4
which thus reveals the name of the original auth0r.C The Pao Sh&g Hsin Chien was
the work of a Taoist whom we know only by his pseudonym Thieh Feng ChuShihvthe Recluse of Iron Mountain), but the second book was one of the parts of a
large collection, the Tsun Sh&g P a Chienh(Eight Disquisitions on Putting Oneself
in Accord with the Life-Force) by a distinguished scholar, Kao Lien,' who lived in
retirement and devoted himself to studying everything which could promote the
health of mind and b0dy.d Here we reproduce three exercises from the Pao Sh&g
Hsin Chien.e

Appropriate for the beginning of the 5th month (Fig. 1600).1Every day during the yinmao double-hours (from 3 to 7 a.m.) stand straight up, throw the body backwards, and
extend the hands and arms upwards as if supporting something heavy. Use force to raise it
up with left and right hands alternately 30 times. Settle the breathing, gnash the teeth,
exhale softly and slowly, inhale quietly and continuously, and swallow the saliva.
. ~ day during the
Appropriate for the beginning of the 6th month (Fig. I ~ O I )Every
chhou-yin double-hours (from I to 5 a.m.), press both hands to the ground behind you,
bend one leg and foot under the body, then kick out and retract the other leg with force 15
times. (Repeat conversely). Gnash the teeth.. . (as before).
h
(Fig. 1602).h Every day during the tzuAppropriate for the middle of the I ~ t month
chhou double-hours (from I I p.m. to 3 a.m.), sitting evenly, extend both legs, and clenching
the fists press (or massage) both knees with maximal force, left and right alternately, 15
times. Gnash the teeth.. . (as before).

In general the Chhen Thuan gymnastics seem distinctly more vigorous than those
of Chungli Chhuan.' The latter occur also in the Yang Sh&g Tao Yin Fa already
mentioned,j together with the sets of Pheng Tsu, Teacher Ning and Wangtzu
Chhiao. Its author or editor was again the Recluse of Iron Mountain, to whose Pao
Sh&g Hsin Chien it is usually found appended.

See Table 35 on p. 405 of Vol. 3.

Pp. 7 b f f .
Tsun Sh* Pa Chien, ch. 3, pp. z 4 a f f .Here also, in the part called Yen Nim Chhio Ping ChimR (ch. 10,p. 23 6 )
we find a picture of Chhen Thuan lying down, with the kua Khan and Li marked on his abdomen; this concerns
the proper postures to he adopted during sleep (ChhenHsi-I Tso Yu Shui Kung Thuq).Cf. Dudgeon ( I ) , pp. 4 4 8 f f .
d We shall have more to say about him in relation to botany and horticulture in Section 38.
TT.auct. adjuv. Dudgeon ( I ) , pp. 393ff.
P . 160.
g P. 18a.
h P. 290.
They are also interspersed in Dudgeon with a set of pictures of the archaei of the organs portrayed as animals.
This is from Tsun Sh* Pa Chien, e.g. ch. 3, p. qb, ch. 6, p. 2b.
J As well as in Tsun Shhg Pa Chim, ch. 1 0 , pp. r g a f f .and elsewhere.
a

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. 1600. An exercise from the Pao S h k Hsin Chim (Mental Mirror of the Preservation of Life),
suitable for the fifth month.

163

+ 1506,

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1601.Another exercise from the same manual, suitable for the sixth month.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fiu. 1602. A third exercise in this book, suitable for the eleventh month.

165

I 66

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Many other groups of gymnastic procedures could be mentioned, including a

notable one of 48 exercises each allied with one or more particular pharmaceutical
prescriptions (hung yao'), which Dudgeon tooka from the Fu Shou Tan Shu of
1621, but this is well over the medical, indeed the iatro-chemical, borderline. Yet
it was very much in the Taoist tradition since it pays great attention to preventing
emissions of semen." We may return to it in Section 45. The flourishing state of
macrobiotic hygiene and physiotherapy in the later Ming will have already become
evident from the dates of the books we have quoted, but it continued right through
the Chhing, indeed through the nineteenth century, and is still flourishing at the
present day. This can be .well seen from the serious contribution of Palos (2),who
spent much time in recent years studying the methods of modem Chinese
physiotherapists in hospitals and sanatoria. Everything, including the breathing
techniques,c the gnashing of teeth and the swallowing of saliva, even meditation
practices drawn from Taoism and Buddhism, is still taught to this day.d T h e
Chungli Chhuan exercises appeared, for instance, in the Tan I San ChiianZ(Three
Books of Draft Memoranda on Elixirs and Enchymomas), prefaced by Pa TzuYuan3in 1801, but later in the century, as in the books of Hsu Ming-Feng,4 Phan
Weis and Wang Tsu-YuanVNei Kung Thu Shou7) a Buddhist tradition came more
and more strongly in. In this last book (1881) we find a tractate of very uncertain
age, the 1 Chin Chinf (Manual of Exercising the Muscles and Tendons), from
which we reproduce a figure (Fig. 1603); this has been ascribed to the Northern
Wei period and attributed to Ta-MoQ(Bodhidhanna, d. c. +475), but it may not be
older than the 16th-centuw.e It is preceded by another set of 12 exercises, called
Shih-erh Tuan Chin Thu'" and done seated, which seem to be an enlarged and
Buddhicised version of those of Chungli Chhiian, (Fig. 1604).f
It was only natural that Chinese Buddhism should have had a strong physical

(1). PP. 427ff.

Ibid. pp. WO(Li Chhi-Chhan's" method), 454 (perinea1pressure), 477, etc.
As we have noted on p. I 54 above.
See the books by Anon. (77); Chhen Thao (I); ChianR Wei-Chhiao (I, 2 , 3 , 4 ) , Chiang Wei-Chhiao & Liu
Kuei-Chen (I); 1,iu Kuei-Chen (I), and Hasemwa UsaburT,(I). T o the work of Palos may be added those of Hsiao
& Stiefvater ( I ) and Stiefvater & Stiefvater ( I ) .
* It sometimes has prefaces, 'probably spurious', of 628 and + I 143, and it seems to have had a close association with the famous Shao-Lin temple, of which more in a moment. Text. tr. Dudgeon (I), pp. 529ff.; Palos ( z ) ,
pp. 179ff. hlovements done standing.
Tr. Palos (2), p. 197. Phan \Vei's introduction to these was translated, more or less, by Dudgeon (I), pp. 558ff.
Many collections of such tractates circulate in the world, such as Anon. (206) which combines the I Chin Ching
with the Po Tuan Chin and other materials. They go under many titles, such as the similar Lien Too C h h q Shin#
Fa," which contains the series of both Chungli Chhiian and Chhen Thuan, and has been translated by L2 Hu'o'ng
& Raruch (I). Other books, like that of Xi Chhing-Ho (I), combine an account of postures and exercises with a
modem version of physiological alchemy in general. He appends a question-and-answer session with a Taoist
named Chen-1'' who covers briefly all the techniques, respiratory, gymnastic and sexual, for the re-moulding and
perpetuation of the three primary vitalities. Others yet again, such as the small work of Ku Chhg-Hua (I),
amplify the Pa Tuan Chin and add other sets of exercises such as the liu tuan kung.'' These last figure again in
books such as Anon. (207))which describe themselves as dealing with hygienic and therapeutic self-massage &(pan
rhim an mo").

'33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

167

Fig. 1603. An exercise from the I Chin Ching(Manua1of Muscles and Tendons), ascribed to the + 5th century but
in its present form probably not earlier than the + 16th. 'The caption says: 'Picture of Wagging the Nine Oxtails
upside-down' (tan chuai chiu m.u wkshih). 'I'he exercise is the fifth in the series.

I 68

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1604.An exercise from the set called Shih-erh Tucm Chin Thu (Twelve Elegant Exercises Illustrated),
probably Ming in date, and a Buddhicised version of Chungli Chhiian's series. This is the second of the set.

33.

169

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

exercise tradition of its own because it inherited much of Indian yoga technique.
The relations of Chinese physiological alchemy with yoga, if any, form a subject
which we shall have to discuss briefly at the conclusion of this sub-section; here we
only need to sketch another curious way in which Buddhist monasticism inserted
itself into Chinese gymnastics, namely the development of Chinese boxing (chhuan
PO'). This is a remarkable group of systems of physical exercise embodying some
aspects of ritual dance, and familiar to all the world because still so widely practised
to this day in China.&Those who have traced out its historyb have usually made it
begin with the sport of 'butting with ox-horns', first heard of in the Chhin time
( - 3rd-century). This chio tiz.3or hsiang phu4 consisted of combats between two
unarmed men each wearing an ox-skin with its horns on his head. The second
Chhin emperor was said to have been especially fond of it,c and a famous tourney
was held under Han Wu T i in - 108, watched by people who came from as far
away as 300 li from the capita1.d The fact that the contests were accompanied by
music indicates the aspect of ritual dance which it must already have had. T h e late
5th-century Hun Wu (Tz)Ku Shihs by Wang Chien6mentions it,e and it was still
practised under the Later Thang and Liao dynasties.f By this time, however, it was
giving place to the more subtle and rhythmical form of boxing, chhiian po, 'fisting
and gripping'. Although the origins of this are uncertain, one form of it was early
connected with the Buddhist temple of Shao-Lin Ssu7 on the northern slopes of
Sung Shan8some 25 linorth-west of TGng-fGng,g in Honan, where the monks were
very famous exponents of it. This was a monastery founded c. 494 with which
the name of Bodhidharma was legendarily connected,h and physical exercise was
certainly always cultivated there, for as late as the 16th-century the monks were
giving displays of the art in several eastern provinces.' About this time, when the
Japanese pirates were causing trouble by their raids there, a Chinese general, Chhi
Chi-Kuang,Qincluded a short but systematic account of boxing as a form of physical training in ch. 14of his treatise on military and naval efficiency, the Chi Hsiao
Hsin Shur0of + 1575. The fact that he used the word jou," softness or gentleness'deftly pinning down the adversary face upwards is termed its gentleness'-led
Giles to suggest, plausibly enough, that the origins of the now world-renowned

Often in the form called thai-chi~hhGa.'~

Authoritative accounts are those of Anon (74); Chang W&-Yuan (I);
Hsii Chih-I (I); Tshai Lung-Yiin (I). In Western languages the books of ChPng Man-Chhing & Smith (I), or
Delza ( I ) may be consulted. Thai-chi chhiimr may have some connection with the nPi tun alchemist Chang SanFing'J(d. + 1420).
h E.g. Giles (5). pp. 13zff.,following TSCC, Ishu tim, ch. 8x0, tsa lu, pp. 3aff.
So Chu Hui" in his Shih Yuun,'ia Sung book on the origins of things and customs.
d CHS, ch. 6, p. 24a. b.
Para. 37, tr. d'Hormon (I),p. 77.
Dates of + 925 and +928; for the latter, WHTK,ch. I 19,(p. 3867.3). cf. ch. 147, (p. 1288.2).
g Itself some li north-west of Yang-chhPng (mod. Kao-chheng) the site of the ancient central astronomical
observatory of China; cf. Vol. 3, p. 291.
h See Pelliot (3). pp. 248ff., zszff.
1 On Shao-Lin boxing today x e R. W. Smith ( I ) , and on its exercises Pilw (z), p. 168.

I7O

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Japanese art ofjiu-jitsu' may be traced to the contact of the two cultures at this time.
In the end Chinese boxing received its definitive manual, the Chhiian ChingZof
Chang Khung-Chao,3 but though not easy to date, this text is most probably of the
I 8th-century.
Our little digression, if such it was, on Chinese calisthenics, has brought us to the
time when the Jesuit P. M. Cibot (3) presented Europeans with a short but celebrated paper on the strictly macrobiotic exercises of the physiological a1chemists.a
His 'Notice du Cong-fou [Kung-fu] des Bonzes Tao-ske [Tao shih]' of 1779 was
intended to present the physicists and physicians of Europe with a sketch of a
system of medical gymnastics which they might like to adopt--or if they found it at
fault they might be stimulated to invent something better. This work has long been
regarded as of cardinal importance in the history of physiotherapyh because it almost certainly influenced the Swedish founder of the modem phase of the art, Per
Hendrik Ling. Cibot studied at least one Chinese book, but also got much from a
Christian neophyte who had become expert in the subject before his conversion.
Cibot did not care much for the Taoist philosophy, but believed that kung fu and its
medical theory was an 'estimable system' which had really worked many cures and
relieved many infirmities. As to the former, he wrote:

Les nuages ipais de la superstition et les affreuses tinebres de l'idolitrie ont tellement
cache la vraie theorie du Cong-fou a la multitude, qu'elle est persuadke, d'aprks les rPcits
des Ronzes, que c'est un vrai exercise de religion qui, en gukrissant le corps de ses infirmitis,
affranchit l'ime de la servitude des sens, la prepare a entrer en commerce avec les Esprits, et
lui ouvre la porte de je ne sais quelle immortaliti., ou I'on arrive sans passer par le tombeau.
On composerait de trks-amples volumes, des fables, contes, rcves, chimkres et extravagances qu'on dkbite ici sur le Cong-fou . . . Les Tao-see qui ont le secret du Cong-fou se sont
fait une langue a part pour I'enseigner, et en parlent en des termes aussi 6loignCs des idies
communes que nos Alchpmistes du grand-oeuvre.

These lines are intriguing; the Jesuit was clearly incapable of understanding the
Chinese conception of material immortality, and someone had evidently been mystifying him with talk of 'true lead' and 'true mercury'. Nevertheless, he was impressed by the variety of motions and positions which the Taoist gymnastic adepts
had devised (cf. Figs. 1605, 1606). 'Nous ne craignons pas de le dire', he wrote, 'en
rkunissant toutes les postures et attitudes des comkdiens, des danseurs, des sauteurs et des figures acadkmiques, on n'auroit pas la moitik de celles qu'ont imaginkes
les Tao-see.' Cibot also gave due weight to the respiratory techniques, including
the six exhalations, or some practice very like it. Furthermore he ventured into an
account of the medical theory, saying that in the view of the Taoists the mechanism
of the human body is essentially hydraulic, that is to say, the circulation of spirits,
In Vol. 2, p. 146we attributed this communication, unsigned as so many of them were, to J . J . M. Amiot (as
numerous writers, including Dudgeon, had also done), but discovered the real author in time for Cibot's name to
have the credit in the bibliography. Pfister ( I ) . p. 896, is unambiguous on the subject, and the style is Cibot's.
h \Ve reserve this subject for Sect. 4 4 in Vol. 6, mentioning meanwhile only the historical accounts of McAuliffe
( I ) ; Joseph ( I ) ; 1,icht ( I ) and Saurbier ( I ) .

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

171

Fig. 1605. Four pictures of Taoist calisthenics from Cibot ( + 1 7 7 9 ) the

~ first paper to bring Chinese macrobiotic
gymnastin to the attention of the Western world. Note the similarity between his fig. 3 and the eighth exercise in
Fig. 1599.

72

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1606. A further four illustrations from Cibot (3). Note the resemblance between his fig. 9 (left, top) and the
first position in Fig. 1599, as also that in Fig. 1604.His fig. 10(right, top) is identical with the seventh position in
Fig. I 599. His fig. I I (left, below) resembles the last position in Fig. 1599;while fig. 12 is the same as that shown in
Fig. 1601.The overlap between the various Chinese series from the Thang onwards, indeed even from the Han
(cf. Fig. I 597). indicates a closely integrated tradition, though with many variations.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I73

blood and humours is the most important thing, and that their fluidity is tempered
by the inspired air; consequently everything is useful which can diminish the obstacles of weight and friction, and so adjust to perfection the circular flow. From the
point of view of a comparison between the medical philosophies of China and
Europe in the late I 8th-century8 it is instructive to hear Cibot say:

It follows that the various postures of the Kung-fu, if well directed, should effect a salutary clearance in all those illnesses which arise from an embarrassed, retarded, or even
interrupted, circulation. But how many diseases are there which have a cause other than
this? One may well ask whether, apart from fractures and wounds which injure the organisation of the human frame, there are any such disease^?^

Of the three primary vitalities (san yuan,' or san chenZcf. p. 47 above) Cibot said
nothing, but knowledge of this idea seems to have been brought to Europe about
the same time through other intermediaries,c for later writers recognised them in
the system of Ling, though wearing early nineteenth-century Naturphilosophie
dress.
P. H. Ling ( + 1776 to 1839) started as a fencing-master, but worked out an
elaborate system of physical exercises for use both in health and d i ~ e a s eThese
.~
he
continued to teach and develop for three and a half decades after the foundation of
his institute in Stockholm in I 813, thus giving a fundamental impetus to modem
Western gymnastics. The theoretical part of his writings, however (I), was constructed, as McKenzie deprecatingly says, 'in the light of the physiology of his day,
which often sounds fantastic in the presence of modem discoveries. Ling's ideas on
the nature of life, the laws of organic unity, and the relation of the parts, seem
quaint to modem thinkers, and are not easily translated into the scientific terms of
today.'e Indeed, du Bois Reyrnond and others violently attacked them.f But that
does not render them any the less interesting for the historian of scientific thought.
In common with other biological thinkers in the first half of the nineteenth century Ling accepted a tripartite division of the operations of the vital force. He spoke
of dynamical, mechanical and chemical agents, the first of a mental, moral and
intellectual character, the second muscular, circulatory and respiratory, and the
third concerned with nutrition, sanguification, secretion, generation and reproduction. The first, 'intellectuality', would correspond to the Chinese shen,3 the
second, 'animal spirits', to the chhi,4 and the third, 'vital spirits or organic forces', to
the chings (cf. p. 46 above).g Dally (I), pondering this in 1857, was convinced that
Cf. Needham (59).
P. 450. eng. auCt
C Lawmce Lange, for example, a Swede who was Russian Consul at Peking in the + 18th-century (Dudgeon
(1). P. 356).
* The cha~teron his life in Tait McKenzie ( I )may be read. Most of the elaborate bionra~hical
work of Wester.. .
blad ( I , 2) is in Swedish only. Cf. Cyriax (I);~ e o r g i I ( ~ ) .
(1),p. 1 1 2 .
Cf. Licht ( I ) , p. 403.
c So Dudgeon ( I ) ,pp. 354,555. Dally and Dudgeon were not always quite clear about the terminology. In one
place, Dudgeon (I), p. 370, refen to the 'animal, muscular, locomotive' component as Yang, the 'vegetative,
secretory, chemical'as Yin, and the mental, 'physical',as Thai-Chi.

I74
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
such a doctrine did not differ from that of the Taoists.8 'It must be admitted', he
wrote, 'that Ling had in his hands the Notice of Amiot [Cibot], or some other,
original, Chinese treatise, (or one) produced, it may be, by other missionaries, or by
some persons attached to embassies from Europe to China.' And again: 'The doctrine of Ling in its entirety, theoretical and practical, is only a sort of counter-drawn
daguerrotype of the kung-fu of the Taoists. It is the royal vase of Dresden, the
splendid Chinese vase, with its Chinese figures overlaid with European paint. This
is the real merit of Ling'. And Dudgeon himself wrote:
According to Amiot [Cibot] the Taoists consider the human body as a purely hydraulic
mechanism, and he explains their physical principles and their physiological theory according to this one fundamental idea. In this case, there will be between the doctrines of the
Taoists and those of the Iatro-mechanists such a similitude or affinity that one can believe
that they pertain to the same school. Yet Amiot [Cibot] makes it understood that kung-fu
relies still upon other principle^.^ The primitive priests considered the body not only as a
physical and mechanical apparatus but also as a chemical one. They recognised that the
physical and chemical laws of the body are subject to the influence of a superior principle
which rules and harmonises them in the unity of the human being. This Chinese conception recalls exactly the theory of Ling--of mechanical, chemical and dynamic agents
which balance themselves and hold themselves in equilibrium upon a central point, which
is the life, and whence proceed the three principal agents. Dr Bayes of Brighton, in his
memoir on the 'Triple Aspect of Chronic Disease'. . . takes also for the basis of his observations the theory of the Chinese balance of the three vital forces, which he borrowed
probably from the doctrine of Ling.

The book of Bayes ( I ) in 1854 did indeed assume this system, with a slightly different termino1og~-the Psychical, the Musculo-vital (or locomotive) and the
Chemico-vital. And one finds similar things in many other writings of the period,
not only among the relatively small fry,cbut in the thoughts of very great men. For
example, Claude Bernard, early in 1857, jotted down the following in his 'Red
Notebook' :d
There is in living creatures a developmental force that is not encountered in the dead.
Living creatures have a development, a specific mission to fulfil. This cannot be provided
by the external world, although it is required for this accomplishment. We cannot avoid
seeing that their destiny is that of reproducing themselves to perpetuate their race into
eternity, so that life and matter become eternal.
It is thus necessary to acknowledge in living beings, development (that is to say, creatiun)
as well as attraction and ~ f f i n i t y . ~
(I), in Dudgeon, ibid. p. 356,
Not in the Sotice on K q - f u . But the sanyuun may well have been discussed in some other of the voluminous
Jesuit writings.
E.g. Rlundell(2); Roth (I). Dally ( I ) correlated the classification with the Pauline tripartite division in Ep.
Thess. 5, 23. (cf. pt. 2, p. 72 above). This had been known in China through Kestorian writin-, e.g. an extant
document dated + 641 (Saeki (2). p. 171).but it could hardly have had much influence there. For it was not at all
closely similar to the Chinese system of the three primary vitalities, which was already crystallising in Han times
(cf. p. 137 above).
d Recently translated and edited by Hoff, Guillemin & Guillemin (I),his pp. 52,53, theirs, p. 30.
e The brackets, and the italicising of the last word, in this sentence, have been introduced by us, to make
Bemard's meaning clearer.
8

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

The first is the &tal fwce.

The second is the physical fwce.
The third is the chemicalforce.
But what is most clear is that all three are unknown.
The first expresses the law of organic movement of beings.8 The second expresses the law
of general movement of non-living things. The third expresses the law of molecular movements of composition and decomposition.
It would obviously be impossible to follow further here the course of biological
philosophy in the first half of the nineteenth century. Obviously Claude Bemard's
'thinking aloud' could conceivably have been derived from the Aristotelian doctrine of the 'three souls',b rather than from any Chinese ideas. Or he might have
been reading the book that Francis Glisson published in + 1672, Tractatus de
Natura Substantiae Energetica.. . 'The Energetic Nature of Substances; or, the
Life of Nature, and its Three Primary Faculties, the Natural Perceptive, the Natural Appetitive and the Natural Motive'.c Here Glisson joined with Harvey in
regarding perception, differentiation, absorption, irritability, and the like, as essential properties of living matter, not due to the presence or guidance of any anima or
archaeus. The origins of this threefold classification of Glisson would repay further
research, but it seems a good deal closer to Sun I-Khuei than to Paul of Tarsus. All
these formulations, physiological though they were, could conceivably have had
some connection with the tria prima of Paracelsian doctrine, salt, sulphur and
mercury.d In any case, there are grounds for thinking that an important thesis
could be written on specificallyTaoist influences on the development of the Naturphilosophie movement, a phase of European scientific thought often much decried
by historians, yet a genuine part of the evolution of modem science.
We may have to envisage a kind of second wave of Chinese influence on Europe
during the second half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries. This has so far been completely overshadowed by the immense impact of
Confucian ideas (e.g. morality without supernatural revelation) from about + 1675
onwards, with the great sinophiles such as Leibniz, Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius,
Quesnay and d'Argens ranged against the resistance led by Rousseau, de Pauw,
. ~ + 1721 the eminent philosopher ChrisRenaudot, Montesquieu and F C n e l ~ nIn
tian Wolff was expelled from Halle and from his chair in that university at twentyfour hours' notice for a lecture maintaining that Confucianism showed how high
ethical behaviour was independent of revealed religion.' This had arisen from
In the original, the word 'organic' is italicised, but none of the other explanatory words.
See Vol. z, pp. 2 1ff.
C This important work has been analysed and discussed by Page1 (16, 17)and Ternkin (4).
* For a reminder of this we have to thank Mr Richard Hood. Chinese influences on Paracelsian ideas we
discussed already at some length in pt. 4, pp. 502ff. Cf. Hartmann ( I ) ,p. 148.
P There is still no better book for an orientation in this subject than the monograph of Pinot (I).
This was his Oratio de Sinarum Philosophia Practica, printed in + I 726 and again in German in 1740.Wolff
soon got another chair at Marburg and nearly twenty years later was recalled to Prussia by Frederick the Great.
His pupils meanwhile kept up the good fight, especially G. R. Biilffinger with his Specimen Dnctrinoe V e t m m
Sinarum Moralis et Politicae, + 1724. Wolff himself had been a pupil of Leibniz. On the whole incident see
Reichwein ( I ) ,pp. 83ff. and especially Lach (6).
f

176

33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
Francis Noel's amplification of the Confucius Sinarum Philosophus (+ 1687), presenting six of the classics in Latin translation in 171I.& But presently someone
must have brought further knowledge of the more developed Taoist and medical
ideas such as that of the three primary vitalities. At an earlier point we touched
upon the question of the oldest translations of the Tao Te^Ching; two were available
before + 1720and a third, made probably about + 1760, is preserved in the library
. ~ will be evident from the parts of Ho Shang Kung's comof the Royal S ~ c i e t yAs
mentary on this classic which we gave on p. 132 above, any of the more extensive
later commentaries, if translated and even in manuscript circulated, could have
explained something of nei tan ideas. We know that they were being sought for. In
+ 1735 Frkret wrote to de Mailla:

Les traditions des Tao-sse me semblent une chose qu'il seroit important d'examiner,
cette secte ayant quelque antiquite a la Chine, et ces traditions ayant este Ocrites dez le temps
des premiers Hanes, peut estre sur des livres plus anciens. Elles doivent faire une partie
considerable de I'histoire des sciences et des opinions chinoises. Le detail de ces opinions
opposees a celles des sectateurs de Confucius servira a faire mieux connoistre le systeme de
ces derniers. Une notice des anciens livres des Tao-sse et de ceux qui ont le plus d'authorite
parmi eux nous mettroit en estat de connoistre au moins les fondements de leur doctrine.
Un semblable travail ne doit pas mCme beaucoup couster 6 une persone aussi habile que
vous l'estes dans toutes les parties de 1'Erudition c h i n o i ~ e . ~

These were prescient words. Another hint comes from Bishop Berkeley's book on
'tar-water' in which, starting from chemistry and hygiene, he ascended through
philosophy to theology. In this 'Siris' of I 744 he wrote:

A notion of something divine in Fire, animating the whole world, and ordering its several
parts, was a tenet of very general extent, being embraced in the most distant times and
places, even among the Chinese themselves; who make tien,d aether or heaven, the sovereign principle, or cause of all things, and teach that the celestial virtue, by them called li,e
when joined to corporeal substance, doth fashion, distinguish, and specificate all natural
beings. This liof the Chinese seems to answer (to) the forms of the peripatetics.' And both
bear analogy to the foregoing philosophy of Fire. . . The tien is considered and adored by
the learned Chinese, as living and intelligent aether, the mfip vocpdv (pyr noeron) of the
Chaldaeans and the Stoics. . .a

This is of course drawing from Neo-Confucianism, but could not some talk of 'true
fire' and 'true water' have been among Berkeley's sources? This was just before the

He added Mencius, the Hsiao Ching and the San Tau Ching to the three others (Ta Hsiich, Lun

Yu and Chung

Y q )previously done by Intorcetta, Couplet et al. ( I ) .

Vol. 2, p. 163. One was by Noel himself (Wei Fang-Chi'), the other by J . F. Foucquet (Fu Shhg-Tk2),the
third by an anonymous translator, probably Portuguese.
Letter printed by Pinot (2), p. 103.
a Thien.'

Li,'
On this question see Vol. z,p. 475.
c (I), pp. 180, 182.
f

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I77

birth of Goethe, still better known for his interest in Chinese ideas,&and Goethe
stood at the beginning of the Naturphilosophie m0vement.b Associated with the
names of Oken, von Kielmayer, Meckel, Carus and many others, this school
sought for scientific laws governing the vegetable and animal world not purely
empirical, hence they were often called transcendenta1ists.c Though largely concemed with comparative morphology (a word, indeed, invented by Goethe), their
influence spread strongly in physiology too, as in the work of J. C. Reil in the last
decade of the ~ e n t u r yFor
. ~ example, among those who occupied themselves much
with cogitations on the nature of the Lebenskraft in the style of Naturphilosophie
was P. F. von Walther ( 1781 to 1849), in whose writings we find again the
'triad'-Sensibilitat, Irritabilitat and Reprod~ktionskraft.~
T o detect what seem like traces of the medieval Taoist doctrine of the three
primary vitalities in the early nineteenth century, the time of the foundations of
modem experimental physiology, is indeed an unexpected outcome of the study of
gymnastic practices intended at the other end of the world for the attainment of
longevity and material immortality. It would seem that once again the alchemists of
East Asia were not so far removed from us intellectually as we often tend to think.
Nor was China indebted to Europe for a knowledge of the health-giving effects of
physical and gymnastic exercises, as innocent readers of some historians of physiotherapy might be led to suppose.'
All this was surely the background of the very influential macrobiotics book of
Christopher Hufeland (I), printed in many editions after it first came out in
1796.gIn the preface of his 'Art of Prolonging Life' he said that life, 'that peculiar
chemico-animal operation.. . can be promoted or impeded, accelerated or
retarded'.h He advocated 'diaetetic rules and a medical mode of treatment for preserving life, and hence arises a particular science, the Macrobiotic, or the art of
prolonging life'. This was in order to cultivate the 'vital power'. Hufeland believed
that Paracelsian wai tan elixirs might have temporary efficacy, but on the whole
condemned them. 'The use of such medicines, which are all hot and stimulating',
he wrote, 'naturally increases vital sensation; and such people (as use them) consider increase of vital sensation a real increase of the vital power, not reflecting that
a continual increase of the former is, by irritation, the surest means of shortening
life'.i Here then in the vital power was the enchyrnoma in a new guise, and Chungli

a
1749 to 1832. Cf. e.g. Eckermann ( I ) for 31 Jan. 1827 (pp. 164ff.); Diintzer (I),vol. 2, pp. 300,386; R. M.
Meyer (I) passim.
See E. S. Russcll (I), pp. 89ff.; Singer (I), pp. zrzff,; M e n (1)passinr.
Lorenz Oken ( + 1779 to 1851). C. F. von Kielmayer ( + 1765 to 1844, J. F. Meckel(+ 1761 to 1833). K. G.
Carus ( 1789to I 869). Many of these men and their colleagues made great contributions to biological knowledge.
Rothschuh (I), pp. 164ff.. 191ff., toqff. On Johann Christian Red(+ 1759to 1813)cf. Needham (13)~
pp.
207ff.
On the history of our knowledge of the nature of muscular contraction, including the concept of irritability,
see D. M. Needham (I).
'In 1go8 Dr .Wax Exner introduced the teaching of physical training in Shanghai, and began the systematic
education of teachers under government encouragement' (McKenzie (I),p. 168).
a We have had something to say about it already in pt. 4, p. 502.
h P. viii of the first English edition, + 1797.
1 Pp. 237ff. We are indebted to Mr David Hallam for discussions on Hufeland.

"+
f

1 7 ~

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1607. Drawing of Ssuma ChhOng-Chen, writer of the Tso W mLun (Discourse on Meditation) about
+ 7 1 5 . From Lieh H& C h h Chuan, ch. 5 , p. 33h.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

I79

Chhiian and Chang PO-Tuan were living again in the midst of Naturphilosophie
Europe, the world of Coleridge and of Frankenstein.
(iii) Meditation and mental concentration
There now remain but three more subjects for discussion, the meditation techniques, the heliotherapeutic techniques, and the sexual techniques. Of the first and
second of these there is relatively little to be said, partly because we may have to
return to the practice of meditation in Section 43 on physiology and psychology,
and partly because the exposure of the body to light was an art of minor importance
about which not much is known; but the sexual techniques were indeed of great
concern, to ordinary people as well as to adepts, and the ideas involved are of deep
interest to our theme, vital indeed (in more senses than one) for physiological alchemy.
T h e meditation techniques were closely connected with the physical postures
and exercises about which we have just been speaking.a One has to understand that
Taoist meditation was not necessarily a disciplined following out of particular
trains of thought (as much Christian meditation has been)" but rather perhaps the
disciplined banishment of all trains of thought, with the object of freeing the mind
from the natural flux of passing thoughts and image^.^ Unfortunately we know of
no study of the techniques for this, adequate both sinologically and psychologically." A proper investigation would have to centre round works such as the Tso
Wang Lun' (Discourse on Meditation)e written about 715 by the famous adept,
diviner and alchemist Ssuma ChhEng-Chin,*f and the relevant chapters (3-5) of
the Tao Shu-'(Axial Principles of the Tao)g produced by the Taoist librarian Tsing
Tshao4 about I 145. At the other end of the line, the tradition in its still living
form would have to be studied in such works as those of Chiang Wei-Chhiao (1-4)
and Lu Khuan-Yii ( ~ ) , hpreferably by personal discipleship at the feet of contemporary practitioners.'

a We refrain from embarking here on the vast related subject of mysticism and mystical experience as such, on
which the rather impartial book of Staal ( I ) may be consulted.
'' Cf. Knox (I).
Whether or not this was sometimes accomplished by concentration upon a particular word the meaning of
which the meditator did not understand (i.e. a mantrum), we do not know. Such a technique, quite powerful
psychologically, is obviously very different from the long-continued repetition of a phrase that the meditator does
understand, such as the 'Jesus prayer' of Orthodox Christian spirituality, which has a close connection with the
Hesychasts (cf. pp. 15zff.). On this see Maloney ( I ) and Neyt (I). Rut that way may have been used too.
'' T h e same applies, alas, to dream-interpretation, about which there is a substantial medieval and traditional
Chinese literature. \Ve h o p also to return to this in Sect. 43.
P TT1zo4, and in TTCY.
Analysis by Fujiyoshi Jikai (I). Cf. Fig. 1607.
TTloog.
h Here we find many things with which we are now familiar, such as the meditation postures (pp. 167ff.). foetal
respiration (p. 175). the six exhalations (p. z08), the circulation of the rhhi (pp. 176, 186, 191, zogff.), teeth
gnashing (p. zo6), saliva swallowing (pp. 184,206). 'rejuvenation', and the marriage of fire and water (p. 212).
I 'I'his is the value of Palos (2). but he is far more informative about the physical exercises than about the
meditation, the title of his hook notwithstanding. He too describes the continuing practice of the six exhalations (p.
82). Cf. H a s e g a ~ aUsaburo ( I ) on the uses of Zen in medicine.

'

I 80

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

So far this has not been fully done, and much more work is needed before we can
expect to know how far, if at all, hypnosis,&auto-hypnosis,b or similar methods of
producing various kinds of trance state^,^ were employed in Taoist physiological
alchemy. Its meditational aspect seems to have been really rather different from
those found in other religions. Maspero had little to say about it in his wonderful
study of the Taoist 'procedures for nourishing the vital principle' (7), but his posthumous papers have m0re.d Taoist meditation was generally known as 'concentrating on the unity of the Tao' (shou i') or 'visualising the Unity' (t2 iZ);a
contemplation of the universe which evidently came down from the conviction of
the unity of Nature common to all the early Taoist philosophers from the - 5thcentury onwards-'the gentleman holding on to the idea of the One', as the Kuan
Tzu book has it.e But later, after the elaboration of the Taoist pantheon, and the
Mao Shan revelation^,^ it generated a visualisation of the Trinity (San Chhing3) and
the most exalted spirits, powers, dominions and principalities below it; this was
'maintaining one's thought' (tshun S&). In the early centuries of the era, the time of
the ThaiPhing Ching, a similar phrase had been in use, 'reflecting uninterruptedly'
(hsiang tshunS).g Certainly the contemplators were lost to the external world, as the
expression 'sitting in forgetfulness' (tso wan?) clearly imp lie^;^ but in late times
there was also the phrase 'repairing the heart' (hsiu hsin'), though this had a wider
sense which embraced most of the doings of physiological alchemy, as well as the
liturgies themselves. Would that we knew more about the psychological techniques
which were used by the Taoist masters in the different centuries. There can be no
doubt that for results of any significance henceforward the collaboration of sinologists with clinical and experimental psychologists will be essential.
Biochemistry and physiology are going to be involved too, for much research is
being devoted to the measurable concomitant phenomena in meditation. Interesting reports are those of Kasamatsu & Hirai ( I ) on electro-encephalographic studies

" Huard, Sonolet & Huang Kuana-Ming(1) have devoted a remarkable paper to three previously unpublished
letters of the Jesuit J. J. M. Amiot, written between + 1783 and 1790 to the brother of the minister J. R. Bertin
( 1719 to 1792) in Paris. He says that at first he did not think much of the &g-fu paper (cf. p. 170 above), but
was struck later on by what the A b k Rertin wrote to him about the successes of F. A. hlesmer ( + 1734 to I 815).
Amiot believed that the Taoists used hypnotism therapeutically, and he applied Chinese natural philosophy to
explain 'animal magnetism'.
h See the book of Fromm & Shor (I), with its interesting contributions such as that of Rowers & Bowers (I).
C N'e leave on one side here the possible use of psychotropic drugs by the ancient and medieval Taoists for
inducing altered states of consciousness along with the meditation processes. Its connection with alchemy has
already been discussed in some detail in Vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 121ff., I off., I 54. Out of an enormous literature on these
pharmacological effects we may mention only Aldous Huxley (I); Solomon (2); Hyde ( I ) and Lonao (I). On the
botany and chemistry of the hallucinogens Schultes & Hofmann ( I ) is the standard work.
(32). PP. 397ff.
Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 46ff.
Vol. 5, pt. 4. pp. 213ff.
g Jao Tsung-I(3). The H s i a g Erhs was a Han book of c o m m e n t a ~
on the Tao Te^Ching, so the link between
the early Taoist philosophers and the later Taoist theologians comes out particularly clearly.
h Cf. the tso chhan ( ~ a z e nof
) ~Chhan and &n Buddhism, 'sitting in d h ~ h a 'studied
,
by Fujiyoshi Jikai (I) and
many others.

"

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

181

of Zen sittingp and Das & Gastaut ( I ) on similar measurements during Indian
sam5dhi.b Recent studies have shown that during deep meditation there is a great
decrease of oxygen-consumption and CO,-elimination, a decrease in respiratory
rate, a marked rise in the electrical resistance of the skin (much more than in sleep),
a great increase of slow alpha-waves (EEG), and a sustained fall of blood l a ~ t a t e . ~
This last is particularly interesting because anxiety neurosis states are associated
with high blood lactate level^.^ Little change in blood pressure occurs, h0wever.e
The next thing will be to find out how the neuro-transmitters fit in to the picture.
There can be no doubt today that meditation is a special hypometabolic physiological situation quite distinct from the normal waking state, from sleep' or coma, and
from hypnosis. Its role in personality integration must always have been
considerable,g and Western man has perhaps now acquired enough humility to
follow in the steps of the Taoists and Buddhists of old.
One pleasant sidelight on the relaxed atmosphere in the great Taoist abbeys of
oldh is afforded by something in Li Kuang-Hsiian'sl catechism on physiological,
especially respiratory, alchemy, the Chin I Huan Tan Pai W& Chuehz (Questions
and Answers on the Metallous Fluid and the Cyclically-Transformed Enchymoma), written during the Sung period. In this the Taoist says to the seeker: 'If
you do not worry about whether you are going to become one of the Immortals, but
just study to perfect yourself by the techniques, then you will be sure to attain
realisation." Nothing could have been more in line with the great paradoxes of the
Tao Ti? Ching which we expounded in Sect. 10.The way to get it is not to want it.
'The sage has no personal aims, therefore all his desires are fulfilled.'
(iv) Phototherapeutic procedures
Something must now be said of a complex which for want of a better name may be
Cf. the semi-popular book of Hirai ( I ) .
Cf. the survey of Fenwick & Hebden ( I ) and the review of Gellhom & Kiely ( I ) .
C See Henrotte ( I ) ; Anand, Chhina & Baldev Singh ( I ) ; and the papers by R. K. Wallace and his collaboratorsWallace ( I ) ; Wallace & Benson ( I ) ; Wallace, Benson & Wilson ( I ) . There is a bibliography by Timmons & Kamiya
( I ) , and a critique by Staal ( I ) , pp. 106ff.
* Pitt(1).
But yogistic voluntary reduction of heart-rate and respiratory rate has been demonstrated in quantitative
experiments by Anand & Chhina ( I ) ; U'enger & Bagchi ( I ) ; Wenger, Bagchi & Anand ( I ) . Complete cessation of
heart-beat, however, which earlier workers such as B r o m ( I ) thought they had confirmed, is not now accepted.
Her long-continued work on the physiological aspects of meditation in general, however, is still of much value
today.
Whether the induction or slow waking periods, whether dreamless or REM sleep.
E Claims are made that habitual meditation alleviates or cures drug addiction, as by Otis ( I ) ; Bmson, Wallace,
Dahl & Cooke ( I ) .
h Elsewhere, in connection with acupuncture and moxa, we have had a good deal to say (Lu Gwei-Djen &
Needham, 5 ) on the work of Selye (1-4) on physiological stress, and the 'general adaptation syndrome'. It is very
relevant to all that is said in this book on the aims of the physiological alchemists in old China. Sorenson ( I ) has
evaluated yoga disciplines from the neuro-physiological point of view in relation to stress phenomena. Curtis ( I )
and Terigi ( I ) have come very near to Taoist interests in the deceleration of ageing by their books on geriatric
aspects of stress. Timiras ( I ) has studied the decline in homoeostatic regulation during ageing in relation to stressresistance. And Engle & Pincus ( I ) are still worth reading on hormones and the ageing process.
1 TT263, p. 2a. .Mopei hsien hsi, che'yao tzu hsiu, pi tP chhi chen o h ! '
b

'

I 82

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

called 'heliotherapy' or 'phototherapy', the forerunner, in a way, of all types of

irradiation of the human body. Passing mention has already been made (p. 143)of a
process for 'absorbing the chhi of the planets' or the Great Bear, and another
example could be found in the Lao T z u Shou W u Chhu Ching' (Manual of the Five
Kitchens, i.e. the five viscera),a which explains how to take in the chhi of the four
directions of space and the centre, so as to strengthen by them the corresponding
organs in the body. These were all particular techniques within the general department of respiration and aerophagy (cf. pp. ~qgff.above), which had a multitude of
them,b but it was from these attempts to capture the chhi of far-off things and
spaces that the procedures of inso1atior.t and lunar irradiation arose. The sun, moon
and stars were doubtless at a great distance, yet their beneficial influences could be
caught and retained. Now this was not at all as crazy as it might seem at first sight,
because of the conviction in old Chinese physics of the real and natural existence of
action at a distance. This depended on a persistent attachment to the concept of
wave motion in a continuous universal medium as opposed to discrete atomic
impulsion^.^ Its great triumph was the.Chinese exploration of magnetic phenomena centuries before any other civi1isation.d
So the Taoists concentrated on the sun, the great luminary. The chhi radiating
from it was considered of a different quality in the morning East, the midday South
and the evening West, as would only be expected from the importance of the car.~
the three kinds of chhi
dinal points in the symbolic correlation ~ y s t e mMoreover,
or rays to be absorbed were analogised with the three primary vitalities (sanyuan2),
the shen, the chhi and the ching (cf. pp. 4 6 7 ) . The procedure for taking the chhi and
rays of the rising sun after dawn was described in a lost book called the Hua Yang
Chu Tung Chi3 (Records of the (Inhabitants of the) Various Caves on the Southern
Slopes of M t Hua) which was based on the methods of a Later Han Taoist Fan YuChhung.4 But the instructions have survived, partly in the Chen Ka@ (Declarations of Perfected immortal^)^ of Thao Hung-Chingb about +489, and
partly in a later Thang or pre-Thang book largely devoted to such matters, the
Shang Chhing WOChung Chueh7 (Explanation of the Method of Grasping the
Central Luminary) by some writer whose name has been 10st.g One faced it, stand. ~ in most of the other similar descriptions
ing, or sitting in the lotus p ~ s i t i o nAs
there is a good deal about the perception of coloured lights or shining chhi (sun si?
YCCC, ch. 6 1 ,pp. s h f f .
For example, we have found in various places a procedure for absorbing the chhi of the mountain mists Cfu
U+). One account is in T h g Chen Yin Chueh ( T T , + ] @ch.
, 2 , pp. ~ g h f fanother
.,
in ch. 27 (ch. 8) of the Tao Shu
(TT~oog).
c On all this see Vol. 4, pt. I , pp. 8ff.. 1 2 f f .28ff..
.
~ n f f60.
.,
d The story has been told in full in Sect. 26i. (1'01.4, pt. r , pp. zzgff.).
Cf. Vol. 2, Table 12, p. 262.
TT1oo4.
g Chen Kao, ch. 1 0 , p. I a, h; Shmg Chhin~
WOChung Chueh ( T T I ~ ch.
~ )2,, pp. 14h, 15a,hence in YCCC,
ch.61,p. 14a.b.
h In one instruction, after imbibing the chhi which comes with the first rays of the sun (or moon) one calls down
the five solar gods and their lunar consorts and then ascends in their company (Shmz-Chhing Thai-Shuq Ti (,'bun
Chiu Chen Chung Ching (TT1357). ch. 2). As this account immediately precedes one of the versions of the ThaiShang Pa chin^ SsuJui.. . text (cf.pt. 4, p. 2 16), it probably gces back to a ven. early phase of the Mao Shan school.
B

'%?zft7EiFfR.
' R 3

-- n

L < -

"RE

$p;;%:iFl LE
=
' -k76 % 3
J

' 4h i$
"F R

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

183

kuang chhi'), green, white, red, etc. streaming out 'like ribbons'. Maspero judiciously surmises that these colour effects were brought about by shutting the eyes
firmly after gazing for some time at the rising sun.a Other descriptions of procedures speak of haloes of five colours surrounding the body, which suggests that
the Taoists observed interference colours in some way, and also of conjuring into
oneself at sunrise the hun soul or animus of the sun (jih hunz).b One of the most
curious practices was the 'absorbing of the image of the sun' Cfujih hsiangs)),described in Thao Hung-Ching's 5th-century T&g Chm Yin Chiieh4 (Confidential
Instructions for the Ascent to Perfected Immortality).c Here the adept stood for
some time in the early morning sunshine holding in his left hand a piece of green
paper with the character for the sun within an enclosure written on it in red, thus
.When all the prayers and meditations during the insolation had been completed, and the paper imagined to be gloriously radiant like the sun itself, as if by a
kind of transubstantiation, the adept then disintegrated it in water and consumed
the whole. This method was often used in other contexts for such cantraps and
talismans (fus), many of which were given by KOHung in the Pao Phu Tzu book,d
and especially in medical apotropaics. Of course it will be said that a procedure such
as this is indistinguishable from magic, and quite rightly, but in the era before
controlled experimentation, scientific cosmology and statistical analysis, who could
say that eating and drinking the sacrament of the sun was false and that the seeking
of the magnetic north by the lodestone and the needle was true?
It is interesting also that the Taoist women were not forgotten. For them it was
necessary to stand similarly in the moonlight, absorbing the rays of their tutelary
orb and holding a piece of yellow paper with the character for the moon within an
. This was held in the right hand,
enclosure written upon it in black, thus
and when sufficiently impregnated with the chhi and the rays of the moon, it too
was disintegrated and consumed. Both sexes again could use another procedure in
which the chhi or image of the celestial luminary was made in imagination to circulate around the body.e For the men adepts this was the fu jih mang chih fa,Qhe
absorption of the rays of the sun, a meditation done standing or sitting three times a
day facing successively east, south and west as the sun passed on its c0urse.f For the

8 (7). p. 375. There must have been some danger to the eye in these practices, especially after the sun had risen
somewhat in the heavens, unless the Taoists used pieces of thin jade or mica, as the Chinese astmnomers certainlv did
h Shang Chhing Wo C h w CWeh, ch. I , pp. gh, 6a.
(d.
vol. 3, PP. 420.436).
* PPTINP, ch. 17.
C (TT418). Ch. 2, pp. ~ s a f f .also
, in Shang Chhing Uo' ('hung CWeh, ch. z, pp. 14aff.
e Or taken into and held in the mouth. This is found in the Shang Chhing Ming T h a q Yuan Chen Ch*
CWeh'
) , I aff. and gaff. respectively. Both
(TT421) and the Shang Chhing San Chm Chih Yao Yu ChuehY( T T ~ I ~pp.
these texts come from the school of Thao Hung-Ching in the late + 5th or early + 6th-centuries. Since no one at
that time had any idea of the real substance of the sun and moon, the idea that their glory could be absorbed into the
body was not in itself absurd.
Another form of the imagined circulation of the sun within the body occurs in the Chum Hsi Wang Mu WO
, 24, pp. I aff. Wo ku was a special method of clenching the hands in
Ku Fa; a fragment in H C S S ( T T z ~ o )ch.
meditation, like an Indian mud76 (p. 261 below). The thumb was to be placed between the lines hai1"andtzu," and
the fingers wrapped over it. This can easily be understood from the text and illustration in Tung I Pao Chien, ch. g
(Tsa Ping Phien, ch. I), (p. 333).
f

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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

women there was the parallelfu yiieh mang chihfa,' done in the night by the light of
the moon. There is no positive evidence that any of these activities were carried out
naked,a but it is quite probable that at least in earlier times they were;b what the
surviving instructions always do include are precepts for the usual teeth-gnashing
and saliva-swallowing as an accompaniment of the phototherapy. Thus in sum the
physiological alchemists were forerunners of all those who, like Finsen, have explored the effects of light and other forms of radiant energy upon the human body.
(v) Sexuality and the role of theories of generation
We now come to the part played by sexual techniques in the Great Work of preparing the 'inner elixir' or enchyrnoma, the guarantee of longevity or immortality
sought for by the philosophers 'per aquarn' rather than 'per ignem', the physiological rather than the proto-chemical experimentalists. In considering these matters
we should like to repeat our warning that it is essential to disembarrass the mind
from all the conventional ideas and prejudices of Western civilisation, and to try to
understand how things looked to people for whom sexual activity was the most
natural thing in the world, the model indeed of the working of heaven and earth
themselves, fraught of course with sociological implications but laden with no particular burden of sin or guilt. Naturally this is not to say that Chinese culture contained no anti-sexual components, on the contrary Confucian prudery, associated
with patriarchal property relationships, had great influence even before the time of
the Sage himself, and later on Buddhist other-worldliness pressed the attack on
Taoist sexuality from the other flank.c But for many centuries the Taoist thoughtconnection between sex, if rightly used, and health, longevity and material immor-

It is curious to reflect that while the solar irrsdiation would have contributed to health by aiding the synthesis
of vitamin-D in the skin, no similar benefit would have been obtained from the moonlight.
b Ritual nakedness in magico-religious ceremonies, especially supplications in time of drought and flood,has a
long history in Chinese culture, as Schafer (I) showed in a remarkable monograph; and lasted down at least as late
as the Thang. Vis-a-vis the great light-sources it would have been natural and logical.
Eichhom (6) has made a special study of the attacks on Taoist sexuality and the imposition of the celibate
status on Taoist 'monks'. The movement may be said to have started with Khou Chhien-Chih and his visions at
the beginning of the fsth-century (cf. p. 138); in order to maintain or even expand the Taoist ecclesiastical
organisation it was necessary to take some of the wind out of the sails of the Buddhists, and one of the implications
of this was that some at least of the Taoist priests and thaumaturgists should refrain from sexual life. Hence the
animus against the perished Chang family of Taoist patriarchs under whose influence from the 2nd to the
5th-centuries sexual relations, even in liturgical form, had been so important. During the Thang period there
Taoists in the former being celibate and in the latter
were 'reformed' and 'un-reformed' temple cloisters (kum2)),
married (or at any rate of both sexes). But there was no State interference until an early Sung decree of 972,
recorded by Wang Yung' in his Ym I I 2MouLu,' forbade for the first time the latter. Although these then became
illegal, and the old orthodoxy represented as heretical, it is likely that they continued in remote parts of the country
until a much later date. They were afterwards sometimes connected with rebellions, as in the uprising of Fang La,'
a small-scale industrialist who headed a serious revolt in I 120, partly nationalist (demanding greater resistance
to the Jurchen Chin Tartars) and partly against the activities of the court; see further in Shih Yu-Chhung (I).
Moreover, edicts such as that of 972 never applied to those many Taoist priests who lived with their families in
the world outside the temple communities, officiating in village temples at the seasonal festivals and the periodical
liturgies of communal purification.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

185

tality, was accepted by millions of people, and even today it is by no means dead.&
T o the history of sexual ideas and relations in China van Gulik (3, 8) has already
made outstanding contributions, but we cannot simply refer the reader to his works
because sex as a part of alchemy is a rather special phase of the subject, with different technical texts, and a motive neither hedonistic nor phi1oprogenitive.b Van
Gulik, on the other hand, was primarily concerned with the popular lay literature,
and the place of sex in family and court life as well as its public manifestati0ns.c In
Sect. ro (Vol. 2, pp. 146ff.) a description of the high place which sexuality played in
ancient Taoist religion has already been given; here again we have to do something
different, to show what part it took in physiological a1chemy.d Both aspects were
affected by the influence of Buddhist asceticism from the Thang period onwards
more and more, but the former to a much greater extent than the latter, since
macrobiotics was a recondite affair of adepts and not a concern of temple worshippers as a whole.e In all that follows we must maintain that celebrated attitude of
clinical detachment, and be content to let the Chinese call a spade a spade, even if a
jade one.
In order to save space the simplest method will be to illustrate the principles,
drawing indiscriminately from texts of very varying dates. It will also be best to let
them speak for themselves, with a minimum of commentary; and they can hardly
but be rather numerous, since the whole subject is so bizarre for Westerners naturally carrying in their minds a burden of contrary preconceptions. What has to be
said will unfold itself most easily in accordance with the following set of ideas. The
ching' in man corresponded to the blood, hsiieh,z in woman, especially the menstrual blood Cylieh hsiieh3); and here we have to translate ching' as semen, keeping
'seminal essence' for the same word when used as one of the three primary vitalities
(cf. pp. 46,47 above). The mutual benefit of sexual union, analogised with that of
Murakami Yoshimi has an interesting discussion ( I ) on the 'affirmation of desire' in Taoism. The oftrepeated phrase wu 4%: 'desirelessness', meant, he believes, purification, the victory over mean and cruel desire,
not prohibition. All the nei tun techniques were part of an endless search for perfection, including the spiritualisation of desire, but this was not at all a sublimination in the psycho-analytic sense. True, the numinous, even
liturgical, sexuality of the medieval Taoists was hemmed about by elaborate regulations concerning lucky or
unlucky days, times, places, and the like, yet spontaneity, naturalness and freedom were assuredly Taoist ideals.
h Another work of considerable value is that of Ishihara & Levy (I). Although we find their translations inelegant, and cannot always concur in their views, they provide an excellent bibliography containing many littleknown items.
" There is an abundant iconography, for which reference may be made to the collections of ShOng Wu-Shan
, which
(I); Beurdeley ( I ) and Cichner (2); hut very little of it specificallyconcerns the Taoists. Phallic i m a g c ~on
Ito Kenkichi (I) and Ritchie & Ito ( I ) have written, was prominent in Japan but not at all in China. Temple
'prostitution' (cf.Penzer, 2) was unknown in either culture.
W e r e the unrivalled guide is Maspem (7), reprinted in (32). pp. 553ff.
At the same time we should not visualise the sexual techniques as existing within the Taoist religious communities alone; they may well have been developed there in the first place, but were certainly widely used also in
private homes of Taoist persuasion. One may recall with advantage the remark made to me (J. N.) by Dr Kuo PPnTao at C h h P n m in 1942 (see Vol. 2, p. 147). Nor have the techniques died out, for in 1958 the Tao Tsmg Ching
HuaS (containing for example the Chang San-FPnP books, cf. p. 240) was reprinted in Thaiwan, certainly not only
for scholarly purposes. On him see Seidel ( I ) . And quite recently the book of Chang Chung-Lan ( I ) has been
translated into several Western languages.

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33.

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Yin and Yang, heaven and earth, was essential and undeniable; celibacy was dangerous and inadmissible.8 Since there was a mutual nourishment of the Yang chhi by
that of the Yin and vice versa it was desirable to have as many partners as possible,
but at the same time the ching' (semen) was the most precious thing in the world
physiologically and therefore should never be emitted--except where children
were sought. Beyond that however there was found a procedure (cf. p. 30 above and
p. 197 below) whereby the adept could proceed to orgasm yet ejaculate none of the
valuable secretion, 're-routing' this, it was believed, up the spinal column, to nourish the brain and participate in the formation of the enchymoma. Authority was
found in scripture (e.g. the Tao Te^ Ching) for these procedures. It was felt that
grave dangers to health and to the search for longevity and immortality were incurred by not carrying them out correctly; and several texts show the very serious,
almost liturgical, character of what was to be done when a man and woman adept
came together in sexual interc0urse.b The importance of secrecy in transmission of
the arts, and the prevalence of oral instruction, is often emphasised. Finally the
association with alchemy lay in the fact that the sexual techniques were recommended and practised by proto-chemical wai tan alchemists not so much as an end
in themselves but as a means of acquiring sufficient centuries of longevity to enable
them to understand all the mysteries of chemistry and to prepare the true golden
elixir of perpetual longevity. And then too there was the flowering of the chemical
analogies, the body of the girl considered as the crucible or reaction-vessel (tingz),
and that of the man as the furnace (h".
Where and what was the ching? One finds an answer in the Thai Hsi K& Chih
Yao Chueh4 (Instructions on the Essentials of Understanding Embryonic Respiration), an anonymous text of the Thang or Sung.C After an interesting account of the
development of the foetus in the womb, it goes on to say:
Therefore those who seek to restore and nourish (their primary vitalities) all imitate it,
saying that 'to return to the source' (fu chhi k& p&5) is the important thing about 'embryonic respiration'. Formerly it was always said that the Pool of Chhi (chhi hai,b in the
lower tan thim) was the source of the chhi, but this is not s0.d If one does not know where it
stops, there is no benefit from the 'returning'. The immortals of old always handed down
(the true doctrine) by word of mouth, never committing it to writing, but I am anxious to
reveal it to my like-minded brothers-therefore I say that the root and origin is right opposite the umbilicus, at the level of the nineteenth vertebra (counting from above), in the
empty space (in front of) the spinal column, at the place where it approaches the bladder
from below. It is called the Stalk of Life (ming t F ) , or the Gate of Life (ming m&"), or the
Root of Life (ming k&q), or the Reservoir of Semen (ching shihI0). Men store there their
Indian parallels will be discussed on p. 275 below, but here one cannot help referring to the Tantric ceremonies of striPujo which seem to have a distinct resemblance, though involving a different theory.
T o this present day marriage is usual for Taoist priests living in the world.
C In YCCC, ch. 58, pp. 4hff. Here pp. 56.60, tr. auct. partly adjuv. Maspero (7). p. 380. We may return to it in
Sect. 4 3 on embryology.
* Chhihaiis an acu-point UM 6), 1.5ins. below the umbilicus in the mid-line (cf.Anon. (135).pp. 198-9; Lu &
Needham (5). PP. 50.56).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

187

semen, and women their menstrual blood 6Geh shuil). This then is the origin of the chhi of
longevity and immortality. . .a

This looks like an attempt to describe the vesiculae seminales as the result of some
dissection, but what is equally interesting is the parallelism between semen and
menstrual blood, in Greek theory also the fundamental constituents from which
the embryonic body is bui1t.b Another account appears in a rather later text, pro13th-century, the Thi Kho KO' (Song of the Bodily Husk)
bably of the early
written by a Taoist known to us only by his pseudonym Yen Lo Tzu13the
Smoky-Vine Master. Here we read:c

General Discussion of the Reins (shen t s a p ) .

The ching5is in the reins, which are also called the Mysterious Flower (hsiia yine). They
belong to the class (shu7)of the element Water, and winter brightness, their colour is black,
their direction jen-ha., their sign the Sombre Warrior (of the North), their Tao is under
~ h i htheir
, ~ h a is Khan.PThey have two departments, on the left that called lieh nu,'" on the
right that called ming m&.''
The formation (of chingS)is connected with (the generation of) children, (but it can also)
penetrate up to the brain (ni war2),"where its effects) are seen internally by the (strengthening of the) bones, and externally by the (reversion of the colour of the) hair (from white to
black). The ear is the gate, the bladder is the store (fu13).eIf it receives the control of the
spleen, it is subdued and expelled; if it is used in the heart and attains the lungs it comes to
its full (virtue); if it passes to the liver it is diminished (in effect). Eating too many sweet
things will be harmful (to the macrobiotic effects of the chine).'

Here we are nearer once again to the symbolic correlations of physiological alchemy.
T h e mutual benefit of the union of Yin and Yang, male and female, is affirmed in
some of the oldest texts which have come down to us. They are associated with
Phing Tsu114a legendary Methuselah (Fig. 1608) who owed his longevity to the
mastery of sexual techniques; and with the names of five goddesses or wise women,
who taught these to men 'in the beginningl.g Of these the most important were Su
Nii,lS the Immaculate Girl, and Hsuan Nu,I6 the Mysterious Girl, both appearing
in the titles of ancient books on the subject, some of which have survived; but
another, Tshai Nu,'' the Chosen Girl, often appears as an interlocutor of Huang Ti
or Phing Tsu in such texts.h The fragments of the Ph&g Tsu Chingl%ollected and
b See the dixussions in Needham ( 2 ) .
Cf. Schipper (5). p. 370, translatingfrom parallel sources.
In Hsiu C h m Shih Shu ( T T 2 6 0 ) . ch. 18, pp. 8h, 9a, tr. auct.
d This is the procedure described on p. 197 below.
This was truer than the Taoists themselves realised.
Because obesity would certainly militate against health and longevity.
a Perhaps an order of bewitching sorceresses (uurQ).
h H . Franke, in his review of van Gulik ( 3 ) . pointed out the interesting fact that in Western antiquity also the
most ancient books on sexual techniques were written by, or attributed to, women. Philainis wrote a Peri
Schhatrin Synosias (wept o n p a r w v crr~ovoras),and there were also Niko of Samos, Astyanassa, and Kallistrate.

a
C

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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1608. Drawing of P h k g Tsu, the Methuselah of China, who was believed to owe his longevity to the
mastery of sexual techniques. From Lieh Hsien Chkiia Chum, ch. I , p. 19a.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

189

preserved by Yen Kho-Chiin may well be of late Chou or early Han date, for the
style is archaic and the book listed as such in the Pao Phu T z u bibliography8 though
not in that of the Chhien Hun Shu.b T h e writer says:
Many are the things which harm men-vaulting ambition, mourning and melancholy,
joy and jubilation, anger and frustration, inordinate desire, apprehensive anxiety, unseasonable heat and cold, abstention from sexual life-many indeed are these things, and
what happens in the bedchamber is mainly responsible (for their effects). How people are
deluded by this! Man and woman naturally complete each other, just as heaven and earth
,~
mutually generate each other, and so the Tao nourishes the shen' and the ~ h h ipreventing
human beings from losing their harmony. Heaven and earth have always had the (true)
Way of union, therefore they are everlasting, but men and women have lost this Way,
therefore their time has become broken and injured by mortality. Thus to obtain the Art of
the Yin and Yang is to avert all harmful dangers and to tread the path of life eternaLc

This certainly places the salutary effects of sexuality in the centre of the picture.
And the editorial comments in the Chhien Hun Shu breathe a somewhat similar
spirit:d
The arts of the bedchamber constitute the climax of human emotions and touch the very
hem of the Tao itself. Therefore the sage-kings regulated man's outer pleasure in order to
restrain his inner passions, and set down in writing precepts (for the union of the sexes). . .
If such joys are moderate and well-ordered, peace and longevity will follow; but if people
are deluded by them and have no care, illnesses will ensue, with serious damage to the
nature and span of life.

It is interesting to see what KO Hung said about Phing Tsu in the Pao Phu Tzu
book, a legendary account of course but revea1ing.e
According to the Ph&g Tsu Ching, PhCng Tsu served as counsellor all through the reigns
of T i Ku and Yaof continuing as a high officer of State down to the end of the Hsia (dynasty). Then the king of the Yin (Shang) sent him to the Chosen Girl to learn the arts of the
bedchamber. After the king had tried them and found them to be effective, he wanted to call
PhCng Tsu and put an end to the dissemination of these secrets, but PhCng sensed his
design, fled away and was no more seen. At this time he had reached an age of some seven or
eight hundred years, but there is no record that he died. Indeed the Huang Shih Kung Chi3
records that some seventy years afterwards a disciple came across him west of the Shifting
Sands,g so evidently he lived o n . . . And Liu Hsiang in the Lieh Hsien C h u m considered
him an immorta1.h

In such a way was enshrined the idea that human sexuality, if wisely ordered, was a
prime desideratum for health and length of days.
a
b
C

'
g

Ch. 19, p. 3b.

Ch. 30, p p 51b, gza,b, where eight books on the subject are given. Cf. Vol. 2, p. 148.
CSHK(Shang ku sect.),ch. 16, p. 76, tr. auct., adjuv. van Gulik (g), p. 96.
CHS, ch. 30, p. 52a, b. tr. auct., adjuv. van Gulik (g), p. 70.
PPTINP, ch. 13, p. 4a, tr. auct., adjuv. Ware (S),p. 217; van Gulik(8), p. 96.
Legendary emperors.
The Gobi desert.
Cf. Kaltenmark ( z ) , pp. 82ff., a translation of the entry, no. 17, with arlnotations.

33.

I 90

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Moreover, celibacy and chastity were considered injurious and unnatural. At the
beginning of the Su Nu Ching (a Han text) we find the fo1lowing:a
Huang T i spoke to the Immaculate Girl and said: 'Now supposing I wish to refrain
permanently from copulation. How can I manage this?'
T h e Immaculate Girl replied: 'You cannot. Heaven and Earth have their (successive
moments of) opening and closing,h the Yin and the Yang have their (successive moments
of) rushing forth (like semen) in order to transform (the world, as in generation). Man is
modelled on the Yin and Yang, exemplifying (in his life-cycle) the four season^.^ Now if
you do not copulate, the shm' and the chhi2will be barred up and obstructed (within you);
how then will you be able to repair your frame? T o recast the chhiLmany a time, exhaling the
old and breathing in the new, that indeed is to give some assistance to it. But if the Stalk of
Jade ( y u h&@)" does not continue active (in spontaneous erections) you are mortifying (the
chinp) within itself.. .'

Thus sexual activity is here considered more important than any of the other exercises tending to health and longevity.
The neuroses of deprivation were also recognised. Some time between
1013
and
I 161 an unknown Taoist compiled a book of considerable value entitled
Yang Hsing (or S h h g ) Yen Ming L u q O n Delaying Destiny by Nourishing the
Natural force^).^ the sixth chapter of which is devoted to sexology (Yii Nii Sun I
Phienh).Among its dialogues is this:'

T h e Chosen Girl asked Phing Tsu, saying: 'Ought a man sixty years of age to retain his
chinp entirely and guard it? Is this possible?'
Phcng Tsu replied: 'It is not. Man does not want to be without woman; if he has to do
without her his mind will become restive, if his mind becomes restive his spirit (shm') will
become fatigued, and if his spirit becomes fatigued his life-span will be shortened. Now if it
were possible for him to keep his mind always serene, and untroubled by thoughts of sex,
this would be excellent, but there is not one among ten thousand who can do it. If with force
he tries to retain and block up (the chin@)( y u p i chih'), it will in fact be hard to conserve and
easy to lose, so that it will escape (during sleep), the urine will become turbid, and he will
suffer from the illness of haunting by incubi and succubi ( h e i chiao chih pin?).'

And the S u Nu Ching in the Han had spoken long before of the demonic hallucinations caused by sexual deprivation and frustrated libido, going on to describe
P. I b, tr. auct., adjuv. Maspero (7). pp. 381-2; van Gulik (8). p. 137. For the continuation of the passage see
p. 201 below.
h This language is reminiscent of the style of the - 4th-century KuPi K u T z u book; cf. Vol. z, p. 206.
c On the Taoist emphasis on natural cycles cf. Needham (56).
* The anatomical term was liao." or chhiu'",but they are never met with in this literature. The Buddhist term
was shk2.q chih,ll the 'life-limb'; and its counterpart, yoni, was nii k&." Another word. tiao,'Jnow used in the sense
of 'phallus', was traditionally a term of vulgar abuse; associated with tshao,"jih," 'copulation' or 'to copulate',
according to the pronunciation, also in coarse speech.
Or 'Extending one's Destined Span.. .'. TT831. The book is attributed in the Tao T s m q both to Thao
Hung-Ching and Sun Ssu-MO, which was perhaps a tribute to its good medical sense, but in fact it cannot he
earlier than the Sung, though of course some passages and expressions in it may well be.
Ch. 2, p. 9 a (ch. 6 ) ,tr. auct. adjuv. Maspero (7). p. 382,as also van Gulik (8).p. 196, who was translating from
the parallel passage in the Chhim Chin Yao F-.

'

33. P H Y S I O L O G I C A L A L C H E M Y

191

graphically the visions, like the 'temptations of St Anthony', which plague, and
eventually destroy by illness, the hermit who goes to dwell alone in marshy mountain fastnesses.a Elsewhere the Chosen Girl says:"
One cannot fight against the nature and affections of man. And besides, bp means of (the
sexual act, wisely used) he can augment his longevity. And besides, is it not a pleasure in
itself?

The Pao Phu Tzu book, too, has a passage on the same theme, listing abstention
from sexual intercourse b i n yangpu chiao') as one of the several 'wounds' (shang9.C
Someone observed: 'Wouldn't you say that injury comes from lust and licentiousness?'
Pao Phu Tzu replied: 'Why only from that? T h e fundamental thing in macrobiotics is the
reversion of one's years (huan nienl). . . . If a man in the vigour of youth attains knowledge of
how to revert his pears (by the arts of the bedchamber), absorbs the enchymoma of the Yin
to repair his brain, and gathers the Jade Juice (the saliva) from under the Long Valley (the
nose), without taking any (prolongevity) drugs at all, he will not fail to live for three hundred years, though he may not become an immortal'.

The keynotes, then, of classical Chinese sexology in relation to macrobiotics,

were (a) that there is a mutual nourishment of Yang and Yin, provided that intercourse be skilfully managed, (b) that frequent change of partners is desirable for
this, and (c) that these unions should involve female but not male orgasms, the
semen being as far as possible retained within the male
The first of these
ideas was sound enough in terms of modem knowledge, though it tended to lead to
the conclusion that each partner was capable in some way of draining the vitality of
the other for his or her own macrobiotic purposes. The second principle was not at
all related to the ideal of a 'permissive' society with the utmost tolerance for all
deviations from traditional monogamy, a society which many reformers of the present day (by no means unreasonably) seek to propagate; on the contrary it directly
arose from the institution of concubinage, in those large families of court, gentry
and high official character, where the legal wife was seconded by a number, even a
large number, of subsidiary consorts, concubines and maid- servant^.^ Here the
interests of social harmony necessitated absolutely a distribution of attentions on
the part of the men concerned, and there might even indeed be political importance

h
'

P. I I h, tr. Maspero (7), p 382, as also van Gulik (g), p. 152. who translates the passage in full.
Yu Fung Chih Yao: perhaps + qth-century, p. I b. tr. auct. adjuv. Maspero (7). p. 382.
PPTIIVP, ch. 13, p. 7h, tr. a u a . adjuv. Ware(s), p. 223.

This calls for several observations. First, all these procedures were entirely within the realm of sexological
normality. 'The elaborate researches of van Gulik (3, 8) have shown that perversions appear only very late in
Chinese society, even then involving very little of a sadist or masochist character. The ancient and medieval
literature also has almost nothing on the minor aberrations. Secondly the change of partners was appropriate only
in a society pre-dating the discoven. of America and the introduction of the serious venereal diseases which
'
followed thereon. At the same time it would have helped the transmission of minor parasitoses such as moniliasis.
Thirdly the high estimate placed upon the sexual satisfaction of the feminine partners was a trait of really cultured
civilisation, doubtfully attained in Europe till long afterwards.
On the very unexpected importance of this for the development of horological science see Needham, Wang &
Price ( I ) .

I92
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
attached to this, since the relations of a neglected spouse might cause grave trouble
to emperor, governor or magistrate. Hence the third technique of seminal
retention,a but if these were its sociological origins it certainly acquired macrobiotic significance at quite an early time, and very naturally so, for otherwise the
man involved would have been exhausted by the claims made upon him."
The Yii Fang Chih Y a o (Important Matters of the Jade Chamber) has an admirable passage which enshrines the principles mentioned above. It runs as fo1lows:c
T h e Taoist Liu Chingl described the proper way of uniting with a woman. He said that it
was essential first to embrace in mutual play, unhurried, gentle and relaxed, so as to bring
the spirits (shm2)into accord, and let the minds resonate (kan') together perfectly, and only
when this has been achieved for a long time should intromission take place. Entrance
should be made when the Stalk of Jade is still only partially erected, rapid withdrawal when
it is fully so. In between, the movements should be restrained and slow, and spaced at
suitable intervals. A man should not throw himself violently about, for that turns the five
~ the tracts and vessels,d and brings on the
viscera upside down, does permanent i n j u to
hundred diseases. But intromission should not be accompanied bp emission. He who can
make several dozen unions in a day and a night without once emitting semen will be cured of
all diseases, and benefit himself by augmentation of longevity. If there can be several changes of partner the advantage is heightened, if for example during a single night he couples
with ten different women, that is in the highest degree excellent.

T h e background of this appears in the opening passages of the Su Nu Ching.e

Huang T i spoke to the Immaculate Girl, saying 'My chhi is debilitated and inharmonious. I feel depressed at heart, and always filled with fear. What should I do about
it?'
T h e Immaculate Girl replied: 'Debility in men can always be attributed to a faulty exercise of the sexual act. Now woman is superior to man in the same way that water is superior
to fire.' And those who are expert in the arts of sex are like good cooks who know how to
blend the five tastes into delicious dishes. Those who know the Tao of the Yin and Yang can
fully achieve the five pleasures. Those who do not know it die untimely, without ever
It might at first sight be difficult to understand what physiological principle could have been at the basis of the
p a t nervousness of the old Taoists about what they considered dangerous or excessive seminal losses. Rut there
might well be an endocrinological explanation, especially in view of modem knowledge of the prostaglandins (cf.
p. 323 below) for semen is very rich in them. Here there is another of those curious male-female asymetries in
mammals and man, for in female ovulation nothing very vital (for the parent body) seems to be lost. This was a
direct consequence of the evolutionary invention of intra-uterine fertilisation. Rut retained semen would mean
retained hormones. Doubtless also male restraint would amplify sexual activity as such, a way commended not
only by the old Taoist texts, but by modem books such as that of Chang Chung-Lan (I). One would suppose that
coitus consmatus (cf. p. 199)would have meant more female orgasms and fewer male ones, but we have met
sexologists who assure us that the human male can be trained to have orgasm without ejaculation; this at present
we have no evidence to support. Conceivably some of the Taoist texts may have meant this, though so far as we
know none of them ever exactly says so.
Another obvious social aspect of the third principle was its contraceptive effect, but this was not, we think, its
original purpose.
'' P. 1 h, tr. auct. adjuv. Maspero (7). pp. 384-5, asalso van Gulik (8). p. 139 who used the text in IHsin F-, ch.
28,(p. 637.2). This omits the last sentence.
* Conduits of chhi and blood.
P. I a, h, tr. auct. adjuv. van Gulik (g), pp. 1354.
A reference to the 'mutual conquest order' of the five elements; d. Vol. 2, p. 257.Water overcomes Fire as
Fire overcomes Metal.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I93

having experienced sexual joy. Is this not something that should be guarded against?'
Then she went on to say: 'The Chosen Girl had a wonderful knowledge of the arts of the
Tao, so the King sent her to Phing Tsu to enquire about the methods of lengthening one's
days and attaining longevity. Phing Tsu told her that a man can gain immortality by con, ~ by dieting and taking various drugs, but if he
serving his ching' and nourishing his s h ~ nalso
does not know the art of sexual intercourse, diet and drugs will be of no avail. T h e union of
man with woman, he said, is like the mating of Heaven and Earth. It is because they have
the art that they last for ever, it is because men have lost it that their days are short. If a man
could learn how to stop this decline, and keep away all ills by the art of Yin and Yang, he too
could last for ever.
T h e Chosen Girl bowed twice and asked if she might learn the essence of this art. PhCng
Tsu answered that it was easv to know, though few people would believe and practise i t . . .
T h e essential principle is to have frequent unions with the young concubines, but to emit
semen only rarely. This makes a man's body light and drives away all illnesses.'a

T h e explanation of this is given in the Yang Sh&g Yen Ming Lu (

where we find the f o l l ~ w i n g : ~

+ I I th-century)

Changing of partners can lead to longevity and immortality. If a man unites with one
woman only, the Yin chhi is feeble and the benefit small. For the Tao of the Yang is modelled on Fire, that of the Yin on Water, and Water can subdue Fire. T h e Yin can disperse the
Yang, and use it unceasingly.. . so that the latter becomes depleted, and instead of assistance to the repair and regeneration (of the body) there is loss. But if a man can couple with
twenty women and yet have no emission, he will be fit and of perfect complexion when in
old age. . . When the store of ching' sinks low illnesses come, and when it is altogether used
up, death follow^.^

The physiological justification for the retention of the ching in old Taoist and nei
tan thought appears in a striking conversation in the S u Nu Ching.d
T h e Chosen Girl said: 'In sexual intercourse the emission of the semen is a pleasure, yet
now you say that it should be retained. How can that be a pleasure?'
PhGng Tsu replied: 'After the semen is emitted the body suffers fatigue, the ears lose their
acuity and drowsiness supervenes, the throat is dry and the bones and sinews feel spent and
collapsed. Although a man may temporarily renew the pleasure, in the enc! he does not feel
happiness (because the body is exhausted). But if there is erection without emission the chhi
and the strength are more than abundant, the body is at ease, and the ears and eyes are sharp
and bright. Although he thus suppresses and quietens his passions and emotions, he is all

a How is it possible that these ancient Taoist ideas should reappear in Francis B a r n ? In his Historia Vitae et
Martis of 1623 he has a section entitled 'Operatio super Spiritus, ut maneant juveniles et revirescant'. In this we
find the following words: 'Etiam ad calorem robustum spirituum facit Venus saepe excitata, raro peracta; atque
nonnulli ex affectibus de quibus postea dicetur. Atque de calore spirituum, analog0 ad prolongationem vitae, jam
inquisitum est.' (i, 67, Montagu ed. vol. 10, p. 197). From what he says earlier on about prolongevity drugs, it is
clear that he knew the older writings of his namesake Roger (cf. Vol. 5, pt. 4, p. 496). Presumably the sexual
prescription was well known in Elizabethan circles, but we must leave the further exploration of this to the literary
specialists of that period.
h Ch. 2, p. 9h (ch. 6). tr. auct. Attention was drawn to the importance of this by Maspem (7), p. 380.
c The thought here clearly is that though each can benefit the other the female power surpasses that of the male,
therefore the latter must move more sparingly. If this is carried to the extreme, material immortality will follow.
d P. g a , tr. auct., adjuv. van Gulik (8). p. 145, translating from I Hsin Fmg, ch. 28, (p. 643. I ) .

I94

33.

ALCHEMY

AND CHEMISTRY

the more strengthened in love (for his partners), and acquires doubled persistence, almost
as if it would never fail. Is this not a (still greater) pleasure?'*

T h e contest of water and fire has reminded us how close these ancient ideas were
to the unifying and synthetic conceptions of physiological alchemy later on. Equal
mutual nourishment would undoubtedly have been affirmed by many of the early
thinkers, but in some statements there appears uncertainty as to which sex could
borrow most macrobiotic life-giving essence from the other, draining off,as it were,
vitality for his or her own purposes. This went so far as to imagine illness resulting
in the one who was the donor of the pair. These ideas occur, in somewhat archaic
form, in the propositions of Chhung Ho Tzu' at the opening of the Yu Fang Pi
C h ~ e ha, text
~ of the +qh-century if not older." Van Gulik regarded him as the
author of some lost book on 'sexual alchemy'.
Master Chhung H o said: 'Those who are expert in the nurturing of the Yang (within
themselves) should not allow the women to steal a glimpse of understanding of this art and
mystery. (Their knowing it) will not benefit men, and may cause illness. This is what is
meant by the proverb "Don't lend dangerous weapons to others". For they may use them
on you, and then all your efforts will not avail.'
He also said: 'It is not only the Yang that can be nourished, the Yin can also be. Hsi
Wang Mu3 (the Mother Queen, or Goddess, of the West) was a woman who obtained the
Tao (of immortality) by nourishing the Yin (within her). Whenever she had intercourse
with a man he would immediately fall ill, yet she herself was fair of colour and form, glowing
with beauty and needing no rouge or fard. Feeding on nothing but milk, she played the fivestringed lute, so that her heart was always harmonious, her thoughts composed, and no
other desires plagued her. Having no husband, she liked to couple with young men and
boys. Rut such secrets must not be spread abroad, lest other women copy the methods of
Hsi Wang Mu.?'
'When a woman has intercourse with a man her heart should be at peace and her thoughts
This raises a technical question; how was it possible for the adepts to reduce the sensitivity of the glans
sufficiently to permit what they were supposed to do, and to prolong suhliminal excitation postponing the neuromuscular climax. It must be remembered that circumcision was unknown in China until the early Middle Ages
brought contact with the Semitic cultures, and even then never practised by the Chinese. The techniques appear
to have been both psychological and physiological. First, there seems to have been a meditational technique
intended to depreciate the female body, almost in the style of the I rth-century Odo of Cluny ('quomodo ipsum
:
i
i
Ching says (p. I h): '\Vhen
stercoris saccum amplecti desideramus', cf. Havelock I<llis (z), p. 208). The Su ,
enmging the adversary the man should view her as (worthless) like tile or stone, but himself as (precious)like gold
orjade.' This is a recurring theme (cf. van Gulik (3). vol. 2, p. 103, (R), pp. 157.28~).
Secondly, there may well have
been pharmacological methods of inhibiting male sensitivity, though no adequate search of the numerous prescriptions in the literature has been made for these. Thirdly, mechanical means were undoubtedly used, (a) for
preventing detumescence, and perhaps (h) for increasing the stimuli to female sensitivity. Regarding the former of
these, constriction of the base of the penis by tied rihbons, or rings of ivory or jade, is often referred to in Ming
technical h k s and novels, notably the sexological work Hsiu C h ~ nYen I4by T i n g Hsi-HdenS(c. I 560), which
describes this in detail (see van Gulik (3) and (8). p. 281). Jade tubes used for this purpose are figured in Gichner
(2). Conversely, the so-called 'penis-spurs', ornamental objects of bone, bamboo, ivory, wood, metal, etc. threaded through a permanent channel at the distal end like an ear-ring lobe hole, would have the effect of accelerating
female orgasm. This is the palang of South-east Asia, on which Harrisson (8) has written. Its use in China is
uncertain, and apparently not ancient, though it may have played a part there from the 1 4 t h - c e n t u ~
onwards.
h Pp. I a to za, tr. auct., adjuv. van Gulik (8). p. 158.
There must be some relation here with the old world-wide motif of 'poison-damsels', but Pen7xr (2) did not
mention the Complaisant Harmony .Master in his notable study of the subject.

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33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

I95

composed. When the man is about to attain orgasm, and when she feels moved to the same,
responding with muscular motions similar to his, she should contain herself and refrain, for
otherwise her Yin chingl will be exhausted. And if her Yin ching is exhausted, there will be
an emptiness and eremosis in her body, so that f&g2 (nervous diseases) and ban' (fevers) will
be able to gain entry.* Nor should she become jealous or depressed when she sees the man
coupling with another woman, for then her Yin chhi will become over-excited. This will
cause pains even when sitting still or standing, and there will be spontaneous loss of her
seminal essence and secretions (ching i-'). These are ills that cause a woman to wither, and
age prematurely, so she should be on her guard against all this.'h
Again Master Chhung Ho said: 'If a woman knows how to nourish her Yin, and how to
effect the harmonisation of the two chhi of Yin and Yang, she can transform herself into a
man.c If (during intercourse) she can prevent the man absorbing her fluids and secretions
(ching i4) they will flow into the hundred vessels (of her body), and his Yang will nourish her
Yin. This will drive away the hundred diseases, and her face and form will be smooth and
well-liking. Prolonging her years she will never grow old, but always remain as comely as a
girl. A woman who has learned this Tao will be able to feed on her copulations with men, so
that she can go without food for nine days and yet suffer no hunger.. .'.

The recognition here that there was a female as well as a male secretion is of some
interest," for it recalls the Hippocratic-Epicurean 'double seed' theory of Greek
antiquity,C which lasted on as late as Harvey's time with Nathaniel Highmore
( 165I ) and A. Kyper ( 1655).The idea continued as long as Chinese traditional
physiology itself, for what looks like 'human female semen' (nu jen chinp) occurs
(with certain therapeutic properties) in late Ming pharmaceutical natural historie~.~
As with the Greeks, this must always have been the lubricatory secretion of the
vestibular glands, corresponding to that of the bulbo-urethral in the male, and not
to that of the testes. Ancient Chinese parallels to the Aristotelian theory of male
semen and menstrual blood as the basic constituents of the embryog we have

a Here the suppression of orgasm on the female side is an exact parallel with what was so often prescribed for
the male. Rut it must be said that such instructions were exceptional, and occur only in this context of woman
adepts.
h The warnings against jealousy, repeated in endless variations throughout Chinese literature, were obviously
another corollary of the concubinage system. Though the double system of sexual morality cannot be defended,
there was something very pleasant and amiable about the relations of women among themselves in traditional
Chinese society, when things went well.
'' Changes of sex in man and animals were quite well known in ancient China, and recorded in the dynastic
histories. See Sect. 45 in Vol. 6, and Needham & Lu (3).
* It must always be remembered that when the word ching is used, it may refer to ching chhi or ching i (cf. pp. 75,
78, I 16, 123). which are rather different, internal things.
See Needham (2). pp. 16, 42, 62, 108, 129, 193. The Hippocratic tractates on semen and on embryonic
development are now available in English translation hy Ellinger ( I ) . Hippocrates thought (or rather, the writer of
these, who may have been of the Cnidian school), that both men and women had male and female semen (Yang
and Yin as we should say), in preponderating quantities according to their sex, hut also in varying amounts at
different times and under different conditions, and that the sex of the child depended on the particular intermixture.
PTKM, ch. 52, (p. 101). Cf. R425 and Cooper & Sivin (I). We shall return to this subject in considering
quasi-empirical endocrine preparations in Sect. 45. The blood generally continued, however, to be involved, for
Li Shih-Chen mentioned only a mi'jm ching chih,"referring to Sun Sau-Mo. And indeed the Chhim Chin I Fang
saps that this is the extract of menstrual blood obtained by washing the absorbent; ch. 24, (p. 283.1).
K See Needham (2). pp. 24ff. The Hippocratic writer did not deny that blood was to a large extent the origin of
the foetal body, but only that it was the sole maternal contribution. The further identification of semen with form
and menstrual blood with matter (with all that that implied) was of course a purely Aristotelian complication.

'

196

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

already come across (pt. 4, p. 229), and we shall find more immediately (pp. 207,
222, 225). This was assuredly the general view until modem times. But one wonders whether there could have been an analogous debate in ancient China,a and that
for some proto-nei-tan schools it was a question of which sex could steal most of the
other's vital Yang and Yin ching or chhi without forming an actual material
embryo;b though the enchyrnoma might have been considered an anablastemic
equivalent-hence perhaps the origin of the expression ying erh,' so widely found
later on. There would thus have been a 'battle' of the sexes in a sense more than
metaphorical. If the theory of equal benefit (conceivably associated with the
semen-blood school) eventually triumphed, as was natural in view of the characteristic Chinese good sense, the vitality-drainage theory had quite a long innings in
some quarters, probably from Han to Thang.
These ideas can be followed further in connection with the Ju Yao Ching (Mirror of the All-Penetrating Medicine) already mentioned, written by Tshui Hsi-Fan
about + 940. This book contains relatively little about the sexual techniques as we
have it now, but we know that it did so before the expurgations of later times
because Tsing Tshao strongly criticised it about
I 145 in his Tao Shu (Axial
Principles of the Tao), another work to which we have referred above. The eighth
chapter of this (Jung Chhing Phienz)contains a most revealing p a ~ s a g e . ~

I once obtained the (Ju) Y a o Ching of Master Tshui, which explains the 'battle' of sexual
intercourse. T h e 'guest' or the 'host', (he said),%ay be confused or frigid or not en rapport,
the two partners may know what they are doing but not be of one mind and heart, they may
carry out obscene actions together accumulating no mutual benefit, or again they may have
intercourse without really becoming one flesh, or their bodies may join without true
u n i o n a l l this is known as 'facing one another without (true) orgasm'. But if there is an
inner and an outer harmony of thought and action, yet with little movement of the bodies,
that is the way of obtaining the true life-nature. If the partners can keep calm and not be
carried away, then their original vitalities (yuan m3)will remain and not be lost, the chhi4
and the shens will be settled, and both will combine together in the centre of the body to
form an (enchyrnoma) which conserves the Yang refined and purified from Yin.
Red Snow (hung hsiiehh)(said Master Tshui) means the true substance of (the woman's)
blood, and this it is which forms the embryo (in the womb).e It resides in the uterus as a
Yang chhi, and when it comes forth it is (the menstrual) blood. When the 'tortoise(-head)'
(i.e. the Stalk of Jade) enters, the moment must be watched for when the movements bring
about her orgasm, then while the man holds his breath the tortoise(-head) must turn,drink
in (the chm Yang chhz] and convulsively absorb and conduct it. When the chhi (of the
We shall hope to say more about this in Sect. 43.
Chinese history records a number of relevant stories. Master Chhung Ho's talk about Hsi Wang Mu explains
a case such as that of the enchantress (dum7),a 'beauty of mature age', who travelled about under commission of
one of the Thangemperon to offer Taoist sacrifices to various local deities, 'attendedby a troop of depraved young
men' (Chiu Thaw Shu, ch. 130.p. I a.6; cf. de Groot (2),vol. 6, p. I 235).
c Ch. 3, pp. q h to g b (ch. 8). tr. aua. adjuv. van Gulik (8).p. 225.
* This imagery, often found in such texts, is drawn from the fact that the host pours out the wine for the guest
and not vice versa. A man refraining from emission was the 'guest',as also a woman adept seeking to absorb Yang
chhi from her partner.
Here again is exactly the Aristotelian theory of generation.
b

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I97

partners) has almost settled, and the spirits are in harmony, the (female) chhi will enter the
(lowest) 'gate' (kuanl) (of the male vertebral column) and be drawn up by the Windlass (10
1uZ)and the Chain-pump (ho chht?), until it has ascended to Mt. Khun-Lun4 (the head and
the brain).a Then it manifests itself in the Metallous Gate (chin chhiieh5) and enters into the
central region of vital heat (tan t h i d ) where it develops into the enchymoma.
When I read all this, I burst out in vilification and exclaimed: 'Did Master Tshui really
say these things? I never heard that the adepts of old practised such disciplines. Formerly
when Chang Tao-Ling7 taught the Tao of the Yellow and the Red ( h u q chhih chih tao8),
and the service of 'homogenising the chh? in (liturgical) sexual intercourse (hun chhiq), these
were only a way of emitting and transforming in order to obtain (more) children. It was not
something that concerned Taoist adepts. And after Chang Tao-Ling perished these practices disappeared. The Chhing-Ling1 adept said that he had seen people practising these
things yet dying childless, but never saw anyone obtaining long life through them.'

Here we are obviously in presence of a much more sophisticated phase of physiological alchemy, with a developed terminology for anatomical and physiological
routes and structures. The Confucian-Buddhist reactions of Tseng Tshao are of
relatively minor interest;h more significant is the delicacy with which Tshui HsiFan delineated the sober, almost numinous, character of the sexual act whenundertaken by Taoist men and women for macrobiotic purposes, and the detail of
the description of the process by which the chen Yang chhi was received into the
male body to form an e n ~ h y m o m aHere
. ~ the feminine partner also benefits. Soon
we shall read another account which explains more clearly how both sexes obtained
their respective macrobiotic advantages. But even the foregoing passage cannot
properly be understood without a closer examination of the system by which it was
thought possible to make the contents of the urethra (or its chen Yang chhi) rise into
the uppermost parts of the body and generate centrally the enchymoma of life
eternal. This centers round the classical phrase huan ching pu nao," 'making the
semen return to nourish the brain'.
At some very early time, doubtless during the Chou period, the discovery was
made that if pressure was applied at the right point in the perinea1 region the
urethra could be occluded, so that at the moment of orgasm the semen instead of
being ejaculated could be made to pass into the body.d In fact, of course, it passed
Cf. pp. 60,99,I 12, I 1 5 4 , I 17-8 above, the same phrases.
His references to Chang Tao-Ling and the Taoist Church of the 2nd and 3rd-centuries are of course to
the collective ceremonies which involved either hierogamies, or multiple unions of the male and female members
of the ecclesia, or very likely both. They are not germane to our present subject, but we have discussed them briefly
in Vol. 2, pp. I off., and further details will be found in Maspero (7). Cf. p. 205 below.
C There may be more than meets the eye in this, but we cannot explain it until we reach the point of comparing
Chinese with Indian yogistic techniques. Cf. p. 270 below.
* It is not generally known that what is called in medicine 'retrograde ejaculation' can occur naturally and
spontaneously in some individuals, probably due to a congenital neurological abnormality. It can also happen
under the influence of certain drugs, notably resperene, the tricyclic anti-depressants, and in general those with an
anti-cholinergic action; cf. Goodman ( I ) ; Anon. (155). Thirdly it is common after prostatectomy, for one of the
functions of that gland in normal life is to direct the semen through the urethra. As in the procedure of the ancient
Taoists it is later excreted with the urine, but they would be astonished to know that viable spermatozoa can now
be recovered from it, and used in artificial insemination (Heslin~a.Schellen & Verkuyl, I). We are much indebted
to Dr Eric Trimmer for discussions on the medical aspects of this sub-section.
b

rg8
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
into the bladder, whence it was later evacuated by micturition, but this always
escaped the notice of the Taoists, and over more than two thousand years a great
structure of theory grew up which traced out the way in which the precious secretion (or its chhi) was conveyed up into the head and ultimately to thecentre of the
body for the preparation of the enchymoma. Traces of these beliefs have persisted
down to our own time, as will be seen hereafter.8 The practice meant that the male
adept did not have to refrain from orgasm, since it was thought that the ching was
conserved, and this probably liberated the female adepts also from the unfortunate
doctrine of Master Chhung Ho and his friends. The locus classicus for the method is
in the YiiFang Chih Yao."
T h e Manuals of the Immortals describe the way of making the chingl return to nourish
the brain. During sexual intercourse, when the ching has become very agitated and is on the
point of coming out, strong pressure must be applied with the two middle fingers of the left
hand to a spot behind the scrotum and in front of the anus,? while at the same time the
breath should be fully expelled through the mouth, none being retained (in the lungs), and
the ching will be emitted, but not to the
the teeth gnashed several dozen times.-us
outside world, for it will come back from the Stalk of Jade and mount upwards to enter the
brain. This procedure has always been transmitted by the immortals to one another, but
they who receive it swear a solemn oath sealed in blood not to hand on the method lightly,
under pain of suffering calamity themselves.

We know of no other text where the explanation is so clear. Perhaps the oldest
mention occurs in the Hou Han Shu where the commentary quotes a passage from
the Lieh Hsien Chuan afterwards expurgated.e This occurs in the biography of
Ling Shou-KuangZ,a great expert on sexual techniques who was thought to be I 60
years old in the time of Hua T h o (early 3rd-century). The text says that Lkng
was an outstanding practitioner of the arts of Jung C h h i x ~ gThe
. ~ commentary goes
on :

T h e 'Lives of the Famous Immortals' says that the Venerable Jung Chhing was good at
and 'conducting' (tao5). He could gather the ching from the
the affairs of 'restoring' ($4
'Mysterious Feminine'.f The essential point of this art is to guard the life-force and to
nourish the chhi by (relying on) the 'Valley Spirit that never dies'.K When this is done white
hairs become black again, and teeth that have dropped out are replaced by new ones. T h e
art of commerce with women is to close the hands tightly and to refrain from ejaculation,
causing the sperm to return and nourish the brain.h
b P.I 6, tr. auct. adjuv. Maspero (7). p. 385,van Gulik (g),p. 145.
P.243 below.
It is in fact identical with the acu-point J M r ; cf. Anon. (135). pp. 198-9; Lu & Needham (5). pp. 50,56.
The text actually indicates that the expulsion of the breath should start before the application of the pressure.
One might note that the emptying of the lungs would raise the diaphragm and help to create a partial vacuum in the
P Ch. I 1 2R, pp. lob, I I a,tr. auct., adjuv. van Gulik (8).p. 71.
bladder.
This might conceivably be another reference to 'female semen' in the Hippocratic-Epicurean style.
g On feminine concavity as contrasted with masculine convexity see Vol. 2, pp. 58ff.The 'ewig wcibliche' is
thought of as the door of life, the 'gate from which Heaven and Earth sprang', and as we know from Sect.10,all the
best qualities of the female sex were seen as the essential basis of a harmonious and co-operative social order.
Physical sexual union, and the immortality urhich it could induce, was only one aspect of a far wider philosophy.
h YiifU-jenchih shu, rcei W O kupu &h,
huan chingpu nao.' WOku was a special Taoist technical term for a way of
clenching each hand with the thumb in the palm. It often occurs in connection with physical exercises and
meditation postures. Must it not mean here: 'grip (the urethra) tightly'?

*
f

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

I99

Although the last part of the passage was removed from the Lieh Hsien Chuan, the
references to the Tao Te^Ching were retained?
T h e Valley Spirit (h
shen') never dies,h
It is named the Mysterious Feminine (hsiian phin2) . . .

As for Jung Chhing, he was one of the semi-legendary founding fathers of Chinese
sexology, and the author of a lost book, Jung Chhhg Yin Tao,"isted in the appro..
priate section of the Chhien Hun Shu bibliography.' Hence we can certainly regard
the technique under discussiond as having been current as early as the - 2nd-

Ch. 6, cf. Vol. 2, p. 58. No doubt from the beginning these lines had had an optional sexual interpretation.

YCCC', ch. 108, p. zh, preserves only the expurgated version, as in Kaltenmark (2). p. 55, whose notes are well
worth reading. Even this still conserved the pregnant phrase: s h a pu tao chih shih:
h Here we use an interpretation that has hecome classical, but there is an alternative which has the authority of
Ho Shang Kung (cf. Erkes (4). p. 21). where ku is taken as the equivalent o f y a x , to nourish, and the reference is
therefore to the cultivation of the spirits of the five viscera. See Conrady (3); Neef (I).
(' Ch. 30, p. 33a.
d The problems of nomenclature and comparative distribution are both of interest. In 1935 Griffith ( I ) wrote:
'Another method (of contraception) which is occasionally practised by men deserves consideration, if only to point
out its harmfulness. Some men seem able to perform the whole sex act in a perfectly normal manner and then, at
the last moment, when ejaculation is imminent, instead of allowing this to occur normally, they contrive to experience an orgasm and yet allow the (seminal) fluid to flow hack into the bladder. I have also come across cases of
masturbation uhere this was the method employed. I should not have deemed it worthy of mention had I not
found the condition occurring in men of high standingand ideals. Where they learnt it from I cannot imagine; how
they manage to practise it is a still greater mystery. Its harmfulness need hardly be stressed. Quite apart from the
fact that it is most unnatural, it demands great mental concentration and will-power to carry out satisfactorily, and
must impede the natural muscular action that should accompany ejaculation,' (p. 95). Griffith offered no evidence,
however, of harmfulness, and other medical experts such as Dr F. Hilton (in private correspondence) have found
none, the only possible sequel being slight subsequent urinary retention. iVe are indebted to hlr P. Coates for
bringing the work of Griffith to our notice.
At an earlier stage (Vol. 2, p. 149)we recorded the common practise of the method among the Turks, Armenians
and Marquesan Islanders; subsequently we learnt of its occurrence in India (private communication from Dr L.
Picken). It cannot he called coitus interruptus (as van Gulik sometimes did) hecause that term must he reserved for
the contraceptive method of sudden withdrawal and external ejaculation, a technique widely disapproved of by
medical psychologists as leading to neuroses of anxiety. Rut as Dr Picken pointed out, the term we ourselves used,
coitur resmatur, is also unsuitable, as it has usually meant allowing the state of excitation to fade without withdrawal. The Chinese methods need two new terms, one for seminal retention and withdrawal after female orgasm,
and another for the 're-routing' of the secretion into the bladder. For the first we would like to adopt his suggestion
of rmtus consen9atur,and for the second coitus thesauratus might he proposed. The latter has in fact already got a
name, i.e. coitus saxoninrs, introduced by Ferdy ( I ) , who found it widespread among the country people of Styria.
It would be very interesting to know more of the comparative occurrence of these techniques in the Old and New
Worlds, hut we have not so far been able to pursue the matter further. We are indebted to Dr F. Hilton for
knowledge of Ferdy's book.
C Hence it was quite reasonable of the late +5th-century author of the H a W u T i K u Shih5 (Tales of the
Emperor Wu of the Han) to attribute a knowledge of 'The Method' to his reign ( - 140 to - 87). Here in sects. 12,
25 and 40 we may read how at that time there were many experts, for example a woman adept named Hsu I-Chun:
who may have taught it to the emperor, while many others, such as the Taoist virtuoso l'ungfang Shuo' and the
courtier Chhen Shi.nf and his son practised it with her. Although I 37 years of age she looked like a young girl. She
,
away among the barbarians and was no more
was eventually exiled, however, about - 80, to T u n h u a n ~ went
seen. There is also much information in the hook about the Imperial Concubine Pemoctation Rota (cf. Vol. 4, pt.
2, pp. 477-8; Needham, iVang & Price (I), pp. 171-2). according to which the court ladies in their different ranks
shared the emperor's couch in an order strictly regulated hy cosmic natural philosophy. Just how historical the
whole account can be considered to he is quite another matter; many things in it are also found in the dynastic
history, but Wang ChienYgreatlpembroidered them. See the translation by d'Hormon (I), pp. 43.61-2.8-1.

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200

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Among the other ancient texts referring to coitus thesauratus is of course the
Huang Thing W a i Ching Yu Ching (cf. p. 83 above), at least as interpreted by its
Thang commentators W u Chhsng T z u and especially Liang Chhiu Tzu,a who
knew what they were talking about, and this text may be as old as the
1stcentury, certainly not later than the +@h. But partly on account of its obscurity
and allusiveness, and partly because its chief concern is with the Taoist physiology
of the route of the ching in the male body, we shall not reproduce it here, referring
only to the brilliant translation and exegesis by Maspero." More important for our
purpose is to quote from the great alchemist KOHung, especially to see fully a little
later how the sexual techniques fitted in to the Great Work of preparing chemical
elixirs, of which they were only one subordinate part. Already old in
300, and
therefore comparable with the foregoing, is the rhyme that K OHung quotes in the

Pao Phu

Tm:C

The Manuals of the Immortals say:

'Those who take chymic elixirs
And guard the primal unityd
Will come to a stop from living
No sooner than Heaven itself;
Making the sperm return,e
Breathing like babe in womb,
They will lengthen their days in peace
And blessing, world without end'.
Apart from various passing referencesf to coitus thesauratus there is a long and
interesting passage which cannot be 0mitted.g
On the technology of sex [wrote KO Hung] at least ten authors have writteqh some
explaining how it can replenish and restore injuries and losses, others telling how to cure
many diseases by its aid, others again describing the gathering of the Yin force to benefit the
Yang, others showing how it can increase one's years and protract one's longevity. But the
great essential here is making the semen return to nourish the brain (huan chingpu naol), a
method which the adepts have handed down from mouth to mouth, never committing it to
writing. If a man does not understand this art he may take the most famous (macrobiotic)
medicines, but he will never attain longevity or immortality.
Besides, the union of Yin and Yang in sexual life should not be wholly given up, for if a
man does not have intercourse he will contract the diseases of obstruction and blockage by
his slothful sitting, and end by those which arise from celibate depression and pent-up
resentment-what good will that do for his longevity?On the other hand, over-indulgence

HCSS (TT260).
ch. 58, p. 46
(7). PP. 388ff.

*
f

PPTINP,ch. 3, p. I h, tr. auct. adjuv. Ware (S), p. 54.

Of the vitalities.
T o nourish the brain (and make the enchyrnoma).
E.g. Ch. 5 . p p za,4a(Waretr.,pp. 100,103).
Ch. 8, p. 3 h, tr. aua. adjuv. Ware (S),p. 140.the first paragraph also in Maspero (7). pp. 4 1 0 . 4 1I .
Presumably a reference to the Chhien Han Shu bibliography, ch. 30, p. 3 3 a

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

20 I

diminishes the life-span, and it is only by managing copulations so that the seminal dispersals are moderated, that damage can be avoided. Without the (right) oral instructions hardly
a man in ten thousand will fail to injure and destroy himself in practising this art.
T h e disciples of the Mysterious Girl and the Immaculate Girl, with the Venerable Jung
Chhing, and PhCng Tsu, all had a rough acquaintance with it, but in the end they never
cdmmitted to paper the most important part of it.8 Those bent upon immortality, however,
assiduously seek this out. h As for myself, I had instruction from my teacher ChSng (Yinl),
and I record it here for the benefit of future believers in the Tao, not retailing my own ideas.
At the same time I must truthfully say that I feel I have not yet mastered everything that
could be got from his instruction. (Lastly), some Taoists with a smattering of knowledge
teach and follow the sexual techniques in order to pattern themselves on the holy immortals, without doing anything about the preparation of the great medicine of the Golden
Elixir. 0 what a height of folly is this!

Here the final cry of the devoted proto-chemical wai tan alchemist is of particular
interest.
So much for the oldest references; we shall come across more indications in later
texts as we proceed (Fig. 1609).But before leaving the Han period we have to take
note of something which was destined to have considerable effect a thousand years
later when Confucian-Buddhist prudery and anti-sexuality had succeeded in
watering down the pure milk of the Taoist gospel. This was simply that the essential procedure of coitus thesauratus could be effected by masturbation, without the
presence of any woman at all. The words occur as the continuation of a passage
from the Su Nu Ching already quoted on p. 190,after the remark that the celibate is
'mortifying (the ching) within itself.' The Immaculate Girl then goes on to sayC
Therefore (if you insist on refraining from women) you should regularly exercise it (the
Jade Stalk) by masturbati0n.d If you can erect it (in orgasm) and yet have no ejaculation,
that is called 'making the ching return', and making the ching return is of great restorative
benefit, fully displaying the Tao of the life(-force).

Thus already in the 1st-century it was considered that though celibacy was an
inferior state, it might be combined with the search for longevity and immortality if
this technique were adopted. Peering into the past for the sociological background
one senses withdrawals of 'Huang Ti' because of irreconcilable quarrels among the
womenfolk of a great house-but the Taoists were right to feel that this was a
withdrawal from the responsibilities of true humanity, and the Immaculate Girl
only recommended her bizarre system as very much a second-best.
T o end these paragraphs, we may quote a couple of poems from the Ju Yao

Obviously the details of coihrc thesamatuc.

Presumably by knocking at the doors of adeprs in remote Taoist temples, and serving then in humble capacities until one or another could be persuaded to adopt you as his disciple. And of course there were many
techniques to be learnt beside those of sex.
Pp. 1 b. Za, tr. auct.
d Tao yin2 is the expression used.
b

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1%. A drawing from Hn'ng Ming Kuei Chih ( + 1615), ch. I, p. 21a, illustrating the theory of hurm chingpu
nao, on which see text. The vertebral axis, up which the ching was thought to rise (d.the s-m.~d channel of India)
is labelled with the names of acu-points on the auxiliary tract T u MO, bepjnninp; from T M I , Chhang-chhiang,
half-way between the coccyx and the anus. The point at which pressure was applied was J M I , half-way between
the anus and the scrotum, in the centre of the perineum, i.e. the first acu-point on the auxiliary tract Jen MO,
passing frontally in the median line. In the drawing 14 out of the 28 acu-points on T u Mo are marked, continuing
with 'I'M 2 Yao-shu, but the third, Yao-yang-kuan, appears only as a spot in the centre between the two kidneyshaped objects. Further acu-point names follow, such as T M q , Ming-men, T M 5, Hsiian-shu. T M 6 , Chichung, etc. ending at T M 15, FSng-fu. Twenty-four 'vertebrae' are shown, and one of the 'bottlenecks', s h u w
k u a , is marked to the left of the spine, while one of the primary vitalities,yua shm, appears at the top of the head.
'I'he list of phrases above the figure look like acu-point names, but in fact they are terms in Taoist anatomy, n i w a ,
the brain, for example, in the centre. The drawing is entitled 'The Glory of Reversion' (Fan Chao Thu), but one
must recognise that by this time, the early
17th century, the classical physiological techniques were being
replaced by euphemistic allegorical or mystical interpretations.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

z03

Ching, to see how things looked in the 10th-century. These are some that survived the expurgation already referred to (p. 196). So we find:
Returning to the orifice of the root,a
Returning to the gate of life,h
Let it pass through the coccygeal channe1,c
And penetrate up to the brain.*
Engage the Yellow Damee
As go-between for the Elegant Girl,'
Softly, lightly, let it descend,g
Darkly, silently, let it rise up.h
If you know what floats and what sinksi
If you understand who should be host and who guest,J
You will be able to convoke the Great Meetingk
With neither stitch nor veil between them.'

By now the reader will be able to follow these hidden thoughts almost as well as any
adept of the Sung.
The Pao Phu Tzu passage just quoted contains a severe warning of the dangers
inherent in sexual technology if not fully understood, and such admonitions are
repeated again and again in the old texts. The Su N u Ching says that 'coupling with
a woman is like trying to control a galloping horse with rotten reins, or like being
afraid of falling into pit-traps set with sharp bladesl.m The Y u Fang Chih Y a o says
that 'the Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti) lay with twelve hundred women and yet rose
into the heavens as an immortal; ordinary people
have but one woman each, yet
.
their life-span is cut off thereby. Knowing how to act, and not knowing how to
act-what a vast distance stretches between! For those who know the art, their only
difficulty is to get enough women with whom to lie.'" These dangers so often mentioned are perhaps a little puzzling biologically. It is easy to think of the psychological effects of coitus interruptus (if indeed these are substantiated), and of exhaustion
~-

Urethra or vagina.
Vagina, or more likelv the lowest of the 'gates' in the vertebral column thmugh which the semen had to
ascend.
'' Wei Iu' strictly means the anus, both of man and animals, and also cosmicallv (on which see Vol. 4, pt. 3, p.
549); but here it is taken in a wider sense as the region of the rump, particularly the coccyx, past which the upward
flow of the semen was visualised as occumng. Cf. Liu Tshun-Jen (I), p. 71.
W u e i k f t chhiao,fu ming kuan, k m wei /U, thmg ni man.*. 2 I b. tr. auct.
One of the four h a n g (cf. p. 58). representative of the central, therefore yellow, region. Huang Thing, c%
tan thien, etc. corresponding to the element Farth, the region where the enchymoma will be formed. Cf. Chin Tan
p. I 2 a.
T a Ch-,
I.e. 'true' mercury, cf. p. 62 and Table 121 c.
The saliva. Alternatively, the stanza is referring to the chhi circulation.
h The semen. Tho Huang Pho, mei Chha ,\U
' ,
chhing chhiw ti, mo mo chu.' P. 25 6, tr. auct.
The two reagents just mentioned.
1 Cf. p. I 96. The male adept is the guest as well as the female one with him, for he does not 'pour out the wine'
either.
k Of the two reagents of the anablasternic enchymoma, thought of here as lovers.
1 Shih fou chm, ming chu kho, yao chu hui, mo chien ko.4 P . 3 I h, tr. auct.
m P. I h, tr. auct., adjuv. ,Maspero (7). p. 380; van Gulik (8). p. 157.
" P. I a, tr. auct., preferring van Gulik's interpretation, (8). p. 137 to that of Maspero (7). p. 381.
a

204

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

from over-indulgence (if it does in fact bring a lowered resistance t o disease), a n d of

course increased possibilities of transmission of the minor venereal maladies (but
that would not be lessened b y the adept's management of his sperm). O n e cannot
help feeling that the unconscious aim of the warnings was t o keep the common
people more o r less contented with their lot, leaving t o the grandees--and t o the
Taoist adepts w h o alone knew what t o d o about it-the opportunity of more extensive sexual relationships.
Secondly, there was the 'scriptural authority' for sex. W e have just seen it in the
quotation from the Lieh Hsien Chuan, a n d earlier (p. 132) when considering the
commentary of H o Shang K u n g o n the Tao Te"Ching. W e can illustrate it for the
last time b y a passage from the Wang- Wu Chen-Jm Khou Shou Yin Tan Pi Chiieh
Ling Phienl (Numinous Record of the Confidential Oral Instructions o n the Yin
Enchymoma handed down b y the Adept of W a n g - W U ) , ~
a text dating from the
close neighbourhood of +765 and probably written b y Liu S h o ~ I.t ~runs as
follows:~
T h e Yang enchymoma can make one ascend (into the heavens); the Yin enchmoma can
confer longevity. The Yang enchymoma is a 'returning' (i.e. regenerative) medicine, the
Yin enchymoma is the (regenerative) technique of making the chin@return.
Huang T i asked Kuang ChhCng Tzu4 about the Tao (of these things) and he replied: 'Do
not exhaust your physical form, avoid wasting your seminal essence (ching3). If these techniques are carefully adhered to, longevity and immortality will r e s u l t ' s u c h is the meaning
of it.
The Ruler of Primary Chaos (Hun Yuan Huang Ti5 = Lao Tzu) says in the 'Canon of
the Virtue of the Tao': 'Strengthening the root and making firm the trunk-that is the Tao
of longevity and everlasting perception.'c Ho Shang Kung in his commentary says: 'Man's
semen (ching3) is the root, and his chhi is the trunk'd-that is the meaning of it. Again, (Lao
Tzu) says: 'Empty their minds (of ambition) and fill their bellies; weaken their self-seeking
and strengthen their bones'.e This method of strengthening the bones is indeed the meaning of it.'
Again, the 'Manual of the Yellow Court' says:g 'By the radiance of the sun and moon
there can be rescue from the despoilment of old age.' The mutual union of Yin and Yang is
what is meant by the radiance of the sun and moon. And, in another place? 'Continually
nourish the numinous sprout, and it will not wither;' close and fasten the gate of life (ming
mA6),preserve the city of jade bu tu').' Now the gate of destiny is just below the reservoir of
semen (ching shih8),and the city of jade is the five (Yin) viscera.
Or, 'the Perfected (or Realised) Immortal of Wang-wu (Shan)'.
YCCC, ch. 64, pp. 1 3a,b. 140, tr. auct.
C Too TZChirrg,ch. 59, cf.p. 135 above.
d Actually he says just the opposite, but no matter.
Tao Tt?C h k , ch. 3, cf.Vol. 2, p. 86.
f
Ho S h a n ~Kung says: 'Conserve the eh*' and hinder its dissemination,then the marrow cavities will be full
and the bones strong.' Erkes (4),p. 18.
g HThing ~VeiChing Yu Ching, ch. 33, p. I I a, speaking of the liver.
h Ibid. ch. 35, p. I I b, speaking of the spleen.
1 This refers to the saliva.
h

33.

z05

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

If you divest yourself of cravings the four limbs will be free from disease,just as when the
roots (of a plant) are flourishing the leaves and branches will be luxuriant. Nature endows
people with foolishness or intelligence, but it never determines their individual span of life.
It is like the fruits and seeds of trees, which may be sweet or acid; if they fall into good
ground the plants flourish exceedingly, but if they fall upon stony ground they are retarded
and soon wither. T h e life-span of man is just like this. Thus all the Taoist traditions say that
one's destiny depends upon oneself and not upon Heaven-that is the meaning of it.. .

Here perhaps the chief fresh interest is the deep conviction that a man's life-span
depended on his own actions and not on fate. This comes as a refrain through all the
nei tan literature."
In this connection it is indispensable to give some idea of the very serious, religious, almost liturgical, character of the rites of sexual union as carried out by
medieval Taoist adepts.h One of the most interesting accounts was discovered by
Maspero in a tractate called Chhing-Ling Chen-Jen Phei Chun (Na)Chuanl (Biography of the Chhing-Ling Adept, Master Phei), written by one TGng Yun TzuZ
about a teacher of uncertain date, Phei Hsiian-Jen,3 who was supposed to have
been born in - 178.C Maspero regarded it as a 'hagiographical romance' of the
5th-century, with perhaps some early Thang additions, but it gives a very clear
idea of what was done. The passage is as follows:"

T h e second proceduree should be started at the hour when the (Yang chhz) begins to
increase, after midnight, at the end of a khai or chhu day in a ten-day period the first day of
which was a chia-tzu day. (The couple) should be free from the effects of wine or repletion
of food, and they should be clean of body, for otherwise illness and disease will afflict them.
First by means of meditation they must have put away all worldly thoughts, then only may
men and women practise the Tao of life eternal. This procedure is absolutely secret, and
may be transmitted only to sages; for in it men and women together lay hold of the chhi of
life, cherishing and nourishing respectively the seminal essence and the blood. [It is not a
heterodox thin4.r In it the Yin is gathered up in order to benefit the Yang. If one practises it
according to the rules, the chhi and the fluids will circulate like clouds, the pure wine of the
ching will coagulate harmoniously, and whether one is old or young one will revert to the
state of youth.

"

c f . pp. 46. 123.292.

We have said little here about the communal liturgical sexual c e m o n i e s described already in Vol. 2, pp.
150-1 because they were practised by all the adults of the Taoist parish (more or less between the 2nd and the
7th-centuries), and not confined to couples seeking salvation and immortality through physiological alchemy.
But it is worth adding something still little known, namely that the service-book or rituale has been preserved
Shu Kuo Tu I'(TTx276). Similarly the
unrecognised to this day in the Tao Tsung, i.e. in the S k - C h h i n g Htalismans and certificates which the participants received are to be found in the Ch& I Fa W h Wai Lu Is
(TT1225). We have to thank Dr Kristofer Schipper for this interesting information.
According to the biop;n\phical introduction of the book in question, but neither he nor any of the adepts
named as his masters appear in the present text of the Lieh Hn'm Chua. This Chhing-Ling chen-jen may well be
the same person as the adept of the same pseudonym mentioned in the passage by T&g Tshao on p. 197 above.
d YCCC, ch. 105, p. 3a, b. tr. auct. adjuv. Maspem (t), p p 3 8 6 1 ; van Gulik (g), p. 199.
e It is one of five. The othen concern different techniques, e.g. for absorbing the chhi of the five planets by
respiratory exercises during the night, and various other Taoist rituals, prayers and cantraps.
r Van Gulik suspected that this sentence was an interpolation of Ming date, hence our square brackets.
b

206

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

The two partners should begin by meditating, so that they detach their minds both from
their own bodies and from all earthly things. After that they gnash their teeth repeatedly
seven times, and say the following prayers:
'May the Metallous Essence of the Original Whiteness8 bring our Five Rlossomsb to life'.
'May the Yellow Lord of the CentreC harmonise our hun souls, and strengthen our seminal
essences'.
'May the Supreme Essence of the Great Emperor above solidify our humours and fortify
our spirits'.
'May the Unsurpassed Supreme True One bind together our six chh?.
'May the Mysterious Patriarch of the Supemal Essence regenerate our shenl and repair our
brains'.
'May he make the two of us unite and blend so as to recast the embryo and guard the
precious treasure'.
These prayers being ended, (the man and the woman begin coition). The man guards
(controls) his reins (i.e. his libido), keeping firm grasp of his semen and refining its chhi, (till
eventually) they ascend along the spinal column to the brain going against the (normal)
current. This is called 'regenerating the primary (vitalities; huan yuan2)'. The woman
guards (controls) her heart (i.e. her emotions) and nourishes her shen,' not allowing the
refined fire to move (lien huopu t 1 4 ~ , 'i.e. refraining from orgasm), but making the chhi of
her two breasts descend into her reins, and then also rise up from there (along the spinal
column) to reach the brain. This is called 'transforming (life) into the primary (vitalities;
hua chen4)'.
If (their bodies) are nourished (in this way) the door (is opened) for the development of an
enchymoma of magical potency after a hundred days. If the procedure is followed for a long
period of time it will become a natural and habitual thing, and will lead to true longevity and
immortality as the generations pass. (Truly) it is the Tao of the Deathless.

This passage is of rare value, giving as it does an insight into the rites of the medieval men and women Taoists in their mountain abbeys, assuredly not without the
prior strains of the lute and the burning of appropriate incense in the forrn of sticks
or labyrinthine trai1s.d It is also important because it emphasises the extent to
which both sexes were regarded as beneficiaries of the exercise, a counter-current
upward flow of chhi or fluid occurring in both. The male adept used, it is clear, the
technique of coitus thesauratus, conserving his ching, while the abstention of the
female adept from orgasm conserved (in this old Taoist view) her Yin and blood
f0rces.e Van Gulik felt that this equivalence of benefit was rarer than the forrnulations which awarded most of the profit of the sex techniques to the male side,
The Spirit of metal and the north and whitmess.
The five viscera.
C Pmbahly cosmological as well as m i c ~ m i c .
6 Cf. Vol. 3, p. 330 and the subsequent monographs of M i n i (5, 6). Timing by the burning of incense was
greatly used in China, and the phases of the present procedure could well have made use of this aid. It may well also
have been involved in the t i m i n ~of the respiratory and gymnastic techniques (cf. pp. 142, 154 above).
A hint about the position used may he gained from one of the statements concerning the public ceremonies.
'They join the four eyes, the four nostrils, the two mouths, the two tongues and the four hands, in such a way as to
confront exactly the Yin and the Yang' (Hsiao Tao Lun and Pien Chhg I,un, see Maspero (7). pp. 404-5). In this
connection the hmnze figures on box lids described by Salmony (2) may be recalled, a man and a woman, naked,
kneeling and facing each other.
a

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

z07

but we have found it in very similar form elsewhere, for example in the Thai Hsiian
Pao Tien' (Precious Records of the Great Mystery),&a Sung or Yuan book of the
13th or 14th-century, by an unknown writer. Here there is a closely analogous
parallel passage to the one just given.h It uses the same alchemical terms but omits
the prayers, and explains that in generation the father's contribution forms the
reins, while the mother's forms the heart and blood. This is reminiscent of the old
Hellenistic and Talmudic doctrine that 'the father sows the white, the mother sows
the redl.c
Sojust as their generative functions differ, their work in macrobiotic union is not
the same. And much practice is needed.

When this is performed for a hundred days, with the man (ensuring) that no ching2is
ejaculated, his chhi will be that of longevity and immortality, and he will return to a state like
infancy and youth-this is a magical and numinous thing. (Similarly) if the woman (ensures) that her blood does not move (&eh pu tun&), her sh& will thereby be settled, and
she will return to the state of a young girl, receiving (again) the two vessels, one of which
forms milk, the other (menstrual) blood-the wonder and the mystery of this is inexhaustible. Those who continually practise it will find their hair growing (black again),
their breasts calmed, their reins transformed and their bodies transfigured.

Over and over again, as we have seen, the texts enjoined the illuminati of Taoist
sexuality never to hand down their knowledge, whether theoretical or practical, to
those unworthy to receive i t d In this the usual personal relationships of fellowcountrymen (thung hsianp) or descendants of class-mates, as well as actual consanguinity, all played a natural part. One glimpses this from passages such as the
following, taken from the Wang- Wu Chen-Jen Liu Shou I Chen-Jen Khou Chiieh
Chin Shun$ (Confidential Oral Instructions of the Adept of Wang-Wu presented
to the Court by Liu Shou) shortly after 780. It says?

In the reign of Tai Tsung ( 763 to 780) there was an adept called Wang, of the given
name Chhang-Shing,f who wandered to many famous mountains and lived in many different places. Your servant (Liu Shou), when visiting Wang-wu Shan, saw him there, and
indeed he was known by the name of the Wang-wu Adept. He himself said that he was a
man of the Eastern Chin dynasty ( 3 I 7 to 420).
He had a wife named Liu who said herself that she had been born in the time of Thai
Tsung ( + 627 to 649). Outwardly their relationship appeared to be like snow and ice, yet
in their explorations of the mountains to find suitable places for Taoist practices they always
went about together.
My own uncle, named (Liu) TCng,' studied Taoism at the Northern Sacred Peak of

TTrozz, also in TTCY.

TTCYed., p. 18b,tr. auct.
c Needham (2). p. 60.
d On oral tradition in general the book of Vansina (r) may be consulted. He is concerned mostly with historic^
graphv but touches now and then on esoteric oral instruction (pp. 3 r ,67, 1461).
e YCCC, ch. 64, pp. rqaff., tr. auct.
f
Wang Chhang-ShSn$ was certainly a taken, not a given,name.
b

208

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

H&ngShan under the teacher Chang Kuol for over 50 years. He lived to be I 16 years of age.
In the third month of spring in the 14th year of the Thien-Pao reign-period ( + 7 5 5 ) , he
spoke to all his disciples, saying: 'My primary vitalities (yuanchhiz)have gone wrong; it will
not be possible for me to go on dwelling here permanently. I shall travel to the three mountains and cross the great lakes to search for famous drugs. If my return is delayed do not be
anxious.' So he left and never came back. That year in the eleventh month the rebellion of
An Lu-Shan broke out.
Your servant comes of a scholarly Taoist family, and I studied on Wang-wu (mountain)
more than ten years. I often used to see there an old man gathering firewood; I knew that he
never ceased practising the Tao, but did not quite realise that I was meeting an extraordinary person, none other than the Wang-Wu Adept himself. He asked me where I came
from, and about my family, then he told me that he studied under Chang Kuo at the same
time as my uncle. Our friendship was thus much increased. At this time I myself was
getting on in years, with failing eyesight and hearing, so the Adept took pity on me and gave
me this oral instruction. Since then, although I have not regained my youth, all my ailments
have greatly lessened.

Thus far the preamble. It is unnecessary to give the Adept's instructions in detail
because we already know the gist of them. But a few words of the Chzi'eh are worth
recording.8
One should not dare to be the host, but rather play the part of the guest. We can borrow
from the Taoist manuals in speaking of these affairs. He who first lifts up the cup (at a party)
is the host, he who responds is the guest. T h e host first pours out benefits for others, but the
guests are those who receive. If one gives like this one's ching3 is dispersed and one's emotions are exhausted. But if one receives, one's ching3 is strengthened and one's emotions
concentrated. This is because the absorption of the chhiof union assists one's own (primary)
Yang-in that case what is there to worry about?

It then goes on to explain a technique of applying the perinea1 pressure in coitus

thesauratus with the heel rather than the hand; this was called 'riding the wine-pot'
(chhhg hu9.b There follows a detailed description of intercourse in which the Yin
and Yang mutually unite, penetrate and fuse, harmonising the ching and the chhi in
both partners. It quotes as an old Taoist saying:
Who wishes life unending to attain
Must raise the essence to restore the brain.c

And after quoting PhEng Tzu to the effect that the Yin can nourish the Yang, it
adds significantly that we know how correspondingly the Yang can nourish the
Yin.d 'The ching being elevated against the current, both the man and the woman
can become immortals and obtain the Tao.'e And finally, 'Thus all the old Taoist
Ibid. p. xga, tr. auct.
Ibid. p. 15 h. This suggests the use of the lotus posture, but the adept would have to be thin, and agile in the
joints.
1bid.p. 16a.
d Ibid. p. 166.
Ibid. p. 17h.It goes on to my: 'For the man the Yang can be the host and the Yin the guest; for the woman the
Yin can be the host and the Yang the guest. So the p e s t helps the host, and the host finds peace.' Presumably this
refers to the outflowingof their respective chhi.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

209

traditions say that if (the semen is) ejaculated it leads to other men, that is to say, a
child is born, but if it is retained it leads to the man himself, that is to say, an
(immortal) body is born-that is the meaning of it.'* Such statements are repeated
time after time in later books, even down to the nineteenth century when the union
of the sexes had generally given way under Confucian-Buddhist pressure in favour
of solitary practices.
We reach now an important matter-what exactly was the relation of sexual
technology to wai tan proto-chemical alchemy? From the words of KOHung in the
Pao Phu Tzu book, c. + 300, it is quite clear that in relatively early times the sex
practices were thought of only as a means to an end, just one of the helpful ways in
which a man could prolong his life for the several centuries required for a perfect
understanding of the Great Work, the making of the golden elixirs which alone
could confer immortality. Many a modem scientist today might also like to live on a
few hundred years, no doubt, to follow further the understanding of Nature in the
particular branch to which he had devoted his normal life. Of course, for KOHung,
it was not so much a matter of theoretical understanding in the modem sense, but
the difficulty of collecting books and finding out those who knew the secrets of
alchemy, and the rareness of the opportunities of procuring the necessary ingredients and reagents. Only in rather later times did the nei tan begin to take
precedence of the wai tan-then, together with the other psycho-physiological
techniques, such as breathing, meditation and gymnastics, sexology (if we might so
call it) came to be an end in itself. KOHung did not believe it was, and said so very
firmly. But then he was a man who had no objection to getting his hands dirty
among his stoves and athanors, or talking with the cinnabar miners of the south; in
later times from Thang to Sung predominance passed to the gentlemen who despised the 'messing about' with minerals, herbs and metals, the trade of the protochemists-physiological 'alchemy' was so much cleaner. Of course, it was none the
less prophetic for that, but this we shall consider presently. Now we must listen to
KO Hung, the opinions of a great proto-chemical alchemist, on what sex could do
and what not. He certainly regarded it as an indispensable sine qua non, yet an
auxiliary rather than a determining factor. In Pao Phu Tzu we read:b
Even if drugs (elixirs) are not attainable and one can only practise the circulation of the

chhi, several hundred years of longevity may be gained if the principles are thoroughly
understood; but of course for this it is necessary that one should know the arts of the bedchamber. Anyone who does not comprehend these techniques of Yin and Yang will become
exhausted and injured by repeated (loss of sperm) so that the breathing exercises will not
succeed.

Thus sexology was thought of here as adjuvant to pneumatology, and that in its
turn to chemistry or pharmacy. KOHung elaborated in a long and inspired reply to
a questioner, worth reproducing in full:'-'

Ibid. p. 18a.
PPTINP, ch. 5, p. ga, tr. auct. adjuv. Ware (5). p. 105.
PPTINP, ch. 6 , pp. Saff., tr. auct., adjuv. Warr (5). pp. 12zff.;van Gulik (g), p. 95.

33.

210

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Someone said: 'I have heard that he who has fully mastered the sexual techniques of the
bedchamber can travel (through the wildernesses safely) alone, and can summon the spirits
and immortals; he can divert disasters and absolve from guilt, turn misfortunes into blessings, rise high in the civil service, and double profits if in trade. Is this true, do you think?'
Pao Phu Tzu replied: 'This is all nonsense, exaggerated talk of enchantments derived
from the books of wizards and magicians, embellished by the glosses and embroideries of
busybodies; in fact it has lost all relation with the facts. Some of it indeed is the work of
licentious charlatans who deceive the masses with absurd and empty claims, secretly
scheming for rank and respect, gathering disciples to further their ambitions.
Actually the best of the Yin-Yang techniques can cure minor diseases, and the least of
them can prevent debilitation and exhaustion, but that is all it amounts to. There are obvious natural limits to these principles (li'). How on earth could they enable one to summon
spirits and immortals, or to turn misfortunes into blessing?
It is of course inadmissable that a man should sit and bring illness and anxieties upon
himself by not engaging in sexual intercourse. On the other hand if he indulges his lusts
inordinately and indiscriminately, unable to moderate his seminal dispersals, he might as
well take an axe to the tree of his life-span.. . But those who know the art can rein in the
runaway steeds and repair the brain, they can draw in the Yin enchymoma to the Scarlet
Gut (the heart), and they can conduct the jade juice (the saliva) to the Metallous Pool.. .
Thus an old man can look like a young one, and live out his appointed days to the full.
Ordinary people, hearing that the Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti) had I 200 concubines and
yet ascended into the heavens, suppose that that was the sole reason why he could do so.
What they do not realise is that Huang T i mounted aloft on a dragon only after having
successfully sublimed the nine-fold (cyclicallytransformed cinnabar) elixir on the shores of
Cauldron Lake at the foot of the Chingz mountains. Naturally Huang Ti could have I 200
concubines, but what happened was not due to that alone.
In fact no benefit will accrue from taking thousands of drugs, or living on the three meats
either,&as long as one does not understand the erotic arts. T h e ancients, therefore, fearing
that people might treat physical love and sexual indulgence too lightly, praised and emphasised these arts perhaps too much, so that one need not believe all that is said about
them. Yet sexual intercourse was (rightly) compared by the Mysterious Girl and the Immaculate Girl with water and fire, either of which can kill man as well as bringing him to life, all
depending on whether he knows how to use them properly. Broadly speaking, once the
essential rules are known, the benefits will increase in proportion with the number of copulation~;but if one makes love without properly knowing this Tao, it is enough even to
bring danger of quick and sudden death, as has been seen in one or two cases.
All the essentials are contained in the old methods of PhCng Tsu. Other books on the
subject teach only many troublesome methods difficult to carry out, and the resulting benefits are not always such as they claim. Even young people can put (PhCng Tsu's instructions) into effect, as well as those amounting to several thousand words (by custom)
orally handed down. Without a knowledge of bedcraft one will never attain to longevity or
immortality, however many hundreds of (macrobiotic) drugs one may succeed in consuming.'

Thus it is not enough in itself but a necessary condition of everything else. KO

Hung certainly believed in gods, spirits and archaei, to say nothing of talismans,
a
I

Abstaining from cereals.

Pi!

$1

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

21 I

magic and spells-but he was remarkably level-headed about sex. The third paragraph of his speech shows that the double enchymoma of saliva and semen was
already visualised in his time; and his argument in the fourth, though quite in the
sceptical style of Wang Chhung, shows that he thought the success of Huang T i
had really been due to proto-chemical alchemy."
KOHung returns to the subject in several other places. In one he emphasises the
necessity of deep understanding, and says that for sex as well as for the breathing
techniques and the macrobiotic drugs there are manifold ways of proceeding, so
that one has to know which are effective and which are n0t.b In another he tells the
story of an adept named Ku Chhiang,' who specialised in herbal medicines and was
much given to the sexual techniques.c Ku attained the age of 80 without showing
any of the ravages of old age, and was called 'the Immortal' or 'Old Millennial'; he
talked cleverly about ancient times which he claimed to have lived through, but in
the end he died, and the fact that his corpse did not disappear from the coffin
showed that he had never become an immortal. But the most important statement
of KO Hung suggests that the physiological techniques would greatly help to gain
longevity when there were difficulties in mastering that proto-chemical alchemy
which for him was the sovereign method of attaining immortality. This is perhaps
the keynote of the first phase in the wai-tan nei-tan relationship. The Pao Phu Tzu
book says3
The (nine-fold cyclically transformed cinnabar) elixir, and the potable gold, are by far
the most important products in the mastery of the (art of the) immortals, but the procedures
for making them are so elaborate and the expenses so heavy that it is hardly possible to carry
them through to completion. This is why it is absolutely imperative to conserve the semen
and to cherish the chhi; moreover by taking in addition certain lesser medicines and studying certain lesser techniques to ward off malign influences and other evils, one can also
lengthen one's pears and life-span. In this way one can gradually ascend to the comprehension of the subtlest matters.

It now only remains to say a few words about the veiling of the sexual techniques
under the symbolism of proto-chemical alchemy. As a good example of this one
could take the Chin I Huan Tan Yin Ch&g ThuZ(Illustrations and Evidential Signs
of the Regenerative Enchymoma elaborated from the Metallous F l ~ i d )a,book
~ by
one Lung Mei Tzu3 (the Dragon-Eyebrow Master) which may perhaps be assigned
to the I 2th-century. It opens with pictures of two robed figures (as in Fig. 1579
above), the male with a furnace (Id) confronting the female with a reaction-vessel
(ting"; they are of course the personifications of the kua Chhien and Khun, but for

8 The contrast of Huang Ti and ordinary people recurs in this literature again and again. See, for example, the
Lmg Hu Hum Tun Chtieh S W (Eulogy of the Instructions for Preparing the Regenerative Enchymoma of the
, ~ Valley-Spirit Master), TT1o68,c. +985, p. 18h.
Dragon and the Tiger), by Lin 'ra-Ku7(Ku Shen T Z U the
h PPTISP, ch. X, p. 2a, tr. Ware(5), p. 138.
C PPT/>VP,
ch. 2 0 , p. 26, tr. Ware(5). p. 321.
* PPTINP, ch. 6 , p. 3 a, tr. auct., adjuv. Ware ( 5 ) . p. I I 2 .
TTr48.

2I 2

33.

ALCHEMY AND C H E M I S T R Y

Fig. 1610. The mtrimonium alchyminnn in the Chin I Huan Tan Yin Ch& Thu (Illustrations and Evidential
Signs of the Regenerative Enchymoma elaborated from the Metallous Fluid) by Lung Mei Tzu, probably of the
+ 12th century (p. 3a,h). Masculine Chhien with his furnace confronts feminine Khun with her reaction-vessel.
The passage headed Ting chhi gives what appear to be dimensions for the reaction-vessel but what are really
numerological magical numbers connected with the I Ching and the timing of the immortality exercises.

those who know, the body of the girl is the reaction-vessel and that of the man the
stove (see Fig. 1610).Beside it the text saysa
All the documents about transforming elixirs relate to the reaction-vessel and the furnace, but these are essentially nothing but the kua Khun and Chhien. The reaction-vessel is
round like the hempen patch of a mourning garment, as 5 to 3 in circumference and diameter, as I around the lips (in darkness), as 4 to 8 in belly and navel. As for disclosing the
(nature of the) lead in the reaction-vessel, if you wish to judge of it, it is necessary to fix the
Yang fire so that it plays underneath, but it must not be allowed to spread so that it attains
the intensity of human passion. This is to show the practitioner under instruction where he
must stop. This decision is called the Mysterious Axis (hsiian shu').

Here what seem to be the dimensions of a material piece of apparatus are really
numerological numbers drawn from the I Ching (Book of change^).^ The fire is of
course the masculine ardour, and 'knowing where to stop' indicates the skilful
management of the coitus thesauratus procedure. Further on, the text becomes, in a
sense, still more al~hemical.~
P . 3b, tr. auct.
b

There are obvious echoes from the wai tan passages quoted in pt. 4 , pp. 16ff. .
P . .+h,tr. auct.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

2I3

Lead [it says] comes from white metal, mercury from cinnabar. The (ordinary) alchemists find it easy to take hold of these things, and go to and fro boasting like generals that
these chemical substances are the true medicines. Yet one must winnow the wheat and the
barley to look out for the long hemp (weeds). Within the h a Khan there is the red-yellow
boy whose name is Ancestor of Mercury. Within the kua Li there is the mysterious girl who
belongs to the Family of Lead. He who can distinguish the true from the false will know that
the product of the 'true lead' looks like 'horse teeth'.
Here there is evident reference to the physiological lead and mercury of the semen
and the saliva, as also to the central lines within the kua, and the 'horse teeth' is a
cover-name for 'yellow sprouts', i.e. the bright metal of lead within the oxide layer,
the Yang within the Yin. Near by there is a picture (Fig. 161I ) of the reactionvessel smoking away on its altar-steps capped by the usual Taoist sword, with Yin
and Yang in the shapes of toad and phoenix.&Particularly interesting for the background of every type of exercise in physiological alchemy is another illustration
(Fig. 1612) where we see a small hall or pavilion for the practitioners, having in
front of it a platform-altar with two swords and a polwascular clepsydra for timing
the pr0cedures.b T h e text saysC
Rules and arrangements.
The altar is built with three steps corresponding to Heaven, Earth and Man. The Nine
Palaces (of the body) and the Eight Trigrams give out their orders. The mirrors are hung up
above and below to drive away evil influences. The swords are placed at the corners to
suppress all ghosts and demons. With the Pace of Yii you ascend at the proper time the
three enc1osures.d The sign of the Great Bear points the way for all the diabolic spirits (to
depart). (You must pay attention to) the dripping of the clepsydra without the slightest
mistake. Then before long your exercises will conquer (the effects of the passage of) ten
thousand springs (and autumns).
I n such surroundings, then, we may set the meditations, the respiratory exercises,
the gymnastic techniques, the sexual unions, the prayers and orison^.^
Another connection between sexology and wai tan alchemy may be traced in a
text entitled Chin Hua Yu Nu Shuo Tan Ching' (What the Jade Girl of the Golden
Flower said about Elixirs and Enchymomas).f T h e date of this is very uncertain but
it must be either W u Tai or Sung. Its interest lies in the fact that it takes the form of
a dialogue between a Taoist demiurge, Thai Chi Yuan Chen T i Z(the SupremePole Ruler of the Primary Vitalities) and our old friend the Mysterious Girl (Hsiian
Nii3). It deals with nei tan physiological alchemy but with much wai tan imagery,
Pp. 5b,6a.
P. 7a. On the clepsydm see Vol. 3, Fig. 140. The p o l w w l a r system wm well established in the + phcentury,but the form here is very like others which date from the middle of the + I zth-century,and this may be an
indication of the time when the book was written.
P. 7b, tr. auct.
* This was a special dance step; see Granet ( I ) ,vol. 2, pp. gqgff.
And, for that matter, also, the operations of laboratory alchemy. Compare the scroll-painting of KOHung at
work (Fig. 1613), taken from Sung Ta-Jen (6).
In YCCC, ch. 64, pp. I aff.
a

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ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1611. Another picture from the same work (p. 6a,b). The preparation of the enchymoma in the living bodies
symbolised by the smoking furnace and reaction-vessel accompanied by sword and platform; the crane of immortality flies away as an emanation from the moon-toad (cf.Fig. I 565) The passage on the left relates to this.

speaking of mercury and lead, cinnabar, furnaces and vessels; and it was probably
expurgated later as there is little or nothing about the huan ching procedure in it
now.
Finally we may quote a short passage from the Chin Tan Chen Chuan' (Record of
the Primary Vitalities regained by the Metallous Enchymoma), written by Sun JuChungZin
1615.This seems to show that by the end of the Ming the ancient
theory based on the amalgamation of lead and mercury was being applied not only
to saliva and semen, but to the masculine semen on the one hand, and to the feminine chen Yang chhi and fluids on the other. The preface says:"

My endowment as a man has a Yin within its Yang; this is Li kua and mercury. Unless I
can obtain the true lead from someone else, and (conduct it) counter-current-wise to join
the (true) mercury, how can the holy embryo be generated which gives rise to immortals
and bodhisattvas? Similarly in the endowment of someone else there is a Yang within her
Yin; this is Khan kua and lead. Unless she can obtain my true mercury flowing in normal
current, and throw it into her (true) lead, how can the ordinary foetus be formed which
gives rise to boy and girl children? Thus following the normal current leads to more human
a

P. I a, tr. auct.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

t %;Rh
p ~

Fig. 1612. A third illustration from the same work (p. 7a);the scene of the n k tan practices. Behind, a pavilion
suitable for their performance; in front an alchemical platform flanked by Taoistswords; to the left a polyvascular
clepsydra (cf.Vol. 3,p. 323)with a monastic figure holding the indicator-rod, used for timing the procedures.

beings, but going counter-cuirent leads to the enchymoma-that is the teaching to remember. T h e elixir manuals speak very often about this e n c h y r n ~ m a . ~
T o obtain it by bedcraft is not a matter of o r d i n a ~sexual life, choosing (positions for the
flowery) 'battle', and so forth; that goes on in every family. It is not however to be found in
one's own body alone; the profit of the method comes from the reaction-vessel (the
woman's body). . .h This is the orthodox teaching, not merely what my own teacher taught
me.

This is partly pure theory, and partly a practice which every couple could follow,c
a

An indication that what seems wm tan is very often nei tan.

Cf. the role of 'self and 'other' in the theory of the enchymoma (pp. 60.95 above, and Table 121c).
In the Ming, sexual alchemy was no longer confined to remote temples in the mountain mists. Democratised,
it spread among the people. Cf. the remark of Dr Kuo P2n-Tao which I recorded in Vol. 2,p. 147.
b
C

2r6

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1613. A scroll-painting of KO Hung's alchemical laboratory in a cave, similar to that published by Sung TaJen ( 6 ) ,p. 8; to show the similarity between wm' tan and nn fa
operations. The famulus is tending the platformstove, on which a reaction-vessel is flaming away, the sword and the mirror are prominent, with talismans uu)
hanging on the wall, and below on the right is a digester similar to that shown in Vol. 5 , pt. 4, Fig. 1388.There is a
still on the left, and a tame deer looks in at the entrance. Photo. Dr Sung Ta-Jen.

though it is not clear with what benefit to the feminine side.8 And here for the
moment we may end our expos6 of the sexual component in physiological alchemy.
Before leaving this subject it is indispensable to place it in some adequate perspective. All the other Taoist methods for inducing longevity and material immortality by means of psychological alchemy could be carried on in solitude by isolated
hermits, but once sexual relationships entered into the picture the whole human
Only slightly distorted, the account could be applied to masturbation.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

217

community came with them. The adept could no longer be a world unto himself.
Moreoever in the greatest days of religious Taoism there had been an incorporation
of the physical phenomena of sex in numinous group catharsis, free alike from
asceticism and class distinctions.&The collaboration of men and women through
the ages in the formation (as they thought) of a 'holy embryo of eternal life' within
themselves, rather than in the generation of children 'according to the flesh', meant
the exploration of a dimension of human love not easily comprehensible for those
brought up, as Westerners are, in a society nominally Christian yet deeply Manichaean. Simply to recall that Taoist sexual unions were accompanied by incense
and prayers to the gods and the holy immortals is in itself sufficient to indicate the
gulf that separates the Taoist from the European sexuality, a transaction which can
never quite escape the feeling of impiety that centuries of ideal 'chastity' and asceticism have imposed upon it. Taoist sexuality was neither sensual nor guilt-ridden,
neither antinomian nor irreligious; for Taoism as for Tantrism the operations of
physical love were a powerful aid to the mystical apprehension of the divine power
within the universe-'one Yang and one Yin together make the Tao'.b They were a
natural amplification of the meditational and other exercises, a further form, as it
were, of the contemplative life, though also in China a technical procedure of preparing the 'elixir within', the anablastemic enchyrnoma, for which no other process
could substitute. The conviction that the attainment of health and longevity
needed the cooperation of the sexes was an admirable doctrine. But as Watts has
well said:c 'Relationships of this kind cannot adequately be discussed, as in
(modem) manuals of "sexual hygiene", as a matter of techniques. It is true that in
Taoism and Tantric Buddhism there are what appear to be techniques or "practices" of sexual relationship, but these are, like sacraments, "the outward and
visible signs of an inward and spiritual grace" '. No worse mistake could be made
than to suppose that the medieval Taoist men and women practitioners were engaged in loveless sexual activity of a coldly mechanical character-in various ways,
as we have seen, they 'played it cool', but there was 'fire down below'. And again,
relationships of this kind cannot be discussed without reference to the whole background of Taoist philosophy,d the recognition of the importance of women in the
scheme of things,e the acceptance of the equality of Yin and Yang, of women with
men, the considered admiration for certain feminine psychological characteristic^,^
the exaltation of community and aggregation as opposed to division and class
separati0n.g We must reiterate what was said at an earlier stage:h though the physiology of the Taoists may have been primitive and fanciful, they had a far more
Sec Vol. 2, p. 150. and the preceding page.
b

I ChinR, Hsi Tzhu (Ta Chuan), I , ch. 5 (ch. 2, p. 35a); Wilhelm-Baynes tr., vol. I , p. 319.
(2). p. 174. His whole book, especially the part which seeks to interpret Taoist and Tantric sexuality in a way

valuable to men and women in the Western world at the present time, is well worth reading.
* See Sect.10in Vol. 2.
Stemming originally perhaps frum the wu priestof high antiquity, as alw, the matriarchal background of
ancient society.
Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 57ff., 6rff.
g Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 86ff., 1008. And this is still seen down to the p-t
day in the liturgical Taoism of unmodernised Chinese villages.
h Vol. 2, p. 152.

2I8

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

adequate attitude to the male, the female and the cosmic background than the
paternal-repressive austerity of conventional Confucianism, so typical of feudal
property ownership, or the chilling other-worldliness of classical Buddhism, for
which sex was no natural or beautiful thing, but only a device of MGra the Tempter.

The ending of this study of the nei tan complex now draws near. But we have yet to
consider four things, the borderline between physiological and proto-chemical alchemy, the persistence of the former into modern, even contemporary, times, the
problem of its relation with Indian yoga, and finally the meaning of the whole affair
for the history of scientific thought in general. Let us examine then first the overlap
between nei tan and wai tan activities, the problems of differentiating their texts,
the explanations of physiological reality in terms of chemical imagery, the con:
scious and designed use of parable and metaphor, and the supersession of protochemical operations as time went on by the more fashionable physiological practices.
There can be no doubt that for many centuries, one might perhaps say from the
- 3rd to the + 13th, the great majority of alchemists engaged in both spheres of
work, the oratory no less than the laboratory-widely different though the prayers
and practices were from those of Christendom. From KO Hung we know (p. 209)
that in his time the physiological techniques were ancillary to the proto-chemical,
just granting longevity out of the ordinary so that the adept could master the Great
Work and achieve immortality by it. For other alchemists at various times, the nA
and the wai must have been thought of rather as complementary, both being
needed for the achievement of material immortality. Of this we have seen some
hints in the quotations here given. There is a curious parallel between Chinese and
Western alchemy in that moral and religious perfections were often enjoined upon
both the Taoista and the Christian practitioner." The Byzantine alchemist Archelaos, writing about +715, said in his poem 'On the Sacred Art':?
The work which thou expectest to perform
Will bring thee easily great joy and gain
If soul and body thou dost beautify
With chasteness, fasts and purity of mind,
Avoiding life's distractions, and alone
In prayerful service giving praise to God,
Entreating him with supplicating hands
T o grant thee grace and knowledge from above
That thou, 0 mystic, may'st more quickly know
How from one species to complete this work. . .
Seepp.zq.61.65,loo, rgoff., 135, 189,205.
Perhaps the oldest European document of this kind is pre-Christian, the text in Cozpuc Alchem. Go. I, xiv;
attributed by Cedrenus to Pseudo-Democritus(cf. pt. 4, p. 325). The language, however, seems more Byzantine
in character, suggesting the + 5th-century. Similar pamages are found in the Jibinan corpus (cf.pt. 4, pp. 3 9 6 7 ,
c Tr. Browne ( I ) , cit. Holmyard ( I ) , p. 153.
477-8). See also Herthelot (I),pp. I 19, 160,206.
b

33.

z19

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Similarly, a I 5th-century neophyte was made to swear that like the Chinese chen
jen' he would never commit to writing the secret which he would be taught, nor
should he pass it on to any man save that he knew him to be of good life.
Nor teach yet to no man except thou be sure
That he is a perfeit man to God, and also full of charitie,
Doing alle waies good deede, and that he be full of humilitie.

And a third text of the same period says that the adept should trust fully in God,
lead a rightful life, subdue falsehood, be patient and not ambitious, and take part in
no sinful strife.8 At an earlier point, too, we quoted Ben Jonson's 'Alchemist' to the
effect that though the purchaser of an elixir might promise himself unlimited
sexual pleasures, the operator himself must be ascetically chaste, otherwise the
chemical experiments would explode in confusion (as in fact in the play they do, if
only as part of a stratagem which assumes these beliefs).b Of course the parallel
cannot be pushed very far because the Christian alchemist was vowed to a religious
continence while the Taoist alchemist was religiously physiologica1,c yet at the
same time part of a civilisation permeated through and through by a numinous
non-supernatural ethic to which he certainly responded, albeit the Taoist system of
'inner light' spontaneity was rather different from the prevailing Confucian code.
Obviously the Taoist and the Frankish conceptions of morality were poles apart,
yet the resemblance is there in that in both cases where laboratory operations were
concerned the 'unworthiness of the minister' was indeed believed to 'hinder the
effects of the sacrament'. As the old phrase went, nei tanpu chhhg, eoai tanpu chiu,l
'if the enchymoma is not achieved, the elixir will never be accomplished'.d
Now for parable and metaph0r.e There are many clear statements in the old
Chinese literature that chemical imagery was used to refer to physiological reality.
Its terms were used in simile, parable or illustration (phi yu,3 mod. pi yii4)),in metaphor, allegory and fable Cyu yens).f Take for example the Chin Tan Chih Chihh
(Straightforward Explanation of the Metallous Enchymoma), a book of the Sung
12th-century, by Chou Wu-So,' a nei tan alchemist of whom
period, probably
otherwise little is kn0wn.n 'The "furnace" and the "reaction-vessel" are just meta-

These examples are cited by Holmyard (I), p. 154.

Pt. 3, pp. 214-5 above.
Although we have had no room to say much about them, it must be remembered that all the Taoist practices
w e n hedged about with a maze of prohibitions and rubrics, connected with a complex hemerological calendar, and
even the state of the weather. This mattered hecause it was so important to be in tune with Nature. ?here were also
detailed rules about ritual purity and cleanliness. And all the temples had important charitable aspects, especially
as so many Taoists practised medicine.
San-F* Chm Jm Hsiian Than Chhri'an Chi (cf. p. 240 below), p. gb, early 15th-century, if the text is
genuine. It is true that in this case the writer was using the terms nkand woiin a rather special sense, that of p. 42;
but similar phrases are often found.
Luke viii, 4 - is very Taoist. 'Unto you it is given to know the mysteries of the Kingdom of God;but to othen
in parables, that seeing they might not see, and hearing they might not understand.'
On symbolism in general, and its varieties, see the interesting if preliminary paper of Sheppard (3).
TTro58, quoted at some length by Chhen Kuo-Fu ( I ) , vol. 2, pp. 447ff. Chou Wu-So's book is not to be
confused with another of the same title and similar date prefaced by the words Chih-Chnu hen-S&$ (the PaperBoat Teacher), TT239, the author being Chin Yiieh-Yen.".
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33.

220

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

phors for the human body (lu ting i shen pi chgl)'. And 'the "chemicals" are but a
parable for the precious substances within the body's organs (lit. heart), (yao wu i
hsin chung chih pao yii chih2)'.These precious substances were numbered as seven,
secretions(chin3),juices (shui4), saliva (thuos), blood (hsiieh6),and of course the three
,~
pneuma and seminality. Chou
great vitalities, shen7, chhzx and ~ h i n gmentality,
Wu-So goes on to tell us that 'as for the technique of "fire-times" (huo hou fat0),and
intensities (tu") and that sort of terminology, it all refers to the periods of activity
and repose (tung ching,IZin the exercises of physiological alchemy), but people do
not understand the inwardness of such ideas, therefore there is this veiled language
(yii13).'And again: ' "fabricating the embryo" (chieh thai14),and "doffing the bodily
form" (tho thi15);these are metaphors (phi1" for what far exceeds the vulgar ideas of
how one becomes a sage.'
Nei tan treatises are even liable to be illustrated with wai tan pictures, for example furnaces. An instance of this is the Hsiu Chen Li Yen Chhao Thu17(Transmitted
Diagrams illustrating Tried and Tested Methods of Regenerating the Primary
Vitalities).a No author's name is attached to this in the Tao Tsang, but the version
in the Yiin Chi Chhi Chhien, which bears a slightly different title, is attributed to
Tung Chen TzuI8(the Understanding-the-Truth (or the Primary Vitalities) Master), who must have written some time before 1020, probably in Thang, Wu Tai
or early Sung.b Here we have an illustration of two fumaces (Fig. 1614) surmounted by an inscription. Each of the stoves bears a hexagram, and two more are placed
beside the wording. Between the apparatus are three bowls, that on the left marked
'mercury' (true, of course), that on the right, true 'lead', and that in the middle, the
enchymoma. The significance of the reaction to be accomplished is obvious. The
kua on the left-hand furnace is no. 12, Phi,Ig signifying autumn and retrogression,
that on the right-hand one is no. I I , Thai,20signifying upward progress; hence the
failure or success of the 0perations.c Of the two kua at the top near the inscription,
that on the left is no. 13, Thung Jen,21i.e. people together, the state of union and
community; that on the right is no. 41, Sun,22which stands for spoiling, subtraction, diminution, hence disaggregati0n.d Thus these two represent the forces
which have to be taken advantage of and overcome respectively in the uniting of the

h TT149
YCCC, ch. 72, pp. 17bff.A similar text, the Ta Huan Tan Chki Pi Thus (Esoteric Illustrations of the
Concordanceof the Greet Regenerative Enchymoma), by some unknown author, in YCCC, ch. 72, pp. I aff., also
contains illustrationsof furnaces and reaction-vessels, though clearly n k tan, and indeed labelled so at the opening
of the chapter.
c For the explanation of this see p. 63 above.
d Further on these set Table 14 in Vol. 2 . In the YCCC vmion, the two kua on the furnaces are replaced by
(left) no. 54, Kuei MeiYstanding for union as in marriage, and (right) no. 63, Chi Chi2sstanding for consummation
or perfect order. This last kua has a close connection with the sexological literature,where it appean in book titles,
cf. van Gulik (8), pp. 36,277ff. Here both obviously refer to the enchymoma. But as we saw in pt. 4, pp. 70ff. Chi
Chi is also important in connection with various forms of wai tan chemical apparatus.

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22 I

Fig. 1614. T h e furnaces and hexagrams in the Hsiu Chm Li Yen Chhaa Thu (Transmitted Diagrams illustrating
Tried and Tested Methods of Regenerating the Primary Vitalities), attributed to Tung Chen Tzu, and written
probably in the 10th century, in late Thang, Wu Tai or early Sung. For explanation see text.

sexes and the grand synthesis of the anablastemic enchymoma. What the inscription says is as follows:
T h e two reaction-vessels are equally light pink,
T h e red furnace-openings have the same colour;
T h e enchymoma of (true) mercury and lead
Must form by a process like that of dyeing.&

And finally the caption to the whole says: 'Diagram of the Collection of True Lead
and Mercury.' The symbolism here is all of intercourse and union, yet the interaction envisaged is biochemical rather than mystical. The accompanying text is
curious, and runs as fol1ows:b
T h e caption in the YCCC version (p. 21b) is considerably longer, but tells us nothing new.

P. qb, tr. auct.

222

33.

ALCHEMY

A N D CHEMISTRY

Lead is the fountain of the mysterious origin (of the primary vitalities). This fountain is
the source of the element Water. Men can only see the spring water running through the
grottoes of stone,&but none know its fountain-source nor whither it goes. It is like the
primary chhi which generates and rears the myriad things, completing and ripening them,
but no man can see the path of the primary chhi nor whence it comes. Therefore the Manuals of the Tao say that it is minute, mysterious, unsearchable in its depth, and unknowable.
But although it is undetectable there are ways of forcing it to appear, which is why it is called
the Formless Form.
T h e wheel of the heavens turns to the left, while the sun, moon and five planets always
move to the right. The fiery lead (true Yang) symbolises the sun's redness, mercury (true
Yin) symbolises the moon. The moon moves quickly at a speed of I 3" in one day and night;
the sun more slowly, making in a day and a night. The moon makes one revolution in a
lunation, and the sun makes one in a year. In twelve months the year is completed. So also
the generation and transformation of the myriad things necessarily follows a cycle of twelve
kua (hexagrams), returning to the starting-point cycle after cycle. When the ninefold regeneration (or circulation) of the chhi has been sufficiently (perfected), then the 'lead', the
'mercury' and the shml are all present, and thus the enchymoma is attained. Hence the
Manuals say that just as the sun and moon have their retardations and accelerations, so also
medicinal substances have their caustic and their bland qualities. As a (mnemonic) rhyme
has it: 'Slow for the sun, fast for the moon, why so much fuss and chatter about these
distinctions?'
. ~ mercury likes to fly
True lead originates from fire and is the ancestor of the ~ h i n gTrue
up (i.e. sublime or distil), yet abides within the red blood. T h e semen of a man and the
blood of a woman mutually embrace (and intermingle); the blood gives rise to the (red)
flesh, and the semen produces the (white) bones.h All these happenings arise from good
match-making and marriages, and happiness in the bearing of children results.
What is (true) mercury? It is the effulgence of the infinite origin, and the ancestor of the
myriad things. T h e ancestor of mercury is the red dragon (chhih lung'). The red dragon is
cinnabar (tan shd), but this is not common cinnabar; it is the Flowing Fluid of the Great
Mystery (thai hsiian liu is), which the primary chhi has prepared during a period of 2160
yearsc And it is called the Vital Enchymoma of Emptiness and Nothingness (hsii wu chen
tanh).d

Here we have an excursion into astronomy to illustrate the ever-recurring cycles of

Nature governed by the kua,and an unusual parallel with the properties of drugs.
The implicit thought is that by not following the normal procedures of generation
which lead to children and grandchildren, men and women can make their bodies
into alchemical furnaces and prepare an enchyrnoma which will free them from
bondage to the cycles of life and death in the natural 0rder.e

Probably a reference to the swallowing of saliva.

Again the Aristotelian theory of embryogenesis.
C Echo of the famous H u u i N a Tm passage; see Vol. 3, pp. 64-1,
Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. zzq-5. One is reminded of
the theory of the triaptima in the West, mercury being one of the constituentsof everything.
* I.e. of all things inpotentia. On the fundamental idea of nothingnessas infinite immanent potentiality, both in
Taoism and Buddhism, see Link ( I ) ; Holmes Welch (3).
This was of course a far cry from the Taoist philosophy of old which advocated ataraxy and submissionto the
natural cycles; cf. Vol. 2, pp. 63ff.. 75ff.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

223

In all this literature there are many places where one can find fairly clear explanations of what the proto-chemical symbolism meant in nei tan usage. Help can be
gained, for instance, from a group of tractates in the Tao Tsang which starts I rith
the Chin Tan Ful (Rhapsodical Ode on the Metallous Enchymoma),a written probably in the 13th-century, with a commentary by Ma L i - C h a ~The
. ~ Nei Tan
Fu3 (Ode on the Physiological Enchymoma), written in the same century towards
the end of the Sung by Thao Chih,4 is a similar quarry,b as also the accompanying
anonymous Chhin HsLi'an Fu5 (Ode on Grappling with the Mystery).C Further light
can be had from the Chung Lu Chhuan Tao Chih already mentioned (Dialogue
between Chung-li Chhuan and Lu Tung-Pin on the Transmission of the Tao),d a
work of the 8th or 9th-century edited by Shih Chien-Wu;' and the wonderful
catechism in the Chin Tan Ta C h h & e of Hsiao Thing-Chih,Qwritten just before
1250, must always be remembered. In this connection, an interesting passage is
to be found in Chhen Chih-Hsii's'" Chin Tan Ta Yao" dating from 1332. Here
he wrote:e

My teacher said: 'The sages were apprehensive of divulging the secrets of the mechanism
of Nature. The Taoists, conscious of the mystery of things, take the Emptiness (i.e. the allembracing totipotence) of the Primary (Vitalities) (chm khungI2)as their basic principle, but
borrow many parables and metaphors (chieh yu13)of the following kind:
chu sha14
(red sand--cinnabar)
shuiyin15
(water-silver-mercury)
hung chhimrb
(red l e a d a hormone preparation from blood)'
hei hung1'
(black mercury)
chha nur8
(elegant girl-mercury-true
mercury, semen)
ying erh19
(baby boy-enchymoma)
(the Venerable Ting-yclical
sign)
Ting KungZo
(the Yellow Dam-entral
site of enchymoma formation--one of
Huang Phdl
the hsiang)
(yellow sprouts-unoxidised bright lead or tin-the incipient
huang yaZZ
central enchymoma)
(white snow-white powder-the radiance of the enchymoma)
pai hsiieh23
These come near to expressing the facts, yet serve to bewilder (ordinary) people, draw them
into utter confusion, and keep them guessing. Even scholars follow the appearance rather
than the reality, and think they have understood it. Accordingly they believe that the chin
tan" (gold elixir) is some common external medicine (wai yao2s),impeded by form, dross
and brute matter, gained by searching and struggling amidst filthy (soot). In the end they
never achieve any realisation of the mysterious (effect) of the Emptiness of the Primary
(Vita1ities)--(a metallous enchymoma prepared within the body itself)'.
C

TT258, esp. pp. 17bff..

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And he then goes on, as was appropriate in his time, to make a similar set of parallels
with Buddhist technical terms. One notices also already in this passage a hint of the
disdain which the nei tan practitioners were beginning to feel for the 'sooty empiricks' of the wai tan laboratory, and this is a note which we shall hear again shortly. Similar phraseology may be found in the Huan Tan Nei Hsiang Chin Yo Shihl
(A Golden Key to the Physiological Aspects of the Regenerative Enchyrnoma),"
due to PhGng HsiaoZabout 950. Someone asked a question about the metal lead.

In answer it was said: 'This black lead is nothing to do with ordinary (lead);it is the divine
water of the heavenly mystery,bit was generated before the appearance of heaven and earth
(i.e. the cognisance of them by the individual human organism), it was the mother of the
mass of things (in the body) and the essence (thing') of the primary unitary (vitality)'.C

In other words it was something in the body inherent in the original endowment of
the embryo, and something which could help a man to regain by rejuvenation that
endowment.
Much help in the interpretation of the forest of na' tan techpical terms can also be
obtained from books of later date, always remembering that the practical techniques which their writers actually used and recommended differed as the centuries went by, and also according to the various schools to which they themselves
belonged. Among such treatises of the late Ming and Chhing periods we may mention the Liao Yang Tien W & Ta Pien4 (Questions and Answers of the Liao-Yang
Hall), attributed to an Adept Yin (Yin chen jens) and probablyof the early 17thcentury, later edited by Min I-Te6about I 830. The same adept is also the putative
author of a much larger book, Hsing Ming Kuei Chih7 ( APointer to the Meaning of
Human Nature and the Life-Span), several illustrations from which have already
been given (Figs. I 546, I 548, I 554, I 574, 1609), and which we shall refer to again
presently. This was first printed in I 615 and again in 1670.
Here we cannot but pause to wonder why it was that this one-sided situation
arose. Why did the physiological techniques tend to be veiled under the protochemical terminology and not vice versa?One could imagine that a system of physiological, anatomical and medical terminology might have grown up first, and then
found application to the compounds of metals and minerals which the alchemists
prepared in their search for the elixir of life. We suppose the only possible answer is
that the proto-chemical alchemy was in fact the older proto-science of the two,
springing directly from the most ancient metallurgy and other technical arts, just as
the plant names descended from the most ancient wort-cunning of medical herbalists. Although there were always very close relations between the traditions of
medicine and those of the alchemists,d the former did not perhaps provide suf-

In YCCC, ch. 70, pp. I off.

P. zb, tr. auct.
I.e. the h& thim c& i chih s h ~ icf.
, ~Vol. 4, pt. I , p. 296.
There is a contrast here between the alchemists of China and the proto-chemists of Hellenistic Europe.
Temkin (3) noted, in a penetratingpaper, on which we also remark elsewhere (pt. 4, p. 475), that the Greek protochemists were much closer to metallurgy than to medicine, while in China, on the other hand, as we see all the
time, the relations between alchemy and medicine were extremely close. This Arabic culture inherited.
b
d

33.

225

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

ficient technical terms for the growing Chinese conviction that there was a specific
chemistry of the human body, indeed an alchemy to be pursued within it, so that a
borrowing necessarily had to take place (precisely as Chhen Chih-Hsii said), with
SO often the adjective chen,' 'true', prefixed to the name drawn from proto-chemical
usage.a This of course did not prevent the gradual elaboration of many special nei
tan terms, and indeed it is these more than anything else, perhaps, which enables
the reader to spot a nei tan text and distinguish it from a wai tan one.
Next, another point is to be made-the growing tendency as the centuries went
on to interpret ambiguous ancient texts in a nei tan rather than a wai tan manner.
Between + 7 I 3 and 755 Liu Chih-KuZgave the first clear interpretation of the
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi(cf. pt. 3, pp. off. above) as a nei tan text, and wrote on it
an Jih Yiieh Hsiian Shu Lun3 (Discourse on the Mysterious Axis of the Sun and
Moon, i.e. the Yang and Yin).b Ph6ng Hsiao's book from which we have just
quoted was in exactly the same tradition. By the second half of the I ~th-century,
with works such as the Wu Chen Phien (already analysed, pp. 88ff.above) there
were monuments of alchemical literature which made no pretence of being wai tan
in nature.c From what we have said on this its meaning cannot be mistaken, but
with the older texts double interpretations are still possible. For example, take the
sentence in the Tshan Thung Chhi: m chin chih chu, pei fang ho chh3.d On the wai
tan interpretation, one reads: 'the chief of the five metals is the "river chariot" of
the north, i.e. lead', ho chhe" being a familiar cover-name for the meta1.e But an
anonymous nei tan commentator thus expounds i t f

During development in the womb, the father's semen (and the mother's blood) form the
Five Viscera. Among these the Metal element (corresponding to) the reins is the chief.
What is stored there is the Metal (of the semen), and its essence must be made to ascend
(feis) in a circulation by the 'river chariot'. What is the 'river chariot' (ho chhP)?It is the chhi
which is carried from the north (i.e. the lower parts of the body) right up to the brain (ni
wan'), (as in a water-raising machine).a
It is interesting to find again here that common ambiguity between chhe"as vehicle
and chhe"as machine.h For the raising of one of the components of the enchymoma
up the spinal column, some physiological machinery was necessary, and the analogy here was with the square-pallet chain-pump (fan chhP). In wai tan terminology
lead was often referred to as the ancestor (tsup)of the precious metals, partly of
The reader will of course recall (e.g. f m pp. 26,46 above) that chm was also universallyunderstood in these
fields to signify the primary vitalities of the human genetic endowment.
This is no longer extant, though there are quotations of it in the Tao Shu.
Though translaton have of course unwarilv taken them as such.
d Ch. 7, p. 160.
Shih Yao Erh Ya, ch. I , p. I a. This great glossary is itself a mixed text, M'tan terms being included along
with the wai tun ones.
TT991,ch. I , p. 15b.
g Metal is connected with the reins and s m ~ here
n
instead of Water because it is the mother of Water in the
Mutual Production Order. The following section in the text says just this. And the semen Metal is the 'true lead';
cf. Chin Tan Ta Yao, ch. 3, p. I ta,b. Lead and mercury can both correspond functionally to Water.
h Noted in Vol. 4 , pt. 2 , p. 267 and other references sub owe.

226

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

course in line with the theory common to East and West that they developed in the
earth from the ignoble ones, and partly no doubt because of the phenomena of
cupellation and amalgamation.&
Sometimes one finds in the literature texts which are inextricably mixed. A good
example of this is the Thai-Chhing Chin 1 Shm Tan Chingl (Manual of the Potable
Gold or Metallous Fluid and the Magical Elixir or Enchymoma; a Thai-Chhing
Scripture).b One has to translate its title in this ambiguous way, for it is both neiand
wai in character. The preface and part of the first chapter are mostly nei, with much
discussion of the respiratory techniques, but immediately following there is a section evidently wai,c with references to alum, rock salt, arsenolite, and the compounding of the liu ini2lute for sealing. A sacrificial rite intervene^,^ and then more
chemical procedures, while the second chapter is rhyming and physiological once
again. This is an ancient book, which must be at least in part pre-Liang, as it contains dates between 320 and 330, but most of the prose is probably of the early
5th-century; the chapters are variously attributed but the real writers unknown.
The third chapter, which is devoted to descriptions of foreign countries which
produced cinnabar and other chemical substances, may be of the first half of the
+ 6th-century.e A somewhat similar work is the Tan Lun Chiieh Chih Hsin Chim3
(Mental Mirror Reflecting the Essentials of Oral Instruction about the Discourses
written in the 9th-century by Chang Hsiianon the Elixir and the Enchym~ma),~
Ti,4 who criticises the teachings of Ssuma Hsi-1.5 But this is certainly more nei
than wai. In distinguishing between texts of the two kinds it is often convenient to
see how many chemical substances are named, for the physiological ones always
make great play with (true) lead and mercury, mentioning other metals and minerals more rarely. The Tan Fang Ao Lun6 (Subtle Discourse on the Alchemical
Elaboratory),g written by Chhing Liao-17in 1020 or thereabouts, might thus be
considered more wai than nei, for it mentions many things such as sulphur, realgar,
orpiment, magnetite, brown haematite, actinolite (asbestos tremolite), amber, cinnabar, and the like, not usually spoken of by the physiologists. This is a borderline
text which deserves more attention than we have been able to give it, but it certainly
has a strong nei tan tendency for it says much of shoufa8 (manual dexterity) and huo
hou9 ('fire-times' as exercise times), averring that the 'ordinary elixir scholars of
these days (hou shih hsiieh tan chih shihI0)' have no understanding of such things;

E.g. Chin Tan Ta Yao, ch. I , p. 300.

TT873 and in YCCC, ch. 65, pp. I aff., but abridged and without the third chapter.
Pp. 6bff. in YCCC. A translation has been prepared by Ho Ping-Yii (10).
6 P. xoain YCCC.
See Maspero ( 1 4 )pp.
~ 95ff.(22); Stein (5). Most of the information was taken from Wan Chen's Nan Chm I
Wac Chih, compiled in the +3rd-century, but not the part on the Roman Orient (Ta Chhin) which .Maspero
translated in full.
TTgz8, and in YCCC, ch. 66, pp. I aff.
g TTg13,andin TTCY.
b
c

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

and if it lists many of the proto-chemical reagents it is only to dismiss them as

ineffective. Thus a further criterion is needed, and one may conclude that a text
cannot be considered really in the wai tan tradition unless it gives concrete instructions for laboratory operations. Of course, as we have seen (pt. 3, pp. 199,203
above) there are many that do. Chh6ng Liao-1's elaboratory was surely the body,
and his tan was an enchyrnoma. Nevertheless he shows also that he had worked at
the bench, for he says:&
T h e great thing in the preparation of precious (elixirs, or enchymomas) is the management of mercury. For this it is necessary to use the love of mother and child, and the desire
for union of husband and wife. If this is lost sight of nothing can be done. So for example,
sulphur is the husband of mercury, gold and silver are its mother. When it unites with
sulphur it hardens (to mercuric sulphide), when it meets with gold and silver it solidifies (in
amalgamation). This is respecting the principle of husband and wife, mother and child.

Here we are close to the basic analogy of human affections with chemical affinity
and reaction." If space permitted, many further examples of chemical-seeming
texts cloaking physiological ideas could be given from the Ming and Chhing literature, such as Li Win-Chu's' Huang Pai ChingZ(Mirror of the Art of the Yellow and
1598, or the Lei Chen Chin Tan3 (Earth-shaking Disthe White), written in
covery of the Metallous Enchymoma) some time not long after
1420, or the
romantically named Huo Lien Chin@ (Manual of the Lotus of Fire) which is very
hard to date.c
Let us now illustrate the growing hostility of the physiological towards the
proto-chemical alchemists by a passage from the Chhu I Shuo Tsuan5 (Discussions
on the Dispersal of Doubts), the book produced by Chhu Yungh in the neighbourhood of
1230. The hostility is quite understandable. The proto-chemical
alchemists had been treading the same weary round for a good many centuries,
making few new fundamental discoveries, since no revolutionary system of scientific thought had come to .help them build a modem science out of their empirical
observations. Their elixirs had proved to be deadly poison time and again,d while
on the other hand, whatever might be thought of the detailed nei tan theories, the
practices accompanying them were never harmful, and doubtless often contributed
radically to the improvement of health and the prolongation of life. Furthermore,
they were more genteel, less artisanal. And metallurgical operations always invited
charlatanism, even though patronised by emperors. So a good scholar like Chhu
Yung had no doubt where he stood. On an earlier occasion we read one of his
diatribes against the metallurgical alchemists,e modified only by the interest he felt
in the natural wonder that small amounts of metals could be obtained from certain
plants. Continuing, he wrote:'

TTCY ed., p. 3 h, tr. aua.

The title echoes an earlier saying (p. 92 above).
Pt. 3. pp. 206-7.

*
f

Cf. pt. 4, p. 321.

See H o Ping-Yii & Needham (4).

Ch. I , pp. ~ z h 13a,
,
tr. a u a .

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33.

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On Heating Gold and Transforming Silver.

The Taoists often talk about chin tan1(lit. gold and redness, or golden elixir, or metallous
enchyrnoma), so most of those who study these matters make experiments in the 'Art of the
Yellow and the White' (metallurgical and proto-chemical alchemy), forging, melting and
transforming assiduously. But what they do not understand is that 'chin tan' refers to the
Yang of the primary (vitality) within human beings, which follows the mysterious principle
of a ~ c e n tT. ~h e Taoists use the word 'chin' as a metaphor (chieh yzP) like the gold in the
phrase 'incorruptible diamond body' (gold-precious hard undecaying body, c h i n - k q pu
huai shen3) used by the k h h a n Buddhists to refer to beings without birth or dissolution,
having bodies ever-persisting and immune from de1iquescence.h Again, the word 'tan' (is
but a metaphor) referring to the k m Chhien,4 which symbolises the great ruddiness (of the
sun), and pure Yang. For this reason the kua-element combination Chhien chine is called
'tan' (enchyrnoma). So the phrase 'chin tan' by no means only refers to the Art of the Yellow
and the White.
This Art (was one of elixir-making) elaborated and used by the holy immortals to help
scholars who were content to be poor and who took their delight in the Tao (of Nature); but
nowadays the aim of those who practise the Art is to satisfy by aurifaction their greedy
desire for gain. How could Taoists be willing to teach their techniques to such people? Even
if they could manage to come by the skill and make ten thousand ounces (of gold), what
would it profit them in relation to the really great matters of life and death?Besides, the true
methods (of aurifaction) are very difficult to find out, so that enthusiasts fall a prey to
fraudulent profit-seeking charlatans, even to the extent of ruining entire families. They do
not stop to think that if these people really had the true techniques they could become rich
themselves, and all they would fear would be that others would discover them. Why should
they have to make their livings by teaching aurifaction to others? So in general no pure and
high-minded scholar could devote himself to the Art of the Yellow and the White. How
could it ever suffice for the study of the Tao?
Thus once again we have the affirmation that there was an esoteric physiological
meaning to much in the manuals of the alchemists, and that instead of working
away in the laboratory they would be better advised to follow the reality rather than
the symbol, going over to the practice of the physiological macrobiotic techniques.
That was where real enrichment and peace would be found.
As one becomes familiar with the nei tan literature, a certain romantic quality in
it impresses more and more. Its basic ideas seemed to lend themselves naturally to
poetic expression. We have already encountered a few examples of this, and may
now add one or two more in words to which Chhu Yung would have assented
warmly. About a century later Chhen Chih-Hsii wrote in his Chin Tan Ta Yao:
It isn't a matter of copper or iron, nor yet of any metal,
There's no need to borrow a furnace and make an ordinary fire;
With the sword of one's own endowment,
and the flesh and bone of Heaven's gift
One must know exactly what can kill
and what can be the giver of 1ife.d
Doubtless a reference to the e ~ c mof
t the chrng chhi to form the mchymoma.
E.g. Vajraketu, one of the four lokopala or guardian gods.
C See p. 56 and Fig. 1 5 5 1 above.
a Ch. I , p. 7 1a , tr. auct.
L

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

And again:
T o master the dragon and subdue the tiger is not difficult,
Descent and secret (ascent) meet at the gate with the jade lock,
Brightness of sun and moon pours from the seething reaction-vesselWhy be fearful of failing to make the remedy of perpetual youth?&

And I add a poem which was given to me in China more than twenty-five years ago,
collected from some temple inscription or the works of some Thang scho1ar:b
Messengers were sent over the empty sea, searching for the five-hued mushrooms,
But in the end the smell of decaying sheMfish came in on the breeze,
Verily this inspires compassion for the estate of man.
Yet through the Peach Spring there is a road to immortality,c
Though Chhin Shih Huang Ti was never able to discover it.

How late did it all go on?We have already mentioned that the remedial macrobiotic
postures and gymnastic exercises, including such practices as the gnashing of teeth
to increase salivation, still persist in Chinese sanatoria to the present day.d The
exact nature of the final phases of the nei tan tradition, however, still await their
historian, and we cannot accomplish his work here.e The only thing we can do is to
draw attention to certain of the most important sources from which such a history
could be written.
Perhaps we could begin with the Chih Yu Tm' (Book of the Attainment1566 by a Taoist named Yao Juthrough-Wandering Master), prefaced in
Hsiimz It was probably written early in the I 5th-century, like the books that bear
the name of Chang San-Fhg3 (p. 240), and its putative authorf was Chang ShangYing.4 Its twenty-four chapters are clearly concerned with physiological alchemy,
including meditation, the circulation of the chhi, the h a Li and Khan, and the
formation of the enchymoma in the Yellow Court; only in the sexological section
does the author condemn the earlier techniques of immortality. One of his chapters
(16)reproduces the Pai W& Phien of which we have already spoken (p. 88).
Towards the end of the 16th-century there was produced a treatise of substantial size which might be regarded as the Summa of physiological alchemy. This
was the Hsing Ming Kuei Ch~'tj(A Pointer to the Meaning of-Human Nature and

+
+

Ibid., p. 726,tr. aua.

It is, if I am not mistaken, in the writing of my old friend Dr Chang Tzu-Kung.
C The Peach Springs Forest was a semi-legendary refuge of certain country people during the social disturbances of the Chhin period. One could be safe there, but it was easy to lose one's way in it. Here the reference is to
the practice of physiolwical alchemy in some mountain temple or other retired place.
d Cf. p. 179 above.
A beginning has been made in the interesting contribution of Liu Tshun-Jen (3), though it appeared too late
to be helpful to us. It will be found well worth study in parallel with our presentation of the nei tan idea-complex.
SKCS/T*kfTY,ch. 147, P. 96.
b

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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1615.Syncretism of the Taoist, Confucian and Buddhist traditions as seen in I3s-iq.q M i q Kun' Chih,ch. I , p.
I h ( + 1615). Caption: 'The Three Sages'; Confucius on the left, Lao Tzu with the Yin-Yang symbol on the right,
and a Buddhist f i q r e behind. Significantly he seems to be Dharani-bodhisattva, a form of the Tantric goddess
T i e (cf. p. 260). Our Lady of the esoteric schools of MantrayPna, VajrayPna, YogiScZrya and the 'true words'
(Chen-Yen, Shingon).

33.

23 I

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

the Life-Span),&first printed in I 6 I 5 and several times subsequently during the

Chhing, as in I 6-70. It was based on the extensive teachings of the Adept Yin (Yin
chen jen') written down by his disciple Kao Ti.ZWe have already referred to it in
various connections and taken advantage of its pictures to illustrate a number of
points (Figs. 1546, I 554, 1574, 1609). Mistaken by Dudgeon ( I ) for a manual of
gymnastics, and used iconographically without much understanding by Wilhelm
& Jung (I), it has not been properly studied by sinologists either Western or Chinese, yet it covers all the phases of the subject which we have outlined in this subsection. For example it gives a wonderful list of the chief varieties of the 'three
thousand six hundred' techniques with which men and women worked towards the
preparation of the enchyrnoma,b though it qualifies most of them as 'unorthodox'
(hsieh tao3). One must of course remember that the Hsing Ming Kuei Chih was a
product of its time, and that its valuations of these are liable to be very different
from those which had been in favour a thousand years or so earlier. Moreover there
is naturally by this time considerable Buddhist influence, and a determined attempt to syncretise the three traditions of Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism
(Fig. 161g).C
If we take a look at the situation between about 1770 and 1830 we find two
collections from which there is a great deal to be learnt.d These are the Tao Tsang
Hsii Pien (Chhu Chz14 edited by one of the patriarchs of the Lung-men school, Min
I-Ti,5 between 1820 and 1830;~and the C h h g Tao P i Shu Shih Chun$ (Ten
Books of Traditional Lore Testifying to the True Tao) edited and printed by Fu
Chin-Chhiian7 (Chi I Tzu8)in 1825. These two collections both contain a variety of
miscellaneous nei tan texts of all dates from the Yuan period onwards, indeed a few
purporting to be still older, but problems of authenticity arise, and while some may
be genuine documents handed down in particular Taoist temples and not
previously printed, others may have been written in the late 18th-century and
fathered on famous adepts of the past. Until much more research has been done on
the philology of this literature we cannot expect to know. Moreover, it is not at all
easy to be sure exactly what techniques the writers, especially Min and Fu themselves, with their contemporaries, believed in and tallght, so that the only practicable way to describe their work is to give a few examples of the texts which are to be
found in their collections.

The title contains a pun on kuei and thu,P earth, doubled, earth refemng to the central region, hung thing,
where the enchymoma is formed. The Neo-Confucian cloak of the words hsing m+ will also not escape our notice.
h Ch. I , p. 18aff. These include not only various derivates of the original sexual procedures but also a number
of the hormone preparations of the iatro-chemical period (see Sect. 45).
C This can be seen in moat of the extant sets of statues of the 5 0 0 Lohan (arhats) in Chinese Buddhist temples
(cf. Figs. 1616, 1617,1618,1619).
d An earlier one of the same kind, supposedly collected by Han Chhan Tzuroabout+ 1440,
ia entitled Chin Tan
Ch& Li Ta Chhiia" (Comprehensive Collection of Writings on the True Principles of the Metallous Enchymoma). This we have not seen, but a detailed analysis of its contents has been made by Davis & Chao YiinTshung (6).
e Its first printing seems to have been in 1834.

232

33.

ALCHEMY

AND C H E M I S T R Y

Fig. 1616. One of the 500 Lohan at the Buddhist temple of Chhiung-Chu Ssu near Kunming, Yunnan; riding on
the Yin tiger, he passes safely through the churning ocean of sumsara. Between thumb and forefinger of h ~ right
s
hand he holds the 'elixir pill', i.e. the enchymoma (cf.Fig. 1548).Orig. photo., 1972.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

233

Fig. 1617.Another of the Lohan at Chhiung-Chu Ssu (orig. photo. 1972). Although it is a Buddha wrapt in
meditation who appears in the opened abdominal region, the analogy with the 'baby boy' or enchynoma of Taoist
n k tan verges on identity.

234

33.

ALCHEMY

A N D CHEMISTRY

One of these we have mentioned already, the Liao Yang Tien W& Ta Pienl
(Questions and Answers in the Eastern Cloister of the Liao-Yang Hall, of the White
Clouds Temple at Chhing-ching Shan in Szechuan), certainly a Ming or Chhing
work, attributed to Yin Chen Jen (Yin Phing-ThouZ).This was edited from a
manuscript preserved in the Blue Goat Temple (Chhing-Yang Kung3) at
Chhengtu.8 It is useful in that it explains many of the nei tan terms, and others used
in Taoist anatomy and physiology. While it is still committed to the double theory
of ascent and descent in the formation of the enchymoma, and continues the system
of nei and wai within the nei which we have already studied (pp. 35 E.), it cloaks the
methods used under a veil of obscurity, preferring to make much play with the h a
of the 'Book of Changes'.
Another tractate is entitled Hsieh Thien Chi4 (A Divulgation of the Machinery of
~ ) ~
Nature) and dates from c. 1795, its source being Li OngS (Ni-Wan ~ h i hand
the actual writer Min Hsiao-Kin,' perhaps Min I-Ti's uncle. It has a doctrine of
three 'roads', a red one (chhih tao8)corresponding to one of the auxiliary acupuncture tracts, jen no,^ which runs down the front of the body, and along which the
saliva (or its chhi) was now thought to descend; and a black one, (hei taoI0) corresponding to another tract, tu m ~ , "which runs up the back of the body, and along
which the semen (or its chhz) was now thought to rise up. Fig. 1620, taken from the
recent book of It6 Mitsutoshi (I), illustrates this system of chhi circulation, doubtless rooted in the past but not prominent before the period under discussion. Li
Ong added a third road, the yellow one (huang taoIz), which seems to have been
some central perambulation of the enchymoma itself with all its benefit^.^ He also
used a good deal of chemical metaphor in his discussions. Other books such as Li
Ti-Hsia's13 Shang Phin Tan F a Chieh Tzhu14(Expositions of the Techniques for
Making the Best Quality Enchymoma), and Min I-Ti's own Kuan Khuei Pien,'s
cover much the same ground, but exactly what their authors did in practice is never
clearly stated. An acceptable dating ( 1678)appears in another short work, by Lu
Shih-Chhen,rQalled Chiu Ch&g Lu." Then there is a book of Taoist-BuddhistConfucian syncretism, otherwise banal from the nei tan point of view, with the title
Lu Tsu Shih San N i I Shih Shuo ShulR(Record of a Lecture by the Taoist Patriarch
Lii Yen on the Healing of Humanity by the Three Ni doctrine^),^ most probably
nothing to do with the real Lu Yen (Lu Tung-Pin), but significant for the times of
which we are speaking.

Cf. Vol. 2, p. 160,Vol. 4, pt. 3, p. 62, Fig. 743.

A Taoist patriarch or abbot of the late 16th-century,according to Miyuki (I).
The parallelism in terminology here with the astronomers'words for equator and ecliptic (d.Vol. 3, p. 179)
strikes the eye, but it was probably fortuitous.
d Chhing-Nil0 for Taoism, Mou-Nim(Shih-chia-mou-ni, Sakyamuni) for Ruddhism, and Chung-Nix (Confucius' name) for Confucianism.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

235

Fig. 1618. A third h h a n at Chhiung-Chu Ssu, bearded like a Taoist and riding on a crane, is also 'ferried over
to the other side.'. Orig. photo. 1972.

236

33.

ALCHEMY AND C H E M I S T R Y

Fig. 1619.A fourth Lohan at Chhiung-Chu Ssu achieves salvation through children (orig. photo. 1972).This
recalls the emphasis on reversion to infancy, with regeneration of the primary vitalities, but also the value of the
chhi of youth, the jumus jwentutis (cf.pt. 4, pp. 4961 and p. 297 below). These four pictures vividly illustrate the
process of syncretisation of the 'three religions' of China in comparatively late times, and reinforce what has
already been evident from Figs. 1545,1553,
15657 and 1571-3.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

237

The collection also contains a few intriguing books about the Taoist 'nuns'.&For
example, there is the Hsi Wang Mu Nu Hsiu C h h g Thu Shih Tse"' (The Ten Rules
of the Mother Goddess, Queen of the West, to Guide Women Taoists along the
Right Road of Restoring the Primary Vitalities), attributed again to Lii Yen (Lii
Tung-Pin) of the 8th-century, but assuredly written a thousand years later by
Shen I-Pingz and others, and given a commentary by Min I-T63 about 1830.
These books are rather strange because the ancient enchyrnoma techniques in
which sex played so important a role, both theoretical and practical, had now to be
combined, and were, with an ethos permeated by Buddhism and Confucianism.
The Taoist Sisters must be docile, diligent, quiet, respectful (and, significantly
perhaps, like all Confucian women, un-jealous), they must abstain from meat and
never drink wine; and they should remain celibate, preserving if possible the hymen (fei4) of virginity. They should dress in a sober habit, take no animal life, and
be kind to servants, slaves, and strange characters. They are to engage (as of old) in
the techniques of salvation for the attainment of material immortality, including
meditation, the circulation and harmonisation of the chhi, the 'management of the
juices' such as saliva-swallowing,some of the respiratory practices and some of the
gymnastic exercises, especially forms of self-massage. If all their techniques were
well carried out they would become rejuvenated, but as young boys rather than
young gir1s.b In all matters concerning sex the text is ambiguously worded, so that
masturbation (as among the male Taoists) is not positively excluded-but here a
further development intervenes, seemingly characteristic of the Ming and Chhing,
namely the idea of the conversion by 'will-power' of the chin@ or semen, and the
hsiieh6or (menstrual) blood, into their corresponding chhi, and then the circulation
of these respectively up and down the body in thought by spiritual exertion. This
was therefore a third way, needing no physical perinea1 pressure or its equivalent
(whatever that was).C 'Sending up the ching to nourish the brain' was thus fully
retained in theory, and here for men called yu i chih huan tan,' while the corresponding practice for women got a new name, thi hu kuan tin^,^ 'irrigating the
brain with nectar', or (since the phrase was a Buddhist one) 'anointing the head
with the oil of Buddha gladness'. Just as the Taoist adept had now to change his
ching into chhi before circulating it, so the Taoist 'nun' had to change her blood, the

One would like to know a good deal more about the life of these women in practice. The line between them
and lay adepts may have been rather thin, and both probably served as 'mediums' in Taoist hypnotic and planchette h c e s .
b Here a strange Gnostic echo comes to mind. In the 'Gospel of Thornas' (logion r 14)we read: 'Jesus said: "I
myself shall lead Maw in order to make her male, so that she too may become a living spirit resembling you men.
For every woman who will make herself male will enter the Kingdom of Heaven",' This is in one of the Nag
Hammadi scrolls, ed. Robinson ( I ) , p. I 30, tr. Larnbdin. There could be an edifying allegorical interpretation of
this, but most probably we have to see in it yet another manifestation of patriarchalism, like the speeches of Apollo
and Athene in the third play of the Orestcia. But these words belong in date to the 2nd-centu~.
C It is always difficult to see exactly what the female technique was which corresponded to the man's in coitus
thesauratus,but we have given at least one passage in translation from a medieval text above (p. 206) which goes
some way to making it understandable.

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1620. Theoretical diagram by a contemporary physiological alchemist, It6 Mitsutoshi ( I ) , in his book Y q
Sh& Nk K m Pi Chiieh (Confidential Instructions on Kourishing the Life-Force by Gymnastics and other
Physical Techniques), published in 1966. Here the dorsal median acu-tract, T u MO, is seen as the channel in
which the ching chhiascends, while the anterior median acu-tract, Jen Mo, brings other chhi down again in a son of
circulation. 'l'he cyclical character tzu, evoking midnight, the north, darkness and water, together with the kua
Khun, denotes the fundament; while the cyclical character m, evoking noon, the south, brilliance and fire, together with the h a Chhien, denotes the brain and head. The whole system is marked tho-310, the bellows-andtuyere, which is glossed ho phi, alternately closed and open. The diagram is captioned: 'Achieving the metallous
enchymoma by harmonising the reactants and transmuting the seminal essence' (thiao yao Iim ching chhhg chin
tan thu).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

239

'juice of the red dragon' (chhih lung i') into the 'marrow of the white phoenix' (pai
f&g suit), and so send it upwards. 'The red must be converted into the white' was
the alchemical slogan and parallelism for this. There is a good deal of emphasis on
the massage of the breasts, which may have had physiological effects; and also indications that considerable use was made of drugs, some suppressing menstruation, others as galactogogues, while it must be remembered that by this time
the isolated but unpurified steroid sex-hormones were fully available, so that with
some skill it might have been possible to induce certain endocrine phenomena such
as masculinisation.a The loss of menstrual blood seems to have been thought to
involve a loss of yuan chhi7or chen chhi,4 primary vitalities, just as the loss of semen
through the urethra (hsiian kuans) had classically been, so it was important to reduce both. The final chapters of the Hsi Wang M u . . . Shih Tsi?deal with the service
of the gods of the Three Doctrines, so one may safely assume that the Taoist Sisters
were much employed as sacristans in the preparation of the altars and paraphernalia of the liturgical services, if not indeed as vested participants or inspired
prophetesses therein. Moreover every temple carried on good works, so that they
were certainly visiting the poor and the afflicted; and most of the Taoist temples
also had workshops in them which produced various commodities,b so that they
probably did a good deal of sewing, embroidering and cooking. Thus their time
would have been fully occupied, and a large Taoist temple about the year 1800
would be a place of extraordinary interest if we were able to visit it. There was of
course another side to the picture, and it is impossible to ignore completely the
tradition of the novels and popular literaturec that some Taoist 'nuns' could be as
bad as or worse than the Buddhist as purveyors of love-potions, aphrodisiacs, contraceptives and abortifacients; go-betweens in illicit love-affairs, and the like. Much
of this can be attributed simply to Confucian prejudice, but not all, and we must be
content to wait until the evidence is fully in before drawing any general conclusions.
The Hsi Wang M u . . . book is followed by another on the same subject, entitled
Nu Tsung Shuang Hsiu Pao Fah (A Precious Raft of Salvation for Women Taoists
practising the Double Regeneration of the Pririlary Vitalities), due apparently to Li
Ong7 (Ni-Wan shihR),and written down in verses by the Taoist abbot Shen IPing9 in + 1795 or thereabouts. 'Double regeneration (shuang hsiu)d suggests the
ancient methods which required the cooperation of the two sexes, and with typical
ambiguity this meaning was probably never absolutely excluded as one legitimate
interpretation, but the explanation by now orthodox was that 'double' meant the
Cf. Sect. 45, and pp. 301 ff. below.
One that I knew well during the Second World War, the temple at Miao-Thai-Tzu in the Chhinling Mountains between Szechuan and Shensi, engaged in the larm-scale manufacture of the thin-walled cast-iron pans
(kuo'qused in cooking. Here the Taoist priests were metal-workersfor much of their time.
Inherited directly by one of us (G.D.L.)
We have already made acquaintance with this technical term, in pt. 4, p. 212.

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ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Yang and the Yin, nature and life-span, true lead and true mercury, the two operations, in fact, which a single person could carry out within his or her own body.
The Hsiu Chm Pien Nun1 (Discussion of the Difficulties encountered in the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities), written by Liu I-MingZin 1798, explains
this further in terms of the late theory just mentioned. A man must 'transmute the
chhi' (lien chhi3) by 'not letting the degenerated ching escape, then he can precipitate
the enchyrnoma and lengthen his days'.&A woman must 'transmute the form' (lien
hsing4) 'by not letting the grosser part of the blood leak out, then she can escape
death and enter into lifel.b The paralleI between semen and menstrual blood was
thus complete, for both contained, or were, the raw material, if skilfully transmuted, of an enchymoma in a deathless b0dy.C
When we come to the books attributed to the early Ming adept Chang SanFingS(Fig. 1621)*,the problem of exactly what the late Taoists admitted as legitimate practices reaches puzzling perplexity. Min I-Ti's collection contains a SanF&g Chm Jen Hsiian Than Chhiian Chih(Complete Collection of Mysterious Discourses.. .), and Fu Chin-Chhuan's has a San-F& Tan Chueh7 containing smaller
tractates with similar titles and a series of fine poems called Wu K& Shun (The
Rootless Tree). Whatever is genuine in these would have to be of the first decades
of the 15th-century, but the authenticity can only be considered uncertain. The
difference is that the former expresses a strong aversion from physical sex, with
metaphor piled on metaphor in complex ramifications, while the latter has many
descriptions of the utmost frankness which it is hard to dismiss as imagery and
parable. There are also a number of references to the endocrine preparations from
urine, menstrual blood and colostrum, which show how closely this latter text relates to the iatro-chemical traditi0n.e Here is scope for much further investigation.
Fu Chin-Chhiian himself contributed several books (I to 5) to the second collection. In one of them, the Chhih Shui Yin9 (Chants of the Red River) we come
across some of the few hints in Taoist literature that certain magi trained themselves to accomplish the feats associated with Indian yoga technique, gaining voluntary command of the sphincters and other involuntary muscles (see on, pp. 269
ff.). In Fu's biography of an adept named Tsui Hua Tao Jen,Io the FlowerIntoxicated Taoist, we read that he was able to drink through his nose, could 'make
the river run backwards' and 'played the game of going away small and coming

Hou thim chih chingpu &h lou, kho ichieh tan, kho i y m nim."
b
C

Yin cho chih hni'eh tzu pu hsia bring, Rho i chkii ssu, kho i j u ~hirtg.'~
Is this not in a very logical wav yet another echo of the Aristotelian theory of generation?See further in Sect.

43.

Set p. 169above. Biography in Seidel ( I ) .

See Sect. 43. It is also interesting as one of thoee which uses the term h o yaon in a net' tan sense, a term which
in all other contexts invariably means gunpowder. Here of course the fiery or Yang reagent in enchymomamaking.
d

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

24I

v. +

Fig. 1621. A drawing of Chang San-FGng,physiological alchemist of the early Ming

c. 1400);from Lieh
Hsim Chhiiun Chuan, ch. 8, p. 246. The artist by mistake wrote shm for f&g in the caption.

242
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
back big'. One cannot know how metaphorical these flowers were. Fu ChinChhuan also edited a large group of short texts, some older hnd some newer, under
the title W a i Chin Tan' (Disclosures of the Nature of the Metallous Enchymoma),
including it in his main collection. This embodies, inter alia, a very difficult piece
entitled Huo Lien Chingz (Manual of the Lotus of Fire) which carries the name of
,
conceivable as Han in date though seemingly
Liu An3 (Huai Nan T z u ~ )hardly
closer than the others to proto-chemical wai tan alchemy.8 Near it there is a Huang
Pai Chings (Mirror of the Art of the Yellow and the White), apparently by one Li
Win-Chu6 in
1598, which has the opposite tendency, denying that protochemical alchemy ever existed at all save as a veil for the physiological; this also
repeats the nei and wai distinction within the nei (cf. p. 35 above).h Of the thirty
pieces contained in the W a i Chin Tan there are several which border on wai tan
processes and explanations,c use precise measures and weights in an obviously allegorical way,d or elaborate expositions in terms of the kua of the I Ch2ng.e Some
contain poems such as that reproduced here, from the Lei C h a Chin Tan7 of very
uncertain date, but presumably later than about 1420.

White cinnabar grows in the furnaces of the holy immortals,

They are the real elixir adepts of heaven and earth.
It is onlv a matter of making true lead subdue true mercury'
So that the white jade can be transmuted and the yellow sprouts can gr0w.R
T h e five metals and the eight minerals are of a quite different category,
T h e myriad plants and the ten thousand prescriptions are something else again;
If you ask what things are used in the school of the immortals
It is only the golden flowersh that grow on the rootless tree.'

Another of Fu Chin-Chhuan's writings contains a valuable passage on the 'secret language' of the physiological alchemists. This is the Tan Ching Shih TuR
(Guide to the Reading of the Enchymoma Manuals), dating from the neighbourhood of 1825. In this he says:j
When the enchymoma manuals of late times talk about the son they really mean the
m0ther.k It is as if four arrows were meeting at the same target. 'Tis the bull's-eye that will
explain the mysterious wisdom. Sometimes there are plain words, but often things are
expressed in mirror-images, sometimes there are direct statements, but often phrases
Ch. I , p. 26h. Cf. p. 227 above.
Ch. 2 , p. @h.
P E.g. the Huo Lung Chiich9 attributed to Shang Yang Tzu.l0
a Cf. pp. 38h. 62a, 6 3 0 in ch. 3, p. 396 in ch. 4 , and p. 14a in ch. 5.
E.g. the ('hu Chhuun Chi" bv Tung C h h ~ n g - I ~( +
i ' ~1465).
Cf. pp. q g f f .above.
a The enchymoma, in the central yellow region of the body.
h Or, better, the 'metallous radiance';cf.helow, p. 250. And pt. 4 . p. 229.
A reference of course to the poems of Chang San-F6ng. Tr. auct.
1 P . I h, tr. auct.
k The 'mother' is traditionally Metal (Immature or lesser Yin), and the 'son' is the Yang Water; cf. Fig. I 5 I 5
and p. 250 in pt. 4 .
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33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

243

which seem obscure and doubtful; there are metaphors and parables (pi y u l ) (to be understood), right inferences to be made (from symbols behind symbols), pairs of opposites,
explanations of principles, and oral instructions in mnemonic rhymes. Although the truth
in the oral instructions is never written down, you cannot say that it isn't there. The Shen2
Dragon lies hidden and its appearance is unpredictable; in the east you might get a glimpse
of its claw, in the west you might catch sight of its scales, but without a real teacher how
could you ever apprehend the whole picture? If I were to lift the curtain in one sentence (I
would say that) there is a way of using the common human condition to regenerate (the
primary vitalities) and so to escape from the common human condition. One can put it in a
nutshell: the normal current leads to the generation of children, but going counter-current
leads to the e n c h p o m a (of eternal life). In these two phrases I have disclosed to you the
entire mechanism of Nature (whereby man can discover the fountain of perpetual youth).

This must surely have been one of the best things ever written on the nei tan tradition. Elsewhere in the same book8 it is said fairly clearly that all three ways of
proceeding (p. 234) are admissible, but passionate emotion must at all costs be
avoided," and the exercise of meditation and will-power must be cultivated to the
full. Finally the collection of Fu Chin-Chhuan terminates with a book we have
already mentioned, the Nei Chin Tan3 of Chhen Ni-Wan4 or Wu Chhung-HsiiS,C
part dated 1615, part + 1622. This is the text which uses throughout a curious
system of symbolic notation for its exegesis of physiological alchemy (Fig. I 593).
All these traditions have continued down to the present time, taught by such
eminent masters as Chao Pi-Chhenh (b. I 860), whose Hsing Ming F a Chiieh Ming
Chih7 ( A Clear Explanation of the Oral Instructions concerning the Techniques of
the Nature and the Life-Span) has been translated into English by Lu Khuan-Yu

(4).

(i) The 'Secret of the Golden Floeuer' unveil'd

The object of the foregoing excursus has partly been, we admit, to have occasion to
refer to the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih,Rone version of which was printed in the
Tao Tsang Hsii Pien. This was the short book of which the first eight sections were
translated by R. Wilhelm and published by him in 1929 in collaboration with the
great psychologist C. G. Jung ( I ) under a famous title: 'The Secret of the Golden

' P.48.

b Once again a strange Gnostic parallel can be discovered. Irenaeus (

I 30 to c.
zoo) tells us that the so-called
'libertine' Gnostics had a saying to the effect that 'whoever is in the world and has not loved a woman so as to
possess her, is not of the truth, and will not attain truth; but he who comes from the world and is possessed by a
woman will not attain truth because he is possessed with passion for (or by) a woman' (A&-. Haer. 1, 6, 3ff., cf.
Foerster ( I ) , vol. 2, pp. 3 14ff.).This sounds like praise of non-possessive love, and seems also to echo the Taoist
idea of sexual union without ejaculation. It is remarkable that this religious sexuality should have existed in the
Xlediterranean world just about the same time as the teachinns of the Three Changs and Sun l?n in China (cf.Vol.
2, p. 150). that is to say, from the 2nd to the 5th-centuy.
C According to M i y k i ( I ) ,Wu'sjmuit was c.
1550 to c. 1635

244
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
Flower; a Chinese Book of Life'.a Since this translation (with its Jungian commentary) has during the past forty years become widely known and influential it
demands consideration in the light of the tradition which we have been elucidating
throughout this sub-section. The Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih is in fact a nei tan
book of late type, much influenced by Buddhism but clearly still in the line of
descent of the Taoist philosophia permnis.
Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih is one of those titles which only very brave men will
venture to translatewe offer our ten cents' worth here in the form: 'Principles of
the (Inner) Radiance of the Metallous (Enchyrnoma) (explained in terms of the)
Undifferentiated Universe',b i.e. the primordial macrocosmic and microcosmic
freshness and perfecti0n.c Obviously this is not at all like the title adopted bp Wilhelm & Jung, but its relation to what has gone before will also be evident. The
version in Min I-Ti's collectiond has an enlarged title: Lu Tsu Shih Hsien-Thien
Hsii W u Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih,' which we would english as 'Principles of the
(Inner) Radiance of the Metallous (Enchyrnoma) (explained in terms of the) Undifferentiated Universe and of the All-Embracing Potentiality of the Endowment
of Primary Vitality, taught by the (Taoist) Patriarch Lu (Yen),' i.e. Lu Tung-Pin
( 8th-century, Fig. 1622). The text also differs to some extent, especially in the
first chapter, from that which Wilhelm used.e The history of this book, which has
had a number of altemative titles,f is obscure. We have the gravest doubt whether
it ever had anything to do with Lii Yen himself, and suspect that many of the
prefaces printed by Tan Jan-Hui should be considered apocryphal, though one by
Chang San-Fing about 1410might be allowed. However, the text is so clearly of
Buddhicised late Chhing character that it must at least have been re-written and

The bibliogmphy is complicated. The first English translation from the German, by C. F. Baynes, appeared
in 1931, and revised editions, both in German and English, continued to come out; that of 1957 included a
translation of a still more Buddhist tractate, the Hui Ming Chingvsee on, p. 252) from Wilhelm's posthumous
papers. More recently further reprints have been needed every other year since 1965. A French translation of both
the Chinese texts by Liu Tsi-Hua ( I ) appeared in 1969.U'e have not had the opportunity of studying it carefully,
but it seems to contain hardly any references to the work of Wilhelm and Jung.
b Or, 'a Thai-I Scripture'.
C The ancient Taoist symbols of the Uncarved Block and Primitive Solidarity (cf.Vol. 2, pp. 59, I 12, etc.) will
not be absent from the mind of the reader.
It is followed there by a kind of supplementary tractate entitled Humg Chi Ho A'Hsien Chhgl (The Height of
Perfection attained by Opening and Closing (the Orifices of the Body): a Manual of the Immortals). This is
attributed to the ubiquitous Yin Chen Jen,l and was derived from a MS. kept at the Blue Goat Temple at
Chhengtu.
Wilhelm's translation was made from an edition published by Tan Jan-Hui ( J ) in 1921 which used the
alternative titles Chhung S
*
Shu5 (The Art and Mystery of Longevity and Immortality) for Thui I Chin Hua
Tsmg Chih, and H e .Mng F& (Precepts for Lengthening the Life-Span) instead of Hui ,Wing Ching. We are
greatly indebted to Professor Hellmut Wilhelm for placing at our disposal, through Dr Miyuki Xlokusen, a xerocopy of the Tan Jan-Hui texts used by his father, on the occasion of the Bellagio Conference on Taoism in 1968.
E.g. Lu Tsu C h h u a Shou T s u q Chih7 (Principles (of Macrobiotics) Transmitted and Handed Down by the
(Taoist) Patriarch Lii).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

245

Fig. 1622. A drawing of Lii Tung-Pin, the famous adept of the f 8 t h century, sailing majestically in a cloud over
the ocean of samsara, with his bottle-gourd containing the elixir of immortality, and his Taoist sword slung across
his back. From Lieh Hsien Chhii'anChum, ch. 6, p. 180.

246
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
radically changed from anything that Chang could have known.8 Even Tan, in his
historical account, admitted that the text had not been finalised till 1663 and that
the present title, Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih, dated only from 1668. The first
printing took place, it seems, before the end of the 17th-century.b
By and large Wilhelm seems not to have been acquainted, great sinologist
though he was, with the na' tan tradition of physiological alchemy which was the
real background of the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih. He could not profit by the
fundamental work of Maspero (7) which we have referred to so often because that
did not appear until eight years later; then by 1931 Wilhelm was gone, and although his Hui Ming Ching translation saw print posthumously in 1957 neither
Jung nor the other editors and translators concerned had any access to the original
Chinese literature, or apparently any conception that there was a lot more behind
the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih than appeared to the unwary eye. Consequently
the most recent edition is no wiser than the first. The fact is that the doctrine of the
double rise and fall of semen and saliva (or their chht] within the body to make the
enchymoma of material immortality is clearly present in this text, even though all
physical practices seem to have been purged from it, and the ching' (or hniehz)has
to be convened into chhi before circulation, just in the Ming and Chhing 'revisionist' style already noted (p. 237). Without this background knowledge, and
without any clues as to what could be meant by references to '(true) lead',c '(true)
mercury', the 'Yellow Court'd the 'holy embryo' (sh&g thai'),e the 'interpenetration of sun and moon',' etc., it was inevitable that the translation should
have a vaguely mystical, even 'occult' character, on which Jung in his turn could
build psychological speculations with a high degree of freedom. Far be it from us to
say that nothing now remains of these, for Jungian insight was truly profound and
penetrating, but the exact relation which they have (if any) to what the Chinese text
was trying to express is a matter deserving of further investigation, and that is not
possible here. One may now feel that Wilhelm & Jung were particularly rash in
their use of distinctively European concepts-logos
for hsin,4 'heart and
consciousness',g eros for hen,^ 'kidneys and sexualityl,h the 'backward-flowing
movement' as m e t a n ~ i athe
, ~ ying erh6 as puer aetemus, 'the Christ who must be

+
+

Wilhelm himself accepted a real derivation from Lu Tung-Pin, and suspected some Nestorian connection. It
is true that Lu did use Nestorian Christian prayen and ejaculationsas magic spells (cf.Saeki (z),pp. qwff.), but he
probably understood very little about them, and we for our pan can find no trace of Christian ideas in the texts
under discussion. Seidel ( I )suggests that our text emanated from a mediumistic Taoist sect claiming descent from
Lii Tsu, and popular in Hupei after + 1700.
b Another highly obscure subject is what connection there was, if any, between these texts and the secret
religious society known as Chin Tan Chiao.7
Pp. 23.59.99. Our references are to the 1931edition (7th reprint. 1947) u n l m otherwise stated.
K P.71.
* E.g. p. 24. LVilhelm adopted the highly un-Chinese term, 'Yellow Castle'.
h P.71.
P. 33.
P. 65.
1 P. g.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

247

born in us',aphol 'soul' as anima, hunZ'soul' as animus," and so

T h i s is surely
the way how not t o d o it. KOone can doubt for an instant the high-mindedness of
Wilhelm & Jung, their determination that 'East and West are n o longer t o remain
apart', b u t each civilisation, after all, must be allowed t o have its own distinctive
concepts, which can be explained and understood, b u t not identified, especially so
long as the cultures have such inadequate understanding of each other's literature
and the evolution of each other's thoughts and actions. I t is n o good setting u p facile
equations and equivalents between the ideas of China a n d Christendom until both
have been given a thorough chance t o explain themselves.
T h e 'mysticisation' of the Thai I Chin H u a Tsung Chih can be seen in one of the
explanations of Wilhelm's preface. H e is of course commenting on the statements
in the text and commentary which follow the ancient watchword: 'Normal outflow
leads t o the generation of children; counter-current upward flow leads t o the enchymoma'. H e wrote$
The usual, unchecked, 'normal-flow', that is, downward movement of the life-process, is
the one in which the two souls [hun and phoIe are related as the intellectual and animal
factors. As a rule, it will be the anima, the blind will, which, goaded by the passions, forces
the animus or intellect into its service. At least the anima will do this to the extent that the
intellect directs itself outward, whereby the powers both of animus and anima leak away,
and life consumes itself. A positive result is the creation of new beings in which life continues, while the original being 'externalises itself and 'ultimately is made by things into a
thing'. The end result is death. The anima sinks, the animus rises, and the ego, robbed of its
strength, is left behind in a dubious condition. . .
If, on the other hand, it has been possible during life to set going the 'backward-flowing',
rising movement of the life-forces, if the forces of the anima are mastered by the animus,
then a release from external things takes place. They are recognised but not desired. Thus
the illusion is robbed of its strength. An inner, ascending circulation of forces takes place.
The ego withdraws from its entanglement in the world, and after death remains alive because 'interiorisation' has prevented the wasting of the life-forces in the outer world.
Instead of these being dissipated, they have made within the inner rotation of the monad a
centre of life which is independent of bodily existence. . .
Such a being survives as long as the inner rotation continues. Also it can invisibly influence men to great thoughts and noble deeds. The saints and sages of ancient times are
beings like these, who for thousands of years have stimulated and educated humanity.
And the translator, C. F. Raynes, added a footnote on the two directions of flow,
which, though evidently based on the ideas of kundalini-yoga (see on, p. 274)also
said that it was easy for the student of analytical psychology t o see a connection
between them and the concepts of extraversion and introversion. T h i s was a rather
P. 9 .
P. 14.
We have had occasion to inveigh against this kind of thing before, e.g. the interpretation of li and chhi as
Aristotelian form and matter (Vol. 2, p. 475),and the persistent translation of li and other terms as law in 'laws of
Nature' (Vol. 2, p. 557).
d Pp. 16, 17. A similar statement occurs on p. 73, where the penetrating remark is added that for him who
reaches the 'stage of the Golden Flower' the ego is freed from the conflict of opposites.
'Sets of souls', he should have said.
c

248

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

far cry from nei tan alchemy, but she wisely added that 'the Chinese concept seems
to include both physical and physiological processes'.
Min I-Tt's description of the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih, in the contents table
of his collection, was as follows: 'Dealing with the life-giving methods of filling up
the kua Li with the Yang line of the kua Khan, this book speaks of the "conjunction" or "intercourse" (i.e. the interchange of Yang and Yin lines) between
these trigrams, (whereby the enchymoma is formed), all in a very refined and detailed way.' This we can understand in the light of what has gone before, especially
Table 1 2 1 c. But to give an example of how far Wilhelm unknowingly wandered
from the path of nei tan and hsiu chen tradition we ought to compare a short passage
in translation. Here is a statement on the 'marriage of water and fire', referring very
clearly to the primary vitalities, first in his version and then in ours.
The way to the Elixir of Life recognises as supreme magic, seed-water, spirit-fire, and
thought-earth; these three. What is seed-water?It is the true, one power (eros) of Former
Heaven. Spirit-fire is the light (logos).Thought-earth is the heavenly heart of the middle
house (intuition). Spirit-fire is used for effecting, thought-earth for substance, and seedwater for the foundation.
But we would saya:
The Tao of the enchymoma involves chingl (semen or seminal essence, corresponding to
the element) Water, shenz (mentality or spirit, corresponding to the element) Fire, and i3
(the objective or purpose, corresponding to the element) Earth; these three. No higher
insight than this can be given in any oral instruction. Now what is chingl the Aquose? It is
the chhi of the primary vitality of the original endowment (hsien thien,4 man at his beginning). ShenZthe Pyrial is the light (that can be made to shine in man).b I3 the Terrene is the
central region (chung hngs) (where the enchymoma is formed) and the focus of the natural
endowment (thien hsin6).cSo here shen2the Pyrial is the activity Cyung7) (of the h a ) , i3 the
Terrene is their manifestation (thz3),and chingl the Aquose is the very basis (chiP)of all.
T o understand this last distinction one has to know that beside the symbol of each
kua (trigram or hexagram) there was also its manifestation (thP) and its activity
bung'). For us it is evident that the text is derivative from all those which saw the
two reagents meeting at the Yellow C0urt.d But it is equally evident that almost any
mystical or psychological system could be constructed on the basis of Wilhelm's
rendering, and whatever it was it would not have much relation to the thoughts of
the original Chinese writer.
That he followed the will-power method of transmuting ching into chhi without
the aid of any physiological operations is probable from the following p a ~ s a g e : ~

a
C

Ch. 2, p. 5 (p. 3a). tr. auct., adjuv. Wilhelm & Jung ( I ) , p. 28.
The inner radiance, perhaps, of the title of the book.
This phrase is explained on p. 3 of the text.
An interesting list of the late synonyms for this is found on p. 2 of the text.
Ch. 3, p. 8 (p. 4 b ) , tr. auct., adjuv. Wilhelm & Jung ( I ) , pp. 34,35.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

249

At the centre of all change and transformation the radiation of the Yang is the master and
governor. In the physical world it is the sun, in man the eye. The emanation and dispersal of
the shenl (vitality) through shihZ(worldly sentiments and affections) is the most natural and
normal current of events. Therefore the Tao of evoking the metallous radiance entirely
depends on the method of counter-current flow (nifa-').
[Comm.] Man's heart belongs to the element Fire, and the light of fire presses upwards
into the two eyes. When they are looking at worldly things this may be called naturalcurrent vision. Now if one closes the eyes (pi &) and reversing the gaze, directs it inwards
to contemplate the 'primordial cavity' (tsu chhiaos),a that may be called the 'countercurrent' method. (It is just like) the chhi of the reins which belongs to the element Water.
When the instincts are stirred, it runs downward, flows naturally outward, and gives rise to
boy and girl children. But if, at the moment of release, it is not allowed to flow naturally
outward, but is forcibly assisted to return, and made to ascend so that it enters the reactionvessel of Chhien ( h a , the creative, i.e. the head), refreshing and nourishing the body and
the heart, that also is a 'counter-current' method. This is why it is said that the Tao of
(making) the metallous enchymoma depends entirely on methods of counter-current flow.
Here the ancient genital counter-current flow is used as a parable for the countercurrent of inwardly directed vision. T h u s one begins to see how in these later times
the idea of the adept as a 'hermetically sealed organism' (the term is strangely appropriate) began to take full form. Not only must the secretions be c o n ~ e r v e dand
,~
the breath held in as long as possible, b u t also the sense-organs must be directed
inwards rather than outwards, and the play of spontaneous thoughts dependent on
the stimuli of the external world reduced to the absolute minimum. One may or
may not sympathise with this final Buddhicised phase of the cult of material immortality. I t probably produced some charismatic characters.
T h e r e is of course much in the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih on meditation,
respiratory exercises,c the circulation of the chhi, and a light-mysticism which assuredly had some connection with the ancient photo-therapeutic methods; but little on gymnastics o r the maintenance of special positions of the body. Further
understanding of how it was interpreted is given b y an interesting passage in the
commentary to Ch. 8, which runs as fol1ows:d
The disciple has penetrated in his exercises (Kungfu6) into mysterious territory, but if he
does not know the method of forging and transmuting (tuan lien,' the ching into the chhi?),it
is to be feared that the metallous enchymoma will hardly be produced. Therefore the Patriarch revealed the secret which the immortals and the bodhisattvas would never transmit.
e at
If the disciple keeps his attention fixed upon the openings of the chhi (chhi h ~ e h s ) ,and
Obviously this is only a new way of talking about the Yellow Court. The 'cavity' where the enchymoma is to
' ~just chhiao, is still more emphasi~cdin the Hui Ming Ching (see on, p. 252).
form, hsim chhiaoQor chm c h h i ~ oor
b Semen, saliva and menstrual blood are already familiar. One may query whether some enthusiasts did not
dream of conserving the excretions also. Probably they did, incurring pathological dangers, yet practices of extreme fasting would reduce the excreta, and up to a point conduce to longevity.
C U'ilhelm & Jung tr., pp. 44ff..54.
d Ch. 8, p. 32, tr. auct., adjuv. Wilhelm & Jung ( I ) , pp. 68ff.
I.e. the two eyes, as p. 30 explains.

250

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

the same time maintains the deepest stillness, then out of the obscure darkness a something
develops out of nothingness. That is the metallous radiance of (the vitality of) the undifferentiated universe (in all its pristine freshness).
At this time the light of sentiment (shih h a n g 1 )is (seen to be) different from the light of
inbeing (hsing k u m g L ) a .Thus it has been said that to be stirred when stimulated by external
things leads to a natural flow downward and outward, so that more people are brought into
the world. That is the light of sentiment. Rut if at a time when the chhi of the primary
vitality has copiously accumulated, the disciple commands it not to go forth, he may make it
(return upward and inward) in counter-current wise.h That is the light of inbeing. It is
necessary to adopt the method of the water-raising machine (ho chhG1).('If one winds away
without stopping, the chhi of the primary vitality will (be felt to) 'return to the roots', as if
drop by drop. Then when the water-raising wheels stop the body will be clean and the chhi
fresh. A single turning corresponds to one revolution of the heavens, or what the Patriarch
Chhiu called one small celestial cycle. If one does not wait long enough, and tries to collect
the chhi when it has not sufficiently accumulated (and matured), it is then too weak and
tender, and the enchymoma will not be formed. On the other hand if the chhi is there in
plenty and yet is not collected, its virtue will be lost on account of staleness, and again the
enchymoma will hardly be achieved. The right time to use it with determined purpose for
this end is when it is neither too stale nor too weak.
This correct time is what the Buddhist patriarchs mean when they talk of sex (sP)d being
equivalent to emptiness (khungs); this is the same idea as the transmutation of the ching into
the (primary) chhi. If the disciple does not understand this principle (lih) and lets the chhi
stream away downwards and outwards, then the chhi forms ching; this was what they meant
when they said that emptiness was equivalent to sex.e
Every ordinary man who unites bodily with a woman feels pleasure first and then fatigue,
for when the ching has flowed out the body is tired and the spirit languid. It is quite different
when the immortals and bodhisattvas make their shm unite with their chhi, for that brings
first purity and then freshness; when the ching has been transformed the body has a sense of
well-being.
There is a tradition that Old Master Phing grew to an age of eight hundred and eighty
because he made use of concubines to nourish his vitalities, but that is a misunderstanding.
People do not understand that what he really made use of was the method of re-forging and
re-casting the shen and the chhi. In the enchymoma books (tan shu'), symbols (pi yuH)are
often used, and in them the fire ( h a ) 1,i is represented by the 'elegant girl' (chhaniig),' while
the water ( h a ) Khan appears as the 'baby boy' (ying erh1").uHence the idea that Old Master
Phing had a method of regeneration and revitalisation by means of sex. It was all a mistake
of later generations.
But the adepts (hsim chiall) use the art of inverting Khan and Li by directing them
towards the true central region (chm ic), without which they cannot harmonise and combine them. This true central region belongs to the element Earth. Now Earth corresponds
Or, perhaps better, 'discernment'.
The idea here is that it is the chhi of the primary vitality which goes out within the ching to be the endowment
of the resulting children.
P The image in mind was certainly the square-pallet chain-pump (cf. Vol. 4 , pt. 2, pp. 339ff.). Cf. Sect. 4 3 .
d Or, more conventionally, 'sexual attraction'.
e This is pmbahly Tantric (cf. p. 275 below). The more usual contrast with khung' (hiqat5) was p n " 3 ( k m n d ,
compassion for all beings), cf. van Gulik (7). p. 4 8
r A usual cover-name for mercury. Here of course it is the inner, Yin, line.
Here the inner, Yang, line.
h

33.

25 I

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

to yellow; therefore the enchymoma books speak of it symbolically under the name 'yellow
sprouts' ( h u a q y a l ) .When Khan and Li unite, the metallous radiance appears. Now Metal
corresponds to white; therefore it is symbolically referred to as 'white snow' (pai hsiieh2).
Rut u.orldly people who do not understand the veiled words of the enchymoma school have
mistaken 'yellow' and 'white' to mean the art of manipulating metals and minerals. Is that
not a great foolishness?
An ancient worthy said: 'From the beginning every family has had this treasure, and only
fools have failed to understand it'. If we reflect on this we can see that the ancients really
attained long life by knowing when to collect (and convert) the ching chhi present in their
own bodies, not by seeking to prolong it by swallowing this or that elixir. Rut worldly
people can never see the wood for the trees.
The enchymoma manuals also say that when an orthodox man (chbzgjen-l) m ~ l r :el S~i ~f
unorthodox methods (hsieh tao"), these wrong methods work in the right way. This is the
same idea as the transmutation of the ching into chhi. Conversely, when an unorthodox man
(hsieh jens) makes use of orthodox methods (chhg tao", these right methods work in the
wrong way. This corresponds to the begetting of boy and girl children by the bodily union
of man and woman. Fools waste the most precious jewel of the body in uncontrolled pleasure, and do not know how to conserve the chhi of their ching. When it is exhausted the body
perishes. The saints and sages had no way of taking care of their lives other than by destroying desire and safeguarding the ching, piling it up in order to turn it into abundant chhi.
FVith a sufficiency of that, Chhien (kun, the creative) is re-created, and an immortal, strong
and holy body is born. The difference from ordinary people depends solely on whether the
normal downward-flowing way or the upward counter-current way is practiced.
T h e passage is indubitably interesting. T h e r e is the old idiefixe about the retention
of the semen, though now with the refinement that it should b e turned into chhi
before being circu1ated.a T h e writer adapts certain Buddhist ideas t o his purpose,
distorting rather sadly the grand conception of the identity of ninGna and samsara.
T h e r e is a typical re-interpretation of ancient traditions, and a belated coup depatte
at the proto-chemical and iatro-chemical practitioners.
H o w much Wilhelm & Jung themselves apprehended of the double enchymoma
theory may b e gauged from a note which the former contributed at the e n d of his
~ e c t i o nI.t~runs:
-

The two psychic poles are here contrasted with one another. They are represented as
logos (heart, consciousness), to be found under the fire sign, and eros (kidneys, sexuality),
under the water sign. The 'natural' man lets both these forces work outwardly (intellect and
the process of procreation), and in this way they 'stream out' and are consumed. The adept
turns them inward and brings them together whereby they fertilise one another and thus
produce a psychically red-blooded, and therefore strong, life of the spirit.
T h e only comment on this that comes t o m'ind is the expression so often heard on
the lips of Chinese friends-it is certainly 'not exactly' wrong, b u t equally certainly
'not exactly' right. Whether any nei tan Ta6ist would have recognised himself in
this mirror we shall never know.
One never feels quite sure how far t h w late Taoists excluded masturbation as one legitimate means of
mobilising, and then storing, the ching.
h P. 71. as a footnote to the heginning of the passage we have quoted on p. 249 above (his p. 35).

'

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33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

The Hui Ming Ching (Manual of the (Achievement of) Wisdom and the (Lengthening of the) Life-span) is an even more difficult proposition.8 It was written in
179+ by Liu Hua-Yang' who had been a Buddhist monk before he came to
Taoism. The syncretic fusion with Buddhism, even Chhan (Zen) Buddhism, is
much further advanced, and the full explanation of the text would need an experienced buddhologist. Miyuki Mokusen ( I ) has attempted this in an interesting
contribution, but unfortunately again without much knowledge of the prior Taoist
nei tan traditi0ns.b The terminology is rather different from all our other texts.
There is much talk of the chhiaoZor hsiian chhiao,3 'mysterious cavity', lamentably
(though ingeniously) translated by Wilhelm as 'germinal vesicle', but perhaps only
one more name for the Yellow Court, the central region of the body, or rather the
natural enchymoma which was once there but which has to be re-synthesised. This
is clear from the description which says that it is a great thing, part of the pre-natal
endowment, containing all the natural perfections of the body and soul fused
together like glittering precious metal in the refiner's fire, of primordial harmony
(thai ho4)and heavenly pattern (thien li5) all compact. But when the foetus is born, it
is like a man losing his foothold on a high mountain and plunging downwards with
a cry; senescence from that moment begins, the hsine and ming7 are sundered and
fate takes its course; youth gives way to maturity, maturity to old age, and old age to
the bitterness of death. But there is a way open to man of repairing and reintegrating the 'mysterious cavity', and regenerating the virtue and perfection of
embryonic life and infancy, a way in which-he-cm,'-as it were; sear up through the
air again, and land safe and sound a&e top of the m0untain.C The Taoists had said
this all along, and now it is re-stated with a Buddhist flavour as the compassionate
revelation of the TathSigata himse1f.d
Another keyword is lou chin,8'cessation of outflowing' (Wilhelm), which Miyuki
says represents the 'extinction of kleias', (stains, or passions) i.e. the stoppage of all
that normally 'leaks out' through the sense-organs and other parts of the body.
While this was doubtless intended to refer to all aspects of that 'hermetically sealed
personality' of which we have just spoken, the picture (Fig. 1623) shows most unmistakably the vesiculae seminales, kidneys, bladder and urethra.e This must
have been contributed by the Taoist side, as also the illustration which follows it

The first tranalation was by L. C. Lo (I), and it was then gone over again by Wilhelm before the 1957 edition
of Wilhelm & Jung (I).
b The same applies to his m-examination of the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih (2).
c The inescapable image here is of running a cinematograph film backwards, and precisely this trick was
performed in one of Jean Coaeau's films, where a man shoots out of the sea and describes in reverse the trajectory
of his dive from a cliff. Furthermore the metaphor of the mountain is interesting to any embryologist, since the
model of a thermodynamic surface has often been used to illustrate the successive stages of embryonic determination, each irreversible, and leading in all to the complete or almmt complete fixation of fates of the parts (cf.
Needham (67). pp. 58ff. and figs. 8, 10, I I, 33).
This paragraph is a paraphrase of the text translated by Wilhelm & Jung (I), 1969 ed., p. 70, Miyuki (I), pp.

11ff.

We suspect that the double meaning of 'no leak' (ml&) was already present in the Wu Chm Phien; d. Davis
& Chao (7). p. I 14.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Fig. 1623. Page from the Hui M* Ching (Manual of the Achievement of Wisdom and Lengthening of the LifeSpan) written by Liu Hua-Yang in 1794. Here the 'cessation of leaking' (IOU chin) captions the picture, which
makes an attempt to show the kidneys, vesiculae seminales, bladder and urethra, together with the vertebral axis
up which the seminal secretion had been supposed to go. One of these organs is marked 'gate of wisdom', the other
'gate of destiny'. But by this time the old Taoist technique had become part of a figurative imagery describing
Buddhist inward concentration intended to minimise the distractions of the sense-organs. As Sir Thomas Browne
said of sleep: 'And now 'tis time to close the five ports of knowledge. . .' (Quimmx, V).

254

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1624. An earlier form of Fig. 1620; the circulation diagram in Hui Miqq Ching ( 1794).Here the rising T M
channel up the back is associated with inspiration in breathing (hst), while the descending JM channel down the
front of the body is associated with expiration (hu). Each channel is marked with six graduations (km),while the
brain is symbolised by heaven (thien) and the fundament by earth (tz); beneath this last the urethra is shown.
Opening and closing (hophz) mark the whole, while another couplet of alchemical technical terms, myii, bathing
and washing, mark the ascending T M acu-tract and the descending J M acu-tract respectively.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

255

(Fig. 1624), very similar to that on the circulation of the chhi which we have reproduced in Fig. 1620. Another teaching seemingly new for us is that of the 'three
fires', chun huol (ruler fire), hsiang huoZ(minister fire), and min huo" (people fire),
associated respectively with the heart, pericardium and reins. The Hui Ming Ching
says?
Within the cavity there is the 'ruler fire', at its opening the 'minister fire', and all through
the body the 'people fire'. When the first awakes the second responds to it, and when the
second moves the third follows it. When the three fires follow the normal course and issue
forth it leads to the begetting of new human beings, but when the three fires come back in
counter-current flow, it leads to the formation of the Tao (i.e. the enchymoma). Thus the
sage can make use of the 'mysterious cavity' of the 'completely un-leaking' (body) and so
rise up into immortal life.

Whence one cannot but suspect that here also 'presbyter is but priest writ large',
and that the three fires simply represent yet new incarnations of the three tan thien,
regions of vital heat, in Buddhist robes. But of course there is much more of interest
for which Miyuki's expose must be consulted. The circulation of the chhiupwards
dorsally along the tu mo tract and downwards abdominally along the jen mo tract is
after which a drawing of the 'holy embryo' or
given in another picture (Fig. 1625)~
enchymoma in personified form follows, and the rest of the text is concerned with
the spiritual liberation brought about by meditation and samzdhi ecstasy. This we
need not follow.
Lastly we come to an extraordinary paradox. Jung repeatedly tells us that he
decided to publish his first ideas on Western allegorical alchemy (see pp. 2ff.
above), and to pursue further that line of study, only when his friend Richard
Wilhelm put before him the translation of the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih.b It
came, he says, at a time crucial for his own w0rk.c 'Light on the nature of alchemy'.
Jung afterwards wrote, 'began to come to me only after I had read the text of the
"Golden Flower", that specimen of Chinese alchemy which Wilhelm sent me in
1928. Thus I was stirred by the desire to become more closely acquainted with the
(Western) alchemical texts.'" Thus we have the strange situation that it was a Buddhicised (and indeed bowdlerised) text of late physiological alchemy which stimulated the construction of the whole edifice of research on the psychological or
allegorical-mystical interpretation of alchemy in Europe. The fact that the background of the Thai I Chin Hua Tsung Chih was not quite what Wilhelm and Jung
thought has of course nothing to do with the value or validity of the remarkable
discoveries which Jung made in the writings of many of the Western alchemists,
but it does throw into relief the fact that when European (and perhaps Arabic)
alchemy was not proto-chemical it was allegorical-mystical, while when Chinese
a
C

P. 5, tr. Bud. adjuv. Wilhelm & J u n (I),

~ 1969 ed.,p. 71, Miyuki (I),pp. 12, 1 3 . Cf. Lu & Needham (S),p. 39.
Junu(1). P. 95, (3). PP. v. 4 . ~ ~ 1 1 .
J u n (3),
~ P. 3.
Jung (7). ch. 7.

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1625. Anatomical diagram from the Hui Ming Ching showing Tu MOascending from the reins to the brain
and Jen MO descending from the latter to the former, the first dorsally, the second frontally. The throat-andtrachea (hou)and the throat-and-oesophagus (yen) are also marked.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

257

alchemy was not proto-chemical it was physiological, iatro-chemical and quasiyogistic. Very likely this was not the first time that a stimulus diffusing from
another civilisation was radically misinterpreted.8 But now we are in a position to
put the record straight, and to understand Chinese physiological alchemy as it deserves to be understood, practically, not only mystically, as a real and experimental
proto-science (by no means wholly without foundation) in its own right. All these
reflections might have served as the dtinouement of this Section if we had not still
two tasks before us, first an essential glance at the relations of Chinese nei tan with
Indian yoga,b and secondly a terminal judgment of what the former amounted to
from the point of view of the history of science.

Here we reach one of those embarrassing situations where for the purposes of the
present survey it is necessary to compress subjects of vast complexity into so little
room that the discussion must seem inadequate to all who really know. But China
and India gave and received mutually from early times, so that the reader who has
reached this point can no way do without some sketch of what the Yoga system
(yogciccira, yoga-dariana) really was. Space does not permit of any wide-ranging
and documented treatment of such things as the role of sex in Indian religion; nor
can we deal with the development of yoga, as we should like, historically, we can
only give some rough idea of datings, important though they are for the relations
with Chinese culture. Yoga, then, a word connected with j q u m and yoke, meant
both self-discipline and union, discipline to remove the individual aspirant from
the 'red dust' hung chhen,' (as we should say in China) of the worldly turmoil of the
world, and to lead to mystical union of the individual with the universe, a union
which would liberate him or her from the dominion of events and history, an attainment of 'eternal life in the midst of time'. It thus became one of the six 'orthodox' Hindu systems, but it was also of the very fibre of Buddhism from the beginning, even affecting the Jains, and played a part in every form of Indian culture
wherever it penetrated, whether to the snows of Tibet or the jungles of 1ndonesia.c
Our first focal point is the - 2nd-century (the time of the Early Han in China)
when were written, it is supposed, the first three chapters of the still extant Yoga
8 Again an embryologist is reminded of the inter-specific action of inductors and competent tissues. The same
inductor brings about different differentiationsin different animals, and if it is implanted in a foreign apecies (e.g.
from frog to toad) it will induce the formation characteristic of the reacting tissue, not that which it would have
i n d u d in the normal course of events. The reacting tissue 'salutes', as Spemann used to say, 'but after its own
manner'. So also perhaps different cultures are liable to respond to external stimuli by developing ideas that w e n
latent within them already, without really understandingthe ideas of the donor culture.
h There are passing hints in Wilhelm & Jung ( I ) that they guessed they had to do with a s p t m of yogiatic
character (pp. 7,87,99.13 I)-but no more.
For general accounts see S. N. Dasgupta (4); Eliade (6); Maason-Oursel(4);Choisy (I);Jaggi ( I ) , vol. 5 .

33.

2s8

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Szitra, by Pataiijali, the identity of whom with the famous grammarian" is often
though not universally accepted.h Traditionally the yoga complex came to be associated with the philosophical system known as Simkhya, embodied in the
Scimkhya Kcirikci of iivarakfsqa, certainly written earlier than the 6th-century
(when it was translated into Chinese), perhaps as early as 200, but in principle
going back much earlier, to a legendary founder Kapi1a.C Although from the Upanishads onwards the general Indian tendency had been to reject the phenomenal
world as ephemeral, painful and illusory, for both Yoga and Simkhya the world
was real and not illusion. The difference between them was that while the latter was
atheist in principle, the former admitted the existence of a supreme God (iivara)
who could help the yogin at his labours. The two formed part of an antithesis
running throughout Indian culture, that always there were two ways of salvation,
on the one hand ascesis (tapas),d on the other gnosis (vidyci, jficina, prajfiii)--and
sometimes these two conflicted, even in B u d d h i ~ m The
. ~ soteriological goal was
the same, however, mukti, liberation from the human condition, 'absolute liberty',
jivan-mukti, deliverance of the individual within this present 1ife.f
Of course one must not assume that yogiiccira began only in the time of this
Pataiijali. The strain is age-old in India; already the Mohenjo-Daro civilisation
( - 25th to - 20th-centuries) left for posterity statuettes of 'yogis' sitting in the
lotus or padmcisana position, and of naked goddesses or 'yoginis', predecessors of
those women who later incarnated the iakti consorts, the feminine creative energies.
The @gVeda, datable about the - 10th-century, knows of ascetics and ecstatics
(munz?, and a strange group of priests called vrcitya in the Atharva Veda, who carry
out breathing exercises, stand upright for a year at a time, and officiate at the
vriityastoma and m a h ~ r i t asacrifices, accompanied by cantors (mcigadha) and
'prostitutes' (pumicali), perhaps the original devidasis, who coupled in these fertility rites. Between the - 6th and the - 4th-centuries come the first appearances of
later important yoga terms, such as pratycihcira, the withdrawal of the senses from
the phenomenal world; this occurs in the Chiindogya and Taittirtya Upanishads. A
little later, in the Svetciivatara Upanishad, we find the words &ana andpreiiycima;
highly important for our purpose, and easily explained. In fully developed yoga,
the practitioner was bound to practise the eight aiga (members), and these

Cf. Renou & Filliozat ( I ) , vol. 2, pp. goff.

The last chapter is generally considered to be of much later date, perhaps of the 5th-century, or perhaps of
the 7th and 8th See Eliade (6). pp. 21, 363; J. H. Woods (I); Dasgupta (3). Some eminent authorities, e.g.
Woods, have placed the Yoga SGha as late as the + 4th or 5th-century, which would make it contemporary with
the early Tantric writings. But while Renou & Filliozat (I), vol. 2, p. 45, have doubts about the - 2nd-century
dating they seem to feel that it can hardly be later than the 1st.
Many expositions of this are available, e.g. Senppta (I); P. N. Mukej i (I); Suwanavayana Sastri (I); Behanan (I). Although we do not need to go into it further here, it has deep interest for any philosopher of science, if
only for the thorough-going incorporation of atomism in it.
d Lit. heat, ardour, cf. Eliade (6). pp. 52, I 16, 121.
ThejhC-vin or experimentalist monks were sometimes at odds with the dhmmayqqa or philosophicalmonks, to
whom we owe the ahhidhmma treatises. A third p u p was the liturgical or hhakti (devotional) party, but it could
hardly be the synthesis of the other two (cf. Eliade (6). pp. 180, 196).There may be certain parallels in the tension
between mystical and rational theology in Christendom.
See Eliade (6). pp. 49, 107, 152.
b

+
+

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

259

terms refer to three of them. The first and second, yama and niyama, were the
negative and positive aspects of an ethical code, which included abstention from
,
of avarice (aparigraha), and
hurting or killing any living creature ( a h i ~ i i )rejection
Peace of mind under all cirtotal abstinence from generative sex (brahmiica~ya).~
cumstances, i.e. ataraxy,h and avoidance of any particular attachments (vaireya)
were also inculcated. Next came the iisana, particular attitudes and postures of a
gymnastic (indeed often a contortionist) character, which were adopted to assist
mental concentration and strengthen the body. Equal in importance was priiniiyiima, the control of the breathing by specific respiratory techniques, including
prolonged apnoea, priina (like Gk. pnatma) being a conception as near as may be to
chhi' in Chinese.c The remaining four were all stages or types of mental withdrawal, i.e. pratyiihiira, the deliverance of the sensorial activity from the dominion
of external objects, dhiirqii, meditation or concentration, dhyiina, a higher state of
contemplation, and finally samGdhi, the highest stage of isolation, absorption or
trance. The last three were often grouped together under the term samyana, 'the
three vehicles'. We shall have more to say about most of these eight q g a in relation
to the specific subjects they deal with, in order to institute a comparison with their
Chinese counterparts.
T h e second great movement of a yogistic character in Indian culture was Tantrism, which began to flourish from the 4th to the 6th-centuries and afterwards
remained widespread and firmly ro0ted.d The word tan means to extend, continue
or multiply, suggesting some parallel with the Chinese ching2and its textile background, a succession, extension, or unrolling, in a continuous process. This came
therefore, perhaps, not to destroy yoga but to fulfil it. If we except the shadowy and
elusive alchemical philosopher Nigirjuna of the 2nd-century (cf. Vol. 5 , pt. 3,

The myama included certain stranw purifications (iauca) and puqptions, to which we shall return in connection with the cfsana postures and neuro-muscular training.
Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 63ff.
Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 47zff., Vol. 4, pt. I , pp. 32ff. andpassim., Vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 27,86ff., 92-3, pt. 3, pp. 149-50 Cf.
Ewing (I).
* Cf. Eliade (6). pp. 205 ff., 386. We have already discussed this, approaching it from the Buddhist angle, in Vol.
z, pp. 425ff., but there is more to be said in the present context, and we shall cover rather different ground. Since
the pioneer works of Woodroffe ( I , 2,3) the literature has grown very large. We make no claim to a comprehensive
knowledge of it, but feel like borrowing a leaf out of the book of Polonius (Hamlet. 11, ii, 401) to describe some of
the writings which have come our way. Thus you have the scholarly-illuminating, such as S. R. Dasgupta (I);
Eliade (h); Rharati (I); Rhattacharya (2.3); Evola (2); Zimmer (4fithe scholarly-mystifying, such as Chakravarty
( I ) and S. Chattopadhyaya fithe he philosophical-incomprehensible, such as Guenther (I)-the
iconographicexpository in the books of Rawson ( I , 2) and Mookerji & Khanna ( r t f i n a l l y the sociological-medical, such as
Rose (I); D. Chattopadhyaya (4); Jaggi ( I ) ,vol. 5 . pp. 107ff.and Kanesar (I).
One of the most interesting distinctions is that elucidated by S. R. Dasgupta (I), pp. 3-4, 100.namely that in
Buddhist Tantrism the activity belongs to the male god or bodhisatma, with the female iakti as the still centre;
while in Hindu Tantrism all the energy and activity flows from the iakti, while the god is more like an instrument,
and would be passive without her. Interestingly, Dasgupta attributes this second theology to the Taoists also,
seeing Yin kinetic and Yang as ststic. He gives no evidence, but this would be an interesting point to investigate
in the abundant Taoist texts. Classically, motion
was asmiated with Yang and rest (chin@)with Yin (cf.
Forke (g), pp. 93,492,497. and our Vol. 4, pt. I , p. 61). but of courrte each always contained the germ of the other
within itself, and it would be just like the n k tan Taoists to reverse the correlation and declare that in their world
Yang was quiescence and Yin creative movement.

(m')

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33.

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pp. 161ff. above), the first great name connected with Tantrism is that of Asariga
who seems to have flourished about +400. The Suvama-prabhtfsa Sutra and
others were translated into Chinese early in the 5th-century, but most of the
oldest remaining Indian Tantric writings are of the 7th to the 9th. The oldest
vajrayinic texta is the Guhya-samtfja Tantra, ascribed to the 3rd-centurv, and
often attributed to Asariga himse1f;b and there are others, such as the Mahtfytfnaszitrcilamktfra gtfstra which must be of the 5th-century or earlier. The characteristic emphases of Tantrism may be summarised as follows. First great weight was
laid on the importance of sex in the scheme of things; the real cosmic energy was
feminine (creative as in the bearing of children and the inspiring of men), embodied
in the Sakti or consort of every one of the g0ds.C New goddesses in their own right,
too, came into prominence, particularly TGr5,d while Prajfiii-pHramitG, the Perfection of Wisdom, a kind of Hagia Sophia (dyt'a aodla) was personified as a divine
being. As Eliade puts it, it was a 'redkcouverte religieuse de la mystZre de la
Femme',e so that every woman could be an incarnation of a Sakti, and the restorer
(might not the word be significant?) of male energy and youth. Secondly, the
movement was both anti-ascetic (in the extreme sense of the word)f and antispeculative. In the Ktflacakra Tantra a Buddha reveals that man's own body is the
true cosmos (hence, of course, the true laboratory also) and stresses the importance
of sexuality as well as printfyima. Hence the body must be led to the perfection of
health and maintained there, not mortified, for as the Hevajra Tantrag says, the
microcosmos is, as it were, a temple 'holy unto the Lord'. The Kuli+r?ava Tantra
goes so far as to say that union with God is possible only through sexual (though
non-generative) union. But this aim, which is radically mystical and not intellectual, requires a long and difficult path for realisation (stfdhana), somewhat
parallel indeed with the alchemical opus, for the body itself must be transmuted
into a 'diamond body' (vajra-deha; we have already met with the expression chin
kang shen,' p. 228). Moreover, and it brings us back to very familiar ground, 'the
aim of this stfdhana was the union of the two polar principles, sun and moon, fire
and water, Siva and Sakti, in the body and soul of the pra~titioner.'~
Thirdly, in

+
+

Vajrayana is the 'vehicle of the diamond thunderbolt', a mahiiyihist conception (cf. Vol. 2, p. 426). In Tantrism the oajra is equated with the lingam, the male external generative organ. On Tantric Buddhism in general see
S. B. Dasgupta (I).
b Ed. B. Bhattacharya (I).
c Hence the portrayal of gods and buddhas in sexual union with their jaktir, characteristic of Tibetan Lamaism
but far from unknown in China (cf. Wu Shih-Chhang, I). On this subject in general see Wayman (I).
On her see the bcmks of Beyer ( I ) and Eracle (I); the former containing information of interest on Tibetan
alchemy. Tkri means star; her cult originated in the 7th-century, probably in Nepal, and spread widely through
Asia. In India she is called MahEina-Tiirii, and her wonhip is described in two texts of uncertain date, the
Mahria'm-Kramackdand the KrimEkhyd Tantra (S. Chattopadhyaya, I);here 'Great China' is much in evidence,
but it seems to have meant most places north and east of the Himalayas. In this connection our aqyment that
Tantrism had important roots in Taoism (Vol. 2, pp. 427ff.) may be recalled.
(61, P. 207.
Theextremeausteritiesor self-torturesofthe~~isof
highantiquity were undertaken toacquiremagic power
over the gods. The tapm of yoga was always undertaken because conducive to the liberation of the personality from
the dominion of things, and extreme ascetic practices were discouraged. Yoga was therefore, like Buddhism, a
'middle way'.
h Eliade(6), p. 21 I.
g See the study of S n e l l p v e (2).

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26 I

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

Tantrism, iconography played a particularly important role, and the representation of the universe in mandala form (cf. p. 1 3 above).a Bandha and mudrZ
gestures were used ritually in the worship of the divinities portrayed, and in the
nyasa rite there was an invitation of each one to a particular part of the body so that
the individual became a regular pantheon in himse1f.h Fourthly the movement
involved a great elaboration of mantra and dhzrani, that is to say, spells, charms and
talismans of all kinds.c
The third great movement of a yogistic character was Hafhayoga, starting between the 9th and 12th-centuries,* and ultimately bringing great reinforcement to a Tantrism which has lasted down to our own times in cults such as the
SahajiyZ of Benga1.e Though hatha means violent effort, it was noted that the word
was built from ha, the sun, and {ha,the moon, so that we are again in presence of the
mysterium conjunctionis. The importance of the human body as the real seat of the
gods was strongly emphasised in Hafhayoga, and under its influence the 'purification' procedures (iauca) probably reached their present form. Holiness was only
realisable physically as well as mystically; and so for the first time there occurred a
shift from the classical idea of deliverance here and now from the life within time
and space (jivan-mukti), to the idea of deliverance from the death of the body. This
point is important and we shall return to it. GoraknZth, the semi-legendary developer of Hayhayoga, and the founder of an order of kZnpha{a-yogis, must have
been a contemporary of the Wu Tai and Sung adepts in China. He is supposed to
have written the Goraksa-iataka, a text which still exists, but the bulk of this literature is of much later date, such as the Hafhayoga-PradipikZ of the I 5th-century,f
and the Gheranda S q h i t a and Siva Samhita which are later still. GoraknZth and
other members of the group of the eighty-four magicians (siddha) such as
Matsyendranith, all continued to lay great emphasis on the value of the sexual
practices, as we may see from the abundant folklore of the school as well as its
writings.g
Let us now take a brief look at certain general characteristics of the yogistic systems, thinking particularly of relations with China and the physiological alchemists
there. First, 'contrariness' as such. Liberation (mukti), in Indian thought, always
had a flavour of 'going contrary to all normal human inclinations'." The gaze must
look inwards, the ears listen to the tune of eternity that has no note, the body must
be deeply still instead of incessantly moving, the flow of images that wears out the
mind must cease, and secretions such as saliva (called the water of life, amrta) and
semen (bindu, Sukra) must pass inwards, not outwards. Moreover, the adept must

A remarkableexhibition of Tantric art was held in London in 1971(catalogueby Rawson, I).

One is reminded of the many Chinese texts and illustrations on the archaei which reside in, and control, the
organs of the body.
l' Rolle ( I )has given us an interesting account of the abiding place of Tantrism in Indian religion
a whole.
d Cf. Eliade (6), pp. 23 I ff.
See.M. M.Bose(1).
See H. Waiter ( I ) .
g Cf. Snellgrove ( I ) on the Tibetan aspects of all this.
h Cf. also p. 279 below.
b

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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

retrace all his previous existences in time, going backwards (pratilman) till he
comes to the gate of 'in the beginning' through which he will find his salvation.&
The Mahii-niruiina Tantra calls this 'going against the currentl.h The 'in-mission'
of the sperm is only one application of the same doctrine (uj5na-sadhana, countercurrent, ulfii-siidhana, regressive, and the oldest term perhaps, parizytti,
The yogi does not stand in the queue of life, he paces steadily in the opposite
dire~tion.~
Secondly there is the question of magic powers. The dominion which the holy
masochists of old got by their austerities over the gods has already been mentioned,
but all the later yogins and hathayogins were credited with impressive, if lesser,
magic powers (siddhz1.e Invisibility, insensibility to hunger and thirst, heat and
cold, invulnerability, irresistible will-power and hypnosis, passing through or over
water and fire, flying through the air, becoming enormous or tiny, heavy or light, at
will, acquiring instantaneously knowledge of the workings of Nature-and pro.~
ducing gold from the ignoble metals: all these were believed of the ~ i d d h a sThey
were also clearly believed in 4th-century China, as one can see abundantly from
the Pao Phu Tzu book. Orthodox Tantrism and Buddhism alike, however, forbade
their use. There may be a remnant of the ancient shamanism complex here, with its
ecstatic aerial voyages, its mastery of fire, and its changes in and out of animal
f0rms.g
Thirdly, there is the reconciliation of antagonists, the 'marriage of water and
fire', the liberation from all opposites (nirdzjandva). Already noted in some of its
Indian manifestations, it evokes all alchemy, and the Chinese physiological alchemy of the Yin and Yang more than most. Samadhi was in its way the attainment
of it, for it was the recovery of the All, the Unity, the coincidentia oppositmm in
which every antithesis was surmounted. The sexual union in Tantrism and

Eliade (6), pp. 98, 187ff. and especially Mus ( I ) .

Eliade (6). p. 208; tr. by Woodroffe (3).
Ibid. (6). pp. 270, 315. As we saw in Vol. 2, pp. 428-9 there is a word frdh+aretascommon in the epics
Mabhhcirata and R M y m p ; it is usually translated 'chaste' or 'continent', but since its literal meaning is
'upward-flowing (semen)' it must refer to this. One has to guard against the temptation of sensing references to
esoteric practices in everything, but the counter-current symbolism is widely found in Asia. On the birthdays of
boys Japanese families fly a wind-sock in the shape of a carp from a flag-pole, s u p p d l y because they must be
capable in later life of withstanding adversity, but one wonders whether there could not have been an implicit
undertone here of the acts of heroic young ascetics. Some Shingon theologians at least could have been conscious
of this. On the very curious history of the wind-sock itself, still not fully explored, cf. Vol. 4, pt. 2, pp. 597-8
d It is, clearly, ournihn'qq'.
For parallels in Western European haniography see the book of Thurston (I), which deals with levitation,
stigmata, telekinesis, incorruptibility, resistance to fire and heat, luminous phenomena, prolonged fasting without
harm, absence of rigor mortis, etc. Though scholarly in its way, the professed scientific scepticism of the Jesuit
author's work leaves one with a slightly uneasy feeling. Apparently even stigmata have been produced experimentally by suggestion in modem times. The miracle of 'bleeding hosts' has been shown to be due to the red pigment
p r o d u d by B. pod&+sus; cf. F. C. Harrison (I). S
. o also when 'the sea turns to blood', it is due to the red alga
C;ymnodinium omefirum; cf. Abbott & Rallentine (I).
Eliade (6), pp. 97, 101, 143, 152. 186 etc.
g 'I'hough some scholars have been much concerned to stress the differences between shamanism and yoga. As
Filliozat (2) pointed out, there is no spirit-possession in yoga and no ecstacy in the shamanic sense. Cf. Eliade (6),
P P 317ff.
h

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

263

Hathavoga was the supreme symbol of this heavenly oneness, a unity sought for no
less in Jung's personality integration than in the Marxist identity of opposites. The
pure spontaneity (sahaja) of the Sahajiyii groups was to be attained by the transcending of all dualities (the way of a a-dvaya), prajnci the wisdom and upciya the
a
means, k n y a (emptiness, disillusion) and karunci (universal compassion), ~ i v and
Sakti, etc."
Lastly, a word might be added about the human body as microcosm. Just as in
some of the Chinese statements (cf. p. I 22 above), the idea of the parallel role of the
chhi in world creation and in the development of individual human bodies was also
present in India. Wind (vcip) and pneuma (prcina) in its three Vedic forms (prcina,
vycina and a p h a ) did their cosmogonic work all over again in the formation of each
individual human being.h
We are now free to look more closely at each of the technical w a with Chinese
parallels in mind.c First come the respiratory exercises, the preGycima, which we
found so prominent in the nei tan world. Nine of them are described by Behanan
(I), but all involve the three phases, inspiration (@raka) followed by expiration
(recaka), with a more or less prolonged period of apnoea (kumbhaka) between (cf. p.
143 above). There were several traditional proportions of time for them, the most
usual being as 1:4:2.Total cessation of respiration (viccheda) could take place in
some of the exercises paralleling the long breath-holdings in China, and it is interesting that a mcitrci unit of measure for these is mentioned already in the Yogatattva Upanishad which dates from the 2nd-century. Among the more famous
forms of pr@Gycima there are ujjayi, a purely thoracic type, bhastrika where quick
and sudden inhalations are followed by equally sudden exhalations, kapcilabhati
which lacks the apnoeal phase, stSrya-bhedana which uses the right nostril only, and
so on. These various forms were (and are) practised in permutations and combinations with the postures, of which we shall speak in a moment.
Although we have not found any close Indian equivalent of the conception of
'foetal respiration' (thai hsi,' cf. p. 145 above), there was certainly a body of doctrine somewhat paralleling the Chinese ideas about the circulation of the chhi, and
this is all the more intriguing because the physiological systems concerned were
rather similar. There was a Tantric physiology as well as a Taoist physiology." A
network of vessels or 'canals' (one dare not think of them as either blood-vessels,
lymphatics or nerves) known as nadi, was the means of transport of the five sorts of
prcina throughout the body,e and at the nodes of this network there was a series of
. ~ texts never agreed about the number of the nadi, some
'centres' ( ~ a k r a )The

Eliade (6). p. 269.

D Cf. Eliade (6). p. 238.
And we shall do so in the same order as that in which we dealt with the Taoist nei tun shuVrom p. 142 onwards
above.
See Eliade (6). pp. 237, 239,394 and Evola (2).
C Eliade (6), p. 373; Jaggi ( I ) ,vol. 5 , pp. 61 ff. etc.
These have been known in Europe not only through Indianists but through some of the disciples of Jamb
Bochrne, especially J . G. Gichtel (cf.the monograph of Leadbeater). For this and other information arising in
discussions, our thanks are due to Mr. John Adamson of Holywell. See also of course the books of Woodroffe
(Avalon).
C

"

z64
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
counting them by the hundreds of thousands, others taking 72 as the most important; the Siva Samhita speaks of 14,and ten was a commonly adopted number. But
in any case the great three were suyumnii, through which the reversed semen came
up dorsally, as also idii and piGgalci, distinctly reminiscent of the Chinese auxiliary
~ the entire system bears a rough (but uncanny)
tracts jen mol and tu m ~ In. fact
resemblance to the regular and auxiliary acupuncture tracts (ching 103) of China,
almost as if it was a somewhat distorted echo of them, with the cakra representing
the larger entities (thien,' chhih5) rather than the individual acu-points or loci
(hsiiehb).aSome indianists have sought to identify the nadi and cakra with structures in modem anatomy such as the carotid arteries or the plexuses of the autonomic nervous system, but this must surely be on the wrong track. The brGhmarandhra may indeed have been the bregma of the skul1,h but the mulfdhGrii cakra,
between the anus and the testes, was more probably the place where the perinea1
pressure was applied in coitus thesauratus than the sacral plexus. A Taoist would
probably have called it w e i - l ~ It
. ~was also the abode of kundalini, serpent, goddess,
archaeus or physiological energy, perhaps a personification of the reverted semen,
for she or it arose also up the nqumnii channe1.c The epigastric manipzira cakra
seems reminiscent of the lower tan thien,8 and the thoracic ancihata cakra of the
middle one, while the 'cavernous plexus', ajffG cakra, between the eyes, occupies
the place at least of the upper tan thien.
It would be fascinating to pursue such comparisons further, but they must be left
for future research when we know far more about both the Chinese and the Indian
proto-physiological systems. As usual, who borrowed what from whom at what
time, is the question raised by these comparisons, and one must always remember
that two things may spring from a common and more obscure source. But we have
a few fairly sure mark-points. Supmnci as an ascending vessel for prcina is first
mentioned in the MaitrGyani Upanishad, a text which may lie between the - 2nd
and the + 2nd-centuries; and by the end of the + 2nd all three are there (nqumnii,
id6 and pirigalG) in the very Tantric Dhyiinabindu Upanishad, together with the
a The parallelism between the Indian cakra system and the Chinese acupuncture tract circulation system has
been studied in a preliminary way by Poix (I) and Finckh (I). The former says, rather surprisingly, that the
'methode dite Orientale' of Chanson (I), i.e. coitus resm9atussed non interruptus rather than coitus thesauratus
(p. 199 above), has been 'a la mode parmi nous catholiques' and welcomed by Latin theologians as a contraceptive
method. This is a theme of Chang Chung-Lan ( I ) also. According to Peel & Potts (I), pp. 47, 50. 150, it is
statistically more effective than all other methods except I C D and the pill. On the relationship between the two
physiological systems, Finckh suspected a borrowing from China.
h This is the anatomical term for the point where the f m t a l and the parietal bones meet, i.e. where the (transverse) corona1 suture meets the ~ . t t a l The
.
bones do not close together till a year and a half or so after birth;
during this time there is a membranous gap, the anterior fontanelle. For this rethe place may have been
thought of in ancient India and China as a channel of communication between the microcosm and the heavenly
influences of the macrocosm. At any rate, the bones of the skull (thien ling kaio), the Cover of the Ni-wan Palace,
got into Chinese materia medica fairly early (cf.PTKM, ch. 52, (p. 105)~
R435) The bregma ( m k o m&'") plays a
prominent part as the 'point of egress' of the immortal embryo in the Taoist physiological alchemy described by
Lu Khuan-Yii (4). pp. 16off.
C See the works of Woodroffe ( I , 2).

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

2%

'serpent-power', kundalini. In the same way, the Chinese system of the tracts, even
the auxiliary ones, is already established in the Huang Ti Nei Ching, Ling Shu,
which was coming together in the - 2nd and - 1st-centuries. Since this primary
medical classic was the product of hundreds of years of previous clinical experience, the tracts must be of venerable antiquity in China, but there is evidence
that the individual loci preceded them, for texts of the - 6th-century as well as the
- 2nd give some of their specific names, which remained unaltered through subsequent ages.&As has been said elsewhere,b the Chinese system of the circulation of
the chhi was modelled on a traffic nexus of hydraulic engineering, with its lockgates and reservoirs, so it was a very natural development in that 'hydraulicbureaucratic' civilisation.
The emphasis on the swallowing of saliva does not seem so striking in the Indian
as it is in the Chinese literature, but it does occur. In the khecari-mudrf technique of
Tantric Hathayoga, which aims at the immobilisation of breath, thought and
semen, the tongue is turned back to obstruct the throat and so produce prolonged
kumhhaka apnoea, while at the same time the saliva collects abundantly and is reverently swallowed in due course as an amrta or 'athanasian nectar'. On the other
hand the gymnastic of the postures (fsana) is more strongly emphasised in India.
T o get some idea of these there is no better way than to look at the photographs
given by several writers (Figs. 1626 to 1629).cPerhaps the most characteristic is the
lotus-posture (padmfsana), sitting 'cross-legged' or 'tailor-fashion', where the
yogin sits on the ground with each leg bent at the knee and each foot resting on the
opposite groin, having the soles turned upwards and the heels pressing against the
lower side of the abdomen. The spine must be kept erect, and the hands have to rest
on the knees or the heels, with the palms turned upwards. Behanan describes fourteen others. In one (sarvfn'g&zna) the yogin lies on his back and lifts legs and trunk
in the air till only head, shoulders and elbows remain on the floor; the hands are
then placed on the back ribs for support."n another (matsyfsana) he leans backwards with arched back from thepadmfsana position till the top of his head touches
the ground; in a third (halfsana) he lies prone and bends his legs and body over his
head till the toes touch the ground some distance behind it; in a fourth
(dhanurfsana) the adept lies 'on his face' and raises both the thorax and the legs,
holding the ankles with both hands. Naturally this was called the position of the
bow, and it had its close analogue in China, as several of the gymnastic books show,
and as we see from one of the sets of pictures given by Cibot (his fig. 15). Other
exercises keep the legs stretched straight out, and in one of these (paicimottfncfsana)
the yogin hooks his fingers round the toes and brings his body forward until his
head rests between his knees. It is very obvious that in order to perform some of the
fsana it is necessary that there be not an ounce of superfluous adipose tissue. In
Cf. Lu Gwei-Djen & Needharn (5).
Needham (64), pp. 289ff.
c E.R.Behanan ( I ) ; Bemard (I);Woodroffe (I);Abegg, Jenny & Bing ( I ) ;Kemeiz ( I , 2); Iyengar(1).
In the iiricisaa position, however, the aim is to bear all the weight on the cranium, not sided by elbows and
hands; or so it is taught in some schools.
h

266

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1626. Some of the yogic postures, from Behanan (I). Here the lotus-posture (padmrjsana).Cf. the second of
Chungli Chhiian's exercises in Fig. 1599. But like most of the Taoist techniques that involved movement, while
the lotus-position was held in stillness for meditation.

most of the postures the spinal column is bent either backwards or forwards, but in
one of those called after Matsyendranath it is powerfully twisted. As Behanan (who
himself practised many of these) describes it, the yogin sits on the floor with the legs
outstretched. The right leg is bent, with the heel set against the perineum8 and the
sole against the left thigh. Then the left leg is bent and the foot placed on the right
side of the right thigh. The right hand is passed around the left knee to grasp the left
toe, so that the shoulder keeps pressing against the knee and allows the body to be
a Mem. p. 208 above, and the use of a similar heel position in coitus thesmnahu. Perinea1pressure with the heel
is mentioned also in the texts translated by Woodroffe ( z ) , p. 2 1I .

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

267

Fig. 1627. The 'completeness'posture (sarv&icisaa).

twisted to the left. The maximum possible twist is effected by bringing the left
hand behind the back to take hold of the right thigh below the groin. In yet another
position, called after the peacock (mayurcisana),the yogin balances his whole body
horizontally on the two hands and forearms. This demands great expenditure of
energy, but by contrast the 'corpse-position' is adopted to relax to the utmost all the
muscles of the body. This is done lying flat on the back, and it is the one generally
adopted by those yogins who demonstrate their capacity to survive prolonged periods of confinement in small closed spaces, 'buried alive'. In every one of the cisana

268

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1628. The 'plough' posture (hal&ana).

Fig. 1629.The 'bow' posture (dhmrdsana). This was almost certainly used among the Taoists, since we find an
attempt to depict it in Cibot's fig. I 5.

positions there are various possibilities of pr&+y&na breathing, and some are considered more suitable than others for the particular kind of meditation which it is
desired to pursue.
The statuettes of Mohenjo-daro have already been mentioned, and also the appearance of the Gsana in the Sz.etZz~ataraUpanishad, which is presumably of the
-4th-century or somewhat earlier. The number of the positions increased of
course as time went on, and more and more ingenuity was brought to bear on them
by the yogistic physio-therapists, as one might call them. Thus the Hathayoga
Pradipik6 of the early I 5th-century describes I 5, the G h e r q d a Samhita a cena
still later has as many as 84, though it considers
tury later 32, and the ~ i v Samhita
only four of them important.
But the postures were only part of the physical exercises of yognccira. There were

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

269

a considerable number of associated techniques which were classified as practices

(bandha), gestures (mudrii) and purifications (Sauca); and most of these required a
prolonged neuro-muscular training, either to gain more complete control over certain voluntary muscles, or to acquire a control not normally possessed at all over
certain involuntary muscles. T h e eye muscles were trained to assist in preserving
concentration (ekiig~atii)in meditation, staring fixedly (triitaka) at the tip of the
nose (the nasal gaze), or directed crosswise to a point between the two eyebrows
(the frontal gaze). These techniques were certainly known and practised in medieval China, for one finds many hints of them in Taoist texts. We have not however
come across there the use of the 'chin lock' (jiilandhara), i.e. the bending down of
the head so that the chin fits into the jugular notch at the top of the sternum. T h e
head was often held in this position during periods of breath retention, exerting an
upward pull on the spinal column. Nor does it seem that anyone in China went to
the length of cutting the frenulum of the tongue, as the yogins did (and still do) in
India. In 'tongue-rolling' the tongue is directed backwards and upwards so as to
occlude the posterior nasal cavities leading into the pharynx, but normally the tip of
the tongue cannot reach this position, so the frenulum is transected in a number of
successive minor surgical operations. This mastery over the tongue is considered a
valuable help to the breathing exercises, especially those which involve long retention.
Muscle control for the 'purifications' (Sauca) was mainly concerned with the
diaphragm musculature, the two great recti of the abdominal wall, and the sphincter muscles of anus and bladder. In raising the diaphragm a complete expiration is
followed by a 'vigorous mock inhalation' in which the ribs are raised and a deep
depression of the abdomen brought about. In this way it is possible to increase
greatly the intra-thoracic pressure. Similarly the yogic disciple practises violent
and extreme contractions of the rectus abdomini muscles, both together and separately isolated (naulz); he may then contract and relax them rapidly and alternately. Behanan and Bernard reproduce some striking photographs of all these
operations. But perhaps the strangest physiological feat is the high degree of control which may be gained over the sphincter muscles, first practising by repeatedly
contracting and expanding them for minutes at a time, then doing so in phase with
the respiratory rhythm. When the control has been established, the gases in the
lower colon may be systematically expelled when the diaphragm is raised or the
recti contracted, and when the abdominal muscles are relaxed, external air may be
sucked in through the anus.
But just as if it were a matter of human technology, the yogins were not content
with pumping gases about, they were also interested in pumping fluids, and the
muscular control of cavity walls and sphincters gave them the opportunity of doing
exactly this in the greater Sauca. It was simply that if the necessary muscles could be
contracted and relaxed at will, a partial vacuum could be produced in the various
cavities, the walls corresponding to 'pistons' and the sphincter openings to 'valves'.
Thus colonic and rectal irrigation (basti) could be practised, about a litre of water or
milk being taken in, then churned about by the recti muscles before being

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ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

expelled.&Similarly the diaphragm control gave mastery over the thorax, and with
the aid of the abdominal muscles the stomach could be made to vomit its contents at
will, usually after drinking a litre or so of water.b This was called dhauti, but an
even more remarkable technique was (and still is) practised (dhcluti-karma), in
which a strong but thick strip of cloth about 2zft. long and 3ins wide is swallowed
into the stomach, churned there, and then withdrawn manually after twenty
minutes or so. Dhauti also comprised cleaning exercises for the teeth, while there
was neti for the nose, using threads pulled back and forth through the nasal cavities,
and a technique of inhaling water through the nose,c associated with the form of
respiration termed kapdabhati. But perhaps the most interesting for us, in relation
to all that has been said in this sub-section about sexual techniques, is that a partial
vacuum could be developed in the bladder as well, and since the vesical sphincter
was under conscious control too, it was possible to aspire fluids through the
urethra, 'making the Yellow River flow backwards' in yet a further sense. As much
as about 300 ccs. can be absorbed in this way, catheters of silver or lead being used
in traditional usage to help.
In modem times attempts of great interest have been made to study the practices
ofyogacGra with modem physiological methods." Here a start can be made with the
classical papers of Laubry & Brosse. They first became interested because they
found (2) that certain normal human subjects were able voluntarily to accelerate or
retard their heart rate, and that periods of meditation or concentration exerted a
therapeutic effect in certain pathological arhythmias. Besides, there was an obvious
psycho-somatic interest in exploring the possibilities of conscious control of functions normally invo1untary.e From the scientific point of view there was nothing
incredible in what the yogins were able to perform, for the medical literature contains reports of unusual cases which can be considered in some sense parallel. For
example, Abrami, Wallich & Bernal ( I ) had studied a case of voluntary reversible
arterial hypertension, and McClure (I) afterwards recorded the quite non-yogistic
instance of an aircraft mechanic who could deliberately bring about a slowing of the
pulse until cessation of the heartbeat would occur. Just when he was about to lose
consciousness he would take a deep breath and the heart would start beating again;
these events never occured spontaneously, and the phenomena were confirmed by
the electrocardiograph. Then in 1936 Thkrese Brosse made extended field studies
in India, the results being reported in Laubry & Brosse (I).' In the prGpi-vGrna
Behanan ( I ) , Bemard ( I ) and many other observers have seen this done or done it themselves. If the sphincters were still not under full control, a bamboo tube could be used to introduce the liquid.
b Indian roadside circus performers who have learnt the yogistic technique of voluntaryoesophageal reflux can
swallow 1 0 to I 5 live snakes each measuring 2 to 3 ft. in length, with a good deal of water, and then after a short
while regu*tate them. This has recently been studied with full physiological and radiological technique by
Johnson & Johnson (I).
P Cf. the stow of the Flower-Intoxicated Taoist on p. 240 above.
d This subject overlaps with the physiological changes occurring during meditation, which we have already
discussed on p. 180 above. Apart from the reports described in the following paragraphs there are interesting
papers by Henrotte (I);de Meuron ( I ) ; and du Puy-Sanieres ( I ) .
Cf. Rarnamurthi ( I ) .
More recent work is described by Brmse ( I ) .

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

27I

exercises there could be apnoea, she found, with lungs full or empty, lasting without difficulty up to 5 mins., there were all kinds of willed modifications of respiratory rate, accelerations of heart rate up to I 50 beats per min. during the retention, and remarkable phenomena seen on the electrocardiograms. Corresponding with changes in the perceptible pulse waves, the ECG waves showed great
abnormalities, sometimes disappearing almost completely, at other times mimicking patterns usually seen only in advanced states of heart disease, or again sometimes reminding the observer of the effects of digitalis and other cardiotonic drugs.
The blood pressure, however, seemed always to be normal, while indications were
that the basal metabolism during intense meditation was reduced. There was some
evidence of a voluntary control of the peristaltic movements of the intestinal tract.
A minute and persevering education in physical health, said Laubry & Brosse,
could lead in the yogistic system to 'the voluntary mastery of purely vegetative
functions'. 'The absolute authority of will-power possessed normally over the voluntary muscles is acquired by the yogin in equal measure over involuntary muscles'.
And they went on to say: 'In spite of the rudimentary, if not erroneous, anatomical
ideas of the yogins, one can scarcely deny the importance of the physiological results obtained. If they do not understand the structure of their organs they are
indisputably the masters of their functions.. . A rigorous discipline has led to a
complete control of (certain) vegetative activities'.&
Laubry & Brosse ( I ) suspected that the yogins might be able to bring their bodies
into a state of retarded life comparable to that of hibernating animals. More recent
researches have not confirmed exactly this, but they have demonstrated that yogistic skill is able to effect a reduction of the basal metabolism. This was found during
the investigation of the claims that yogins could live for considerable periods
'buried alive'. Generally under such conditions some air leaks in through the surrounding earth, even though the subject is completely relaxing in the 'corpseposture', as Hoenig ( I ) and G. Rao et al. ( I ) have shown; but when the experiment
was done under satisfactory conditions in a hermetically sealed experimental box,
Anand, Chhina & Baldev Singh ( I ) found that the basal metabolism of a yogin was
reduced from 19.5 ]./h. to 13.3]./h., even at one stage reaching a value of some 45 Ol0
below the normal (cf. Fig. 1630). On the other hand, the alleged voluntary stoppage
of the heart beat could not be confirmed. All observers, such as Anand & Chhina
(I), Satyanarayanamurthi & Shastry ( I ) and Wenger & Bagchi (I), find that an
extreme intra-thoracic pressure is set up, under which heart sounds and arterial
pulse are both abolished, but the ECG records show that contraction is continuing.
Behanan (I) found increases of up to 24.5 % in oxygen-consumption during certain
varieties of the breathing exercises such as ujjayi, bhastrika and kapcTlabhati, and
this has often been confirmed, as by Miles ( I ) and S. Rao (I). On the other hand
Behanan observed falls of up to 10O/, in scores in mental testsh made after periods
On this subject see further Filliozat (13).
These were as follows, adding test, code test, colour naming test, co-ordination test, and Chinese puzzle test,
all well known in experimental psychology.

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Fig. 1630. A yogin co-operating in oxygen-consumption experiments (from Behanan, I).

of ujjayi breathing and meditation. He concluded therefore that the yogistic techniques tended to decrease the sharpness of the intellectual faculties, possibly
strengthening others less measurable, and aiding detachment from the phenomenal world. S. Rao (2) carried out ujjayi breathing tests at different altitudes, observing an increase of 7.7 O/, in the oxygen-consumption at 1800ft. and 9.9 '4 at 12,500
ft.; the interest of this is (as we said at an earlier stage in connection with the Taoists,
p. 145 above), that altitude anoxaemia is to some degree imitated in the yogistic and
Taoist respiratory exercises, especially when long retention is performed. Rao
thought that they might be of interest in the acclimatisation process. For the rest,
modem physiological methods have been used to study subjective heat sensations
like those so commonly described in Tantric and Taoist texts, as in the work of
Rieckert (I), which revealed some of the changes occuring in the peripheral circulation. Perspiration induced purposively was considered by Wenger, Bagchi &
Anand (I) to be brought about as the autonomic response to powerful mental
visualisation. And in another interesting experiment by Bagchi & Wenger ( I ) the
EEG record showed that mild and continuous pain could be completely ignored by
the meditating yogin. Thus there is no reason for doubting the reality of many of

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273

the effects produced in yogistic physiological practice^.^ How valuable they were is
quite a different question.
With gymnastics, tisana postures, purification feats and the like we have now
done, and before going further must say a few words about the subjects of heliotherapy and meditation--since we are following through the techniques in approximately the same order as on pp. 179 ff. above. Doubtless owing to the fierceness
of the Indian sunlight, there was little or nothing, so far as we can see, corresponding to the photo-receptive practices of the Chinese on their mountains. On the
other hand the meditation techniques were still more highly developed, though we
need not give much space to them on account of their primarily psychological and
even psychiatric interest. Yoga cittav?ttinirodha, the suppression of conscious
states in order to contemplate the essences (tattva) of all things, their 'suchness' in
fact, was one of the fundamental and most ancient yogistic objectives. The subtly
differentiated states of pratycihiira, dharanii, dhycina and samiidhi we have mentioned already, and do not propose to go into further here; one might only point to a
work of great interest remaining to be done, namely the precise comparative study
of Indian and Chinese conceptions and definitions of the contemplative states of
mind, united as it ought to be with the results of modem psychology, psychoand not forgetting the possible conpathology and experimental psy~hology,~
nections with hypnosis, self-hypnosis, states of cataleptic trance (turiya), and tranquilising or hallucinogenic drugs. The electro-encephalograph has already been
applied, as we have seen, to yogins practising their techniques, and there is a wide
scope for all such researches. A distinction was made between samiidhi 'with support' (samprajfiata samiidhi), achieved by concentrating on some visualisable thing
(kasina), much followed in Buddhism, and samctdhi 'without support' ( a s ~ p r a j i Z t a
samadhi), where no such object of thought was used.c Sometimes colour sensations
were given much prominence, as is found in certain Taoist texts. Since in China the
same word stands for both colour and sex (S;'), this will be a convenient point at
which to approach the last of our divisions, that of sexuality.

Enhanced control over normally involuntary muscles has now been found to be -ible
in animal experiments also. Di Cara ( I ) describes 'trial-and-error' learning techniques according to which rats can be trained by
means of mid-brain pleasure-centre stimulation and mild electric shock avoidance to increase or decrease their
heart-rate, raise or lower their blood-pressure, intensify or relax peristaltic intestinal contractions, and accelerate
or retard urine secretion. Even electro-encephalographic characteristics could be learned in this way, and the heart
responses were accompanied, it could be shown, by changes in the metabolism of catechol-arnines and noradrenalin. Animals can also learn glandular and visceral responses that quickly restore deviations from the
homoeostasis of the internal environment. In fact under the experimental quietude brought about hy curarisation
they do much better than human beings, but it is not now so surprising that man too is capable of such apparently
remarkable things. All this animal learning in the autonomic nervous system may well be paralleled by phenomena
like hibernation, where it would be automatically effected under endocrine control.
h Cf. the review of Malhotra ( I ) . Certain modem psycholoRical interpretations of Tantric Yoga are of fascinating interest, e.g. Zimmer (3). who shows its continuing relevance to the human condition. Zimmer describes the
remarkable case of Staudenmeier ( I ) , who worked out a kind of y m system on his own and successfully overcame
his formidable psychological difficultiesthereby.
C Eliade (h), pp. 92, 1 0 3 .

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On this we have touched several times already, for example in connection with
the goddesses of the Indus Valley cultures and the 'principle of contrariness' which
characterised all yogism from the beginning. 'Yoga', wrote Eliade," 'accorded a
capital importance to the "secret forces of the generative faculty" which, when
expended, disperse the most precious energy, debilitate the cerebral capacity and
make concentration difficult; but if, on the contrary, they are mastered and reined
in, they facilitate the ascent into contemplation'. This therefore was a keynote in
the oldest phases, but (as we also saw) Tantrism and then Hafhayoga brought immense accessions of emphasis to the spiritual significance of the physical union of
man and woman here below. By the 2nd-century sexual yoga was in full swing,
for the Maitrfiyani Upanishad has mentioned the szqumnci vessel, and the Yogatattwa Upanishad gives us the satisfactory information that 'by the retention of the
semen the yogin's whole body develops an agreeable perfume'. Kundaliniappears
here also, together with the first accounts of the khecari-mudrfi and the vajrolimudrci. What exactly these were we know from later texts. The former essayed to
accomplish the simultaneous immobilisation of breath, thought and semen, obstructing the throat with the tongue in kumbhaka apnoea, secreting copious saliva,
and (as the Dhycinabindu Upanishad says, followed by the Goraksa Samhita) never
emitting semen, even in the embrace of a woman.h If a partner was optional here, it
was not so with the vajroli-rnudni, where the yogin should ejaculate, but after having done so he should positively regain this medhra (the bindu or semen emitted),
and 'having done so by a pumping process, the yogin must conserve it, for by the
loss of the bindu comes death, and by its retention, life.'C Thus we seem here to be in
the presence of a veritable seminal aspiration, the muscles of the abdomen creating
a partial vacuum in the bladder and so permitting the absorption of part at least of
the vaginal contents. It comes irresistibly to mind that this procedure may perhaps
have been utilised in medieval China also, in the light, for example, of the passage
translated on p. 196 above. The Dhycinabindu Upanishad must be speaking of the
same practice when it says that if the bindu should be lost, a yoni-mudra (vaginagesture) will bring it, or send it, back. This 2nd-century text also says, interestingly, that the bindu is of two kinds, a red sort (mahcirajas) which the female produces, and a white sort (Suba) which is produced by the m a l e h e r e again is the
Aristotelian theory of generation (not necessarily derived)d passing under the aegis
i ~iva.e
of ~ a k tand
That the method of perinea1 pressure in coitus thesauratus was also used in India
seems likely from expressions such as that used in the Mahciycina-s-zitrcilamkcira
srfstra, which speaks of maithunasya pariiqttau, the 'returning' or 're-routing' of

c Ibid, pp. 250ff.

b Elide (6), pp. 249ff.
(6), P. 63.
Cf. Needham (2), pp. 24-5, 60. The 'white-red' antithesis must be world-wide. Among the Ashanti, says
Turner ( I ) , p. 42, white symbolises water, semen and saliva: and again (p. 61) the Ndembu make a ritual use of
white and red clap representing the semen and the menstrual blood respectively.
Exactly how the yqinibenefited remains the same puzzle in 'rantrism as it was in Taoism, but one can see
that it was not a far cry to the thought of conservationof the menstrual blood, and she was also s u p p d to perfonn
some parallel act of aspiration during intercourse (Eliade (6). p. 250).
d

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PHYSIOLOGICAL

ALCHEMY

275

the semen, closely analogous to the Chinese idea (hum chingl). Maithuna was the
word for sexual intercourse undertaken as a religious rite,a and the Taoist atmosphere is strikingly encountered in all kinds of Tantric statements about it. Yoga had
used it for its purposes, Tantrism transformed it into an 'instrument of salvation'.
It was accompanied of course by prayers and sacrifices, very reminiscent of the
Taoist rite which we gave on pp. 2 0 5 4 above. For the religious spirit every girl and
woman was an incarnation of p r a k t i (Nature), and the ritual nakedness of the
yoginiwas an important revelation of the cosmic mystery. As Eliade wrote:h
Si, devant la femme nue, on ne ddcouvre pas dans son Stre le plus profond la mCme
emotion terrifiante qu'on ressent devant la &elation du Mystkre cosmique--il n'y a pas de
rite, il n'y a qu'un acte profane, avec toutes les consequences que l'on sait (enforcement de
la chaine karmique, etc.).c

T h e companion of the rite becomes a goddess, an incarnation of ~ a k t ishe,

,
the
ncfyikcf,being first consecrated (adhisthitG) by invocations of the nycfsa kind (cf. p.
261 above). When the & h a and the rajas are both immobilised, there occurs at the
climax of the act, which symbolises the mysterium cunjunctiunis of all opposites, a
condition called samarasa, an identity of emotion in the perfection of unity Cyu~anatha). Further troubling parallels with the Chinese patterns follow. Just as, for
example, by the very same actions which bring common men down to death,
Huang T i and Phing Tsu were able to mount up into the sky as immortals or to
roam on earth for ever, so also, in the Indian version: 'by the same actions which
send certain men to bum in hell for aeons of time, the yogin obtains his eternal
salvation'.d But this is because the yogin is following the way of bodhicittam notqjet,
the semen must never be emitted;e it must take the negative backward way (ujcfnascfdhana, ultcf-scfdhma, parivrtti). And again, the emphasis on the equality of all
men and women in sexual union, irrespective of class-distinctions and social position, strikes a note that we have clearly heard in the early Taoist liturgical
assemb1ies.f In sum, therefore, the resemblances between Tantrism, Hathayoga
and Taoism are distinctly close; what remains (and that is not an easy matter) is to
find out which most influenced the 0ther.g
a Hence the wonderful sculptures covering the walls of certain great temples such as Konarak and Khajuraho.
These have a considerable literature on their own, and we shall only refer at random to the books and albums of
Anand ( I ) ; Anand & Kramrisch ( I ) ; Kramrisch ( I ) ; Gichner ( I ) ; Mitter ( I ) .
h (6),p. 260.
On Indian sexolo~yin general there is a wealth of literature and many of the classical texts have been learnedly
translated; see e.g. Basu ( I ) ; R. Schmidt ( I , z, 3); T. Ray ( I ) ; Tatojaya ( I ) .
* From the Jfiinasiddhiof Indrabhiti, but there are many other statements of the same idea (d.Eliade (6),pp.
264.395).
The phrase is found in the SuhhEgta-sqtgraha (see Rendall, I ) and many other writings (d.Eliade (6),p.
268).
Vol. 2, p. I 51. The yogin was to venerate the humble washerwoman (dmnhr7 and the prostitute (luli, perhaps
also decvi-dEsi).There might be more than one economic explanation of this, but it did involve a flouting of caste
harriers, always so important in India, though in China unknown. The snciolngy of extra-structural equalitarian
communities has been discussed by Turner ( I ) and Dimock ( I , 2 ) . In a piquant comparison the Spiritual Franciscans join with the SahajiyL Vaishnavas of Fkngal.
a T o say, with Chattopadhyaya ( I ) , that Indian iakti Tantrism and Chinese Taoism both have a deep connection with primitive agrarian matriarchal miety, is indeed acceptable, hut the mutual interrelations still remain
intriguing.

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Some help towards this may be given by turning now to consider a few more
general ideas, since we have finished passing in review the chief components both
of Chinese nei tan physiological alchemy and of its Indian counterpart. First, it is
rather striking that the three primary vitalities, the sun yuan,' have rather similar
analogues in India. That chhiz means (more or less) p r e a is obvious, but clearly
also ching3 is paralleled by bindu and shen4 by citta. At the same time we do not kndw
of any Indian texts which say the kind of things about these three that are met with
in the hsiu chens literature; some doctrine of original youthful perfection may be
implicit, but not spelt out quite as in China. There is further similaritybetween the
Chinese cycles of operation, the chhi fan," the chiu huan,' or the 'fire-times', huo
h o ~and
, ~the relations which texts such as the Kcilacakra Tantra set up between the
periods of breathing exercises and the cyclical calendrical recurrences which break
time into its specific blocks.&'Transcending day and night', in Indian thought,
means the reconquest of the fullness which preceded all creation, in other words,
the womb of all potentialities before time
the regaining of the thai i g or hszi' m,'"
began.
Next comes a point that may be especially significant. In India the fundamental
purpose of the operations seems to have changed in the early middle ages. 'Neither
classical Yoga', wrote Eliade,b 'nor in general any other main stream of Indian
thought pursued "immortality"; India preferred deliverance and liberty to any
indefinitely prolonged existence.' This was jivan-mukti, the liberation of the individual while still in this present life from the dominion of time, space and things.
Yet in Tantrism and still more in Hathayoga, after a certain point, the texts begin to
proclaim the 'destruction of old age and death', and to say that the techniques
'conquer death' (mrtyum-jayat9.c Hathayoga set about the alchemical aim of forging and re-casting an 'incorruptible diamond body' (chin kang shen," as we should
say). Some other river seems to have flowed here into the mainstream of Indian
conceptions. If the health and strength of the microcosmic temple declared itself
unhesitatingly in Tantrism, the goals of longevity and (perhaps material?)immortality were quite explicitly formulated in Hathayoga. This means a steady trend
from the +4th to the 14th-centuries.And alchemy was involved throughout.
All historians of Indian alchemy and chemistry are agreed that there was a close
association between proto-chemical alchemy (rasayana) and the Tantric movement, though its birth and origins were older than that. Though never perhaps
enlisted under banners so closely similar as the wai tan and net tan of China, the
relations of yoga and alchemy were not at all distant. Tantra and Hathayoga aimed
to turn the 'raw body' (apakva) into the 'ripe body' (pakva)d an incorruptible
'diamond body' (vajra-deha), a magic body (siddha-deha) or a body illuminated by
true knowledge ($Gnu-deha); just as the alchemists sought to prepare gold, potabIe

Cf. Eliade (6), p. 271.

Ibid. pp. 233ff., 271,301,336,359.

(6). P. 337.
Eliade (6).p. 3 I S .

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gold, and the external elixir, from other less valuable substances.a Moreover, aurifaction was itself one of the magic powers (siddhi);bwhich is almost reminiscent of
the saying that 'if the enchyrnoma is not achieved, the elixir will never be perfected'. For Ray 'Indian alchemy very largely derived its colour, flavour, and in fact
nourishment, from the Tantric cult'.c And Eliade wrote: 'In India the tendency of
Yoga to assimilate all kinds of concrete techniques could hardly neglect so precise
an experimental system as alchemy. The osmosis between these two spiritual sciences was at times perfect; both were opposed to the purely speculative and the
purely metaphysical, both worked upon "living" matter in order to transmute it,
i.e. to change its ontological status, both pursued the goal of deliverance from the
law of Time, i.e. the deconditioning of existence, the conquest of liberty and the
attainment of blessedness, in a word, of immortality.'d
The connection with Tantrism is already crystal clear in alchemical tractates of
the +6th-century such as the Viisavadatta and the Daiakumcira-cmita, which
centre, like all others of the Indian tradition, upon the preparation and properties of
mercury. The Kubjika Tantra of about this time speaks of mercury (parada) as the
generative principle (bindu) of Siva himself. The Rasaratna-samuccaya, which may
be of the 8th-century in essence, but reached its present form in the I 3th, has a
rite of worshipping Siva in the form of a phallus (lingam) made of gold-mercury
amalgam. Tenth-century books like the Siddhayoga (significant title) of Vmda,
and the Cakradatta of Cakrapani, or a 12th-century one like the anonymous
Rasiimava Tantra, all continue the same traditions. The 'death and resurrection'
motif is also found, as in the various ways of 'killing' mercury and other metake
One of the great centres of Indian alchemy was in Tarnilnad, the great nonSanskritic region of the South, where it was practised by adepts known as sittars
(siddhas), and we shall have to say something more about them in a few moments.
Another striking parallelism between the Indian and Chinese situations lies ic
the fact that Tantrism, like nei tan Taoism, had a so-called 'secret language',
though it did not cloak its meanings so systematically and persistently in the speech
of the alchemical elaboratory. This 'intentional' or 'oblique reference' terminology
(sandhiiya-bhiisii)was certainly designed to hide the esoteric doctrine from the uninitiated, and Eliade might have been thinking of the Chinese physiological alchemists when he remarked, with a certain weariness: 'dans le Tantrisme nous

Cf. Chattopadhyaya (4). pp. 356ff.

Already the Yogatativa CT@miihad( znd-century) says that by a siddhione can transmute iron into gold by
treating it with excrement (Eliade (6). p. r 38).
( I ) , rev. ed., p. 113.
d (6), p. 291. This last formulation might seem to confuse the ideals o f j f i o n - m ~ k
and
~ my--jayati
(pp. 261,
276 above), but one can see how easily they might have been combined, for if immortality could not be added to
deliverance, the adept would not have very long to enjoy the blessedness of his detachment. Of course in a sense a
mystic might consider himself immortal if he could be exempted from the dominion of time even for a few
(objective) minutes. One remembers the Christian formulation: 'eternal life in the midst of time'.
P Cf. Vol. I , p. 212, and the present volume, pt. 3, pp. 7-8, pt. 4, pp. 4.5.7. But it is noteworthy that the 'death
and resurrection' motif is not present in the idea of 'killing' mercury in China. Ssu' usually rneansssu tu,'to kill the
toxicity, the raw chhi, of a metal. The life that results eventually is the adept's, not the mercury's.

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ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

sommes en prCsence de tout un systkme de chiffrage, fortement ClaborP.. .'* A

Tantric text can be read in several different keys, as it were, the yogic, the liturgical,
the sexual, the alchemical, depending on what knowledge and interest the reader
himself brings to it. This is exactly the problem already encountered with alchemical texts in China: wai or nei? Or both? So, here, for example, hodhi-citta can mean
'the thought of awakening' but also the semen (Sukra); padma, the lotus, can mean
also hhaga the uterus oryoni the vagina; vajra, both diamond and thunderbolt, can
stand for linga the penis, but also for iCnyatct, emptiness, vacuity (of all things). At
this point two further expectations are perfectly fulfilled. First, it is often extremely
difficult, just as in China, to differentiate physiological or erotic imagery from actual practice of the techniques. The personal guidance of a guru (guruvaktratah,
corresponding to chueh') was absolutely necessary if one was not to go astray. And
secondly, the imbiguous intention lent itself powerfully to poetical expression, so
that exactly like nei tan Taoists, most Tantrists were poets. There is, for example, a
story of Kukkuripida who chanted a poem in the presence of a thousand people but
was understood by only a single one."
Soon we shall approach our penultimate summaries, a survey of the intricate
(and at present probably insoluble) problem of Chinese-Indian transmissions and
influences, then our conclusions about the similarities and differences between
Yoga and nei tan alchemy. And we shall end by a consideration of what place the
latter could be considered to take in the universal history of science and protoscience. But first there is one more general aspect to be looked at, namely what for
want of a better word may be called 'antinomianism'. In India this took some very
extreme forms, almost paranoiac in character, the central idea of which, one might
perhaps say, was the conviction that in order to acquire perfection it was necessary
to destroy completely all the natural affections and aversions, all the n6rmal likes
and dislikes. There are reasonable expressions of this trend of thought-the realisation in C h u q Tzu that the Tao is as much present in a mass of dung as anywhere else in the universe,c the Christian affirmation 'That which the Lord hath
made call not thou common nor unclean',d the attitude of the mind of modem
science which can banish aversion and look with equanimity upon anything under
heaven, no matter how seemingly horrifying or disgusting. But in India there were
'followers of the left-hand way' (vctmcfcari) who systematically set out to destroy
normal feelings as part of a mystical way of salvation." Already the Upanishads
know of groups of frightening ascetics called kcfpctlika, and in later times there were
the euphemistically named aghwi(a-ghori, non-terrific), which was as good as calling the Furies the Eumenides. There was necrophilia and necrophagy, the
frequenting of cemetries (SmaSctna), the drinking out of skulls and the eating of
faeces or other filth, as described for instance in the 17th-century Dahistan of

(6). P. 252.
Some elderly people may feel that all modem poets have become Tantrists in this sense.
Acts, 10.9-16.
Cf. Eliade (6). pp. 293ff.

' Vol. 2, p. 47.

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Mobed Shah.8 Hsiian-Chuang had met with some of these people a thousand years
before, and he duly recorded his opinion of them; there are also allusions in the
Daiakumctra-carita just mentioned. Besides this 'nostalgie de la boue' there were
also things worse still, by which we certainly do not mean the sexual 'orgies' and
promiscuity in which the aghori fakirs engaged, but rather something like that
strange association of sex with sadism from which we suffer at the present day in the
popular pulp literature. Thus there were ritual cruelties, not stopping at human
sacrifice, mutilations and the like, hence the determination with which early British
colonial rule set out to liquidate these antinomian sects. It is not our custom to
employ exaggerated language, but what Ray called the 'gross superstitions and
hideous incantations'b of this fringe aspect of Tantrism certainly did go on. Its only
endearing aspect, perhaps, was its complete rejection of all the social and nutritional prohibitions of the caste system-the zGmScari certainly walked 'outside
society' with a vengeance.
Was there any counterpart to this in China? So far as we can see'there was not,
presumably because the instinctive sense of decorum and traditional this-worldly
ethic so greatly discouraged religious fanaticism. Nevertheless Pokora (4), in an
interesting paper, has brought forward a number of examples from Chinese literature which suggest that there were occasional parallels to the attempt to destroy
natural human feelings. Since we do not feel that his instances prove the point, it is
worth while to examine them briefly. In his Hsin Lun' about 20, Huan ThanZ
tells how he went out with a friend, the Court Gentleman G n g Hsi,3 and saw a
horrible old man whom LEng thought might be an immortal, but Huan certainly
not.c T h e words f& shang shih shih4must surely mean that he was collecting food
from a dungheap, probably through poverty, and not at all that he was eating dung.
Again, Wang Chhung,5 in the Lun H&@ about 83 speaks of a Taoist named Liu
Chhun7 at the court of Liu Ying,Rprince of Chhu, the patron of the Buddhists, who
'led the Prince of Chhu astray by making him eat unclean things (shih shih pu
chhinRg).d But there is no proof that this was aghori antinomianism, it is at least
equally likely to have been the recommendation of some kind of 'Dreck-apotheke',
quite possibly the consumption of urine or placenta for pharmacological (sex hormone) purposes, a quite well-known technique in the Han (cf. p. 308).e It is true
that whatever it was Wang Chhung did not approve of it, for he says 'and yet Liu
Chhun was not struck down by lightning'. Maspero also refers to Liu Chhun, and
says, without giving any evidence, that the Taoist masters often imposed ordeals of
the aghori kind on their disciples,f instancing Fei Chhang-Fangt0who was indeed
told by his thaumaturgical master to eat some excrement (shih shih f&").g But Fei

Tr. Shea & Frazer (I).

(I),rev. ed., p. I 14.
TPYL, ch. 382,p. 6a, CSHK(Hou Han sect.), ch. 15, p. 66.
Ch. 23, t r Forke (4). vol. I , p. 290.
It could even have been nothing more than the eating of foods not permitted to pious patrons of Buddhismeat, onions, etc.
K HouHaShu,ch. II2B,p. 138.
(20). p. W .
c

'

280

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

refused, and yet the master passed him. Maspero also instanced Kan Shih' and the
famous passage about drinking urine, which is undoubtedly connected with endocrine pharmacology (cf. p. 308), and hanging upside down, which perhaps was
an effort to 'make the chingZreturn'.a Thus the evidence for any real existence of the
fringe aspects of Tantrism in China seems exceedingly weak, and moreover, if such
activities as those of the aghori had gone on it would be quite impossible to miss
them in the usual historical writings and the popular literature.
(i) Originalities m d influences; similarities and dtffe~ences
We can now attempt to take stock of the situation in the form of one single
pan0rama.b Is it possible to descry at all in what ways China and India influenced
one another in these matters? And what can one say of the chief differences between
Chinese physiological alchemy and Indian tantric yoga?
The first thing to realise is that both religious sexuality and the respiratorymeditational complex are extremely old in China as well as in India. It seems quite
impossible that China could have been in need of much information about
priiviiyiima at the turn of the era, since there is evidence from archaeological inscriptions (H. Wilhelm, 6) that the control of the chhi, and even breath-retention,
was being taken very seriously already in the - 6th-century.c Such practices were
perfectly well known to Chuang Chou in the - 4th,d and just about - 300 comes
the celebrated conversation between Ming Kho3and Kungsun Chhou4 about the
importance of stimulating, accumulating and preserving an abundance of ~ h h i . ~
When Ming Kho says that he is 'good at nourishing my vast ocean of chhi (WO
shan
yang m hao-jan chi chhi5)' it is clear from the context that the question is one of
hygiene and mental hygiene, for ataraxy, quiet balanced calm and self-possession
are at the basis of it, and respiratory exercises of one kind or another are implicit in
it. Anyone who might be in doubt about the capital importance of chhi in Chinese
medical and physiological thought during the Late Chou and Warring States periods need only look at the records of clinical consultations in the Tso Chum,' and at
the opening chapters of the Huang Ti Nez' Ching, Su W&,that great 'Hippocratic'
corpus which in the - 2nd and - I st-centuries summarised the thoughts and experiences of the physicians during the previous four or five hundred years. Here
, ~ the Ancients said
the first chapter is entitled Shang Ku Thien Chen L u ~'What
about (the chhi of) the Natural Endowment'. In this the interlocutor Chhi Po7 is
speaking. He says:g
H m H a Sku, ch. I I ~ Bp., 18a.
We recognise our inability to clarify all this pmperly. We have no direct access to the Indian primary sources.
We know the serious difficultiea of dating Indian texts with any degne of precision. But some kind of tentative and
interim sketch imposes itself.
.See Vol. z , p. 143and p. 142 above.
d Cf. p. 154above.
e M% Tzu, 11, i, ii, 8-16, tr. Lqgc (3). pp. 64ff.
See Sect. 44 in Vol. 6 , and meanwhile Needham (64), pp. 265,267.
c Ch. I , (p. 3), h. auct.
b

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

28 I

T h e sages of high antiquity taught their disciples, all saying that there are times when one
must avoid injurious pneumatic influences (tseif&gl)and malign debility (h.v2hsieh2).If one
practises quietness, ataraxy and unworldly meditation, the chhi of the primary vitality (chen
chhi3) will respond to this, and at the same time the chinp and the shens (primary vitalities)
will be preserved. How could any illness then arise?

Here would certainly be one of the collateral roots of the Taoist sense of perspective, seeing Nature whole and unflinchingly, avoiding all excesses of the emotions and the body. Elsewhere, Huang T i himself says9
From of old those who could communicate with Nature knew that the Yin and the Yang
are the basis of all life. This holds good everywhere in heaven and earth within the six
cardinal points of space. T h e chhi of the primary vitality (chen chhi') (circulates within) the
nine divisions of the body (chiu c h d ) , the nine orifices (chiu chhiao'), the five Yin viscera
(tsany) and the twelve tracts. All are in communication with the natural chhi . . . Therefore
the sages of old taught their disciples (to conserve) their chinp and their hen,^ and at the
same time to inhale and circulate the chhi of the primary vitality (chen chhi2). In this way
they would acquire a mysterious understanding (of the Tao).

This comes in the chapter entitled Shing Chhi Thung Thien Lun,O 'On the Communication of the chhiof the Life-Force with all Nature'. Although the antiquity of
the doctrines of chhi in China really needs no advocacy, we are glad to place these
passages here because they add a significant element to the denouement of this
whole sub-section. The reader will be struck by the appearance in this most ancient
medical text of precisely the san yuanlrothe 'three primary vitalities', about which
we have said so much in earlier paragraphs (pp. 26,46-7).
Exactly the same is true about the position of sex in religion and its hopes for
material immortality. The early sexual interpretations of the - 4th-century Tao Te^
Ching have already been discussed (pp. I pff.), but there is reason to think that the
prominence of sex in Chinese religion goes much further back. Arising out of the
exegesis of some of the early - 3rd-century poetry in the Chhu Tzhu, it has been
shown, as by Waley (23) and Hawkes ( I , 2),b that certain of the chants and songs in
this famous southern collection, the beauty of which can still be felt today, concern
liturgically stylised love meetings between shamanic priests or priestesses and goddesses or gods respectively. In earlier times the divine spouse would doubtless have
been represented by a human hierophant, as in the funeral rites where the living
'Impersonator of the Dead' lingered on till very late observance. Then one must
remember the whole section of books on sex in the bibliography of the Chhim Han
Shu, and while we may take these as certainly having been current in the - 2ndcentury, it is highly unlikely that they originated only then, so that it must be more
reasonable to place the initial stages of that literature among the Warring States
philosophers of the - 4th-century if not at the Chou court in the - 6th.

Ch. 3. (pp. 20,

21),

tr. a u a .

Esp. ( I ) , PP.35R.

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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

This kind of situation is one that we have met with before; beginnings so early in
both China and India that one is driven to search for some common source of those
first building-stones with which they created their rather different intellectual architecture~.Babylonia and the Fertile Crescent immediately spring to mind, even if
all too often the assyriologists have so far failed to find the origins which we need. A
typical example here is that of the lunar mansions or hsiu,' so important in all
, ~ there are many others, such as the duo-decimal
ancient East Asian a s t r ~ n o m ybut
system which modified an autochthonous Chinese tendency to decimalisation,b or
certain aspects of State astrology, for which chapter and verse correspondences
were long ago given,c or indeed for the whole conception of chhi itself.*
T h e great difficulty about priority and diffusion is that close relations between
the two cultures do not seem to have started soon enough to encourage the idea that
either derived these basic attitudes from the other. At a much earlier stage of this
work a sketch was given of the routes and cultural contacts between China and
India, and since then not much has accrued to change the p i ~ t u r eThere
.~
is some
evidence for overland trade by way of Yunnan and Burma in the late - 2nd-centurv, though on a very minor sca1e;f but rather more for extensive Chinese sea
,
official merchants certainly reached Indo-China and
voyages in the - ~ s twhen
possibly also the south-eastem coasts of 1ndia.g Heavy tribute from those parts
(e.g. rhinoceroses) reached the Chinese court in 2, 84 and 94, a fact which
gives us some idea of the capacity of the vessels engaged in the trade. Then we have
the undoubted appearance of Buddhism in China between 70 and 160, probably travelling both by sea and overland through the Himalayas and Sinkiang.
Certainly during the 1st-century the region of Khotan and Kucha was a great
meeting-place of the Indian, Persian, Greek and Chinese cultures." After the 3rdcentury, however, relations between China and India became intense for many
hundreds of years, especially with the continual 'brain drain' of Indian theologians
and linguists, matched by the pious studies and pilgrimages of Chinese monks in
the opposite direction. Usually they went home, but a great number of the Indians
did not, with the incidental result that by the 7th and 8th-centuries we find
families of expert astronomers of Indian descent occupying positions in the govemment Astronomical Bureau at the Thang capita1.i From the 4th to the 14thcenturies we have to deal, in the case of religion, alchemy and physiology, with a

+ +

Cf. Vol. 3, pp. z42ff., 252ff. The subject is still under discussion (cf.Filliozat, 7,U).
Vol. 4, pt. z. p. 440, and more fully in Needham, Wang & Price (I).
c Vol. 2, p. 353, describing the work of Bezold in 1919,
Vol. I , p. 239.
Vol. I , pp. 206ff. We must also refer to the useful book of Bagchi (I), who deals mainly with the Buddhist
evangelisation of China, and to the excellent survey of S. K. Chatterji (I).
Cf. vol. I, p. 174.
g Vol. 4. pt. 3. pp. 442ff.. with translations of the crucial passages.
h Cf. IKvi (4), and Cammann (4) who recognised the nature of a Chinese bmnze cr088bow-trigger which had
been excavated at Sirkap and is now preserved in the Archaeological Museum at Taxila; it must have come from
some Chinese outpost in Central Asia.
See Vol. 3, pp. 202ff. One remembers also the numerous books with Pc-10-mh2 (Brahmin) in their titles, on
astronomy, mathematics, calendrical science, medicine and pharmacy, which circulated fmm the late 6thcentury, in Sui and Thang times (Vol. I, p. 128).These Chinese translations of Sanskrit texts all long lost, alas, are
far too much overshadowed by the vast number of Buddhist stitrac that were also put into Chinese.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

z83

situation much the same as in the mathematics, where we could demonstrate a

continual give and take throughout the same period, with China contributing
greatly.8 But before the I st-century contacts must have been very limited. Thus
all in all Debiprasad Chattopadhvaya ( I ) may be right in seeing an independent
origin of both the Taoist and the Yoga-Tantra-Hathayoga complexes in primitive
agrarian matriarchal and communalist society. But it is not easy to see why their
practical aspects developed in so parallel a way if there had not been strong influences on both China and India from the more ancient cultures of Western Asia.
On the precise question we are facing, the relations between nei tan physiological
alchemy and the yogistic movements in India, there have in the past been several
speculations. More than sixty years ago Conrady ( I ) attempted to prove that there
had been Yoga influence on China in the - 4th-century, but there is nothing in his
arguments that carries conviction n0w.b Nevertheless there has been a persisting
impression that 'from the I st-century the resemblances between the two systems
are too frequent and too striking to be merely of an incidental nature'.c In an important paper Filliozat (3), examining this question, took the view that Yoga must have
been imported to China en bloc about the same time as Buddhism ( + 1st and
2nd-centuries), but this was chiefly based upon the faulty argument that previous
Chinese medicine had not contained a well-developed theory of the chhi. We think
that in fact it did. For the later periods, conversely, Filliozat saw a movement in the
other direction, Tantrism being deeply indebted to Chinese influences. Here we
agree. This picture must be filled out more completely in a moment, but it is for the
early stages that the greatest difficulty continues. The considered opinion of Masper0 was that one should not look southwards for the origins of the Taoist techniques. 'In my opinion' he wrote,* 'it has been quite wrong to look for the origins of
ancient Taoist mysticism in India. The facts of mysticism are the facts of
psychology, facts which may not make their appearance frequently, but which do
so universally, whatever may be the stage of culture and civilisation reached. The
ecstatic trances of Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu and Lieh Tzu are surely the same trances
as those of the hsi wul wizards and sorceresses of ancient China, but in refined form
and provided with philosophical interpretations.' Of course Yoga must have come
in with Buddhism; the trouble is that something very like it was already there.
But everyone is agreed that from the +4th-century the situation changes. If
Yoga may be regarded as purely Indian, Tantrism can hardly be, and Hathayoga
even less s0.e Sex as a way of salvation has something suspiciously Chinese about it.
Of course, the Indian forms of Tantrism were flooding back into China by the
+ 8th-century, as has been shown in the valuable paper of Chou I-Liang (I),
where did it come from in the first place? It has often been observed that Tantris

b
C

Vol. 3, pp. 146ff.

Pokora (4) concuning. Cf. also the papers of Creel (7) and Chang Chung-Yuan ( I ) .
Ib~d.(4). p. 71.
( 1 4 )P.
~ 46.
We already e x p d this view in Vol.2, p. 427.

z84
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
appears initially at several of the phase boundaries of Indian civilisation-in the
north-east, in Assam (Kimarfipa) and East Bengal, 'les pays Tantriques par
excellence';* in the north-west, Gandhira and the borders of modem Afghanistan,
near the passes leading to and from Sinkiang; and in the south-east, in Tamilnad,
the region of Madras, where the language was Tamil and the port cities were those
which had first seen visitors from MahZcina, the great land of the Chinese.b One
significant indication here is that the king of Kimarfipa, Bhiskara Kumira, requested in +644 that a translation should be made of the Tao Tt? Ching into
Sanskrit.c From this story, which has been told by Pelliot (g), we know that the
translation (ordered by imperial edict) was duly completed, but the sanskritist
chairman of the committee, none other than Hsiian-Chuang himself, had great
dispute with the leading Taoists, Tshai Huang' and ChhGng YingZover the sanskrit equivalents of the technical terms.* It certainly shows what interest there was
in Assam at this time in obtaining access to the Taoist scriptures and technical
manuals. Gradually a whole series of Buddhist Tantras grew up describing and
recommending cinaccira, i.e. the practices of religious sexuality current in Great
China (Mahicina)e and this can only have meant in the mixed milieux of Taoists
and Taoicised Buddhists. Tiri was one of the greatest goddesses they worshipped,
MahHcina-Tiri, Kuan-shih-yin-mu,3 the iakti, it appears, of the bodhisattva
Ava1okiteSvara.f The Mah&Yna-kramcTc6ra Tantra (also called Cinacara
Sayatantra) is a characteristic product of this phase of Tantrism; it tells how the
semi-legendary sage VaSistha travelled to China to learn the rites of T i r i from
Vishnu or some avatar of the Buddha. He was horrified to find a Buddha surrounded by thousands of lovers in erotic ecstasy, but accepted the preaching that
the union of sex was the most perfect way to achieve union with God, the Tao, or
the universe, and took to heart the adjuration: 'Women are the incarnations of the
gods, the principle of life, and the beauty that adorns the world; a true adept must
always be spiritually in the midst of them'.g A further straw which shows which
way the wind was blowing at this time comes from the work of Cammann (IO),who
in examining the m e d a l a paintings of Tibet found suggestive evidences of origin
from the TLV-mirrors of Han China.h Although at first loth to accept this, Tucci
(5) in the later editions of his standard work on the mandalas, has recognised it as
probably well-founded. The whole question is bound up with the identification
the position of a country called Oddiyina, the presumed original home of t h d n t ras, and much more remains to be done, but the dominant i n f l k e o f - T a o i s m on
Tantrism seems clearly established.

'
d

b Cf. Vol. I , pp. 176ff..Vol. 4, pt. 3, p p ~ z f f .

Eliade (6), pp. z g , 303.
The request was transmitted by the Chinese ambassadon Li I-Pia04 and Wang Hsiian-Tshevcf. Vol. I , pp.
21 Iff.).
* Hsiian-Chuang insisted that Tao should be nrcitga, 'the way', but the Taoists wanted bodhi, 'illumination'.
Significantly Hsiian-Chuang refused to allow the 'preface'of Ho Shang Kung (cf. p. 130above) to be translated.
Chattetji (I);Bhattacharya (2); Eliade (6), p. 264; Bagchi ( I ) , p. 199;Woodroffe ( I ) ,pp. 179ff. On the word
MahPcina see IKvi (g).
g IKvi (6). vol. I , pp. 346ff.; S. Chattopadhyaya (I),p. I I etpossim.
Cf. p. 260 above.
Cf. Vol. 3, pp. 303ff.
C

"

33.

285

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

So far we have be& thinking of the period from the 4th to the 8th-centuries,
and we have now to think also of that from the 9th to the 13th, the time of
development of the Hathayoga movement, and an age of vigorous activity in Indian
alchemy. It is in connection with this that the Tamil literature of South India has
particular relevance. Although there is a wealth of Tamil MSS on alchemy, yogism
and Tantrism in Indian libraries almost nothing has been done to publish the texts
and unravel the complications.a It is known, however, that the Tamil Tantrists
venerated eighteen magician-alchemists (sittms, the equivalent of siddhas and rasasiddhas), of whom two were recognised as having come from China.h The oldest
name, Agastya, may be legendary or assumed,c but the others are considered to be
historical, and one of them, Bogar, was apparently a Chinese who came to India in
the 3rd-century and lived in Madras after studying at Patna and Bodh-gaya. It is
interesting that unlike the majority of other Chinese intellectual travellers to India
Bogar was not Buddhist (therefore probably Taoist), and in the writings that go
under his name there are few references to Buddhism. A further part of the legend
(if legend it be) is that Bogar returned to China with a group of Tamil disciples for a
period of study before finally settling down in Tamilnad. A second sittar was also
Chinese, though we know him only by his Tamil name, Pulipani; his date is uncertain but probably a little later than Bogar. According to tradition all the other
sittars were Tamil, but the whole pattern testifies of the close relations between
Taoism and South Indian Tantrism between the 3rd-century, when the lists of
sittars begin, and the ~ o t hwhen
,
their succession reached its apogee. It is interesting that in the later writings there is polemic against the monistic idealism
(adejaita ved6nta) of the great 8th-century philosopher Samkara. As for alchemy,
the Tamil texts resemble the Sanskrit ones in using an array of reagents fairly
similar to those of the Chinese. But they also contain what the others do not, a very
Chinese classification of metals and numerals into male and female (Yin-Yang)
categ0ries.d These are some of the fascinating aspects of contacts and transmissions
in proto-chemistry and proto-physiology along the length of the maritime traderoutes between China and 1ndia.e

/
Some valuable information has been presented by Subbarayappa (2), (3). pp. 3 x 9 4 ff.. 3 4 5 6
Ray (I), rev. ed. pp. 125ff.; D. Chattopadhyaya (4). pp. 353ff. One of the feworiginal papers on this subject is
that of Iyer (I). The Rasaratna-sarmrccuya has a list of 27 sittars.
C And there is alm the even more legendary ~ h i r u m 3 ? i r - l
a Filliozat (3).
C Cf. again Vol. I , pp. 176ff., z&ff., Vol. 4, pt. 3, pp. 442ff. In Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 388ff. we gave an elaborate
survey of the influence of Chinese laborato~yalchemy on Arabic culture. The relations between India, China and
Islam in matters of physiological alchemy would also be an enthralling subject. For example, a Sanskrit text
entitled A m r i t w a , perhaps of the 12th-century, was translated into Arabic (and later into Persian) in the
13th as the Rahr a l - m y a t (or H d a l - H u y a t ; Ocean, or Water, of Life), and has been published with a p k i s in
French by Yusuf Husain (I).The original translator was an Assamese yogin, a follower of Goraknith, who became
a Muslim. Ibn 'Arab? in Spain ( + I 165 to 1240). the great mystic, seems to have known of this work and
practised its exercises, which became a permanent part of sufism. We are grateful to Professor Habibullah of
Dacca University for a knowledge of these affairs.
On an earlier page (p. I 52) we recalled the adoption by the sufis in their dhikr liturgies of some of the respiratory
exercises of East Asia, whether from China or India received. We also recalled the Hesychast school of Byzantine
Christian monastic spirituality, which flourished in the 14th-century, and was influenced by Hindu and Buddhist yogism, if not also by Chinese self-cultivation practices. Rut to what extent specifically alchemical ideas
entered into any of these transmissions and acceptances remains still to be investigated.

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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

The probability of such contacts is much strengthened by evidence of strangely

close political and cultural relations between China and India, especially South
India,a in the early 8th-century, evidence not already referred to in Section 7.
For a few decades, between about 680 and 730, the curtain lifts and we can see
some remarkable comings and goings. In a single year, 692, missions from five
Indian countries (Thien-Chu'), as well as Kucha (Kuei-TzuZ)in Central Asia,
converged on the Chinese capital carrying tribute; the representatives were said to
be 'kings' but probably these ambassadors were royal princes.h In 710 an ambassador of South India came again to render homage and exchange presents, together with one from Tibet (Thu-Fan'), one from ZibulistGnc (Hsieh-Yu4) and a
fourth from KGpika" (Chi-Pins).e Yet another mission arrived from South India in
7 I 9.r Then we read that in 720 there was contact with a different king in South
O ,Sri
~ Navasimha PotavarIndia, Shih-Li Na-Lo-Sing-Chia P ~ O - T O - P ~ - Mi.e.
man, who ruled the State of Kiiici (mod. Conjeeveram, S.W. of Madras).g This
king 'sought imperial Chinese authority for using his elephants, troops and cavalry
against the Arabs, Tibetans and others. He asked also that a name should be given
to his army. The emperor praised him warmly and conferred the title of "VirtueCherishing Army" (Huai-Ti Chiin7) upon it.' Still more curious was it that the
king erected a special temple in honour of China or for the worship of some Chinese
divinity-could this not have been TGri herself?The Chiu Thang Shu relatesh that
the King of Kiiici in +720 'built a temple devoted to China, and asked the emperor for an inscription giving a name to it. The emperor thereupon decreed the
donation of an ornamental plaque with the characters Kuei-Hua SsuR
(Conversion-to-Civilisation Temple). This the King placed over the entrance'.
The same year saw another ambassador from South India (Kitici) in Chhang-an,
named apparently Mi-Chun-Na,P and after he had presented his tribute 'it was
ordered that the greatest care should be taken about his return journey, and that his
highest expectations should be fulfilled. He was therefore given a rbbe of flowered
silk, a golden girdle, a pouch for the fish-shaped insignia (of rank): and (the usual)
seven objects; and so departed.'j Finally, towards the end of thk year, a Chinese
ambassador was sent out following in his footstepsto present d r e v e t of kingship to

Much information for many periods is contained in t k h m k _ O f - M ~ e s p e c i a I t y

vols. 2.3, and 4.
Tshi FIJYuan Kuri, ch. 970, p. 17h, tr. Chavannes (17). p. 24, cf. llahler (I), p. go. F ~ s India
t
waq MO-l*
Pa-Mo'll (unidentified), West India was S h i h - 1 ~ 1 - T o "(certainly $iIiditya), North lndia was Na-Na" (unidentified), Central lndia was Ti-MO-Hsi-Na" (unidentified), and South lndia was Ch6-lau-Chhi P a - l r n P h ~ ' ~
(certainly Calukya Vallahha, a dynasty of the Deccan with its capital near Mysore).
c Ancient Arachosia centered on Ghama, part of mod. Afghanistan.
d GandhEra or to the north of it; cf. Vol. I, pp. 191R.
T F Y K , ch. 970. p. rgh, tr. Chavannes (17). p. 28. cf. Mahler(r), p. go.
T F Y K , ch. 971, pp. 3h. 4a. tr. Chavannes (17). p. 41.
8 T F Y K , ch. 973, pp. 13h, 14a, tr. auct., adjuv. Chavannes (17). p. 44, cf. Mahler (I), p. go.
h Ch. 198, p. 13a,tr. auct., adjuv. Chavannes(l7). p. 44; Mahler(1). p. go.
i Cf. Ho Ping-Yii & Needham (2).
j T F Y K , ch. 974. p. 21 a, tr. auct. adjuv. Chavannes (17)~
p. 45; Mahler (I), p. go.
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33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

z87

Sri Narasimha.8 Thus over a certain period we can glimpse the intensity of the
relations between China and South India. Further evidence of it is the fact that MiChun-Na's party had been accompanied by the eminent mahiiyanist monk Vajrabodhi (Chin-Kang-Chihr)-and if Buddhist thaumaturgists could come, Taoist
alchemists and na'tan adepts could also g0.h
Besides all this, there are two other general features in the Indian situation which
we have been detailing which seem to speak clearly of transmissions or at least
stimuli from China. First there is that uncanny resemblance between the system of
the nadiand the c a k a on the one hand, and the tracts, acu-points and larger spatial
entities ('pools', 'fields', domains, Courts, etc.) of ancient Chinese medicine on the
other. A great opportunity lies open here for some future student of comparative
medicine able to handle both the Chinese and the Sanskrit material. Secondly,
there is that very striking transition fromjivan-mukti, spiritual liberation or 'eternal
life in the midst of time', and mrtyum-jayati, the conquest of death, presumably in
the interest of some kind of material immortality. If it is true that in India this
second goal tended to replace the first one, or at any rate to take an equal place
beside it, between the +4th and the 14th-centuries, it is rather difficult to avoid
the impression that this was an influence from those who believed in the 'holy

immortal^'.^
Let us now turn to the other great question which has already been asked. What
were the outstanding differences between Chinese physiological alchemy and Indian tantric yoga? By now it will have become obvious that there were great
similarities--and yet both systems were unmistakably themselves. Our feeling is
that one could characterise the Chinese complex as showing greater sobriety and a
much more materialist tendency. For example, although the Chinese physiological
alchemists worked away at their gymnastic exercises there is hardly any evidence
that they put into practice the more extreme contortionist iisana of their yogistic
colleagues, and it also seems clear that in China massage and self-massage played a
relatively more important part. Nor, so far as we can see, did the Chinese pursue
the determined and successful attempts bf the Indians to control the involuntary
o g for
a . the
muscles for the purposes of the ' p u r i f i c a t i o ' n ~ o f - d e v ~ ~ a ~ h a y As
antinomian aiimiicCri tendencies which, as has been said, could go as far as human
sacrifice," with a concentration on everything loathsome for the breaking of natural
desire, this was exceedingly un-Chinese; and if there was any sadism associated
with sex it occurred in the families protected by Confucian relationships rather
than in the temples of the Tao. What to us is far more important is the materialism,
seen, apart from anything else, in the conviction of the possibility of material, even
TFYK,ch. 964, p. 15a,tr. Chavannes (17), p. 45, cf. Mahler(x), p. go.
See IKvi ( I ,2, 10);Ragchi ( I ) ,p. 219. Vajrabodhi was of royal birth in Central India, studied at NIlanda and

brought rain (one of his specialities) for the King of KIAci before leaving for Ceylon and China. He died in 732.
C Cf. theanswerof Ray ( I ) ,rev. ed., p. I 16, and D. Chattopadhyaya(4)pp. 3 5 6 1 , to thequestion, how did the
Tantras become the repositoriesof chemical knowledge? It was precisely because Tantrists(like Taoists) believed
that physical immortality, or at least extreme longevity,was really attainable.
d P. 278

288

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

if etherealised, immortality here on this earth or in these heavens. Correspondingly, the formation of the 'elixir within', the enchymoma, was thought of in a fully
material sense; it was in fact an exercise in what we do not refrain from calling a
proto-biochemistry-and this was something which (so far as we can see) no group
of Indian texts ever adumbrated. The 'principle of contrariness' (ni,' pratiloman)
took the form in Chinese thought of a great quasi-scientific adventure, the attempt
to accomplish nothing less than the reversal of the ageing process, to return to the
perfection of infancy, the time before growth has ceased, the time when (as we now
know) the biochemical changes accompanying senescence have hardly begun to
take place. However much mysticism, magic, religion and poetry was bound up
with the proceedings of the Taoist adepts, they were in fact engaged in a quest
essentially scientific, the re-mounting of the growth-rate curve, the reestablishment of the enzymic and hormonal situation of the organism at the beginning of life, the re-gaining, restoring and maintaining of the faultless chemical and
physiological constitution with which every child is endowed. 'The primary ching'
we heard Sun I-Khuei say,a 'changes (by the wear and tear of emotions) into the
seminal essence of sexual intercourse, the primary chhi changes into the respiratory
pneuma, and the primary shm is "sicklied o'er by the pale cast of thought" '. Eliade
has appreciated something of the distinction we are making. 'The embryonic respiration (of the Chinese)', he wrote:h 'was not, therefore, likepriina$ama, an exercise preliminary to meditation, nor an auxiliary technique, ut sufficed in
ysiology" which
itself.. . to set in motion and bring to completion a "mystica
led to the indefinite prolongation of life bcthe mate&dy.'
The fact that the
Taoists could not in truth perform what they c x m e d for their methods does not
mean that no one will ever be able to do so, and it can be said in their favour that
their adepts acquired a great deal of benefit by their hygienic living on the way. So
much for the likenesses and differences between Chinese nei tan and Indian tantric
yoga.

At the end of this long elucidation of nei tan alchemy the question naturally occurs
to us, what did it all amount to in terms comprehensible to the historian of science?
Was it just 'medieval superstition', or the aberrant gropings of proto-science, the
work of minds which might have been capable of true natural science if that had
been possible in their time? We think that these questions can reasonably be asked.
We also think that there was rather more value in the enchyrnoma ideology than
some may have been inclined to conclude when reading of the saliva-swallowing
and the breath- an3 semen-retention, the gods, the holy immortals, and the archaei
of the organs of the body. It remains to explain why.
By way of recapitulation let us quote a passage from Chhen KO-Fu on the rise
and decline of Taoist techno1ogy.c
Pp. 4-

above.

(6), p. 71.

(I), 1st. ed.,p. 280, tr. aua. Cf. 2nd ed.,vol. 2, pp. 386,438,444-5.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

289

In the Chin period ( + 3rd and 4th-centuries) there were the arts of the golden elixirs
(chin tan1),drugs of immortality (hsien yao2),metallurgical alchemy ( h u q p a i 3 ) , the sexual
techniques (hn'ian suJ),*respiratory exercises (thu nui), gymnastics and massage (tao yin",
apotropaic incantations (chin chou7) and talismanic charms (fu luR);such were the Taoist
crafts, and those who practised them were called Taoists (tao shihQ).
Rut, as Fang \Vei-TienN'says in the preface to his edition of the Pao Phu Tzu, lVei Phien,
when it came to the (Thang), Sung and Yuan periods, (scholars) considered that the Tshan
Thung (Chhz) and the furnace fire should he interpreted in the sense of the enchymoma ( n k
tanrr),for re-casting and nourishing (lim yangr2)the Yin and the Yang (of the body), and
fusing and uniting (them to recover the) chhi of the primary vitality (hun ho yuan chhir3).
They said that the absorption (fu shihr4)(3f chhz) in e m b ~ o n i respiration
c
(thai hsir5)was a
minor art (hsiao taolfl),and that inorganic alchemy (chin shihIi) and charms and incantations
were mere side-tracks (phang m h r x ) ,while metallic elixir-making and sexual techniques
were unorthodox skills (hsieh shurq);holding moreover that nothing mattered but regeneratpreaching the
ing and uniting (the Yang and Yin) of the mind-body organism (hsingmingZn),
immortality of the 'Valley Spirit',D and handing down the traditional techniques by which
the perfected immortals ascended on high. All this was influenced by the Chhan school of
Buddhism, and by the mutationists and Neo-Confucians, making everything highly mysterious, and even tending to a fusion with Confucianism and Buddhism. Thus the Han and
Chin doctrines of the holy immortals
so at the present day people only know
conduct temple worship-not at all the same as the
mastered metallurgical alchemy and all the other crafts.

This suffices to remind us of the road we have travelled over, and raises several
points each demanding a word or two. As we said earlier on, the rise of the nei tan
system must have been related to a double failure of proto-chemical wai tan alchemy. First, its elixirs proved dangerous, indeed deadly, for many emperors, high
officials, and also the alchemists themselves,c so it was natural that a widespread
mefiance concerning metallic and mineral preparations should have arisen. But
secondly the empirical chemistry of the Han and Liu Chhao periods made little
further progress after the end of the Thang, and since a thousand years had yet to
elapse before modem chemistry could arise even in the more favourable conditions
of Europe, it was natural that men should seek to break out of an apparently circular
path which was not leading them anywhere further. Hence came the great assertion
that the human body was the true laboratory, not the tan fangLZof pestles and mortars, pots and crucibles, stills and sublimatories, which had been the workplace of
so many generations since Li Shao-Chiin. Furthermore, there was an unmistakable
class aspect of the new direction. Many a text shows (cf. pt. 3, pp. 200-1) that the
h

I.e. the techniques of the Mysterious Girl (Hsuan Nii) and the Immaculate Girl (Su Nu), cf. p. 187 above.
Cf. the discussion of the Tan Te^C h i q on pp. I 32, 199above.
Cf. Ho Ping-Yii & Needham (4).

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33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

manual operations of the alchemical elaborator). had always been distasteful for the
'gentlemen', though in the earlier times dedicated religious Taoists such as Ko
Hung had been able to overcome that particular inhibition. Rut evidently it was
much more refined to sit meditating on a mat, or to practice the mmnastic and the
sexual exercises, than to be soiled with the dirt and undergo the discomforts of the
tan fang with its smoke and fume. Probably it would be profitless to search for
particular social caases of the change in Thang, Sung, Yuan and Ming; one suspects that the Confucian literati had always been like this, and the only surprising
thing was that Taoist practical proto-chemical alchemy had got as far as it did
before it came, in some sense, to a standstill. It is interesting to note the continuity,
however, between wai tan and nei tan in some respects, as for example the sexuality
which was common to both. The mating of opposites, the mysterium cmtjunctionis,
was just as important in the tan fang as in the body, for surely the idea\of sexual
union, as of the Yin with the Yang, has been fundamental in the earliest thinking of
all proto-chemists and proto-physiologists concerned with the reactiotds of substances, whether in the crucible or the body.8 Thaoldest conceptionskif chemical
of chemical
affinity are involved here (cf. pt. 4, pp. 305 ff., 363 ff.)hnd theve&a
reaction itself, with its offspring of products different from either the mother or the
father.
So there were similarities, almost identities, between the wai tan and the nei tan
in their several ways, but there were also differences. One point which impresses
when both are contemplated is that each was centred upon a different chemical
process, for while the reactions of mercury and sulphur were the outstanding feature of wai tan, the formation of the amalgam of mercury and lead was the dominant conception in nei tan.b We have no explanation for this, but the correlation
seems to hold good very widely; sulphur hardly ever appears in nei tan writings,
and when a variety of metals and minerals are mentioned, the text is likely to be a
wai tan one, or at least on the borderline. Again, one senses a difference between the
objectives defined. In proto-chemical alchemy the accent was mainly on permanence, longevity, and material immortality by etherealisation; while in physiological alchemy the theme of rejuvenation, of recapturing the three primary vitalities, is much more prominent. Immortality by perpetual youth would follow.
One could not say that there was no overlap between these approaches, ahd they
may have been characteristic of different historical periods, but they do seem clearly associated with the wai and the nei doctrines respectively. Thirdly, although wai
tan alchemy was intimately connected with religious Taoism all through the great
periods of its activity, the nei tan texts have a much more religious character,
though not necessarily less 'scientific'. This was partly no doubt because what they
8 This is one of the great themes of course in the penetrating hook of Eliade ( 5 ) on metal-workem and alchemists
throughout the ages and cultures.
h At the same time it is interesting that certain more or less wai tun books specify lead and mercury as the
essential elixir ingredients, saying that the 'four yellows' (sulphur, orpiment, realgar and arsenious acid) are all
poisonous. as also are the 'eight minerals' (the same with the addition of gold, silver, copper and iron). This is
found in the C h i h Kuk ( ' h i (cf. p. 34) and the Tan Lun ('hueh ('hih Ifsin C h i m (cf. p. 226), of the mid + I zth and
the + 9th-centuries respectively.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

29I

said lent itself so much more to poetic expression, but I myself have vividly experienced the numinous quality of Taoist symbols such as the 'Yellow Court', the
'white snow', the 'metallous radiance' and so on. It grows on one, and this is not
surprising when one remembers that the charge of emotional affect must surely
come from the fact that these matters directly concerned life, health, disease and
death. It is not at all difficult to imagine the hopes and fears which the Taoist nei tan
adepts had for their companions ( I u ' ) in the quest, and those that they loved-the
idea of the Taoist 'monk' as bereft of human feelings and thinking only of his own
salvation is quite untenable. We have no further need to emphasise the place of
physical love in the Taoist world, and even so austere a celibate as Chhiu Chhang-l
Chhun was devoted to his circle of disciples and frienkls.
This sub-section began with some discussion of psycfialogical 'individuatio
self-realisation (pp. z , 6, I 3), and it would only be fitting to r e f & w w a r d s
the end. In spite of the contrast between the allegorical-mystical enterprise of the
West and the psycho-physiological system of China, did not the Taoists also in
their way achieve some kind of personality integration? Surely they did. The Chinese
search for the means of material immortality was of course just as much following a
will-o'-the-wisp as the aurifaction of Europe, but the point is that it had a discipline
at least as purifying. It meant 'walking outside society' just as the Taoist philosophers
of old had done, and seeking the transcendence of all opposites in withdrawal from
worldly affairs, whether this meant at some periods the renunciations of a refugee
in mountain fastnesses, or at others the pursuit in remote temples of a way of life
recognised by society as legitimate. The mind was calmed and organised by meditation, the body healed by diet and exercises. The enchymoma might not be achieved, but the Taoists found things even more precious on the way.&Of course as
usual, every movement is liable to turn into its opposite, as Yang must yield to Yin,
and it was paradoxical that what started as a plan for the perpetual continuance of
sense-perceptions in the literally endless contemplation of Nature ended under
Buddhist influence in the attempt to isolate oneself altogether from the external
world. Equally paradoxical was it that India seems to have gone just the other way,
beginning with jivan-mukti and ending with mrtyum-jayati (p. 276). Still, acquaintance with many Taoist texts generates the finn impression that if modern psychologists could meet some of the medieval Taoist adepts in the flesh they would recognise them as among the 'secret kings' of integrated personality, men and women
of serenity, inner clarity, wisdom and goodness;" people who had faced the archetypal images and mastered them, withdrawn their projections, assimilated their
complexes, enlarged their consciousness, and developed their true Self.
Next comes an important point. One's whole attitude to the quality of Chinese
reaction to the natural world may be affected by an understanding of the 'principle
of contrariness' as it was conceived in that civilisation. The idea of going 'counter-

"

Including doubtless great lonmvitv, as is pointed out in the thoughtful paper of Li Hsin-Hua ( I ) .
Goldhrunner(~),pp. 13zff.

292
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
current' (ni1),8not merely in the re-routing of semen or saliva, but in the whole
quixotic enterprise of 'returning to the state of infancy', re-acquiring the primary
vitalities that bring about the perfection of youth, all this was (in a way) going
against Nature, not simply following her normal course. It was therefore entirely
congruent with modem science and technology, which in so many ways have had
to convince these later centuries that it is not always necessary to proceed 'in the
way that God intended'-whether regarding gunpowder and crossbows, or childbirth anaesthesia, or food hygiene and packing, or organ transplants, or flight in
aircraft. This observation is not in accord with a conception of the Chinese mind
which has been sedulously encouraged by many popular writers," namely that the
Chinese always passively accepted Nature, reconciled himself with Nature, and
adapted himself to Nature. It has often been said that it was not Nature over which
the Chinese wished to acquire control, but rather himself; in calmness and resignation to fate. Yet this is contradicted by so many statements of the physiological
alchemists,c where we find repeated again and again: 'The length of one's life-span
is not in the hands of Heaven, it is in one's own (WO ming tsai wopu tsaiyii thien2)'.d
And on p. 46 above we noted the saying of the physician Sun I-Khuei: 'One cannot
entirely attribute events to fate; on the contrary man can act in such a way as to
conquer Nature.' True aggressivenesswas contrary to all Taoist philosophy. But as
the Kuan Tzu book of the late - 4th-century says: 'The sage follows after thingsin order that he may control them (shhg jen yin chih, ku n h g chang chih3).'e
Receptive observation is the necessary preliminary of the scientific manipulation of
Nature in the interests of man. Yoga also went against the natural course of things
all along the line, and it ended in mystical liberation, but when the Chinese read out
of the same book, it ended in a theory and practice that was strikingly similar to the
insight and achievements of modem science, even though they could not find the
success that still eludes our biochemical knowledge. The determination which the
Chinese displayed in the quest for rejuvenation was, in our view, an anticipation of
endocrine physiology, and although we can tell no more than they what geriatrics
may yet be able to do, we know enough to be sure that there is a biochemistry of
ageing, that it is already partially understood, that the future will bring unheard-of

a The good sense of this word in the whole field that we have been exploring is all the more striking because in
Chinese law from ancient times onward it was highly pejorative. Crimes in the Han were ni 0; privy conspiracy
and sedition ni mm.' All these were thought of as going against the course of Nature (cf. Vol. 2, p. 571). Rut ni also
had a neutral meaning in astronomy, where it signified plan eta^ retrogradations (\'ol. 3, p. 398).
h And by no means only Westerners; cf. Needham (47), p. 301.
c Cf. Vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 83-4.
d E.g. Yuqq Sh& Yen M i q Lu, quoting 'the manuals of the immortals' (YCCC, ch. 32, p. ga). Also in Chm
Chhi Hum fia .Miq, p. 3a.h. But the phrase is much older and must have heen proverbial for centuries. KO
Hung quotes it, c. + 3m, in Pao Phu T m ch. 16, p. gh (cf. \Vare (5). p. 2%). from a Taoist book called Kuei Chia
WtW (Divination Tortoiseshell \Vritinw), which might or might not be the same as the Kuh U'h Chit@ cited in
his bibliography, ch. 19,p. 3h. It is (or they are) otherwise unknown.
Cf. Yol. 2, p. 60.

33.

293

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

possibilities of longevity, and that human society will have to find some way of
managing this for the greatest benefit of all. The nei tan adepts were in on the
ground floor.
It is extraordinarily interesting that all through Chinese history we find a set of
conflicting attitudes to the manipulation of Nature in the interests of man. This was
thought of frankly in terms of theft, just like Prometheus bringing from Olympus
the gift of fire to humanity. And this mythological parallel is appropriate in more
ways than one, for Prometheus (the 'fore-thinker') was essentially a tricksterfigure," himself one of the lesser gods; he stole the art of fire-making from heaven,b
and was therefore condemned by Zeus to eternal torment, from the which however
Heracles released him. Aeschylus gave him high moral dignity as the friend of man
against celestial tyranny. But more, according to Greek legend great in craftsmanship, Prometheus was also a plasticator, able to animate images of clay,c so he too
understood the secret of life,dthat life which the Taoists sought ever to prolong, or
even indefinitely extend. Among our Chinese texts some rejoice at this cosmic
brigandage while others deplore it; alchemists, practical botanists and other protoscientists gloried in it, while Neo-Confucian philosophers felt it to be evil. It is well
worth looking at some of the things that different writers said.
We have already encountered a good example in our present field of alchemy and
early chemistry. First we read a text of +g45 which saide that 'in preparing the
elixir one's Tao is the same as that of the Shaping Forces of Nature'.f Then on
another page, in a text of I I 63, we found the following:

The sages cycle Water and Fire, following the model of the operation of the chhi of Yin
and Yang, in order to bring to completion the virtue (of the elixir).This is what is called 'the
robbery of the mechanisms of the Shaping Forces of Nature (and making them work for
human benefit), (to te^tsao hua chi chi?yehl)'.a

But alchemists were by no means the only people who talked like this, horticult1630 Wang Hsiang-Chinz wrote a thesurists used the same expressions. In
aurus of botany and garden-craft called Chhun Fang Phu3 (Assembly of Perfumes),
which dealt, among other things, with grafting techniques and the artificial production of new varieties. Speaking of tree-peonies (mu-tan,4 Paeonia suffruticosa)

Cf. Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 413-4.

Hesiod (c. - 7m), Theog., 562ff.
Apollodoms (c. - I I 5), Bih. I and 2; Horaoe ( - 65 to -R), C m . , I .16.13ff.;@id ( -43 to 17). Metamorph., I .81; Pausania. (c. + I 50). Descr. Gr., I 0.4.4.
d On ideas about animation of the lifeless in the ancient world, cf. Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 4 8 8 3 .
Vol. 5. pt. 4. P. 249.
This phrase translates the expressions tsao hua rhC or tsao wu che^,"iterally 'the founder of change' or 'the
founder of things'. Since creation ex nihilo was never part of Chinese cosmogony or theology, the implication of
personality in this context is to be avoided. See our previous discussions of this in Vol. 2, p. 564; Vol. 3. p. 599; Vol.
5.~t.2.~~.93.208.~t.3.~.210.
P: Vol. 5, pt. 4. p. 234. The physiological alchemists, with their love of equivocal paradoxes, were particularlv
inclined to talk like this. For instance on p. h8 above, we read the words of Hsiao Tao-Tshun about I 100:,%tun
practices 'can mh the power of the natural order of things' and turn it to the advantage of the practitioner.
a

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33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
he tells of flowers nearly a foot in diameter with as many as seven hundred petals, a
double variety, with other marvellous combinations of forms and colours, and he
ends by saying?
This phenomenon is indeed due to the exertions of man, capturing the powers of Nature
(for his purposes), (tzhu tsP i jen li to thien kung chC yehl).

But let it not be thought that this locution arose only in the seventeenth century, for
1075, the Yang-Chou Shao Yao
we find exactly the same phrase in a work of
PhuZ(Monograph on the Herbaceous Peonies of Yangchow), where Wang Kuan3
is discussing some wonderful new varieties of the shao-yao (Paeonia lacttj7ora).
Many other examples could be adduced, and it would not be going too far to say
that statements like these were loci communes, even cliches, at least from the beginning of the Thang onwards.
But there came a time when the philosophers looked closely at them, and disliked
very much what they saw. There is an instructive passage in the Chin Ssu Lu4
(Summary of Systematic Thought), compiled by Chu Hsij & Lii Tsu-ChhienGn
I 175; i t relates a discussion which took place between one of the earlier NeoConfucians, Chhing 17(Chheng I - C h h ~ a n , ~1033 to I 108) and other gentlemen. It runs as follow^:^

Someone asked whether there was any truth in the (Taoist) statements about the holy
immortals? He answered that such things as flying up to heaven in broad daylight were
obviously impossible. 'But if it is said that the adepts can lengthen their life-spans and
prolong their years by dwelling in remote mountains and forests, preserving their bodily
forms and transmuting their chhi, then indeed there is some truth in that. It is like a fiery
stove, which will quickly bum all its fuel if given a strong draught, but if it is placed in a
close room it will take much more time to exhaust its supplies and go out. T h e same principle ( M )applies here.'
Someone else remarked: 'Yang Tzu says that the sages never took the immortals as
teachers because their arts (of prolonging life) were heterodox (P). Were the sages right to
eschew such beliefs and techniques?' He replied: 'To be an adept is to be a robber in the
(workshops of) Nature (thien ti chien i tsku). If the adepts did not steal the secret mechanisms of the Shaping Forces in the world (fa' chhieh tsao hua chih chiI2)how could they
achieve immortal life? If the sages had thought it right to do such things, the (Duke of)
Chou and Confucius would certainly have done them'.

The Yang Tzu referred to here was Yang Hsiung,'3 who wrote his F a Yen14(Admonitory Sayings) in s , and the passage is easily found in that book.c It was again
part of a discussion.

Hua Phu, ch. 2, p. I aff.

Ch. 1 3 , p. zb (pam. 1 0 ) . tr. auct., adjuv. Gmf (2). pp. 716-7; Chhen Jung-Chieh
Chh* Shih I Shu, ch. 18,p. lea.
textually identical is found in Hc Ch. 9. pp. 96, Ioa. tr. auct.
a

(11).

p. 285. A passage

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PHYSIOLOGICAL

295

ALCHEMY

Someone said: 'The sages did not go to school with the immortals because their arts were
heterodox. The sages were ashamed if they found a single thing in the world that they did
not understand; the immortals were ashamed if they lost a single day of life.' 'Life indeed,
life indeed' said the philosopher, 'life is but a name, but death is a fact'.

The discussion with Chhing I-Chhuan would have taken place late in the

+ I ~th-century.The commentary of Yeh Tshai,' written some I 50 years later, is a

little less dogmatic. He says that man's body is made of very fine components, and
when they disperse, death ensues. But perhaps some Taoist adepts did by chance
get a peep into the workshop of the Agents of Change, and secretly used such
knowledge to bind more tightly together their organic constituents, so that they
could attain longevity or immortality.8 If so, it was due to an understanding of the
binding forces and not to any magical elixirs. But this was an encroachment upon
the dispositions of Heaven, and therefore an art of little merit renounced by the
wise. Other commentators quote here a poem of Chu Hsi's entitled Kan H ~ i n g , ~
well worth translating:
Borne on the wind they sought to be companions of the hsien,
Leaving the world they ranged among the mountains and the clouds,
Like stealthy bandits broke open the seals of mysterious fate (tao chhi h~Ganrningpiqb
And ravish'd the keys of the portal of life and death (chhieh tang sh&g ssu kuan4).
In the golden reaction-vessel, with dragon and tiger coiled?
For three whole years they nurtured the divine elixir;
At last by the aid of a knife-point dose in the mouth
Wings sprouted in full daylight, and off they soaredI also once half wished to follow their example,
T o take off one's shoes would not be difficult;"
But to go against the Tao of Nature was what frightened me (tan khung ni thien taos).
Even if I snatch'd a few more years of life, how could I be at peace? (thou sh&g chu n&g an?h)

Other Sung philosophers had just the same attitude. In

1060 Chang Tsai7
wrote his Chhg M&$ (Right Teaching for Youth), and this was commented upon
about 1650by Wang Chhuan-Shangin Ch&g M&g Chu.I0The passage is worth
gi~ing.~

Cf. our argument in Vol. 2, pp. 153-4. In classical Chinese thought the souls were strung t w t h e r like a
necklace on the thread of the body.
h Cf. the scepticism of that Gnostic quatrain of 'Umar al-Khawimi, who died the year after Chu Hsi was born:
'Up from earth's centre to the Seventh Gate,
I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate,
And many a knot unravelled by the way,
But not the skein of destiny and fate.' (Fitzgerald (I), 1st ed., no. 31)
C A reference to the chemical substances used in the elixir-making.
d I.e. the abandoning of worldly desires. Only three paragraphs earlier than the one which we have translated
someone asks Chu Hsi whether he practices any method like the Taoist 'circulation of the chh? (tao chhi"). He
replies that he wears light vine-cloth gowns in summer and furs in winter, he eats when he is h u n ~ r yand drinks
when he is dry, he restrains his desires and calms his mind and vital force--that is all. In other words the NeoConfucian philosophers despised the elaborate techniques of physiological alchemy. Graf (2). p. 714; Chhen JungChieh ( I I), p. 284.
C Ch. h, p. 14a, tr. auct. The book is included in the Chhuan-Shun ZShu'Lcollection.

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ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

T o be old, yet not to die, may be called a robbery (tsk,' of Nature). T o be young, and
refuse education, so that when grown up one has no appreciation or understanding of traditional cultural values, and in the end cannot die peacefully-these are three ways of robbing
natural life (chieh tsei sh&g chih tao yehz).
[Comm.] T o be educated and to know one's duties is according to the principle of the
fullness of human life (chhuan sh&g I$). T o die peacefully is according to the nature of
the chhi of life. But to be old and not die peacefully, seeking to tranquillise the spirits
(ning shen4)and quieten the chhi (ching chhi5),hoping never to die at all and depart from
this world (is not a natural thing). As for the (Taoist) disciples of Lao Tzu, they cultivate techniques for distancing death, and they bend and stretch the principles of
Nature (chhu shen tm-jan chih l$), that is to say, the Tao of the life-cycle itself. T o
wish to interfere with the (natural) changes of Heaven (yu kan thien ti hua7) is to be a
burglar of life (thou sh&?), (living on without meaning or purpose). If they did not
bend things they could not stretch them. Hence all this is called 'theft of life' (tsk
sh&g+).

Once again we have the characteristic horror of all attempts to break through the
curtain of human ignorance in the interests of knowledge of Nature and the power
that it brings. It is truly remarkable that one should find in the non-theistic Chinese
tradition parallels so close to the theological hesitations of the West. And as we saw
at an earlier point," there was a certain conflict within Taoism itself, where the
ataraxy of the philosophers contrasted with the activism of the clergy and the alchemists.
Sometimes the monotheism of the People of the Book seems to have done rather
better, as when Moshe ben Maimon, an almost exact contemporary of Chu Hsi,
averred that the longevity techniques of physicians were in no way an infringement
of divine authority, because God, being omniscient, would already have foreseen
the intention and the acti0n.b But broadly speaking all the history of science and
technology in the Western world was summed up in the question 'to pry or not to
pry'. The impiety of stealing Nature's secrets, which God had not intended that
man should know, the offence at 'turpis curiositas', the boldness and determination
of Renaissance Man-infinite are the ramification^.^ Let us read a passage, still
1699
with the dew on it, from the exuberance of the Scientific Revolution. In
John Edwards wrote+

Chyrnistry is all new; there was no such thing known to the Generations of old. This
Spagyrick Art, which was set on foot by Paracelsus and Helmont, and some other searching
heads, hath had prodigious additions made to it 1ately.e The Alchyrnists' retort and Alembick never were furnished with such rare and excellent secrets as they are now; the Laboratories and Furnaces never afforded the like Inventions. It is indeed a rough and violent way
Vol. 5, pt. 2, p. 83.
This was in his Rrspmmm de h a n n ' t a t r , ed. Weil ( I ) . We mentioned it alreadv in Vol. 5 , pt. 4, p. 478,
One very striking example of this is the corpus of legend, both Jewish and Christian, centering on the Rmk of
Enoch; cf. Vol. 5, pt. 4. pp. 341 ff.
d ( I ) . vol. 2, p. 631.
Who stood behind them we have seen abundantly in Vol. 5, pt. 4, cf. esp. p. 491.

33.

297

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

of philosophising, it is an hectoring as it were of Nature, of putting her upon the Rack, and
on the fiery Trial, to make her confess what she never did before. And truly she hath made a
very ample confession and discovery, whereby the knowledge of Natural Philosophy is
much increased and imbellished, very Noble and Precious Medicaments (consisting of
Oyls, Spirits, Tinctures, Salts, etc.) are produced, and the Healthfulness of Men's Bodies,
and their Longaevity, are procured, and the Almighty Creator thereby Exalted and Honoured.

So the bending and stretching, the stealing and plundering, brought real results at
last. Yet so long as mankind has not achieved efficacious ethical and social control
over the applications of his knowledge, many will be inclined to say that we know
too much for our own good. Material immortality still eludes us, and perhaps it is
just as well that it does, for we have not yet ended war, hunger and social inequality,
nor mastered the management of nuclear power, nor regulated genetic manipulation, nor solved the problems of oecological pollution and resources exhaustion.
Artificial intelligence and space voyaging are only just over the horizon, and man
must gain authority over them too. That mankind will do all these things remains
an article of our faith.
Here a curious consideration obtrudes itself. Why was there nothing in Christendom corresponding to Indian yoga and Chinese physiological alchemy? This
might admit of a wide solution, but one obvious factor was the very different conceptions of immortality. In so far as it was solely thought of as a life 'after' death, in
some entirely different 'place', there could be no envisagement of a preparation of
the present physical body for indefinite continuance, however etherealised the
form. Besides, the body tended to be despised by transcendental theology, undervalued and associated with the earthy downward pull of 'sin'. In the same way there
was the anti-sexuality of Manichaeism and a Christianity all-too-Manichaean,
pursuing its way from Pauline asceticism to Victorian prudery.8 Only among the
Hesychastic saints of Eastern Orthodoxy did anything of a yogistic nature penetrate the Western world, and even then it was restricted to meditation techniques as
a means of prayer, and breathing exercises of the pr+iycima type.b
Nevertheless a search through the byways of European literature might bring to light some unexpected
things. For example in 1742, J. H. Cohausen, an eminent Miinster physician, published a traaate in which he
asserted that man's life could be extended to at least I 15 years by the regular absorption of the breath (the chhr) of
young girls. This was in a direct line of descent from Roger Bacon's fumusjuventutis, already discussed in pt. 4, pp.
4 9 6 7 . As we saw, this 13th-century friar and alchemical visionary was the first of Europeans to talk like a
Taoist. Reading between the lines, it would seem that something a little more than chhi may have been involved in
Cohausen's techniques, though just how serious he was is not clear. Internal evidence suggests Turkish influence,
hence perhaps something from further east. There is a biography of him by Peal (I).
A full treatment of the traces of Asian attitudes to sex within the European culture-area would be of much
interest. but it might be a distasteful task, for the records of the 'Holy' Inquisition would have to be drawn on as
well as the less sombre activities of the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit (cf. Friinger, I). Within Gnosticism,
as we have noted (pp. 3, I 5,237,243 above), there are certain parallels with the Taoists to be found too, remarkable
both for the similarity of practice and the exact contemporaneity of date ( 2nd to 5th-centuries). On this
Foerster (I), vol. I, pp. 313ff. can again be consulted.
Much later, after the + I 5th-century, changes in the European appreciation of Indian art, especially the eroticreligious temple sculptures, raise another relevant question. This can be followed in the interesting recent book of
Mitter (I).
h This was in the
13th and 14th-centuries, with Nicephoras the Solitary, Simeon the New Theologian,
Gregory Palamas and others. The studies of Hausherr ( I ) and Rloom ( I , z ) may be consulted, and a summary is
given in Eliade (6). pp. 75 ff.

298

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

T h e parallel question which comes to mind is what influence wai tan or nei tan
alchemy had upon the development of science and technology in the West. If one
confines attention to specific details of chemical apparatus and operations, the
answer would be, for the first case, relatively little, since Western and Arabic alchemy
and then chemistry developed more or less in parallel with China in a continuous
line of evolution from the proto-chemistry of the Hellenistic period. But if we think
of the broader objectives, then the influence was tremendous, for as we argue elsewhere (pt. 2, pp. gff. pt. 4, pp. 490ff.)no system has the right to be called alchemy
until the idea of the elixir of life is present in it; before that all is aurifiction or
aurifaction--and the Arabs, who transmitted to Europe the idea of the elixir, were
in this profoundly influenced by China. Since Europe was unreceptive to yogistic
technique of any kind, the second stream, that of the nei tan ideas, had no radiation
westwards until much later, when one part of it, the physio-therapeutic techniques,
influenced the founders of modem medical gymnastics such as P. H. Ling (cf. p. 173
above). This however was only incidental, and the general line of macrobiotic physiological alchemy remained quite strange to European minds; were this not so, we
should not have had to unravel it at such length in the present sub-section.
But it deserves a measure of appreciation all the same. The great justification of it
seems to us to be that it was nothing less than a chapter in the pre-natal history of
biochemistry. T h e nei tan theory of the enchymoma was a recognition, almost instinctive perhaps, of the fact that very powerful biologically active substances are
indeed prepared by metabolic processes within the bodies of living things. Alof the nature of a hygiene as such, and having the intimate conthough
nections which we have traced with the rather different traditions of Indian yoga, it
was much more fundamentally and distinctively biochemical, since it vividly visualised the actions of organs and secretions upon one another, and the elaboration of
an actual life-giving and life-prolonging substance, the enchymoma, by the reactions of what we should call'biochemical factors somewhere near the centre of the
human body. It is a striking thought that the question of the efficacy of chemistry
versus biochemistry had already been posed about 300, when the form it took
was whether a like or unlike thing would have the greater effect upon a reactant
b0dy.a In Sect. I 6 we already saw a good example of this, in part of the wonderful
discussion in the third chapter of the Pao Phu T z u book between KOHung and his
interlocutors."

Someone said: 'Life and death are predetermined by fate, and the length of the life-span
is usually fixed. Life is not something that any external medicine can shorten or lengthen. . .
If the medicine were of the same category as one's own body it might be efficacious, but I
shall never believe in the value of things of totally different categories ( i l&') such as the
seeds of the pine or the cypress.'
Pao Phu Tzu replied: 'According to your argument, a thing can be beneficial only if it
belongs to the same category (thung lei2)as that which is to be treated. If that were so, why
h

For an extended treatment of Chinese category and chemical affinity theory see Vol. 5 , pt. 4, pp. 305ff.
Vol. z,p. 439. The passage was there abbreviated, and we give it here in less free form.

33.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ALCHEMY

299

could not a lost finger be stuck on again?Why should one not consume the blood lost from a
wound? After all, they belonged originally to the same body, and not to some different
species.. . Benefit from things of a different category ( i evu chih if), however, is not to be
denied. If we followed your opinion, and mistrusted things of different nature, we should be
obliged to powder flesh and melt or liquefy bone to prepare medicines for wounds, or to
drink boiled extracts of skin or hair to cure baldness. Water and earth are not at all of the
same substance (thung thiL)as the hundred plants and vegetables, yet they all rely on them
for growth. The five cereal grains are not of the same category as living men, yet men need
them in order to live their lives. Oil is not of the same species (chuqq3)as fire, water is not of
the same class (shu4) as fish, yet when there is no more oil the fire dies, and when there is no
more water the fish perish. Cut down a tree and the epiphytes dry up, mow the grass and the
dodder dies. . . The point can be made crystal-clear by hundreds of examples. . . Therefore
when we consume (all kinds of different) things which are able to benefit our bodies and
conduce to longevity, why should we be surprised if some can give us immortality?'.a
Here K O Hung was stating the wai tan case and his critic was the representative of
the tendency that eventually led to the nei tan.
Of course both were quite right. T h e pharmaceutical industry of today knows
both 'chemicals' and 'biologicals'. And to crown all, the recognition of this duality
was also accomplished in China before the days of modem science. For there occurred in that culture what might almost be called a synthesis of the wai tan and the
nei tan traditions, namely the iatro-chemical movement starting from about the
I ~th-centuryonwards. This we deal with in detail elsewhere,b but here we must
point out that it did combine the two ancient traditions, since it applied wai tan
laboratory methods to nei tan substances, the secretions, excretions, juices and tissues of the body itself. As we shall find in the following pages,c this led to one of the
greatest triumphs of medieval and pre-modem scientific technology in any civilisation, namely the quasi-empirical preparation in purified though not isolated form
of the steroid sex-hormones." These were actively and successfully used in medical
practice, and they were not by any means the only endocrine preparations which
Chinese iatro-chemistry pr0duced.e T h u s in all our excursions into the quasiyogistic land of the na' tan tradition, we have been rather less far away from the
history of science as ordinarily understood than we ourselves have sometimes been
tempted to suppose. And the enchymoma deserves to be celebrated as one of the
landmarks in the pre-history of biochemistry just as much as all the elixirs which
contributed to the development of the technology and science of chemistry itself.
Before turning, however, to our account of what might be termed 'the enchymoma in the test-tube' ure may take a brief look at a late manifestation of KO
Hung's argument about 'like' and 'unlike' materia medica. A far-off echo of this

PPTIl'VP,ch. 3, p. 6a.6, tr. auct., adjuv. Ware ( g ) . pp. 61 ff.

Vol. 5 . pt. 3, p. 219-20, and in \.'ol. h, Sects. 44,45.
P And still further in Sect. 45 below.
d Xleanwhile see I,u Gwei-Iljen & Needham ( 3 ) .
The following passages will he discussed in detail later: Wan Ping Hui Chhun ( + 161 g ) , ch. 4 , pp. 7 a f f . Chhih
;
Shui ffriinn ('hu ( + I ggh), ch. 1 0 , pp. z o a f f . ;1 IfnYchJu IMh ( + I 575).ch. 2. pp. lot a f f . ;P& Tshao Chhiu Chen
( + 1773).ch. h, pp. l o a f f .\Ve say no more about these here, recording them in advance only for convenience.
a

30

33. ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

controversy resonated in the early nineteenth century when Samuel Hahnemann

( I 755 to I 843) founded the medical system known as 'homoeopathy'." After the
disappearance of the Galenic doctrine of 'peccant humours', rooted in the Greek
conception of krasis or balance between the constituents of the body,h and especially after the great discoveries of bacteriology, Western medicine concentrated
more and more on specific drugs for particular disorders, and took them freely
from all the natural kingdoms. In spite of side-effects and side-reactions, iatrogenic
illness, the placebo effect,c the uncontrolled promotion of new drugs by the pharrnaceutical industry under capitalism, and dangerous disturbances of the balance of
Nature, including the production of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria, medical
orthodoxy has remained faithful to this conception down to the present day.
But like KO Hung's interlocutor, the homoeopathic followers of Hahnemann
believed that the body ought to be allowed to take care of itself, and they called
mainstream medicine 'allopathy', because it set out to cure diseases by things other
than body constituents, whether of plants, animals or man. They agreed with the
words of Thomas Sydenham ( + 1666): 'how prejudicial soever the cause of a disease may be to the body, it is no more than a vigorous effort of Nature to throw off
the morbific matter and thus recover the patient.'d In other words, they put their
faith in the vis medicatrix naturae. Furthermore, contrary to the accepted medical
principle of giving contrary or counter-acting drugs, they believed in the old dictum similia similihus c u ~ a n t u rand
; ~ since fever was, they thought, the body's way of
fighting malaria, for example, a pyretic drug should be given, not an anti-pyretic
one. But at the same time they used doses of single drugs only in the most extreme
dilutions, and since it was never possible to justify this rationale by experimental
pharmacology the homoeopathic system has never had scientific support.' However, its concentration on the natural healing powers of the body, and its strongly
psycho-somatic approach in diagnosis, give it a not dishonourable place in the history of medicine, and if today a movement of which the force is largely spent, it
certainly has some theoretical relevance to the questions raised in the China of the
Chin period a millennium and a half ago.

Cf. Inglis ( I ) , pp. 74ff.

Cf. Needham (64). p. 412; Lu Gwei-Djen & Needham (5). p. 8. A w e alsosaw (Vol. 5 , pt. 4,pp. 477,481). the
Arabic alchemists believed that perfect krasis meant immortality, and that was what the elixirs brought about.
Mark Antony says in the concluding lines ofJuliuc Ceasar (Act V, sc. 5):
Alas, it was not so for Rrutus, of
His life was gentle, and the elements
So mix'd in him, that Nature might stand up
And say to all the world "This was a llan!".'
C Cf. I,u Gwei-Djen & Needham (S), pp. z3gff.
d 'Methodus curandi Febres, propriis Ohservationibus superstructa' (Works, Syd. Soc., i, 29).
Cf. Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 321 ff., where we considered the age-long hesitations of philosophers and pmto-chemists
as to whether 'like' reacts with 'like', or on the other hand only with 'unlike'.
Oligo-dynamic actions are of course knoum, but only for a relatively restricted number of chemical
substances-opper and plant gmwth, for example, or trace elements, or certain poisons such as hotulinus toxin or
ricin, or various hallucinogens.
a

33. PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

301

(K) T H E E N C H Y M O M A I N T H E T E S T - T U B E ;
MEDIEVAL PREPARATIONS O F URINARY STEROID AND
PROTEIN HORMONES
All through this volume we have been contrasting wai tan with nei tan practice, and
tracing out how the laboratory alchemy of metals, oxides, sulphides and other salts
was paralleled, and eventually almost superseded, by a physiological alchemy which
dealt with the fluids and tissues of the human body itself, and sought to construct
from their interactions a medicine of immortality. The elixir gave place more and
more to the enchymoma. If that was antithetical, how could a synthesis ever have
come about? Simply because the iatro-chemists or pharmacists, at least from the
Sung onwards, started to apply wai tan laboratory techniques to organic mixtures
of nei tan character, especially urine, but also the placenta, menstrual blood, semen,
and even glands of internal secretion. This was to lead them to new discoveries and
inventions still of much interest today.
Our knowledge of the endocrine functions of the sexual organs of man and mamrnals is an acquisition of comparatively recent date. Endocrinology as a whole indeed does not go back beyond the beginning of the present century. By the end of
the twenties a great deal of important knowledge about the endocrine secretions of
the testis and ovary, the placenta and the adrenals, had been attained, as may be
seen in the collective work 'Sex and Internal Secretions' edited by Edgar Allen in
1932. T h e same period had seen the establishment of the correct formula of the
steroid ring system by Wieland, Windaus, Diels, Bemal, Rosenheim and King;
and this opened the way for the sweeping advances in the field of androgens and
oestrogens which have taken place since then.8 We are now familiar with a large
number of substances of androgenic and oestrogenic activity naturally occurring in
the body, and we are also able to make use of derivatives of these substances which
do not naturally occur in Nature but which may have very useful properties for our
purposes.
Since the knowledge of the steroid sex hormones is thus such a characteristic
achievement of modem science, it seems hardly believable that in any phase of
ancient or medieval science it should have been possible to make purified preparations which possessed activity of this kind.h Nevertheless there exists a corpus of
material which indicates that just this was accomplished by Chinese iatro-chemists
between the 10th and the + 16th-centuries.c Guided by theories of tradition:l
Chinese type, not of course the same as those of modem science, and using urine as
their starting-point, they succeeded in preparing mixtures of androgens and oestrogens in relatively purified form and employing them in medicine. The classical
discovery of Aschheim & Zondek in 1927 that pregnancy urine contains rich amounts of steroid sex horrnones,d and the subsequent discoveries of the presence of

On the androgens see especially Dorfman & Shipley ( I ) .

Farlier and briefer versions of the material here presented will he found under I,u Cwei-Djen & Needham (3).
c And in cruder form, much earlier still.
V t very soon became the chief source of supply for biochemists; cf. Veler & Doisy's paper ( I ) ,and Allen ( I ) ,
pp. 440,483; also Rrooks et al. ( I )p. I I I .

33.

302

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

similar substances in urine from other sources was thus anticipated by many centuries in these Chinese quasi-empirical preparations. In the present sub-section we
shall set forth the evidence which we have f0und.a

Before proceeding further it will be desirable to say a few words about the sexual
organs in Chinese medical thought and practice. The secondary sexual characteristics were recognised as connected with the testis in quite ancient times. As in all
other civilisations, castration was undertaken very early, in man for social reasons
(eunuchism), and in animals both for medicinal purposes and for gastronomy,
because gelded animals were found to put on fat and to give a more tender meat.
T h e simple physiological experiment of castration thus taught the Chinese very
early that the beard and other characters of virility were connected in some way
with the presence of the testes. Intersexes also aroused much interest and were
catalogued in the Hsi Yuan Lu' of Sung T ~ h uthe
, ~founder of forensic medicine,
in 1247. This book, entitled 'The Washing away of Wrongs (i.e. False Charges)'
is the oldest treatise on legal medicine in any civilisation, and it was natural that
attention should be paid in it to various forms of hermaphroditism." By the I 6thcentury, Li Shih-ChenGn his great pharmaceutical natural history, the P& Tshao
Kang Mu4 ( I 596), has an elaborate discussion of ten principal forms of this cond i t i ~ nThe
. ~ interest of the Chinese was also aroused very early in sex-reversals.
From the beginning of the Former Han dynasty ( - 3rd-century) cases are reported, for example in the Lun H&g5 (Discourses Weighed in the B a l a n ~ e )of~ the
,~
about 80. These sex-reversals, where
famous sceptic Wang C h h u n ~written
persons predominantly male turned into persons mainly female in character and
vice versa, were taken note of naturally for prognostication purposes, like other
unusual phenomena, celestial or terrestrial. For this reason many cases of similar
change in animals as well as man were recorded in the dynastic histories under the
heading of 'strange events';e and there are plenty of case reports in the memorabilia
of private scholar^.^
So far as we know, the Chinese were not particularly early in the use of testicular
tissue as a therapeutic agent in cases of hypo-gonadism, sexual debility, impotence,
spermatorrhoea, and female affections such as dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, etc.

B We are greatly indebted to Dr Rwer Short of the Department of Veterinan. Science at Cambridge and to Dr
Hal Dixon of the Biochemical Department, for much kind help and valuable advice.
1' Ch. I , pp. 32aff. 'Ihe material was in part older, since Sung 'I'zhu based his work on three still earlier books
now lost.
Ch. 52, pp. 43aff. Study continues today in China on modem lines; cf. Liu POn-Idi et al. ( I ) .
Ch. 7 (Forke tr. (4). vol. I , p. 327).
E.g. ChhimHanShu,'ch. Z ~ R A pp.
,
zoaff.;ch. 2 7 ~ p.~ r8h;
. H o u H a ~ S h u , ~ c27,
h . p. 8a;Hsin T h a n g S h ~ , ~
chs. 34 to 36 passim.
Cf. Laufer (40). Further references will be given in Vol. 6.
f

33. PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY
3O3
T h e practice was first emphasized in a book entitled Lei Ch&g Phu Chi P& Shih
Fang' (Classified Fundamental Prescriptions of Universal Benefit) printed in
+ 1253, and attributed to an eminent physician, Hsii Shu-Wei,' who flourished in
I 132. The testes of animals such as the sheep, pig and dog were used either
desiccated, raw or comminuted with hot wine. Other 13th-century books describe the treatment, e.g. the Chi Sh&g Fan@ (Prescriptions for the Preservation of
Health), written by Yen Yung-Ho4 about + 1267; after that time it became a current method in Chinese therapeutics.* The use of testis tissue as a drug goes back
far in medical history; it appears in the Hippocratic corpus, in Dioscorides (ca.
60),h and among the Indian writings, especially the SuSruta-samhita, some time
5th-centuries.e As early as - 135 Nicander recombetween the
2nd and
mended the use of the testes of hippopotamus.* There is no reason to think that
such medication would have been valueless. Although testosterone is inactivated in
the liver, administration per OS may have been reasonably effective, provided sufficient quantities were given to the patient.
Chinese medicine was perhaps more original in its use of the human placenta for
. ~ far back this goes we are
therapy; after all the richest source of ~ e s t r o g e n sHow
not quite sure, but Li Shih-Chen tells usf that the use of human placenta was first
mentioned in the P& Tshao Shih 15 written by Chhen Tshang-Chhih about 725.
At first it was not greatly used, but during the Ming period ( + 14th-century onwards) it came into prominence, and was prescribed habitually for all such affections as are considered to benefit by the administration of oestrogens at the present
day. The placenta was much studied by Wu Chhiu7 towards the end of the 15thcentury in his Chu Ch&g Pien P? (Resolution of Diagnostic Doubts); he, like other
physicians of the Yuan and the Ming, invariably prescribed placental tissue, desiccated or boiled down in wine,g combined with a variety of plant drugs. Some of
these are known today to have quite powerful effects on smooth muscle, blood
pressure, etc.h The oral route is often considered inefficient for oestrogens, but
there can be no doubt that real effects would have been produced if enough material
was given.' As in the case of the testis, placentas of animals, especially the horse and
cat, were also emp1oyed.j

SeePTKM,ch. 5 0 ~ . p p 130,
,
zra,h. 30h,43a.
Gunthered. ( I )p. 102; Berendes, (3) vol. I , pp. 194, 294; Brooks et al. (I), p. 23.
* Herendes ( I ) ,vol. I , p. 274.
Rhishagratna ed.,vol. 2, pp. 5 ~ z f f .
e Allen ( I ) ,p. 456 A helpful summary of the most recent state of knowledge is that of Grtkchel-Stewart (I).
PTKM, ch. 52, pp. 36a.h. 37a.h.
g Such a treatment, like refluxing with aqueous alcohol, would liberate the steroid hormones, both free and
h E.g. tu-chu@ (Eucucommia ulmm'des), and tang-kuei'"(Angelica pol.vmorpha).
conjugated, from the cells.
1 Oestrogenic components can in certain circumstances be well absorbed per OS (cf. Allen (I), pp. 908, 910);
prwsterone not so. 'I'he famous experiments of Brown-Skuard in I 889, so often regarded as the foundation of
endocrinology, sought to overcome the dificulties of the oral route by the injection of glycerol extracts of testis
tissue; they were thus distinctly less subtle than the ancient Chinese methods of fractionating urine, and indeed
also less convincing, since 'the validit) of the results has not been substantiated' (Allen (I), p. 881), while the
Chinese preparations were in widespread use.
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3O4
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
One little indication occurs here which links the use of the placenta with the
iatro-chemical studies on urine which concerns us in this sub-section. In discussing the placenta, Li Shih-Chen quotes first from a Tan Shu' concerning the theory
of the use of the placenta and the choice of the best specimens for the purpose. It is
possible that Tan Shu here is a generic term meaning books on iatro-chemical
medicines,&and not the name of a specific work, for it cannot be found in Li ShihChen's own bib1iography.h If this is so, there is here an interesting link with the
iatro-chemists, descendants of the alchemists of the Thang and Sung who developed the urinary fractionation methods now to be discussed.

Elsewhere we give a thorough study of the theories of Chinese physiology, pathology, and medicine throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages.C These are the
basis of the characteristic conceptions of traditional Chinese medicine to this day.
Our conviction is that extended study will demonstrate how congruent the Chinese
medical theory-structure was with the fundamental conception of endocrinology,
namely that the organs of the body exert important effects upon one an0ther.d
In the first place, the principal viscera were analogised with the elements. As is
now generally known, Chinese natural philosophy from the - 4th-century onwards
thought in terms of Five Elements (unlike the Greek four): Metal, Water, Wood,
Fire and Earth.e The whole of Nature was considered as being the theatre of a
continual succession of changes in the Five Elements, changes which proceeded
according to certain systems of mutual inter-relations. One such system was the
Mutual Production Order, a particular succession according to which each element
generated the next one in a series. Similarly, another cyclical succession was that
known as the Mutual Conquest Order, in which in a different succession each
element conquered or destroyed its neighbour, according to a particular succession. Since the viscera were analogised with the Five Elements, then the conception of constant interactions between them lay very near to the physiological
thought of the ancients.
Besides the Five Elements, however, there were also the two fundamental forces
in the universe, Yin and Yang, originally correspondingly to brightness and darkness, the male and the female, etc., but here particularly relevant in that the physiological thinkers used them so often in a sense very similar to that which we have in
Or of course any treatise on wai tan, or nn'tan, methods in general.
A search in the catalogues of the Taoist Patrology (Tao Tsang2)which contains so many alchemical books,
reveals only one which contains both these characters in its title, a Tan Tao Pi Shu' (Secret Rook of the Tao of
Elixirs);hut this is not in either of the main collections,and we have not been able to see it. We suspect that it is in
Vol. h, Sects. 43 and 44.
any case a late work, and not what I,i Shih-Chen was referring to.
d A discussion of the theoretical foundations of the medirval preparations of urinaw derivatives has also been
given by Fing 1,u-Chuan ( I ) .
P See Vol. 2, pp. 232ff., 253ff. We are well aware of the unsatisfactow nature of the term 'elements', but we
continue to follow tradition in using it. Cf. Major (2); Kunst ( I ) ; Needham & Lu Gwei-Djen (g).
8

mind when we speak of stimulus and inhibition. Thus the medieval Chinese
physicians had no difficulty in conceiving of a stimulatory action of one organ on
another and also an inhibitory one.
Furthermore, there was another feature in classical Chinese physiological
thought which helped the conception of interactions within the body as a whole.
This is what one might call a circulation-mindedness. Although medieval Chinese
physiology had a less accurate estimate of the blood circulation time than that
which has been reached since the time of William Harvey,a it never conceived of air
in the arteries or tidal oscillations in the veins. Chinese thought envisaged a steady
circulation throughout the body of chhi' ('pneuma') and b1ood.b The distinction
between arterial and venous blood had even been appreciated to some extent as
, ~earliest
early as the Former Han period, when the Huang Ti Nei C h i ~the
medical classic, was compi1ed.c Consequently it was not only sensible on general
element-theory to imagine the action of one organ upon another, but it was also
easy to see how it could come about because of the perpetual circulation going on
within the body.
In 1849 A. A. Bertholdhade his classical experiment of transplanting the testis
in the cock to the abdominal cavity; he found that it was vascularised but not innervated in its new position, and he was thus able to prove that the caponised cock
would remain a cock, a fully male animal, when the testis was able only to contribute something to the blood-stream. The thought behind Berthold's experimentthe foundation of modem endocrinology, though not followed up for sixty years
afterward@-has been investigated by Forbes (I), but it still remains somewhat
obscure. It probably originated from the old Greek theory of pangenesis, according
to which particles from all the organs of the body went to form the corresponding
18th-century by men such as
organs in the embry0.f As interpreted in the
Maupertuis, Buffon and de Bordeu,g this theory supposed that every organ (even if
it had an obviously external secretion also) contributed specifically and characteristically to the blood-stream, not only for the purpose of forming the sexual products but also for all kinds of purposes. This then was probably the mainspring of
Berthold's experiment. Knowing the relation of the testes to the secondary sexual
characteristics, he thought it might be possible to demonstrate that their action was
mediated by the blood-stream alone. And it was. From what has been said above it
will be clear that the implicit content of the medieval Chinese medical conceptions

It was actually assessed as only sixty times slower. See on the whole subject Lu Gwei-Djen & Needham ( 5 ) .
As yet there is no adequate treatment of this subject in a Western language, but we intend to give one in Vol. 6;
meanwhile the reader may he referred to the papers of Liang PO-Chhiang ( I ) ;Kapferer ( I ) ;and Huard & Huang
Kuang-&ling( I ) .
l' The l m classicus is L
iw Shu,' ch. 39; cf. also Su W&: chs. 27.39.
* Biography hy Rush ( I ) .
'Ihe converse demonstration with the ovary was due to Knauer ( I )and Halban (])---but not till ~ g o o .
Cf. Needham (2).pp. 39ff.; A. W. Meyer ( I ) ,pp. 86ff.; E. S. Russell (2). The theory, characteristic of the
Hippocratic and Democritean schools, was combated by Aristotle.
a See Neuhurger ( I ) ;Rolleston ( I ) .
h

3 0 ~

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

was rather similar, in that the Five Viscera were in constant communication with
each other through the circulatory systems of the body.8
What was particularly remarkable about the Chinese practices from the 10thcentury onwards was the fact that they based themselves on the belief that these
contributed 'virtues' of the blood were in part transmitted to the urine. The urine
could therefore be regarded as a valuable source of some of these precious qualities.
T h e traditional doctrine of Chinese medicine is summed up by Li Shih-Chen in his
P& Tshao Kang Mu ( I 596) where he says that the nutrient essentials of the vital
forces (jen chih ching chhil)h circulating in the body divide into two fractions, the
lighter fraction (chhing chP) forms the blood, and the grosser fraction (cho chP3)
forms the chhi; then the grosser part of the lighter fraction forms the urine, while
the lighter part of the grosser fraction forms the secretions. For this reason the
urine must be considered as 'of the same category as' (thung lei4) the b1ood.c This
was a fundamental doctrine, for the conception of categories was of wide-ranging
implication in Chinese medieval natural philosophy. Something has already been
said about it in connection with the older wai tan alchemy, where it was also highly
imp0rtant.d Essentially it provided a further cross-classification other than the
basic division of all things and events in the world into Yin and Yang. A multitude
of texts bear witness that particular processes will only occur if the reacting substances are either of the same or of a different category, but knowledge of the categories one must have.
The use of the urine as a starting-point for medicinal preparations can therefore
in no way be dismissed as merely superstitious 'Dreck-apotheke'.e On the contrary
there was good theoretical ground for it in medieval Chinese eyes, and it is remarkable to reflect how far this intuition has been justified by the assured findings
of modem biochemical science. Moreover, it is clear that what the Chinese were
looking for in urine was a substance or substances which would give the kind of
results that the androgens and oestrogens give when administered today. The former are used in the male for hypogonadism (whether systemic or local), pituitary
dwarfism, prostatic hypertrophy, impotence, gynaecomastia and the sexual neuroses or psychoses of ageing; in the female for dysmenorrhoea, uterine bleeding,
frigidity, menopause neuroses or psychoses, and certain neoplasms such as mammary carcinoma. The latter are given for amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, uterine
hypertrophy, kraurosis vulvae, etc. Though the Chinese books mention the use of
urinary preparations for quite other affections, one can often recognise such conditions as these under the veil of the traditional terminology.

a For the wider a s p m nf medieval Chinese proto-endocrinology, see Vol. 6, Sect.45; meanwhile Needham &
Lu Gwei-Djen (3).
Cf. pp. 46ff. above. It will be noted that c h i q chhi does not always mean the rhhi of the semen.
PTK.M. ch. 52, p. 16 a, (p. 91).
* Cf. Vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 307ff., based on Ho Ping-Yii & Needham (2); also pp. 92,298-9 ahove.
C The classical term for the pharmaceutical use of excrements and ordure, a practice encountered in many
ancient cultures,and among contemporary primitive peoples. On human urine as materia medica there is a special
monograph by Krehs ( I ) .

"

33.

PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

3O7

T h e use of urine as a medicament, especially for sexual debility and related disorders, goes back a very long way in Chinese history. T h e Hou Han Shu (History of
the Later H a n Dynasty) has a short biography of three Taoist adepts who lived
towards t h e end of the and-century. I t must again b e remembered that t h e attitude of ancient Taoism t o sex was philosophical and medico-scientific rather than
ascetic in the ordinary sense. Among the paths t o the attainment of material immortality, sexual techniques took their place, as we have seen, beside diet, gymnastic exercises, control of the breathing, heliotherapy, and ascesis as understood in
the West. T h e passage is as fo1lows:a
Kan ShihJand Tungkuo Yen-Nien2
[Cmnm. The Hun W u ,V& Chum3 (Secret History of (Emperor) Wu of the Han) says
that his (Tungkuo's) style was Kung-Yu4.1
and Fing Chiin-Ta;' these three were all adepts (or magicians, f m g shihh).They were all
expert at following the techniques of Jung ChhCng7 in commerce with women.b They could
also drink urine, and sometimes used to hang upside down. They were careful and sparing
of their seminal essence and (inherited) chhi, and they did not boast with great words of
their powers. What Kan Shih, (Tso) Yuan-FangXcand (Tungkuo) Yen-Nien could do was
recorded by (Tshao) Tshaogwho asked them about their art and tried to practise it."
[Comm.Tshao Chih'sJoePien Tao Lunl' (On Taoism, True and Fa1se)fsays:'Although
Kan Shih was old, yet he looked young. All magicians and adepts flocked to him, but
he talked much and showed them little. His words were unorthodox and strange.
.. I
myself once dismissed my retainers and talked alone with him, asking him with kindness and courtesy what exactly it was that he practised. He said "My teacher's name
was Han Ya." With this master I once made gold in the southern regions; on four
occasions we threw away into the sea several tens of thousands of catties of gold." He
also said "In the time of (Shen) Chu-LiangJ"i.e. - 5oo)K barbarians came from the
western regions bringing tribute of incense, Kashmir cloth belts and jade-cutting
knives; I often regretted that I did not get some of them." He also said: "In the countries
west of the Chhi-Shih14kingdom, people cut open the backs of new-born children and
take out their spleens in the hope that they will eat less and be more aggressive."h He

Ch. I 12R, p. 180,tr. auct. Written bv Fan Yeh about +4so.

A semi-legendary fiwre associated both with sexual phvsiolop and calendrical science. Cf. van Gulik (8) and
Fig. 1631.
Alchemist and thaumaturgist, I 55 to 220 or a little later. Like the other three, a fmquenter of the court of
the founder of the (San Kuo) \Vei Kingdom.
The founder, and posthumouslv the first emperor, of the (San Kuo) Wei Kingdom; celebrated a s a military
leader, and interested in many aspects of technolop-?..
'' Third son of Tshao 'l'shao, famous writer and poet, much inclined to Taoism and interested in natural
history. Cf. Vol. 4. p. 3. p. 649.
'Ihis passage is also quoted at the end of the hiogmphv of Hua Tho in San Kuo Chih (Wei Shu), ch. 29, p.
7a.h.
R A sympathetic feudal lord with whom Confucius once conversed when on his travels, builder of one of the
most ancient of Chinese reservoir dams for irrigation water. Cf. Vol. 4, pt. 3, p. 271.
h The Han histories describe two ChhP-Shih kingdoms, one anterior and one ulterior (from the Chinese point
of view), the former centered on Turfan, the latter on Guchen, but both in modem Sinkiang. See Teggart ( I ) , p.
212; XIcGovem ( I ) , (under Giishi].
h

('

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. r 631. Drawing of Jung Chhing, from Lieh Hsien Chhiim Chum, ch. I , p. 9a; l e g e n d a ~Chou sane famed
for his understanding of sexual techniques.

33.

309

PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

also said: "If you take a pair of carp (fishes) five inches long, put certain drugs into one
of them and throw it into boiling fat, the drug will make it violently move its tail and
gills and leap about wildly up and down as if it were sporting in the abyss. But by this
time the other one will be cooked and can be eaten." I often asked him whether (these
things) could be tested. He said that this drug was found ten thousand miles away and
one must go beyond the frontiers to obtain it. "If you don't go yourself ', said he, "you
won't get it."&(Kan Shih) said many other things but I cannot recall them all; I mention only the strangest. If he had lived in the time of Chhin Shih Huang' or Han Wu
Ti2he would have been counted among (the great adepts such as) Hsu
and Luan
Tas.']"
F i n g (Chun-Ta) was called the Blue Ox Master (Chhing Niu Shihy.
[Comm. T h e Hm Wu Riei Chum says that he was a Kansu man. He began by eating
huang-1im7c and after more than fifty years he entered the Niao-Chu MountainsXand
consumed metallic mercury. After more than a hundred years he returned to his native
village looking like a young man of twenty. He always rode on a blue ox, which was
why he was called the Blue Ox Taoist. If he heard of anyone who was ill or dying,
whether he knew him or not, he quickly gave him drugs, which he kept in a tube of
bamboo tied to his waist. Sometimes he practised acupuncture on the patients, who
incontinently recovered, but he never revealed his names. He heard that Lu NuShingg had got hold of the Five-Mountains Map, and year after year he asked for it but
~
only counsel moderation. When he was over
he could never obtain it.d ( L u ) would
zoo years old, he (Feng) went away into the Yuan-Chhiu Mountains.]

The association of urine with sexual activity therefore goes back to a very early time
in Chinese history, and if here we find it towards the end of the 2nd-century it is
highly probable that it was a Taoist art which could be found in the - 2nd also.
Jung ChhGng, the semi-legendary master of the arts of sex and hygiene applied to
longevity, was considered a man of this time if not of the Warring States period
( - 5th to - 3rd-centuries). The connection with aurifactive alchemy is here of
course evident and impressive. The curious legendary adumbration of endocrinological operations is entertaining in the context of Berthold's discovery, but hardly
relevant, except in so far as it may indicate physiological experimentation on the
part of the Han Taoists. The case of FGng Chiin-Ta also illuminates again the
intimate relations between Taoism and medicine.
A thousand years later one comes across the same belief and practice. Chu ChenHGng'O says in his P& Tshao Yen I Pu I" (Revision and Amplification of the General
Ideas of the Pharmacopoeia) written about I 350:f

Might this not have been camphor fmm the South Seas?
Chhin Shih Huang Ti was the first emperor of China unified under the first dynasty, the Chhin (r. - 221 to
- 210); he sent Hsii Fu to find the isles of the immortals in the Eastern Ocean (cf. Vol. 4, pt. 3, pp. 55 I ff.). Han Wu
Ti was the greatest of the Han emperors (r. - 141 to - 87); he was served by many Taoist adepts, among whom
Luan Ta is remembered for his connection with the history of magnetical science. Cf. Vol. 4, pt. I , pp. 3 15ff.
Coptis teeta, a very bitter herb. R534; C C I ~ IRurkill
~ ; ( I ) ,vol. I , p. 654.
* On this religious cosmography and cartography see Vol. 3, pp. 546,566.
Another of Tshao Tshao's thaumaturgical experts.
Chu Chen-HPng ( + I 281 to + 1358) was one of the 'four famous physicians of Chin and Yuan'.
b

3 I0
33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
I once attended an old woman over 80 years of age who gave an appearance of being about
half that seniority. In reply to my questioning she explained why she thought that she had
had such good health. She had once suffered from a severe illness and had been instructed to
take human urine, and this she had done for more than forty years. Who could maintain
therefore the old belief that the property of urine is algorific, and that it could not be taken
for a long time? All such cases of yin hsii' (impotence, sexual debility, erernosis, excess Yang
of burning feverish type, etc.) which no medicine can benefit will take a turn for the better if
urine is administered.a

An intermediate date is represented by Chhu ChhGng,za physician who died in

+ 5 0 1 . In his remaining writingsb we read that the urine is valuable because it has

styptic properties.
When the throat has lesions, the patient coughs up blood and this may lead to death. The
throat will not tolerate anything on its walls, so that an object as tiny as a hair will cause a
severe cough. T h e more the coughing continues the worse the breathing will be, so that it is
essential to stop it. If urine is taken the condition is nearly always cured, but if algorific
drugs are given none of the patients get better.?

We do not know what property of urine such anti-tussive effects could be due to,*
but there can be no doubt that throughout the centuries between Kan Shih and
Chu Chen-HGng urine was used medicinally. Li Shih-Chen says that it has the
property of leading forth from the body pathological influences.
Human urine is moderately calorigenic and not algorific. Urine entering the stomach is
absorbed, carried upwards to the lungs along with the pneuma of the spleen (phi chih chhi"),
and downwards to the 'water-passage' (shuitao4) to enter the urinary b1adder.e This is the
same route through which it passed once before. For this reason it can lead the (undue) heat
Cvin huos), the cause of the illness, downwards to be e x ~ r e t e d . ~

In the light of all this it was perfectly natural that the sediments and natural
precipitates of the urine should arouse great interest among the Chinese medical
naturalists at an early time. While it seems that the appearance of the urine was
never rated so highly for the purposes of diagnosis as it was in the West,g nevertheQuoted in PTKM, ch. 52, p. I g a. Some of the technical terms in this passage (and in those which follow) have
been developed by us to aid in the translation of medieval Chinese medical texts, and will be full!: explained in
Vol. 6.
h It is now considered that these were greatly modelled, if not entirely re-written, hy one or more physicians
of the Sung period (cf. Chang Hsin-ChhPng(r), vol. 2, p. 997; Hsieh Sung-.Mu (I), p. $5).
Chhu Chh* I S h ~ , ~ c Pi tT. K M , ch. 52, p. [ha.
Rut see p. 324 below. on the prostaglandins.
On p. Iga the 'water passage' is identified with the [an&.7
a structure which we recognise as the colic valve
at the junction of the ileum with the caecum and colon. Here the intestinal contents were thought to separate into
two portions, the aqueous part passing to the kidneys and the bladder, while the solid midues continued towards
theanus. The work of concentration of the contents was thus s~mbolicall!:lncated at a particular place. Loc. cit.
K For a brief account of ancient and medieval urinoscopy see Xlettler ( I),pp. 293ff. The earliest extant Westem
treatises on it were written by the Salemitan physicians Maurus and Urso, c.
I 160; whme work has been
discussed by Meyer-Steineg & Sudhoff (I), pp. 103, I 29, 138 and f i ~ s72,79.
.
It should not be thought, however,
that Chinese medieval physicians paid no attention to the urine. As I.ai Tou-Yen ( I ) has pointed out, the Wai Thai
Pi Yao of 752 quotes an important statement from an earlier Ku Chin Lu Yen F& on the urine of diabetics. It
says: 'All those who pass a urine that tastes sweet hut has no fatty flakes (floating on it) are suffering from diabetes
(h&okhoq)';ch. I I, (p. 310.1).

"

'

33. PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

311

less it was thought that the sediments might contain very important substances.
T h e naturally occuring sediment was called niao pai yinl or jen chung paiZ and the
first evidence of it in the medical literature occurs in the Thang period. Li ShihChen says that it was first mentioned in the Thang P& Tshao,3 and though this is
not fully extant today, we can confirm what he says by the manuscript of the Hsin
Hsiu P& Tshao4 (Newly Reorganised Pharrnacopoeia)a of 659, which was conserved in Japan. The reference to niao pai yin is there very clear. Possibly the earliest account of its use, in this case for curing severe diarrhoea in infants, occurs in
the Chhien Chin Y a o Fan@ (Thousand Golden Remedies) by the great Sui and
14th-century Chu ChenThang physician Sun Ssu-MO about 650. In the
HGng said that the

urinary precipitate has the property of leading out the (undue) heat affecting the liver, the
three coctive regions (sun chiaoh),and the bladder, by way of the urine. This is because it was
itself originally excreted through the bladder and urino-genital tract.b

Li Shih-Chen in the

+ 16th-century repeats the statement." He says that

jen chung pai makes the hsiang huo7 (primary heat)Wescend, and disperses static blood.
This is because of its saline property, which enables it to benefit the hsia (chiao" (lower
coctive region) and to travel along with the blood.

Thus we have another principle, that o f y i n t a ~leading

, ~ something out by the same
way that it previously came itself. This brings us to the purification of the urinary
precipitates. Who would guess that one would have to look for them in the Chinese
pharmaceutical natural histories under the names of chhiu shih'" (autumn mineral)
and chhiuping" (autumn ice, i.e. crystals)?e
Before going into this however we must pause a moment to recognise that as
Krebs showed in 1942 the use of urine as a medicament goes back continuously a
long way in the cultures of the Western world. What has not so far been done is to
trace it systematically in Asia. But one comes across examples of it from time to
time. For instance, a 13th-century Japanese scroll-painting' entitled Mahutsu
Ichinyo E k o t ~ h ashows
'~
the urine of the famous Buddhist priest Ippenl"
1239 to
1289), founder of the Jishii14sect, being distributed by nuns from a bamboo tube

Ch. 15,p. 189.

Cit. PTKM, ch. 52,p. 19a.
c h.
cit.
This term usually refen to the heat of the cardiac region, hut it is also applied to that of the urino-genital
system (cf. Vol. 4, pt. I , p. 65). In Chinese medical literature, heat, fire and Yang are interchanmhle.
C There can be little doubt that the name derives from the fact that a long process gave rise to a white product,
for autumn is the climax of the yearly cycle of life and white was the colour of autumn in the system of symbolic
correlations (cf.Vol. 2,pp. 262,263,and Vol. 4,pt. I,p. I I).We shall have more to say later on (p. 328)about the
origin of this strange name.
We cannot refrain from recalling here, in a kind of amirc-pensPe, the fact mentioned in Vol. 5 , pt. 2,p. I 16,
that certain psychotropic substances pass out in the urine unchanged. Rut probahly in this case the intent was
purely medicinal.
h

33.

312

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Fig. 1632. Urine as a medicament; part of a + 13th-century Japanese scroll-painting showing the urine of the
Buddhist priest Ippen being distributed by nuns to kneeling believers, in the belief that it would cure blindness
and illnesses of the wtro-intestinal tract. A kneeling nun is receiving a fresh supply in a bamboo tube. From the
Mabutsu Ichinyo Ekotoba reproduced by U m a u JirG(r).

to kneeling believers with the assurance that it would cure gastro-intestinal ailments and blindness,a (Fig. 1632). And the drinking of urine as medicine or prophylactic continues in India to this day.b In the West it lives on as one of the more
eccentric cults of fringe medicine. It was still recommended in 1949by Armstrong
( I ) , and he was only continuing a tradition stemming from medieval times and
studded with milestones like the 'English Physician' ( + 1695)of William salmon,^
and the anonymous 'Thousand Notable Things'" published in many editions between 1579 and 1815.

Writing about 1586, Li Shih-Chen tells use that urinary precipitate can keep the blood in
motion, greatly help sexual debility, bring down heat, kill parasites, and disperse poisons;
but the princes and wealthy patricians disliked using it because they considered it
The scroll-painting, discoved in Igqr, has been published by Umezu JirG (I). We owe our knowledge of it
to the kindness of D r Rarbara Ruch and Dr John M. Potter.
b As by the prime minister Mr Moraj i Desai, according to a recent interview (New Statesman, 27 Oct 1978, p.
C See Ferguson (I), vol. 2, pp. 318ff. Salmon's dates were
1644to 1713.
546).
* The original compiler was the Elizabethan writer Thomas Lupton.
F PTKM, ch. 52, p. 206 (p. 94).

33.

3I3

PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

unhygienic. So the iatro-chemists (fag shih') began to purify the sediment, making first
chhiu shih (and later on chhiuping). . . For this they used two methods, the Yang lien2and the
Yin lien3.a

According to Li Shih-Chen the term chhiu shih was first mentioned in the P&
Tshao M&g Chhuan4 (Ignorance about the Pharmacopoeia Dissipated) produced
I ~ 6 5 Chhen
. ~
Chia-MO emphasised the value of the
by Chhen Chia-MoS in
product in many sexual and systemic disorders. However, Li goes on to say:

T h e term was really first used by the Prince of Huai-Nan.c (Liu Anb)named one of his
tan (elixirs) chhiu shih, to express its white colour and its solidity. Recently people have
purified the urinary precipitates (jen chung pal> to a white substance which is also called
chhiu shih, to indicate that like the urine itself it is derived from the excess of the nutrient
essentials of the vital forces (ching chhtZ).d T h e iatro-chemists repeat the process of sublimation (shhg td),and the best product is called chhiu ping. The idea (of the initial concentration) was derived from the evaporation of sea-water in the production of salt. Indeed
there are adepts who place (certain) salts in a reaction-vessel and apply heat to obtain a
substitute or imitation product. It is important to know the difference between the real
product and the false one.e

One of our most notable sources for the preparation of the hormones in relatively
purified form is a book called the Shui Yun Lu9 (Water and Clouds Record) by a
famous scholar, Yeh Meng-Te'O ( + 1077to I 148). Another work of about the
same time refers to the preparations, namely the So Sui Lu" (Sherds, Orts and
Unconsider'd Fragments) by an unknown author, probably of the late I ~ t h century. This text says:

T h e property of chhiu shih is saline; it travels (in the body) along with the blood. When
taken it has the effect of reducing the (normal) equilibrium of Water over Fire (i.e. it
weakens the renal-urinogenital system so that it cannot balance the cardiac-respiratory system). So continual use of the substance gives rise to pathological thirst.

After quoting this,' Li Shih-Chen goes on to say:

This is because it is a processed product with properties verging on the calorific. It is
often taken by lascivious people, who use it to further their unrestrained desires; the result is
that eremotic heat (hsli' Yanp) is set at large, and the renal-urinogenital system and the
As we shall shortly see, the former involved sublimation or at least evaporation by heating, the latter only
precipitations in the cold.
'This seems to have been strictly true for the P& Tshao literature, but descriptions in medical and other works
go back much earlier.
C The work that goes under his name, Hum Nun Tzu,"is one of the great classics in the history of Chinese
science; it was compiled about - 125 by a group of naturalists gathered by Liu An," the Prince of Huai-Nan.
There is no mention of chhiu shih in the text as we have it today; a solitary reference to 'autumn drum' occurs in ch.
19,p. lqh,but it has to do with something else. See further p. 333 below.
Cf. pp. 248.281 above.
We shall see the full force of this remark on p. 33 I below, when considering the unashamed faking that went
on in the Chhing period.
Cit. PTK.W, ch. 52, p. zoh, ZIU;cf. p. 314.

3I4

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

seminal secretion (then shui') quite exhausted.8 How could there not be thirst in such conditions? Resides, people sometimes add Yang (calorific) drugs to intensify the aphrodisiac
effect (hsieh huoL).Therefore only those who suffer from internal eremotic algor in the lower
region of vital heat,h and impotence (tan thien hsii IhgZ) should take it. Look at those suffering from urinary gravel and stone; in such patients the element of Water is weak and Fire is
very strong, so naturally there is evaporation and precipitation with the formation of calculi.
This occurs by exactly the same principle as is used in making chhiu shih from urine.

Here we have a strong indication that the products which were available in Li ShihChen's time, as also apparently in the Sung, were of considerable hormonal activity, even though perhaps this was difficult to control. His acute account of the
formation of urinary calculi is worth notice in passing.c The Shui Yun Lu says that
the best preparations are the products of two different processes of purification, one Yin and
one Yang. The Yang l i e n d process is designed to obtain the Yin concealed in the Yang, for it
condenses as heat is applied (in evaporation). It dissolves in water (a Yin entity) and returns
to formlessness ( mthi4),yet it retains its special properties (weii).e It is like the broken line
in the kua Li."f

T h e Yin lieng process is designed to obtain the Yang concealed in the Yin, for
it precipitates when water is added to it. When dried in the sun it becomes glossy and
changes no more. In this case the (original) special properties (wa) are lost and the substance (rhih7) remains. It is like the solid line in the kua Khan.xh
Both substances came originally from the heart and the renal-urinogenital system (including the sex organs) yet had once been flowing in the small intestine.. . T o take these
substances can be beneficial for those two systems (or organs); indeed they are the essentials
for the maintenance of a healthy life. . . i

We come now to a description of the six main preparation methods given in the

P& Tshao Kang Mu. j

Method I
This method is the simplest as it is the oldest. It is quoted by Li Shih-Chen from a
Ching Yen Limg F(Valuable Tried and Tested Prescriptions). There were
several books of this name in the Yuan and early Ming periods ( + 14th and I 5th-

Cf. Fig. 1558 and p. 73 above.

Cf. pp. 38ff.
Gall-stones and hezoars had been instanced as examples of the concretive or amregative forces in Nature by
the Neo-Confucian philosophers in Sung times, when discussing the formation and dissipation of 'souls'; cf.
\Vieger, (2) p. 21 S . Li Shih-Cher's words show that he was very conscious of the dissolved substances in urine.
\light he not thus count as a worthy forerunner of those urinary analysis methods, codified by Seubauer & Vogel
( I ) in 1860, which pldyed so fundamental a part in the development of modem diagnostic medicine?
* The text soys huo lien,'ohut the meaning is the same.
Lit. sapldities.
Seepp. 61 ff. and Vol. 2, p. 313.
The text says shui lim,ll hut the meaning is the same.
h Seepp.63ff.andVol.2.p.313.
l Cit.PTKM,ch.52,p.z1a,h.
J It mav be wwth noting that this material was reproduced in TSCC,Jen shih tim, ch. 22, pp. 3bff.. gaff.
h

33. PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

3I5

centuries), one by Lii Shang-Chhing,' and we do not know from which of them Li
Shih-Chen took his account. However it is possible to show that the method goes
back much earlier than this, because the Chhung Hsiu Ch&g-Ho Ching-Shih Ch&g
LA PA- Yung P& TshaoZ(Reorganised Pharmacopoeia) of I 249 quotes it&from a
Ching Yen Fang3 (Tried and Tested Prescriptions) of still earlier date. Although
this book is lost, the details of its publication are kn0wn.b Its preface dates it at
i- 1025 and its author was Chang Shing-Tao.4 Other prescriptions of this physician, restorative for people on the point of death, are quoted in various editions of
the Hsi Yzcan Lu. Since Chang Shing-Tao flourished at the beginning of the
I ~th-century,it is very probable that his method for making chhizc shih was already quoted in the first edition of the C h h g Lei Ph Tshao issued by Thang ShenWeis in 1083.
T h e title of the method is Chhiu Shih Huan Yuan Tan.6 Its description is as
follows:

. . . Collect ten tan7or more (over I 50 gallons)~of male urine and set up a large evaporating pan (hoR)in an empty room. Fix on top of it a deep earthenware still (shen wa ts&@),
luting the edges together with paper-pulp and lime so that when it has dried no steam can
escape. Fill the evaporating basin 70 to 8oo0full with urine, and heat strongly from below
[setting a man to watch it].Vf it froths over, add small amounts of cold urine. [It must not be
allowed to overflow.] The dry (residue)isjen chungpai. Put some of this, [finely powdered,]
into a good earthenwarejar (ju hao kuan tzu na"iJ)and proceed according to the method of
sealing and subliming Gu fa ku chin) by placing the whole in a stove and heating with
charcoal. About two or three ounces (of sublimate) will be obtained. Grind this to a powder,
and mix with date-flesh to make pills the size of a mung bean (lu trm12).e For each dose take 5
to 7 pills with warm wine or soup before breakfast. .
.f

Here then the entire dried solids of the urine were used. Besides the obvious urates,
uric acid, phosphates, sulphates and other inorganic salts,g there would be the steroid glucuronides and sulphates. After the simple procedure of evaporation,h the
entire fatty powder is placed in the sublimatory and the active steroids carefully
sublimed. It is now a well-known fact that hormones of the steroid class sublime
unchanged below their melting-points, at temperatures varying between 130' and
Ch. 15,(p. 365.2).
See Okanishi Tameto, (2) pp. 972. I 138
c Weights and measures changed considerably through Chinese dynastic histo?, but their movements are well
enough charted. The volume measure tou, sometimes translated peck, has often been loosely rendered gallon (as in
Giles' dictionary) because it comprised ten ~h&" or 'pints', but in fact the absolute value of the 'pint' varied
greatly in different centuries (see Wu Chheng-lx, (I), table 13, p. 58). Here we are concerned with the Sung and
Ming periods; in the former the tan of ten tou was equivalent to 14.5of our gallons, in the latter to 23.6 gallons.
"quare brackets indicate words in C L P T text only.
* Phaseolus m q o , the mung bean, or p m . b o o ; CClo29.
Cit. P T K M , ch. 52, p. 2 1a (p. 95).
8 On microcosmic salt see below, p. 328.
h Done in a still, perhaps to make the vapours less offensive to the neighbourhood. There is no mention of any
use of the distilled water.

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33. A L C H E M Y A N D C H E M I S T R Y
zloC,a and there can be no doubt that this was the technique employed, because
the term ku chi is found in alchemical and technological writings with the meaning
of tight luting and sub1imation.h
Since the entire solids of the evaporated urine were taken for sublimation, the
process must have been rather a messy one, and it is not surprising that in the
following centuries various methods of preparation were worked out which got rid
of many of the urinary constituents before sublimation was attempted. This we
shall see in the following examples.
Method 2
This method, together with the following one, derives from Yeh Meng-Te's Shui
Yiin Lu.This is clearly a Sung work, for Li Shih-Chen refersc to its author both
under his ordinary name and under his'hao or courtesy name, Yeh Shih-Lin.'
Since this scholar was living towards the end of the Northern Sung and through the
years of re-establishment of the dynasty in the South after the fall of the capital,
Khaifeng, to the Chin Tartars in I 126, one might be nearer the truth in dating
his prescriptions about I I I o. He must have been one of the younger members of
the entourage of virtuosi of Hui Tsung, the last effective emperor of the Northern
Sung, in a court very similar in many ways to that of Rudolf I I at Prague later on, or
. ~ first method is
Alfonso el Sabio in Castile at the end of the following ~ e n t u r yThe
entitled Yang Lien Fa.2

Use over 10 tan of urine (more than I 50 gallons) in wooden buckets. For each tan (14.5
gallons) of urine add one bowlful of the juice of soap-beans (tsao chia chih'). Stir energetically with a bamboo stick hundreds of times. When the precipitate has settled, decant off the
clear fluid and keep the precipitate (niao pai yin). Combine all the precipitates (with some
liquid) into one bucket, stir as before and allow to settle. Take one or two tou4 of the concentrated mixture and filter. Place the precipitate in a Kuo (large evaporating basin) and
evaporate to dryness. Scrape it out, grind it fine, and take up as much as possible of it by
boiling with water. Filter through paper over a bamboo sieve. Again evaporate to dryness
and repeat these processes several times until the precipitate becomes as white as snow.
a See Kassau (I);
Breuer & Kassau (I);
Breuer & Nocke (I).Up to 260' there is no decomposition at all, and
many compounds will still sublime almost without loss up to 300.
h We have more tosay on this expression elsewhere (Vol. 5,pt. 4, pp. 54). Ku meansessentiallv 'secured', with
the sense of being made tight, luted and cemented, so that no vapour or liquid can escape; chi (related to the kua
Chi Chi, on which see pt. 4, pp. 70ff.)has the significance of upward or downward motion within a closed space,
leading to equilibrium or perfection. In the Thien Kung Khai U7u5(Exploitation of the Works of Nature) by Sung
Ying-Hsin$ ( 1637).the expression ku chi is used (ch. 16,p. zh)to describe the sublimatory used for making
vermilion, though it does not appear as a caption in the accompanying picture (p. 6a).On the other hand the
phrase is found in the illustration ofthe mercury still (ch. 16,p. g h, see Fig. 1453in pt. 4.p. 78).but it is not used in
the text describing it, which just saysym nichiw h'-'lute
it very tightly with salt mud' (i.e. the usual liu i ni.' on
which see pt. 4,pp. 79,219).Thus one may say that the term ku chi has in general the meaning of a sublimation
process carried on within a vtssel, i.e. 'sealing-and-subliming'. T o translate ku chi only as 'luting' is inadequate.
Perhaps its appearance on the mercury still is intended to refer to the stove as being one also u.& for sublimation
pots-r
sublimation and distillation may have been loosely identified.
PTK.M, ch. 52,pp. zoh,zza.Chinese literature contains one other book of the same title, by a Ming pharmacist, Yang PO,?but I,i Shih-Chen could hardly have been mistaken in a matter of this kind.
* See Vol. 4,pt. 2,pp. 501ff., or Needham, Wang & Price, (I)pp. 124ff.

33.

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3I7

Then put it into an earthenware container (sha ho'), seal tightly and sublime (hchi2),
heating until the sublimate condenses. Take the substance out (and examine it). If the
heating does not at first complete the sublimation, repeat the process once or twice more
until the colour of the product is like that of lustrous jade. Grind this to a fine powder and
place it in a similar container, seal tightly and sublime again, heating gently for seven days
and seven nights. Then take it out and spread it (on paper) laid on the ground, to get rid of
the noxious effects due to the heating. Finally mix the powder with date-flesh to make
(small) pills the size of a m(-thung3) seed.* Thirty pills should be taken daily with warm
wine before breakfast.h

Here we have an extraordinarily interesting procedure. A saponin-containing plant

extract, the 'juice of soap-beans' (tsao chia chih), is used as a precipitant. It is hard to
believe that the use of saponins for preparing steroids could anticipate by so many
centuries, not merely decades, the classical discovery of Windaus in 1909that digitonin precipitates many sterols quantitative1y.c One of those so precipitated, indeed, is an androgen, namely dehydro-epi-androsterone, and we know today that
the saponins will precipitate all the 36-hydroxy steroids. The precise action of digitonin is well known, but one cannot be so definite about the action of the various
saponins contained in the soap-beans from Gleditschia sinensis, the characteristic
vegetable detergents used in China for hygienic purposes all through the Middle
Ages." All one can be sure of is that they would precipitate certain varieties of
steroids.
These words were those of our original publication on this subject, and we leave
them here unchanged because a good deal of laboratory research still remains to be
done. When this medieval technique was first brought to modem notice almost
nothing was known of the saponins of G1editschia.e But the work of Nguyen Dang
T l m ( I ) has demonstrated that the boketonosides, as they are now called, are indeed saponosides of classical type having triterpene genin (aglycone) components,
and carbohydrate moieties including glucose, xylose, rhamnose and arabinose.
The genin part is formed by the pentacyclic hydrocarbon echinocystic acid, or one
of its very close relations, oleanolic acid. These saponins have stemutatory properties, froth abundantly, and show high haemolytic power.' Most important for the
present theme, combination with cholesterol occurs just as in the case of the digitonosides, though not quite so readily.
Besides the addition of the saponins in this method of Yeh Meng-TG, there was
also the addition of proteins in the soap-bean juice. This is important because it is
known that all urinary steroids will go down with the protein precipitate if one is
Sternrliaplataifolia (R272; CC724). not to be confused with the thung-oil tree Aleuritesfordii.
PTKM, ch. 52, p. 21 b.
The protective action of cholesteml in saponin haemolysis was thus explained;and the digitonin precipitation
method was immediately applied (U'indaus, 2) to the assay of free and esterified cholesterol in biological entities
such as the normal or diseased kidney.
"ee Needham & Lu ( I ) , pp. 458ff.; as also Vol. 6 below.
P The species is apparently now more properly named fera ( = sine&>, = australis, = thorelit).
f
As Guichard ( I ) had already shoun.

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33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

present. This raises the question of the frequency of renal lesions in the population
of medieval China. It seems very likely that in every collection of large amounts of
urine as described in these preparations one at least of the donors in the batch
would quite probably have been excreting some protein, and a small amount would
be quite enough to produce the effects of the precipitation of steroids. We suspect
that schistosomiasis was widespread in medieval China, and that in itself would be
a possible cause of proteinuria. Then there is the extraction of the total precipitate
with boiling water. A possible explanation would be that all the conjugated steroids
were taken down in the precipitate, but when the protein present was denatured by
the boiling water, all would come out in the solution except the 38 steroids which
had been firmly combined with the saponin. We may be here in the presence of an
ancient empirical method of partial separation of androgens from oestrogens.&
Another feature of this method is of course the complete removal of soluble
solids in the urine, such as urea, by the use only of the first precipitate. A great
quantity of soluble salts will also be discarded at this stage. One notices too the
gradual elimination of the urinary pigments. Finally the reference to the sublimate
as resembling lustrous jade is, as already mentioned, a strong indication that the
glittering pearly appearance of crystalline steroids was being observed.

Method 3
This is the second method of Yeh Mtng-TE in his Shui Yun Lu, dating from about
+ I I 10. It is called Yin Lien Fa,' and like the previous method refers back to the
two types of separation, the theory of which was discussed in the same book (p. 3 14
above).
T o 4 or 5 tan of urine (58 to 72'5 gallons) in large earthenware vats add half its volume of
rain-water and stir a thousand times.h Allow to settle. Discard the clear solution and keep
the precipitate (niaopaiyin). Repeatedly wash with rain-water, stir and allow to settle until
no disagreeable odour remains and the precipitate resembles putty or face cream (nif&2).c
Let it dry in the sun, scrape it up and grind it. Then mix with milk from the mother of a
male baby into a paste or fatty ointment (kao3) and dry it in very hot sunshine. By this
procedure one obtains the life-giving essentials of the sun (thaiyang c h a chhiJ).Repeat this
nine times and then mix with date-flesh to make pills. Thirty of these should be taken at
midday with warm wine.d

This is one of the two methods which begins by diluting the urine. It might at first
sight be thought possible that this would help to precipitate lipoidal or steroidal
constituents, but since the steroids are all in the form of soluble conjugates, it seems
unlikely that this would happen. We are not clear as to the purpose of the dilution,
but at any rate it would have done no harm, since it would help to remove soluble
substances such as urea and salts. In what way the conjugates were got into the

For modem knowledge on the conjugates of stemid hormones see the book of Hadd & Rlickenstaff ( I ) .
The use of what we should think of as distilled water is noteurorthy here. Cf. p. 329.
This was one of the standard synonyms for calomel, 'glossy powder' (cf. pt. 3, p. I 2 5 ) .
Cit. PTKM, ch. 5 2 , p. z I h.

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3I9

precipitate in this method is not obvious, but perhaps the description accidentally
omits some protein precipitant.8 In any case the important thing is that here no
sublimation was involved. The fact that the precipitate was of a fatty consistency
and taken up in milk fat is also appropriate enough if free steroids were present, but
unless the urine sources had included cases of lipuria, such as may occur in diabetes, it is not easy to understand why the eventual precipitate should have been so
fatty in nature. One thing at any rate is probable, namely that these two methods of
Yeh Ming-TE would have yielded different groups of active urinary steroids,
perhaps giving another separation of androgens from oestrogens. The fact that one
of his methods was considered Yang and the other Yin gives us a rather strong hint
that differences of just this sexual nature had in fact been observed by the physicians who used these preparations. This contrast between the heating and the coldprecipitation techniques runs through all the large-scale procedures for obtaining
active principles from urine.
Method 4

The next two descriptions are taken from two books of formularies of the early
Ming period ( I 5th-century). They both stem from local surgeries or pharmacies,
exactly where in China we do not know. T h e first, entitled Chhiu Ping Ju FGn
Wan,' from a book called I Chen Thmg Ching Yen Fang2 (Tried and Tested Prescriptions of the True-Centenarian Hall) was the work of a writer known only to us
by his family name, M r (or Dr) Yang.3 The text is as follows:

One bucketful each of the collected sediment (niao pai yin) from the urine of boys and
girls (thung nan thung n F ) is used.b Heat the evaporating pan containing the sediment with
mulberry firewood and evaporate until dry. Remove the residue and place it in one bucket
of river-water. Mix well until as much as possible is dissolved. Filter and evaporate the
filtrate. Repeat the same procedure seven times. By then the residue is as white as frost.
Next it is usual to collect I catty of the frost-like residue and place it in an earthenware jar.
Cover with an iron lid the shape of an oil lamp, and apply salt-mud lute to make it tight,
then sublime Cym ni ku (his). Heat the jar during the space of the burning of three bundles of
incense-sticks to accomplish the sublimation (shhg t d ) of the substance. At this stage you
will see that the chhiu shih has become as white as jade. Grind the product and repeat the
procedure. Very gradually sponge cold water on to the cover, care being taken in the process, for with too much cooling the product will not volatilise, and with too little cooling it
will not condense.= Carry out the process from the chhen double-hour (7-9 a.m.) until the
Dr Xliyashita Sabur6 (in correspondence, Oct. 1964) agrees with us in thinking this most likely, since descriptions of the cold (Yin) methods in later centuries (pp. 325ff.helou,) so often mention such precipitants, both
inorganic and organic.
h This must mean an initial volume of at least 400 gallons. The age implied here would be, in the most natural
acceptation of the text, under about I S , for the Ilk' Chin. defines the marriageable age as 16 for boys and 14 for
girls. Rut it may mean unmarried or virgin boys and girls in the sense of the usages of the writer's own time, i.e. up
to about I 8 or so.
'' .An inversion in the text has been corrected here. Note the care taken.

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33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

wei double-hour (1-3 p.m.). Then take away the fuel and let the vessel cool. T h e substance
which has collected under the cover is chhiu ping, ice-like (glossy), tasteless and pleasantsmelling. This substance is the (best) pure essence of the chhiu shih.a When taken it is
beneficial for the Water element corresponding to the renal-urinogenital system, restoring
and also
urinary and sexual normality; it fortifies the primary Yang vitality b a n Y q 1 )
drives down the malign heat which produces phlegm (than huo2),(in the thoracic region).
The residue is ordinary chhiu shih, saline and bitter in sapidity. In this, cooked with meat,
there is some slight benefit when taken.b

Here again we see processes of purification carried out so that the very soluble
substances such as urea and some salts, together with the pigments, are first discarded; and the conjugates then progressively separated from urates, inorganic salts,
denatured proteins, etc. less soluble than themselves. The sublimation process is
more clearly described and directions are given that the sublimation should be
repeated. Apparently some active substances remained in the residue which did not
sublime. One assumes that the active steroid conjugates were carried down with
small amounts of protein at the beginning of the operation and passed thereafter
into the extracts of the successive residues until sublimation.

Method 5
This method comes from a book of about the same date as the previous formulary.
It is entitled P a o Shou Thang Ching Yen F-3 (Tried and Tested Prescriptions of
the Protection of Longevity Hall), the author of which was Liu Sung-Shih.4 The
name of the medicament prepared was Chhiu Shih Wu Ching Wan.5 The text runs
as follows:
Select boys and girlsc free from any illness (as the donors of the urine). They should be
bathed and their clothes changed. They should be provided with innocuous food and soup,
but one should avoid giving them foods with rank and pungent smells, such as leeks,
onions, garlic, ginger, etc., or other things which have an acrid property. When sufficient
urine, about I tan (23.6 gallons) has been collected from each group in separate vats (km@),
add (half its own volume of) water, stir, and collect the precipitate (jen chungpar). Place this
Make the opening airtight
in an earthenware reaction vessel (wa k u a n 7 ) from Yang-~hhcng.~
with the lute (a mixture of salt and mud) and use iron wire to bind it, then sublime. Heat
during the space of one bundle of incense-sticks, and repeat the heating seven times,
securing with fresh wire each time. Then take weighed equal portions (of the sublimate)
from the male and female urine precipitates thus treated. Mix and grind together. Dissolve
the material in river-water and filter through seven layers of paper. Evaporate to dryness
and obtain the chhiu shih, which is snow-white in colour. Add to this good sweet thick milk
and mix. Leave it in the open air to absorb the sun during the daytime and the dew at night,
It will be noticed that the term chhiu ping seems to be reserved for preparations which have been sublimed
repeatedly.
h Cit. PTKM, ch. 5 2 , p. zza. Note how the last sentence implies the value of steroid hormones adsorbed on all
kinds of precipitates from urine.
See previous note on this subject.

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PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

32I

in order to acquire the essence of the sun and the glory of the moon.8 After it has been dried
further add more milk for 49 days. Preserve it as an ingredient for prescripti0ns.b

Here the directions about the treatment of the urine donors are interesting, and the
details of the sublimation are much the same as before. At first sight it seems surprising that the text should speak of dissolving the sublimate in water, for if this was
composed of free steroids it could not go into solution. But it seems likely that while
the sulphate conjugation would be broken by the heating, the glucuronide combination would not, and the sublimate would therefore be composed of two parts,
one water-soluble and one insoluble. If specific differences existed between the
hormones conjugated in different ways, this procedure may possibly have been yet
another quasi-empirical fractionation, producing an end-product of highly specific
proper tie^.^
Method 6
T h e following description, the last which we shall quote here, comes from the P&
Tshao M&g Chhuan of Chhen Chia-MO already mentioned (p. 313) written in
I 565. His description says:

T o make chhiu shih, specimens of the urine of boysd should be collected in the autumn.
Add to each earthenware vat ( k q )0.7 oz. of powdered calcium sulphate (gypsum, shih kao
mo'). Stir well with a mulberry stick and allow the precipitate to settle. Discard the clear
supematant fluid. Stir again and allow to settle. Repeat this two or three times. Then add to
the precipitate one bucket of autumn dew water, stir and allow to settle. Repeat this again
several times until the impurities are removed and the precipitate is quite free from any
salty taste. Filter the precipitate on heavy paper placed over ashes, and allow it to dry in the
sun. T h e light clear crystals forming the upper part of the precipitate are collected, and this
is chhiu shih, while the lower, grosser layer is discarded.e

This seems to be a return to the second or cold-precipitation (Yin) method of Yeh

Ming-T6 (Method 3 above). No sublimation process is used, but it is interesting
that calcium sulphate is added to begin with, an agent which would probably assist
the precipitation of the proteins and the steroid conjugates absorbed upon them.
T h e procedure seems to end with a manual separation of the lighter from the heavier part of the final precipitate. Chhen Chia-MOhas two curious observations. He
says that for male patients specimens from female urine should be used and vice
versa. He also criticises practising physicians (shih it) of his own time (and earlier)
who collect mixtures of all kinds of urine at any time and precipitate with soap-bean
juice, then dry the product and call it chhiu shih. He regards this as a way of moneyThis recalls the very ancient sun and moon (dew) mirrors: Vol. 4, pt. I , p. 89.
Cit. PTK.M, ch. 52, p. 22b, 23a. It looks as though here also mention of some protein precipitant has
accidentally been omitted. Soluble steroid conjugates would hardly accompany relatively insoluble urates.
l' Cf. Hadd & Blickenstaff ( I ) .
d See previous note on this subject.
Cit. PTKAM,ch. 52, p. 2oa.
h

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33. ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY
making which may have dangerous consequences. For us, however, it is interesting
in that it suggests that the saponin method already introduced in the + I rth-century must have been used a great deal through the time elapsing between Yeh
Ming-Ti and Chhen Chia-MO. In fact, the use of the saponins, and the prejudice
against it too, continued at least as late as the end of the + 18th-century."
( S ) A CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESSES

From all the foregoing material it is fairly clear that from the I ~th-centuryonwards the Chinese alchemists, physicians and iatro-chemists were earnestly looking in urine for substances of androgenic and oestrogenic property. They had recognised its connection with the blood, and they felt that within it could be found
some of the virtues which the organs contributed to the blood circulation. In our
opinion they were successful in medieval times in making quasi-empirical preparations of active substances with androgenic and oestrogenic properties. And thus
the ancient enchymoma doctrine of physiological alchemy received what must
have seemed an extraordinary practical verification.
Of the six methods described so far, four involve a carefully controlled sublimation at temperatures which would very probably have varied between 120"and
3o0C., in other words, just those which would bring about a sublimation of the
steroid hormones. Of course other substances would have sublimed too; for example, cyanuric acid derived from any urea which was still present. Cyanuric acid has
no known effects in man, though it has been shown to be anti-malarial in birds.
Uric acid itself would have decomposed, giving rise to ammonia and CO,. The purification from urinary pigments preceded the sublimation, but other substances present in small quantities, such as indol, skatol, mercaptans, volatile fatty acids and
non-steroidal phenols, would either have been washed away or may have sublimed
with the steroids. Since none of them was in any way toxic that would not matter.
In two of the methods described there is a long series of precipitations and evaporations before the material is brought to the sublimatory. In two cases specific
agents, soap-bean saponin and powdered calcium sulphate, are mentioned. The
significance of these has already been pointed out, the use of saponin in particular
being an extraordinary anticipation of modem practice. Reside these, however, it is
highly probable that small amounts of protein were present in the urine, and the
precipitation of these, whether by heat or by the gypsum added, would without
doubt have carried down the conjugated steroids. The lipo-proteins of the soapbean extract would have had a similar function. What the object was of the initial
dilution recommended in some cases we do not know, but it could have done no
hann. T h e final end-product was no doubt a very mixed one, consisting of steroids
from the testis, ovary, adrenal cortex and placenta; and it must have varied a good
deal in accordance with the exact method of fractionation used.
B It should be understood that the criticism of saponin precipitation was never directed to its use in connection
with sublimation (Yang lien, methnd 2 in Table 123). but only in the Yin lien or cold-precipitation techniques.
Perhaps confusion arose because of oral transmission among the less educated.

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323

Thus we are in presence of two main types of method into which all may be
divided-Yang lien, involving evaporation by heating, and sublimation; Yin lien,
only precipitations in the cold, and sometimes gentle reduction of volume at low
temperature, often the heat of the sun being used. As we have already noted (p.
3 14),the former technique was aimed at extracting the Yin substance within the
Yang, while the latter conversely was designed to extract the Yang substance
within the Yin. It is important to realise that this was precisely the principle on
which so much of the nei tan theory was based, for it was equivalent to the extraction of the central Yin line from the kua Li, and the extraction of the central Yang
line from the h a Khan (cf. pp. 61, 63). Thus from the two types of method the
medieval iatro-chemists would have expected the yield of two quite distinct sorts of
active material. How right they were can be seen by the simple fact that the Yin lien
type involved no protein denaturation. Consequently they made two remarkable
discoveries, not one. If it was brightly intelligent to isolate mixtures of purified
androgenic and oestrogenic steroids by saponin precipitation and carefully controlled sublimation, it was surely hardly less so to concentrate the protein hormones of the anterior pituitary gland, the gonadotrophins, and to use these also in
the therapy of gonadal and glandular insufficiencies or disorders. As is well known,
these protein hormones, three in number, have very widespread and complex
stimulatory effects on many tissues in the body, including some which are themselves the producers of powerful steroid hormones.&And the gonadotrophins, like
the steroids, are indeed obtainable from urine-if you know how, and if you use
en0ugh.h Thus the entire complex of techniques gives an impressive demonstration of the way in which theories of medieval character could yet lead to
practical successes 'dead on target'. It is not the only case of the kind.c
Indeed, to set bounds to the physiological activities which the Chinese iatrochemists could have got into their urinary preparations is quite difficult. During
the past forty years knowledge has been steadily growing about a family of substances, neither steroids nor proteins, called prostaglandins," pentacyclic una The three chief gonadotrophins are (a) ICSH, the Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone = LH, the
1,uteinising Hormone (because it transforms mature ovarian follicles into corpora lutea) = chorionic
gonadotrophin = metakentrin, (h) FSH, the Follicle Stimulating Hormone, also a powerful stirnulator of
spermatogenesis = thylakentrin, (c) L T H , the 12uteotrophicor 1,actogenic Hormone = Prolactin, which initiates
lactation. See 1.i Cho-Hao & F:vans ( I ) ,p. 633; Li Cho-Hao (I); Selye ( I ) ,p. 209.
On the physiolw of the gonadotrophic hormones of the anterior pituitary see Austin & Short (I); Corner (I);
Selye ( I ) ; Cowie & Folley ( I ) ; llaudgal ( I ) ; Young (I); Rosenberg ( I ) , especially for the article by Pharriss,
\V>nqrden & Gutknecht (I).
On the chemistry of these hormones see I,i & Evans (I); I,i Cho-Hao (I); Havs & Steelman (I); Dixon (I);
McKems ( I ) .
O n the clinical applications see the symposium edited by Rettendorf& Insler (I).
h The ideas contained in this paragraph were partly derived from stimulating discussions with Pmfessor
Timothy Chard and Dr G. M. Resser, both in correspondence and at the Endocrinological Club of St
Rartholomew's Hospital Medical School in London.
'' Another example can be seen in Yol. 5 , pt. 4 on p. 156, where we conjecture that the first knowledge of strong
alcohol, obtained from the freezing-out method, stimulated the Sui and Thang alchemists to submit alcoholcontaining beverages to the opposite extreme of heat, Yang conditions replacing Yin conditions.
Named by mistake, for they have little or nothing to do with the prostate gland. In 1930 it was reported that
fresh human semen stimulated the motiliw of isolated human myometrium, and tive years later the first steps were
taken by Goldhlatt ( I ) and von F:uler ( I ) towards the purification and identification of the factor c a u s i n ~contraction of uterine smooth muscle and lowering hlood-pressure.

33.

324

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

saturated oxygenated zo-carbon fatty acids, many with powerful endocrine actions. The richest source for them is the semen and the vesiculae seminales, but
they occur, and are probably produced, in many tissues of the body.8 They are
certainly involved in numerous aspects of reproduction,b but they also affect the
circulatory systemCand other important functions.Wowever, they are rather readily
metabolised, so that the amounts normally appearing in urine are relatively small.
Yet now, as if in another kind of dknouement, we can unexpectedly perhaps see a
physiological reason for the age-old Taoist doctrine of seminal retention; it could
have been an empirical recognition of an endocrinological fact, the marked loss of
prostaglandins if this was not practised. Of course those societies which frowned on
sexual activity of any kind had another way of dealing with this without knowing
anything about it, but the Taoists, whose estimate of human psychological health
and normality was much more justifiable, needed some protection of a different
kind, and this may have been what it was.
Some interest attaches to the precise directions about the age and sex of the urine
donors. We know today that androgen excretion reaches its maximum in men
about the age of 25 and in women also, though they excrete a lesser amount. Conversely, maximum excretion of oestrogens occurs in girls before 20 and in boys
.~
about 18,the latter, however, excreting only about half as much as the f ~ r r n e rThe
word thung in the descriptions, though originally meaning quite young boys and
girls, may well mean here just unmarried youths and girls of about 18 or so. If
maximum yields of the steroid sex hormones were sought, it would have been
somewhat quixotic to insist on starting out with urine from boys and girls before
puberty.f
What is particularly striking is that in one at least of the methods the urine from
male and female sources was actually worked up separately and the products later
combined in equal proportions. From this it is reasonable to suppose that the Chinese physicians found, at least in later times, that quite different effects could be
produced by using the sublimates in varying proportions, even wholly male or
wholly female. One almost expects to find some reference to the urine of the mare,
There are general reviews by Beqptriim, Carlson & Weeks (I); Ramwell & Phaniss (I); Kottegoda (I);
Pickles ( I ) ; Kadowitz ( I ) ; Hedqvist ( I ) .
h For example, apart from the oxytocic effect already mentioned, they bring on parturition; cf. Smith & Shearman (I); Ratra & Rengtsson ( I ) . Hence the traditional use in Africa of innested semen to induce childbirth; cf.
Harley ( I ) . Rut this can be documented in China from 970 onwards, since it was recommended in theJih Hua
Chu Chia P h Tshao for expelling placenta as well as foetus; PTK.M, ch. 52, (pp. 91,93).
Prostaglandins also seem to be involved in the spontaneous contraction and occlusion of the umbilical bloodvessels at birth, and they help fertility in some way, perhaps by facilitating sperrnatozoal transport, aiding implantation, or affecting Fallopian tube motility; emanating from the uterus they also destroy corpora lutea.
Their effect is hypotensive, with coronan vaso-dilation.
* They bring about bronchial dilation, and diminish gastric secretion. For this reason m e n was used in China
as an anti-tussive, and also for controlling gastro-intestinal ailments which would have included peptic and duodenal ulcer, at least from 6thonwards, when it is mentioned in the Thang Ph Tshao; PTK.M, ch. 52, (p. 91).
Cooper & Sivin ( I ) missed both these points of 1-i Shih-Chen's, and took no account of the pmstaglandins, though
the potency of these was alreadv well known in 1973.
Dorfman & Shipley(~),
pp. 259,39hff., 4ooff.
Although the youthfulness of the donors is most often mentioned, it is possible that some operators worked
up the urine of elderly people, and one can easily imagine reasoning which could have led to this. If so, they would
have found an exceptionally rich source of ponadotrophins, post-menopausal urine being actually used for this
purpose today.

33.

PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

325

that spectacular source of sex hormones.8 And indeed it may perhaps have been
used for preparing sublimed chhiu ping, for it is in fact listed among the equine
products of pharmaceutical value, though in connection with various other
diseases.b
So far, following our first survey, we have considered six methods taken from
five books. But it is possible to find many further accounts in the pharmaceutical
and medical literature, so that we can now present in Table I 23 a set of ten methods
taken from twenty-eight books ranging in date from 1025 to 1833.C We quoted
the first five in more or less chronological order, and the other twenty-three are
placed in the table in the same way, but one can also arrange the whole series of
preparations in a more logical manner. Before thus listing them, however, a word
must be said about the four methods which were not in the main group. Method 7
prefaced the sublimation by a precipitation of proteins, conjugates and other constituents by gypsum (calcium su1phate);d while method r o worked up the male and
female donor urines separately, using various precipitations, after which the two
powders were laid in alternate layers in a lidded silver crucible and sublimed together. This would obviously give much scope for varying the end-products by
adjusting the amounts of male and female powders used. The name for this method
given in the Wu Li Hsiao Shih is Chi Chi Hsiian Shu Pi Fa,' the Mysterious Enchyrnoma Method of the Chi Chi hexagram.e These were both Yang lienZmethods, because they employed heating both for the evaporation and the sublimation,
but the other two were Yin lien3 methods, using only precipitation, filtration or
slow unheated evaporati0n.f Such general terms are found throughout the whole of
this literature to designate the two types of method, hot and cold respectively.
Method 8 used saponin precipitation, with or without another precipitation with
alum, no sublimation following; but method 9 was really very strange. Urines were
evaporated by the heat of the sun, and the concentrate absorbed in (or adsorbed
upon) new dry bricks, then these were laid on the ground in a moist atmosphere
and crops of efflorescent crystals harvested from them. The account in the Chhih
Shui Hsiian Chu is worth giving in ful1.g

Rrooks et al. ( I ) , p.

I II;

the classical paper is that of Haussler ( I ) in 1934.

" PTK.M, ch. SOB,p. 23h. Elsewhere there is mention also of the pharmacological use of the urine of the sheep

and the cow.

Eleven further books, all after + I g m, are considered in Miyashita Saburii / I ) , but they contain no significant
variation from those in Table I 23.
"%is may have been suggested by the age-old practice in the soya-bean curd (toufu4) industry; cf. Li ChhiaoPhing ( I ) , p. 180,and Sect. 40 below.
HKan Shu (standing for chu,%pearl) is one of the names for the enchynoma. On the significance of the h a
Chi Chi, both for wai tun and nk tan alchemy, cf. pp. 63,220.
Among new precipitants introduced in these later times there were not only alum but also plant extracts,
notably from the composite Atractylis mata or Atractylodes @p. (pai shd), the roots of which abound in active
chemical principles, including resinous pigments and bitter aromatic substances, perhaps also saponins. On these
plants see p. 3 2 above. Pine and cypress needles are also mentioned, presumably as aqueous extracts. All these
occur in the Yin methods of Chhih Shui Hsiian Chu.
K Ch. 1 0 ,p. 24h, tr. auct. The name of the preparation was Shui Thien Chhiu Shih.7 sun-dried sweet autumn
mineral. The importance of this book for the principles of physiological alchemy has been underlined elsewhere
(P. 46).
('

326

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

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Methods nm. I , z , 4, 5,7 and 10, which involve one or more sublimation processes, were called Yang lien (see text).
Methods nos. 3, 6.8 and g, involving only precipitation and filtration, were called Yin lien (see text).
(2) References for the first five books are given in the text, therefore here represented only by asterisks.
( 3 ) References for the other hooks are given in the table itself, as precisely as possible. Asterisks among them indicate the description of a method, but chapter and page
cannot be given as the book in question has not been available to us.
( 4 ) Brackets for dates indicate year of printing or publishing, where evidence exists that the material existed already at the earlier date given.
( 5 ) Brackets for page numbers indicate, as usual, the modem edition continuously paginated.

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3z8

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Select a secluded spot to build a platform about 3.5 ft. high with emplacements to take
, holding about 7 piculs and corresponding to
five vats or earthenware basins ( k q l ) each
one of the five elements. Urine from boys and girls is collected to fill the vats, and then
exposed to the sunshine of summer for three ten-day periods,* with provision for covering
in case of rain. Combine the contents, as it goes down, into three vats, one for each of the
three powers;h and eventually, when only a third is left, into a single vat, which reflects the
image of the Supreme Pole (Thai Chz3.C
Continue to evaporate this basin of much concentrated urine until only 2 or 3 'gallons'
(tou) remain. Then put into it 12new bricks which have not previously been exposed to
water, the number I 2 reflecting the twelve hours of soaking at night and of sunning during
the day. When no liquid is left, stop the procedure. Make ready a quiet, clean and empty
room, the floor of which has been sprinkled with water and covered with strips of bamboo.
Then take the bricks and stand them up sideways across these strips, covering them over
above with bamboo baskets. Then gradually collect the white frost-like substance which
will form on the bricks, brushing it down with a goose feather into a silver container, and
continue until no more of it is produced. This mineral product (shihz)possesses even greater
merit (than ordinary chhiu shih) since the original urine has come in contact neither with fire
nor water. Thus its original (or primary) vitality has not been lost; and furthermore it has
absorbed the essences of the sun and moon.

The analogy here, evidently, was with the collection of nitre or saltpetre from the
ground rather than with the evaporation of brine for salt. One has to restrain oneself
from speculating as to what could possibly have been produced, though the
method seems strangely to foreshadow the adsorption and elution techniques of
modem chromatography.d Perhaps the salt which crystallised on the brick surfaces
in this way was microcosmic salt, and just possibly the conjugated steroids, or more
likely the gonadotrophins, might be associated with the crystallisation process so
. ~ is another of those tantalising techthat a rather clean mixture was ~ b t a i n e dThis
niques which cry out for experimental repetition and investigation--of course the
product may have been quite inactive, valueless-but the writer, Sun I-Khuei, was
a physician of profound learning and great perspicacity. Microcosmic salt is
sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate (NaNH,HP0,.4 H,O), and it got its
name, of course, from the fact that it was first prepared from human urine.f If this
was not done by J. B. van Helmont c. + 1644,g it may have been accomplished by
L. Thumeisser by 1583,h and with Schockwitz' dissertation of 1699 the salt
became well known.' These dates are singularly close to I 596, the time of publication of Chhih Shui Hsiim Chu.

Approximatelymid-July to Mid-Aumst.
Heaven, earth and man (San Tshm).
C See Vol. 2, pp. 4 h f f .
d Consider the use of Bentonite in the separation and purification of ~onadotrophinstodav.
e Of course the more potent the hormones the less admixture with the efflorescent salt would be necessary.
See Partington (10).p. 312.
UartinRton (4). P. 53, (7). vol. 2. P. 234.
h The sal urinae of his M q n a Alchymia, ~ublished
that year (Partington (7), vol. 2, p. 155).
1 Partington (7). vol. 2, p. 698.In the
18th-centuryit was investigated and gradually identified by Marggraf
and Proust.
h

33. PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

329

It is now possible to list the various preparation methods in an approximate

order of operational complexity. As can be seen from Table I 24 one group of methods relied entirely on precipitations, filtrations and washings in the cold, evaporation taking place spontaneously at room temperature or by solar heat; while the
other began by hot evaporation to concentrate, sometimes included precipitations,
and came to a climax in sublimation, after which further fractionation of the sublimate or the unsublimed residue might be carried out. Perhaps a salient point to
remember is that our oldest records of the processes date from the first half of the
I I th-century, then already including sublimation, while the procedures carried
out in the cold, avoiding sublimation, begin to appear rather later, in the first half of
the I 2th. Presently we shall try to trace back 'autumn mineral' as far as we can in
history, but we shall not be able to pin-point the origins or inventions of these
methods. Knowing only their first recorded statements, we cannot be sure how
long they existed before 1020, but it would be hard to believe that they were
unknown to the iatro-chemists of the Wu Tai period in the previous century, and
perhaps one might be safe in referring their beginnings to the late Thang. Certainly
the physicians of the 7th-century were taking much interest in urinary sediments
and precipitates (cf. p. 3 I I above), so that although the 'cold' methods appear explicitly in the literature rather later than the 'hot' ones, this may be a paradox due to
chance preservation of texts; one would certainly suppose on general grounds that
the former preceded the latter. The really great discovery was that which was found
again only in our own time, namely that the urinary steroids are stable at sublimation temperatures (cf. p. 3 15) and can thus be separated from accompanying
inactive materials.
We may now take a last look at Table I 23 to note a few circumstances of special
1061 are very
interest regarding particular texts. Shen Kua's preparations of
noteworthy& in the light of his scientific eminence seen in so many other
connecti0ns.b But the techniques were not confined to very small circles of illuminati; many passing references indicate the existence of a literature much larger
than the books we have quoted. For instance, the Phu Chi Fung of 1418 attributes sublimation method 2 to a Mr Wei,' otherwise unknown, while the Wu Li
Hsiao Shih two centuries later attributes method I to an iatro-chemist named Fang
T ~ a nHere,
. ~ as in many other cases, there are references to the collection of the
urine in the autumn months, or to the use of autumn dew for washings or resolutions of precipitates, but these were probably late development~deriving from
a name really quite different in origin (p. 3 I I). Nevertheless 'distilled water', from
rain, dew or snow, was a good chemical practice, much emphasised in the 16thcentury, as in the Wan Ping Hui Chhun, a text which recommends many of the
precipitants already mentioned (p. 3 17) and like the others of its period pays particular attention to the age, sex and diet of the donors. At this time, e.g. in the Tsun

They were first reported by Miyashita Saburii (2).

Cf. V01.s 3 and 4, pts. I and 2,passim.

330

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

Table I 24. Analysis of urinary steroid sex-hmmonepreparation methods according to

complexity
Table 123
method

Yin techniques
concentration of entire dry solids
concentrate of entire solids adsorbed in dry bricks and resulting
efflorescent crystals collected
purification of the solids by precipitations and extractions
purification, with calcium sulphate precipitation
purification, with alum precipitation
purification, with saponin precipitation to separate types of steroids.
Yang techniques
sublimation from entire dry solids
purification by precipitations and extractions before sublimation
purification by calcium sulphate precipitation before sublimation
purification and separation of steroids by saponin precipitation, and
boiling water extraction, before sublimation
purification by precipitations of male and female donor urines
separately, followed by sublimation of the two powder preparations in alternate layers (giving opportunity of adjustment of their
respective amounts)
sublimation and subsequent fractionation of the sublimate (and/or
the unsublimed residue)

3
6
8
8

7
2

10

Sh& Pa Chien, the name lung hu shih' became more used than chhiu shih, partly
perhaps because physicians became more aware of what could be done by varying
the proportions of steroids from the male and female urines. We also find a detail
characteristic of the period, as in Chhih Shui Hsiian Chu (one of the most complete
descriptions of many different methods), the advice to leave a small hole open in the
sublimatory cover, closing it tight with lute as soon as steam ceases to come out.
Books of this period also speak of repeated sublimations, which, especially if done
at slightly different temperatures, would have given the Chinese iatro-chemists a
remarkable control over the nature of the product, active steroids being thus separable at least as much as by saponin precipitation. Sun I-Khuei also discusses~the
fractionation of the material which under his conditions did not sublime. The use
of this was already mentioned under method 4 (p. 319 above), but he extracts it
with boiling water, filters, evaporates to dryness and extracts again, doing this nine
times in all; a process which might very well purify steroid conjugates from other
material. Although he then places the product in a wax-stoppered porcelain container and sinks it in a well for three days to get rid of the 'poison due to the fire' (huo
tuZ),this meaningless step should not detract from the highly scientific character of
Chhih Shui H s i m Chu, ch. 10,p. 2qa.

33. PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

33I

the preceding one (present also in many of the other descriptions), the almost quantitative repetition of extractions and evaporations. That he ended up with an active
substance is indicated by his statement that it strengthens the semen production
and restores man's primary vitality Cyuan chhi'), or (in the case of the Yang methods) gives rise to a youthful physique (chi thi jun tst?). By the beginning of the
18th-century, the injunction against the use of Gleditschia saponin extracts in
Yin lien methods manifests itself," and the term chhiu shih%ecomes stabilised as
meaning only Yin lien products, while chhiu ping4 refers only to the sublimed
steroid mixtures.h

This survey may best be concluded by a sketch of the general history of the preparation of steroid hormones from urine-beginning with an anti-climax and ending with a wild surmise. What we have to think of particularly are the late Chhing
period, and the times before the first detailed records of the processes in the early
Sung. First, then, the Chhing was an age of scientific decline in which various
mixtures of inorganic salts (sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, potassium nitrate,
calcium sulphate and aluminium sulphate) were passed off by unscrupulous practitioners as chhiu shih.c Such 'spurious preparations' Cyen tsao phin5) were already
described by Chang Lu in his P& Ching F&g Yuan of 1695," and we ourselves
noted enpassant above (e.g. p. 3 I 3) sundry warnings against these counterfeit practices. Indeed hsien chhiu shih%nd phA chhiu shih7 became names for roasted common salt, while tan chhiu shihRcame to mean the whole urinary solids (jen chung
paio) from which the urea had been washed away.e Very probably other preparations consisted mainly of urea and urates. Modern western students of Chinese
materia medica have had a tradition of translating chhiu shih simply as 'urea',
though our deeper study shows that for many of the old methods described in the
literature this would have been quite untenable. Smith's explanation of 1871made
it clear that the product he knew was simply the total urinary solids,f but Giles in
his dictionary adopted the bald identification,g and so did Read paraphrasing the
P& Tshao Kang MU.^ Curiously, Smith added that the substance is 'often kept in
kitchens, to soften fresh meat required for immediate use', for it is indeed true that
strong urea solutions denature proteins and bring them into solution.
Secondly, it is of interest that we have one Jesuit account of chhiu shih, that by

P&%Tshao Pet' Yao and P& Tshao T s h q H&.

P& Tshao Chhiu Chen.

Analyses of such mixtures in modem times have been quoted by Miyashita Saburii ( I ) , pp. 5,42.
Cf. Xliyashita, op. cit., pp. 31.38.
Anon. (57). vol. 4, p. 261 (no. 28).
(1). p. 224.
K (2). no. 2302.
h (2). nos. 418,419. He ought to have known better, having Li Shih-Chen's very explicit text before him. But
modem Chinese authorities still support his definition, e.g. Anon. (57). loc. cit.; it must have originated in the
nineteenth century, when the precipitationsand suhlimations had been forgotten.
c

332

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

d'Entrecolles (2), written in

1736. He compared it with the 'pierre wulnhaire
simple' of Geoffroy (presumably some styptic such as alum or ferric chloride),a and
though his description of the preparation seems rather garbled, one can guess by
certain signs what his sources probably were. Evaporation of urine in large quantities from a healthy young male donor is carried out on a stove, rapeseed oil being
added as an anti-frothing agent. Sublimation is performed in a box of 'tiles', with
mention of a hole to let out steam.b Then the sublimate is fractionated by boiling
water extractions.C D'Entrecolles knew that the name came from the symbolic correlations between autumn, whiteness, Metal and the West, not because the material
was, or should be, made in the autumn, or with autumn dew; and he knew also the
symbolic correlation with the lungs, which explained for him why the physicians
gave it in phthisis, but he missed their more important use of it in gonadal
insufficiency.
Pushing further back, an appearance of chhiu shih in the dynastic histories has to
be recorded. Under the Ming emperor Shih Tsung (r. I 522 to I 566), who was
very interested in longevity techniques (cf. pt. 3, p. 212 above), Ku Kho-Hsiieh'
and Fang Ping-KuoZintroduced to the court one Yen Sung3 who knew how to use
the urine of boys and girls to make chhiu shih for the prolongation of youth and life.
Ku was an official who was long out of office because of misappropriation of public
funds by his subordinates, and this perhaps gave him time to investigate the more
esoteric pharmaceutical arts, but afterwards he got good promotion becoming Minister of Works in I 545, perhaps as a reward for the effects which he had been able
to bring about." It is interesting to have this historical confirmation of techniques
described in so many 16th-century medical treatises.
When we get back to the Sung, the picture again changes radically, for while
chhiu shih was certainly being produced from real urine as at other times, the name
also figures in the terminology of nei tan physiological alchemy. An indication of
the former fact is seen in the Chin I Huan Tan Pai W& Chueh4 (Questions and
Answers on Potable Gold (Metallous Fluid) and Cyclically-Transformed Elixirs
and Enchymomas) by Li Kuang-Hsiian,S where there is mention of the use of large
quantities of the urine of young people for preparing beneficial p0wders.e As for
the latter usage, it is clear from several texts, mostly assignable, if with some hesitations, to the 13th-century. For example, the Chhin Hsli'an Fuh (Rhapsodical
Ode on Grappling with the Mystery), by an unknown writer, has a section headed
Chhiu Shih, in which it explains that this is used as a parable name for the element
Metal, hence for the metallous fluid (cf. p. I ~ I )the
, saliva (because of its connection

Cf. Partington (7). vol. 3. pp. 49ff.

Recalling Won P i q Hui Chhun and Chhih Shui H s i i a C h .
" Recalling method 5 , from Pao Shou Thmg Ching Yen Fmg, though that uses river-waterin the cold; and even
more method 2, from Shui Yun I,u, which extracts urinary precipitates before sublimation with boiling water.
Ming Shih. ch. 307, p. 29a.
T T 263, esp., p. 2oa. Li's Taoist teacher, Hsiian-Shou,7 a very m'tan adept, was himself definitely not in
favour of the process.
b

33.

PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

333

with the lungs), one of the two components of the enchymoma itself.8 Another
example is the Ta Tan Chil (Record of the Great Enchymoma), also anonymous.b
This is set down as an oral instruction of Wei PO-Yang, but it can hardly be preSung in date. It is certainly a nei tan text, and would be worth translating in full as
one of those couched in very wai tan termino1ogy.c Although it ends by talking
about 'true mercury' and 'true lead', it opens by an antithesis between mercury and
silver. Mercury is the dragon hidden within cinnabar, silver the tiger hidden within
lead; the Yang within the Yin, and the Yin within the Yang-when they are. inspired by the chhi they issue forth. A description of making the Dragon-and-Tiger
Enchymoma (Lung Hu Tanz)dreads as follows:
What is necessary is to make cinnabar revert to mercury, and lead to si1ver.e Therefore it
is said that (our) lead is not lead, but mercury. Huang T i saw a radiant golden colour in it,
and called it 'beauteous gold radiance' (mei chin hua3). Similarly the Prince of Huai-Nan
succeeded in preparing 'autumn mineral' (chhiu shih4) in the eighth month; now that season
corresponds to Metal and the West, so seeing a white colour in it he called it autumn mineral. Seeing these yellow and white colours they thought that they looked like the sprouts of
all things-hence the name 'yellow sprout' (huangyaj) . . .
These four names, lung hu, mei chin hua, chhiu shih, huang ya, are all very different, yet
basically they are but one substance (i.e. the enchymoma, or its constituents). As the
mnemonic rhyme says: 'Preparing silver from lead is a mysterious work yet a natural one; in
the blazing molten bath of ash the lead sinks and the silver rises'.'

Here then is a nei tan analogy with cupellation, that fundamental and highly ancient
technique so important for alchemy discussed at length at an earlier stage (pt. 2, pp.
55 ff.). T h e first sentence suggests that, as in some other cultures, there were those
who believed that the silver produced was an actual transmutation from the 1ead.g
This cupellation analogy also occurs in the Thao Chen Jen Nei Tan Fuh(The Adept
Thao's Rhapsodical Ode on the Physiological Enchymoma)h attributed to Thao
Chih,' with a commentary by an unknown writer. In nei tan language, we are told,
yin8 (silver) means white metal (pai chinp), i.e. chen i,l0 the unity of the primary
vitalities (yuan chhi"), in other words, again the enchymoma. So much for chhiu
shih as a nei tan term, but we must remember yef awhile the reference to the Prince
of Huai-Nan.
TT1257, pp. 3h, ga to 6a.
TT/89z.
C This was perhaps why it was included in the Tao Tsang in one p&
with Wu Wu's Tan F q Hsii Chih (cf.
pt. 3. p. 198.pt. 4. passim),a work of + I 163.
d Note the echo of lung hu shih (p. 330 above).
The text has actually 'silver to gold', but we have amended.
Pp. I h, za, tr. auct.;cf. pp. q a f f . 6a.
, The physiological flavour of the last sentence is very obvious.
E A good instance of this can be found in Taslimi ( I ) , pp. 61,
where he translates Ibn Aidamur al-Jildaki's
NihGyat al-Talab (The End of the Search), c. + 1342,a commentary on the 'Book of Acquired Knowledge in the
Cultivation of Gold', KitZh al-'Zlm al-Muktasah. . . by Abii'l-QGim al-Simawial'Iraq, c. 1270. 'Lead may be
converted into silver', says the Sheikh, 'for if you place a pound of lead in the fire it rectifies it and matures it,
burning most of it away and leaving only a small part as silver. . .'
h TTz56, pp. zh, 3a. And in Chin Tan Chin Pi Chhien Thung Chiieh (YCCC, ch. 73, p. ~ o a , h ) .
B

334

33.

ALCHEMY A N D CHEMISTRY

We are now back in the Thang, before the appearance of any of the recipe texts,
but at the time when physicians were very curious about the urinary constituents.
In view of its later decline into common inorganic salts, one is rather startled to read
, chhiu shih was one of the
in Mei Piao's glossary, Shih Yao Erh Y a (cf. p. I ~ I )that
synonyms of arsenolite (yu shihl).aThis reference of 806 is the only connection
with arsenical oxides that we have found, and the most likely explanation is that on
account of its whiteness, chhiu shih became a cover-name for white ar5enic.b
Another text gives it as a synonym of saltpetre, explaining that the efflorescent
whiteness resembled autumn fr0st.C Meanwhile, there is evidence that chhiu shih
from urine was being prepared by some distinguished people. The great poet Pai
Chu-I ( 772 to 846) has a poem 'Thinking of Old Friendships' (Ssu Chiu
Shihz)," which includes the lines:

Thui-Chih3 took sulphur, pet once ill,

Never got well from that distemper of his;
Wei-Chih4 prepared the 'autumn mineral' drug,
Yet while still young encountered sudden death.e

Now Thui-Chih was one of the names of the great Confucian scholar Han Yus,f
while Wei-Chih was the tzu-name of another eminent poet, Yuan Chen6( 779 to
83 I). It looks therefore as if we can carry back the urinary steroid preparations to
the latter half of the 8th-century at any rate, though we have no means of telling
how sophisticated were the steps in the preparation.
This is an early date, but we have to face a stranger thing, namely that chhiu shih
is referred to in the mid 2nd-century Tshan Thung Chhi (cf. pt. 3, pp. soff.). Wei
PO-Yang makes a mere mention of it, pairing it, in the manner of the T a Tan Chi
just above, with Huang Ti's making of some yellow product (possibly artificial
gold). The line runs: 'Huang T i (admired) the beauteous golden radiance, and (the
Prince of) Huai-Nan prepared the autumn mineral'.g Many texts have, of course,
nei tan commentaries which deprecate the idea that it was something real from
urine. For example, Chhen Chih-Hsii about I 330 wrote:h

People who hear of chhiu shih always think that it is made from urine. But all he' is talking
about here is the anablastemic enchymoma, the primary chhi of the natural endowment,
and the necessity of having things of the same category (to react together). When ordinary
TTSg4,ch. 1 , p . l ~ .
Elsewhere in the same book there is a reference to a Chhiu Shih Ya Fa,' but we do not know what the
substance and method was.
P
Y i n Chen Chun Chin Shih Wu H s i a g Lei (TT899). perhaps contemporary with Iei Piao, perhaps rather
earlier. Cf. pt. 4, p. 309.
Quoted in IRi Shun, ch. 5 0 , p. 90, from Khung Phing-Chung'ss K h m g shih Tsa Shuo.0 c. + 1082.
7'r. auct.
A further reference to the sulphur and other drup taken by Han Yii occurs in ImiShun, ch. 41,p. I I a.
g Ch. 15. p. 34a.h: HWTSed., ch. 14, p. 3h; Wu & Davis ( I ) , p. 244. Their translation cannot stand: Huai Nan
Tzu assays the 'autumn stone'; naturally they had no idea of what wasbehind the phrase.
h U'u C h m Phien Snr Chu ed., p. I oa, tr. auct.
1 Chang Po-Tuan.
h

"
f

33.

PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

335

people hear about 'golden radiance' (chin hwr') they guess it must be something to do with
the five metals, and when they hear about 'yellow sprouts' ( h u q yaZ)they naturally assume some connection with the eight minerals. . .
They do not realise that the sages of old established these names only for convenience.

But this was just one late interpretation, and there is no reason for thinking that Wei
PO-Yangused the term solely in its allegorical-physiologicalsense. It is more likely
that he had in mind, at least partly, a veritable and somewhat surprising preparation from urine which the adepts carried out already in the 2nd-century.
Is it possible that some form of it had already started in the - ~ s tThe
? Chhien
Han Shu (History of the Former Han Dynasty) contains a speech made by a high
official, Ku Yung," against all magicians and alchemists, about - 25. This we have
already quoted at the beginning of the present Section, but there is a passage in it
couched in words so extraordinary that we must now look at it again under, as it
were, the fine adjustment. It runs as fol1ows:h

(They say. . .that they are masters of) the transmutation into the yellow ( h u w yeh fiien
hud)
[Comm.]Chin Shao5 says: 'Yellow here means of course the melting of yellow gold.
The Taoists say that by fusing cinnabar they can transform it and make yellow gold.'
and that from dark and muddy (i.e. concentrated) urine they can make a hard white ice-like
(i.e. crystalline) substance (chien ping nao niaoh).
[Comm.]Chin Shao says: 'The magicians (fang shih7) falsely say that they can prepare
medicinal minerals (i.e. chemicals, yao shihx)like the 'ice-liquefying pill' ( h e n ping
wanq) which when thrown on to ice dissipates it, melting it to water. And they feign
that this is brought about by the Tao of the holy immortals.'~
Others say that it is intended to make gold edible and potable. Rut (Yen) Shih-Ku says
that this last idea is nonsense.
As for nao (mud or slush) it implies 'very moist and shining'. The pronunciation is
ngao.

From this several things clearly emerge. The transformation of foetid boiled-down
urine into a salubrious powder must be referred to, and it is coupled with the transmutation of base metals into go1d.d But although something white and crystalline
was being prepared by the adepts from 'dark and muddy urine', none of the commentators, neither Chin Shao in the +4th-century nor Yen Shih-Ku in the early
7th, had any idea of what it really was. Yet if we are prepared to envisage the close
keeping of Taoist secrets down through the centuries, it is hard to believe that this

FI. - 36, d. -9. Between - 29 and - 1 2 he conducted a campaign against the proto- and pseudbscimtific
adepts.
h CHS,ch. 2513,p. 15a,h,tr. auct.
C This mum have depended on ancint observations of what we should dwribe as freezing-point depression
caused by solutes. Almost any salt would do, but there are some substances such as camphor which have very high
molecular f.p. depressions.
d As in the passages from the T s h Thmg Chhiand the Ta Tan Chi, pp. 334,333 above.

336

33.

ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

reference can have concerned anything else than chhiu shih;a and the disturbing
feature is the phraseology used, so laconic yet pointing so strangely to a sublimate
of cholesterol-like crystals rather than to an amorphous powder, even though
white, representing the total solids (or the more or less insoluble solids) of urine
concentrates. Perhaps we shall never know just what the Taoists of the Han were
up to, but the wild surmise with which we have to end is the possibility that the
basic invention, in some sort, goes back to an earlier time in the same dynasty,
about the year - I 25, when Liu An, the Prince of Huai-Nan-putative father of all
chhiu shih, whatever it was, in later centuries-was conferring and experimenting
with his Eight Venerable Adepts (Pa Kung, cf. pt. 3, p. 23, pt. 4, p. 168).b HOWfar
exactly they got is something we would very much like to know.
All in all, the experimental preparation of mixtures of steroid sex hormones
throughout the Chinese Middle Ages, and their purification by subliming from the
I ~th-centuryonwards must surely stand as an extraordinary example of quasiempirical anticipation of knowledge acquired only in very recent times. When one
considers that the iatro-chemists totally lacked the
methods of separation
available today which depend upon the use of many different organic solvents, one
feels amazed at the ingenuity with which they mastered their problem. In view of
their theoretical presuppositions one might suppose that it would have been more
logical to use blood rather than urine as the starting-point, but here the difficulty of
the presence of so much protein would have presented itself acutely, and one may
reasonably suppose that while the handling of blood was beyond the powers of the
medieval iatro-chemists, urine as a starting point was much more manageable. And
so at it they went, with their 200 or 300 gallons, almost on a pharmaceutical
manufacturing scale, their evaporating basins, and their clever sublimatories-a
brilliant and courageous anticipation of the conscious biochemistry of our own
time.
And from what had it all sprung? From one root of theory and two of practice.
Without the ancient conviction that this life, in the body (even though etherealised), could (if one only knew the secret) be indefinitely prolonged, no alchemists anywhere would ever have started out on their quest. Without the 'outer'
work of the wai tan practitioners with their metals and minerals the necessary apparatus and techniques would not have been invented. Without the 'inner' work of
the nei tan adepts, convinced that the chhi and fluids of the living body were more
important than all those inorganic substances, the idea of operating upon them
chemically would not have arisen. Chinese iatro-chemistry was the synthesis of
these two different traditions, and what it accomplished in the endocrinological
field was only an earnest of the thousands of powerful biologically active substances

It will be seen at once that this striking reference in one of the dynastic histories goes far to disprove any idea
that the ancients were only using one of the cover-names in physiological alchemy. If the sex-hormones were
already being used at that early time for hypogonadic conditions, the misuse of them as aphrodisiacs for normal
people would have lain ready to hand, and that would have been just the kind of thing that Ku Yung was inveighing against.
h In considering the possibilities of the use of sublimation processes at such an early time one may recall what
has been said on their antiquity elsewhere (pt. 4, pp. 44ff.).

33.

PROTO-ENDOCRINOLOGY

337

which modem biochemistry was destined to place at the service of mankind. So

however strange the idea of the enchymoma, and the means that were taken to
synthesise it, may seem to our eyes, looking back, today, they were eventually justified not only on hygienic, medical and psychological grounds, but even from the
most strictly chemical point of view.
We have now come far, yet still our survey of chemical discovery and invention is
not at an end. In the ceramic, mining and metallurgical arts, carried to such heights
in Chinese culture, there was great use of chemistry, and those who would like to
hear the story of them will find it in the other parts, the first and the last, of the
present volume.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

In Bibliographies A and B there are two modifications of the Roman alphabetical

sequence: transliterated Chh- comes after all other entries under Ch-, and transliterated Ifs- comes after all other entries under H-. Thus Chhen comes after Chung
and Hsi comes after Huai. This system applies only to the first words of the titles.
l\.Ioreover,where Chh- and Hs- occur in words used in Bibliography C, i.e. in a
Western language context, the normal sequence of the Roman alphabet is observed.
%'hen obsolete or unusual romanisations of Chinese words occur in entries in
Bibliography C, they are followed, wherever possible, by the romanisations adopted
as standard in the present work. If inserted in the title, these are enclosed in square
brackets; if they follow it, in round brackets. When Chinese words or phrases occur
romanised according to the Wade-Giles system or related systems, they are assimilated to the system here adopted (cf. Vol. I , p. 26) without indication of any change.
Additional notes are added in round brackets. The reference numbers do not
necessarily begin with (I), nor are they necessarily consecutive, because only those
references required for this volume of the series are given.
Korean and Vietnamese books and papers are included in Bibliographies A and B.
explained in Vol. I , pp. 21 ff., reference numbers in italics imply that the work is
in one or other of the East Asian languages.

.\S

ABBREVIATIONS
See also p. lxix

Archeion
Artibus Asiae
Archaeologia
Archaeolo~y
Archives Internatiorales $Histoire
des Sciences (continuation of
Archeion)
American Anthropologist
AAN
Archiv. f. Anat., Physiol., and
AAPWM
Wiss. Med. (Joh. hliiller's)
Abhandlunpnd. bayr. Akad. Wiss.
A B AWIPH
Miinchen (Phil.-Hist. Klasse)
Archives of the Chinese Art Soc. of
ACASA
America
Annuaire du Collt'ge & Frame
ACF
Advances i n Chnzistry
ADVC
Advancement of Science (British
A DV S
Assoc., London)
Anuario de Estudios Medievales
AEM
(Barcelona)
Anntraire de I'Ecole Pratique des
Hautes Etudes (Sect. Sci. Hist.
et Philol.)
Annuaire de 1'Ecole Pratique des
Hautes Etudes (Sect. des Sci.
Religieuses)
Aesculczpe (Paris)
AESC
Annales de I'Est (Fac. des Lettres,
AEST
Univ. Nancy)
Arztliche Forschun~
AF
Archiv. f. Gyniikoloffie
AFG
A F G R I C I N O A t t i della Fondazione Giorgio
Honchi e Contrihuti dell'Istituto
Nazionale di Otiica (Arcetri)
Archivlrm Fratrum Praedicatorum
AFP
Afrasian (student Journal of
AFRA
London Inst. Oriental & African Studies)
Archiv. f. d. Gesch. d. Medizin
AGMN
U . d. Naturwissmchaften (Sudhoff 'S)
AGMW
Abhandlunpn z . Geschichte d.
Maih. Wissenschnft
AGNT
arc hi:^. f. d. Gesch. d. Natu-ss.
U . d. Technik (cont. as
AGMNT)
Archiv. f. d. Gesch. d. Philosophie
AGP
Asalripaph
AGR
Ahhdl. d. Gesell. d. Wiss. Z .
A G WGIPH
Gattingez (Phil.-Hist. Kl.)
Annales d'llist. Sociale
AHESIAHS
AHOR
Antiquarian Horolo~y
Advances i n Enzymolo~y
A IENZ
AIP
Archives Intertuctionales de Physiol ogie
American Joum. Archaeology
AJA
Amer. Joum. Physiol.
AJOP
A
AA
AAA
AAAA
AIAIHS

AJPA

AJ S C
AM
AMA
AMH
AlW
AMY
AN
AlVATS
ANS
ANT
ANT7
AP
APH
APIHJ
A P AW/PH
APHL
APNP

AQ
All
ARB
ARLCIDO
ARMC
ARO
ARQ
ARSI

ASEA
ASNlZ
ASSF
AT
ATOM
AX
BABEL
BCGS
BCP
BCS
BDCG
BDP

Amer. Joum. Physical Anthropologv

American Journ. Science and Arts
(Silliman's)
Aria Major
American Antiquity
Annals of Medical History
American Scholar
Archaeometry (Oxford)
Anthropos
Anatolian Studies (British School
of Archaeol. Ankara)
Annals of Science
Antaios (Stuttgart)
Antiquaries Journal
Aryan Path.
Actualite's P h a n n a ~ o l ~ q u e s
Historical Journal, National Peiping Academy
Ablzandlungen d. preuss. A h d .
Wiss. Berlin (Phi1.-Hist. Klasse)
Acta Phannaceutica Helvetica
Archives de Physiol. normale et
pathologipe
Antiquity
Archiv. f. Religionnwonnwssenschaft
Annual Review of Biochemistry
Annual Reports of the Librarian of
Confless (Division of Orientalia)
Anx. Reports in Medicinal Chemistry
Archiv Orientnlm' (Prague)
Art Quarterly
Annual Reports of the Smithsonian
Institutiun (Washington, D.C.)
Bulletin of the Institute of History
and P h i l o l o , ~Academia
,
Sinica
Chinese Jotcrml of Archaeology,
Academia Sittica
Asiatische Strldien; gtudes Asiatiques
Armnles des Sciences Naturelles;
Zooloqie (Paris)
Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae (Helsingfors)
Atlantis
Atomes (Paris)
Amhix
Bahel; Revue Internationale de la
Traduction
Bull. Chinese GeoloRical Soc.
Btilletin Catholiqtie de Pikin
Bulletin of Chinese Studies
(Ch h&ngtu)
Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Gesellschaft.
Blutter f. deutschen Philosophie

ABBREVI

BEC
BEFED
BGSC
BGTI
BGTIITG
BHMZ
BIHM

BK
BLSOAS
BIM
BMFEA

BMJ
BAY
BOE
BR
BS
BSAA
BSAB
BSCF
BSGF
BSJR
BSPB
BUA

CA
CALM
CBH
CCJ
CDA
CEM
CEN
CHA
CHEMC
CH1

Bibliographic d91?tudes(Annales du C H I M
Musee Gttimet)
CHZND
Btilletin de l'l?cole des Chnrtes
(Paris)
Bulletitt de I'Ecole Francaise dc
l'Extr6te Orient (Hanoi)
Bulletin of the Chinese Geological
Survey
Beitrape z. Gesch. d. Techmk U .
Indtrstrie (continued as Technik C H W S L T
Geschichte-see B G T I / T G )
Technik Geschichte
Berg und Hiittenmanniscke Zeitung
CHY M
Bulletin of the (Johns Hopkins) C H Z
Instittite of the History of
CIBAIM
Medicine (cont. as Bulletin of
CIBAIMZ
the History of Medicine)
CIBAIS
Biochemical Journal
CIBAIT
Bull. John Rylands Library (Man- C I M C / M R
chester)
Bunka (Culture), Sendai
CIT
Bzilletin of the London School of
CY
Oriental and African Studies
CJFC
Bibliotheca Mathematica
Bulletin of the Museum of Far
CLZNR
Eastern Antiquities (Stockholm) C L R
Btrlletin de la Maison FrancoJaponaise ( T o k y o )
British Medical J o u m l
CNRS
British Kumismatic Jounl.
Boethius; Texte und AbhandCOCJ
hngen d. exakte NatumissenCOPS
schaften (Frankfurt)
CP
Biological Reviews
CQ
Behavioural Science
CR
Bull. Soc. Archiologique d'Alexandrie
CRAS
Btrll. Soc. d'Anthropo10gie de
Bruxelles
CREC
Bttll. de la S m ' i t i Chimique de C R E S C
France
CRN
Bull. de la Sociitte Giologiqrrc de C K R R
France
CS
Bzireati of Standards Jotirn. of CUATOB
Researclr
B7rN. Soc. Pltann. Bordeaux
Bulletin de 1'Universiti de l'Aurore CIJP
(Shanghai)
CUQ
Bltarati'a F'idya (Bombay)
CURRA
CVS
Chenrical Abstracts
California Medicine
Chogoku Btingakn-h6 (Journ.
Chinese Literature)
Chrmg-Chi Journal (Chhung-Chi D A Z
U n i v . Coll. Hongkong)
Clzinesisch-Dmtschen Almanach
(Frankfort a / J I )
Clzi?zese Ecoiton~icMotttldy
(Shanghai)
Centatrrtis
Chmniscize Apparatur
Clzenzistry i n C a m d n
Catnbridge History of India

Chirnica (Italy)
Chemistry and Industry (Journ.
Soc. Chem. Ind. London)
Chhing-Hua HsueA Pao (ChhingHtra (Ts'ing-Hua) University
Journal of Chinese Studies)
Chhiitg-Htra (T'sing-Hun)Journal
of Chinese Studies ( S e w Series,
publ. Thaiwan)
Chung-Hua
TV[%-Sltih Lun
Tshtrng (Collected Studies in the
History of Chinese Literature)
Ch'mia
Cltemiker Zeitung
Ciba Rm'w (Medical History)
Ciba Zn'tschrift (hTedica1 History)
Ciba Symposia
Ciba Review (Textile Technology)
Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs (Medical Report Series)
Chemie Ingntieur Techrrik
China Jotrrnal of Science and Arts
Chin Jih Fo Chiao (Buddhism
Today), Thaiwan
Clinical Radiology
Classical Rmiezu
Clzinese Medical Jortrnal
Chemical i V m s
Centre National d e Ia Recherche
Scientifique
Coin Collectors' J o N ~ ~ u ~
Confittes of Psychiatry
Classical Philology
Classicnl Qtiarterly
China Revienu (Hongkong and
Shanghai)
Comptes Rendus hebdmnndflires de
1'Acad. des Sciences (Paris)
China Reconstrzrcts
Crescent (Surat)
Cizinese Recorder
Cliinese Repository
Current Science
Ctcnobelitt; Yearbook o f the British
Association of Xun~is?t~ntic
Societies
Cambridge University Press
Columbia Unicersity Qrrartrrl?
Clrrrnlt Anthropo10,ey
Clzristiorria T'idenskabsselskabet
Shifter
Chemisclte TVeekblad
Clzirrtr ll'eekly Rmietc:
Deutscher Apotheke Zeittrng
T;ie Double Bond
Die Islam
Dakya Kedzya (Researches in the
Taoist Religion)
Abhadlungen rr. Berichte d.
Detiiscltes iMuseum (Miinchen)
Desnlimtion (z?zternatimtalJozrrn.
Water Desalting) (Xmsterdam
and Jerusalem, Israel)

ABBREVIATIONS
DV
DVN
DZZ
EARLH
EECN
EG
EHOR
EHR
EI
EM.
END
EPJ
ERE
E RJ B
ERY B
ETH
E URR
EXPED

FCON
FER
FF
F M N H P I AS

FP
FPNJ
FRS

Deutrchc L'ierteIjahrschrift
Dan Viet N u m
Deutsche Z a h n d r x t l i c h Zeit.
Earlhum RmCVIew
Electromcephalography and
Clinical Neurophysiology
Economic Geology
Eastern Horizon (Hongkong)
Economic History Review
Encyclopaedia of Islam
Eizgineering and Mining Journal
Endearour
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal
(continued as ELXTPJ)
Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Ethics
Eranos Jahrbuch
Eranos Yearbook
Ethms
Europalscke R m e (Berlin)
Expedition (Magaaine of Arcluaeology and Anthropology), Philadelphia
Fmtschritte d. chem'e d. organischen Naturstoffe
Far Eastern Review (London)
Forschungen und Fortschn'tte
Field Museum of fitural History
(Clucago) Publications; Anthropological Series
Federation Proceedings ( U S A )
Folia Psychologica et Nwologica
Japonica
Franziskamschrn Studien

HRASP
HSS
HUIBML
HUM
IA
IBK
IC
ID
IECIAE
IECII
IHQ
IJE
IJHM
IJHS
IJMR
IMIN
IMW
IANDQ
INM
IPEK
IQB
IRAQ
ISIS
ISTC
IVS

GBA
GBT
GEW
GJ
GR
GRM

HCA
HE
HEJ
HERM
HF
HHS
HHSTH

HJAS
HMSO
HOR
HOSC

Gazette des Beaux-Arts

Global Technology
Geloof en Wetemchap
Geographical Journal
Geographical RmPUIew
Germanisch-Rotanische M m t s schrift
Gutenberg Jahrbuch
Helveticn Chimica Acta
Hesperiu (Journ. Amer. Sch.
Class. Stud. Athens)
Health Education Journal
Hermes; Zeitschr. f. Klass.
Philol.
Med Hammare och Fackla (Sweden)
Hua Hsiieh (Chemistry), C h .
Chem. Soc.
Huo Hsiieh Thung Hsiin (Chemical
Correspm1ent), Chekiang Univ.
Hsiieh I Tsa Chih (Wissen und
Shanghai
Wissensch~~ft),
Hamard Journalof Asiatic Studies
Her hlajesty's Stationery Office
History of Religion (Chicago)
History o f Scietrce (annual)

J'A
JAC
JACS
JAHIST
JAIMH
JALCHS
JAN
JAOS

JA TBA
JBC
JBFIGN

Histoire de I'Acad. Roy. des

Sciences, Paris
Hsiieh Ssu (Thought and Learning). Chhengtu
Hamard University Botanical
Museum Leaflets
Humanist ( R P A , London)
Iron Age
Indogaku Bukkydgaku Kenkyn
(Indian and Buddhist Studies)
Islamic Culture (Hyderabad)
Idan(MedicalDiscussions), Japan
Industrial and Engineering Chnnistry; Analytical Edition
Indzrstrial and Engineering
istry; Industrial Edition
Indian Historical Quarterly
Indian Journ. Entomol.
Indian Jottrn. History of Medin'ne
Indian Journ. History of Science
Indian Journ. Med. Research
Industria Mineraria
India Medical World
Industria y Quimica (BuenosAirea)
Internutional Nickel Magazine
Ipek; Jahrb. f. prrihistorische U.
ethnographische Kunst (Leipzig)
Iqbal (Lahore), later Iqbal Review
(Joum. of the IqBal Academy or
Bazm-i Iqbal)
Iraq (British Sch. Archaeol. i n
Iraq)
Isis
I Shih Tsa Chih (Chinese J o u m l
of the History of ~Wedicine)
Ingem'cimidetzskabelje
Sknyter
(Copenhagen)

ch-

Journal Asiatique
Jahrb. f. Antike U . Christenturn
Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.
Journ. Asian History (International)
Pratibha; Journ. All-India Imtit.
of Mental Health
Journal of the Alchemical Society
(London)
Jmus
Journal of the American Orimtal
Society
Journ. Applied Physiol.
Journal of Asian Studies (continuation of Fur Eastern Quarterly, l+'EQ)
Joitntal d'Ajiriculture tropicale et
de Botanique applique'
Journ. Biol. Chem.
Jahresber. d. Forschungsinstitut f.
Grsch. d. Naturwiss. (Berlin)
Jimtrin Chijgoku (People's China),
Tokyo
JOU~M
of ~Chemical Education
Jahrb. f. class. Philologie

ABBREVIATIONS
JCS
J EA
JEGP
JEH
JEM
JFI
JGGBB
JGMB
JHI
JHMAS

JIMA
JKHRS
JMBA
JNMD
JMS
JNPS
JOP
JOSHK
JP
JPB
JPC
JPCH
JPH
JPHS
JPIiST
JPOS

JRIBA
JRSA
JS

JSCI
JSHS

Journal of the Chemical Society

Journal of E ~ y p t i a nArchaeology
Journal of English and Germanic
Philology
Journal of Economic History
Journ. Exper. Med.
Journ. Franklin Institute
Jahrbuch d. Gesellschaft f. d. Gesch.
U . Bibliographie des Brauwesens
Jorrrn. Gen. Microbial.
Jotrrnal of the History of Ideas
Journal of the History of Medicine
and Allied Sciences
Journal of Hellenic Studies
Jissen Igaku (Practical Medicine)
Journ. Institute of Metals ( U K )
Journ. Indian Med. Assoc.
Journ. Kalinga Historical Research Soc. (Orissa)
Journ. of the Marine Biological
Association (Plymouth)
Journ. Nervous & Mental Diseases
Journ. Mental Science
Journ. Ne~rropsychiatr.
Jorrrn. Physiol.
Journal of Oriental Studies (Hongkong Univ.)
Journal of Philolosy
Journ. Pathol. a d Bactm'ol.
Journ. f. prakt. Chem.
Journ. Physical Chem.
Journal de Physique
Journ. Pakistan Historical Society
Joltrn. Philos. Studies
Journal of the Peking On'ental
Society
Journal of the Royal Anthropolop'cal Institute
Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society
Journal of the (Royal) Asiatic
Society of Bengal
Journ. Roy. A i a t i c Soc., Bombay
Branch
Journal (or Transactions) of the
Korea Branch of the Royal
Asiatic Society
Journal of the M a l a y a Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society
Journal (or Transactions) of the
Royal Asiatic Society ( N o r t h
China Branch)
Journ. of the (Royal) Asiatic Soc.
of Pakistan
Journ. Royal Institute of British
Architects
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts
Journal des Spavans (1665-1778)
and Journal des S a v a t s ( I 816-)
Journal de la SociitC des Am&canistes
J m r n . Soc. Chem. Industry
Japanese Studies i n the History of
Science ( T o k y o )

JUB
JUS
JWCBRS
JWCI
JWH
KHS
KHSC

KHVL

KKD

KKTH
KKTS
KSVAIH
KVSUA

LA
LCHIND
LEC
LH
LIN

LSYKK
LT

LYCH
MAAA
MAIINEM

Journ. Univ. Bombay

Journ. Umfied Science (continuation o f Erkmntnis)
Journal of the West China Border
Research Son'ety
Journal of the Warburg and
Courtmld Institutes
Journal
of
World History
(UNESCO)
Kho Hsiieh (Science)
Kho-Hsiieh Shih Chi-Khan (Ch.
Journ. Iiist. of Sci.)
Kho Hsiieh Thung Pao (Science
C~rrespondent)
Kungliga H~rmanistiska Vetenskapsamfutzdet i Lumi Arskerattelse (Bull. de la Soc. Roy. de
Lettres de Lund)
Kiuki Daigaku Sekai Km.zmar
Kenkyfijo Hdkoku (Reports of
the Institute of World Economics
at Kiuki Univ.)
Khao K u Thung Hsiin (ArchaeoloRical Correspondrnt), cont. as
Khao K u
K u Kung T h u S h u Chi Khan
(Journal of the Imperial Palace
Museum and Library), Thaiwan
Kungl. Svenske Vetenskapsakad.
Handlingar
Kungl. Vetenskaps Soc. i Uppsala
Arsbok ( M m . Roy. Acad. Sci.
Uppsala)
Klinische Wochenschrif t
Annalm d. Chmtie (Liebig's)
L a Chinrita e l'lndustria (Milan)
Lcttres Edifiantes et Curieuses
dcrites des Missions l?trangkes
(Paris, I 702-1776)
I'Homme; Revue Franfaisc f i n thropologie
L'lnstitut (Journal Universe1 des
Scie~~ces
et des Socidtks Savantes
m France et d 1'8tranger)
La Nature
La Pensde
L i Shih Yen Chiu (Journal of
Historical Research), Peking
L i Shih yii Khao Ktr (History and
Archaeology; Bulletin of the
Shenyang Museum), Shenyang
Lancet
Lychnos (Annual of the Swedish
Hist. of Sci. Son'ety)
Memoirs Amer. Anthropolop'cal
Association
MPmoires de l ' d c a d h i e des Inscriptiotzs et Belles-Lettres, Paris
(hToticeset Extraits des M S S )
MCmoires de 1'Acad. ImpJriale des
Sciences, S t Pdtersbourg

ABBRE V I A T I O N S
Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal
MB
Monographiae Biologicae
MBLB
M a y and Baker Laboratory Bulletin
MBPB
M a y and Baker Phannacwtical
Bulletin
MPlanzes Chinois et Bouddhiques
MCB
Metallurgical and Chemical EngiMCE
neering
M C H S A M U C Mimoires concernant I'Histoire,
les Sciences, les Arts, Ies Mceurs
et les U s a ~ e s des
, Chinois, par
les Missionnaires de Pikin
(Paris 1 7 7 6 )
Mitteilungen d. deutsch. Gesellsch.
MDGNVO
f. Natur. U. Volkkunde Ostasiens
MPmoires de la DCIkgation en Perse
MDP
MED
Medicus (Karachi)
Medica (Paris)
MEDA
Metallen (Sweden)
M ET L
Monatsschrift f. Geburtshiye U .
MGG
Gynakologie
Mitteilunqen d. geographische GeMGGW
sellschaft Wien
Memoirs of the Chinese Geological
MGSC
Survey
Medical History
MH
MI
Metal Indrrstry
MZE
Mimoires de I'Institut d'Egypte
(Cairo)
MIFC
MPmoires de I'Institut Frangais
d'ArchPo1. Otientale (Cairo)
MIK
Mikrochemie
Mining Magam-ne
MIMG
MIT
Massachusetts Institute o f Technology
Mimng Journal, Railway and
Commercial Gawtte
Med. Journ. Australia
Mitteilungen aus Justw Perthes
Geogr. Anstalt (Petermann's)
M K D U S I H F Meddelelser d. Kgl. Danske V i d m skabernes Selskab (Hist.-Filol.)
Mini~z/:and Metallurgy ( S e w Y o r k ,
contd. as Mining Enp'neering)
MMN
Materia Medica h70rdmark
Mittklungen d. Museum f. V6lkerMMVKH
kzrnde (Hamburg)
Miinchener iMedizinische WochenMMW
schrift
Memoirs of the Osaka University
MOULA
of Liberal Arts and Education
I1 iMarco Polo
MP
Memoirs of the Penbody Museum
MPMH
of American Archaeology and
Ethnology, Harvard University
MRASP
Mimoires de 1'Acad. Royale des
Sciences (Paris)
Memoirs of the Research Dept. of
MRDTB
Tdyd Bunko ( T o k y o )
Mediaeval and Renaissance
MRS
Studies

MS
MSAF
MSGVK

MSOS
MSP
MUJ
M USEON

N
N AG E
NAR
NARSU

NCDN
NCGH
NCH
NCR
NDI

NFR
NHK

NN
NQ
NR
NRRS
NS
NSN

OAZ
O DV S
OE
OLZ
ORA
ORCH
ORD
ORG
ORR
ORS
OSIS
OUP
OUSS

ox

Monuments S m k a
Mimoires de la S0c1'Ctd (Nut.) des
Antiqum'res de France
Mitt. d. Schlesische Gesellschaft
f. Volkskunde
Memoire di Mat. e. Fis della Soc.
Ital. (Verona)
Mitteilungen d. Seminar f. orientalischen Sprachen (Berlin)
Mining and Scientific Press
Museum Journal (Philadelphia)
Le Musion (Louvain)
Nature
New Age (New Delhi)
Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews
Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis
Numismatic Chronicle (andJourn.
Rqy. Numismatic Soc.)
North China Daily News
Nihon Chagoku Gakkai-h6 (Bulletin of the Japanese Sinological Society)
North China Herald
New China Revrevreur
Niigata Daigaku Igakubu Gakushikai Kaihd (Bulletin of the
Medical Graduate Society of
Niigaia University)
Nnt. Fireworks Reetew
Nihon Heibon Keisha
(publisher)
Nihon Ishigaku Zasshi (Jup.
Jount. Hist. Med.)
Nation
Notes and Queries
Numismatic Rmewm
Notes and Records of the Royal
Society
New Scientist
New Statesman and Nation (London)
The Nucleus
Studies in the History of Religions
(Supplements t o Numen)
Natumissenschaften
Ostasiatische Zeitschrift
Oversigt over det k. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhandlinger
Oriens Extremus (Hamburg)
Orientalische Literatur-Zeiiung
Oriental Art
Orientalia Christiana
Ordnance
Organon (Warsaw)
Orientalia ( R o m e )
Orientalia Suecana
Osiris
Oxford University Press
Ochanomizu University Studies
Oxoniensia

344
PAAAS
P AA Q S
PAI
PAKJS
PAKP7
PAPSPCASC
PEW
PF
PHI
PHREV
PHY
PJ
P K AW A
PKR
PM
PMG
PMLA
PNHB
P O L YJ
PPHS
PRGS
PRIA
PRPH
PRSA
PRSB
PRSM
PSEBM
PTRS
QSGNM

QSKMR

ABBREVIATIONS
Proceeding of the British Academy
Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society
Paideuma
Pakistan Journ. Sci.
Pakistan Philos. Journ.
Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.
Proc. Cambridge Antiquarian Soc.
Philosophy East and West (Univ.
Hawaii)
Psychologische Forschung
Die Phannazeutische Indust&
Pharmacological Rewinus
Pltysis (Florence)
Pharmaceut. Journal (and Trans.
Pharmnceut. Soc.)
Proc. Kon. Akad. Wetensch.
Amsterdam
Peking Review
Presse Medicale
Philosophical Magazine
Publications of the Modem hguage Association of America
Peking Natural History Bulletin
Polytechnisches Journal (Dingler's)
Proceedings of the Prehistoric
Society
Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society
Proceedin~s of the Royal I k h
Academy
Produits Phannaceutiques
Proceedings of the Royal Society
(Series A)
Proceedings of the Royal Society
(Series B )
Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Medicine
Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol and Med.
Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society
Qucllen U . Studien z. Gesch. d.
Natunviss. U . d. Medizin (continuation o f Archiv. f. Gesch.
d. Math., d. Natumiss. U . d.
Technik, A G M N T , formerly
Archiv. f. d. Gesch. d. Naturwiss. U . d. Technik, A G N T )
Quellenschriftenf. Kunstgeschichte
und Kunsttechnik des Mittelalters U . d. Renaissance (Vienna)

RBS
RDM
RGVV
RHRIAMG
RHS
RHSID
RIN

RKW
RMY
ROC
RP
RPA
RPCHG
RPLHA

RR
RSCI
RSH
RSI
RSO
RUB
S
SA
SAEC
SAEP
SAM
SB
SBE
SBK
SBM
SC
SCI
SCIS
SCISA
SCK
SCM

RAAAS
RAAO
RALUM
RB
RBPH

Revue Arche'ologique
Revue des Arts Asiatiques ( A n nales du MusPe Guimet)
Reports, Austrnlasian Assoc. Adv.
of Sci.
Revue d'Assyriologie et d'Arche'ologie W e n t a l e
Revue de I'Aluminium
Revue Biblique
Revue Belge de Philol. et #Histoire

SCON
SET
SGZ
SHA
SHAWIPH

Revue Bibliographique de Sinologie

Revue des Mines (later Revue Urn'verselle des Mines)
Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche
und Vorarbeiten
Revue de I'Histoire des Religions
(Amtales du MusJe Guimet,
Paris)
Revue d'Histoire des Sciences
Revue #Histoire de la Side'rurgic
(Nancy)
Rivista Italiana di N m u n n m a t i c a
Repertorium f. Kunst. wissmschaft
Revue de Mycologie
Revue de I'Orient Chr6tim
Revue Philosophique
Rationalist Press Association
(London)
Revue de Pathologie comparie et
d'Hygi2ne ge'ne'rale (Paris)
Revue de Philol., Litt. et Hist.
Ancienne
R e v i m of Religion
Revue Scientifique (Paris)
Revue de SynthPse Historique
Reviews of Scientific Instruments
Rivista di Studi Orimtali
Revue de I'Univ. de Bruxelles
Sinologica (Basel)
Sim'ca (originally Chinesische
Blatter f. tVissenschaft U . Kunst)
Supplemento Annuale all'Enciclopedia di Chimica
Soc. Anonyme desgtudes et Pub.
(publisher)
Scientific American
Shizen to Bunka (Nature and
Culture)
Sacred Books of the East series
Seikatsu Bunka Kmkyii (Journ.
Econ. Cult.)
Svenska
Bryggarefdrnnnnngm
Mn'nadsblad
Science
Scientia
Sciences; Revue de la Civilisation
Scientifique (Paris)
Scientia Sinica (Peking)
Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge
Student Christian Movement
(Press)
Studies in Cmentation (Journ.
I n t e m t . Instit. for the Consemation of Mztseutn objects)
Structure et Evolution des Techniques
Shigakrc Zasshi (Historical Journ.
of Japan)
Sl~ukaizAsalri
Sitzungsber. d. Heidelberg. Akad.
d. It'issensch. (Phi1.-Hist. Kl.)

ABBREVIATIONS

SI
SIB
SILL
SK

SN
SNM
SOS
SP
S P AW I P H
SPCK
SPMSE
SPR
SSIP
STM
SWAWIPH

TAFA
TAIME
TAZMME
TAPS
TASlJ
TBKK

TCS
TCULT
TFTC
TGAS

TH
THG
TICE

Studies i n the History of Science

and Technol. ( T o k y o Univ.
Inst. Technol.)
Studia Islamica (Paris)
Sibrium (Collana di Studi e Documentazioni, Centro di Studi
Preistorici e Archeologici Vmese)
Sweden Illustrated
Seminarium
KondakovMmmc
(Recueil d'gtudes de l'lnstitut
Kondakw)
Scientific Monthly (formerlyPopuIar Science Monthly)
Shirin (Journal of History), Kyoto
Sbornik Nauknych Materialw
(Erivan, Armenia)
Semitic and Oriental Studies
(Univ. of Calif. Publ. in
Semitic Philol.)
Speculum
Sitzungsber. d. prnus. Akad. d.
~'issenschaften(Phi1.-Hist. Kl.)
Society for the Promotion o f
Christian Knowledge
Sitzungsberichte d. physik. mcd.
Soc. Erlangen
Science Propess
Shanghai Science Institute Publications
Studi Medievali
Sitzungsbcrichte d. k. Akad. d.
Wissenschaften W i m (Phi1.Hist. Klasse), Vienna
Transactions of the Americun
Foundrqmm's Association
Trans. A w . Inst. Mimng Engineers (continued as T A I M M E )
Transactions of the American
Institute of Mimng and Metallurgical Engineers
Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society (cf.
MAPS)
Transactions of the Asiatic Society
of Japan
T6hoku Bunka Kmkyrishitsu Kiy6
(Record of the North-Eastern
Research Institute of Humamstic Studies), Sendai
Trans. Ceramic Society (formerly
Trans. Engl. Cer. Soc., contd as
Trans. Brit. Cer. Soc.)
Technoloffy and Culture
Tunz Fang Tsa Chih (Eastern
Miscellany)
Transactions of the Glasgow Archaeolo~icalSociety
Taha Gakuha, T6ky6 (Tokyo
Journal of Oriental Studies)
Thien Hsia Monthly (Shanghai)
T6h6gaktc (Eastern Studies), T o k y o
Transactions of the Institute of
Chemical Engineers

TIMM
TJSL
TLTC
TMZE
TNS
TOCS
TP

TQ
TR
TRAD
TRSC
TS
TSFFA

TTT
TYG
TYGK
TYKK
UCC
UCR
UNASIA
UNESC
UNESCO
UUA
VBA
V BW
VK
V K AW A I L
V M AW A
VVBGP

Transactions of the Institution of

Mining and Metallurgy
Transactions (and Proceedings) of
the Japan Society of Londcn
T a L u Tsa Clzih (Continent
Magazine), Thaipei '
Travaux et Me'moires de rZnst.
d'Ethnologie (Paris)
Transactions of the Nmcomen
Society
Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society
T'oung Pao (Archives concmant
I'Histoire, les L a n p e s , la Gdographie, I'Ethno~raphie et les
Arts de I'Asie Orientale),
Leiden
Tel Quel (Paris)
Technology RmCVIm
Tradition (Zeitschr. f. Firmengeschichte und Untmehmerbiographic)
Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada
T6h6 Shaky6 (Journal cf East
Asian Religions)
Techn. Studies in the Field of the
Fine Arts
Theozia to Theory (Cambridge)
Tar6 Gakuh6 (Reports of the
Orimtal Society of Tokyo)
Tby6gaku (Oriental Studies),
Sendai
Thien Yeh Khao K u Pao K a o
(Archaeological Reports)
University oj Califaria Chronicle
University oj Ceylon R N i m
United Asia (India)
Unesco Courier
United Nations Educationa!,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation
Uppsala Univ. Arsskrift (Acta
Untv. Upsalienk)
Visva-Bharati Annals
VortrQe d. Bibliothek Warburg
Vtj'nan Karmee
Verhandelingen d. KoninRlijkc
Akad. v. Wetemchappen te
Amsterdam ( A f d . Letterkunde)
Verslagen en Meded. d. KomnkItj'ke Akad. v . Wetenschappen
te Amsterdam
Verhandhingen d. Verein r. Bef6rderung des Gewerbejleisses in
Preussen
Wissenschaftliche Annalm
Wiener klinische Wochenschzift
W6n Shih (History of Literature),
Peking
W t n W u (formerly W k W u
Tshan Khao T a u Liao, Refer-

ABBREVIATIONS

WZNHK
YCHP
U'BM

Uss
Z

ZGEB

Zeitschr. f. angewandte chemie

A n ~ m a n d t eChemie
Zeitschrift f. Aegyptische Sprache
U . Altertumskunde
Zeitschr. f. Assyriologi~
Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Morgenliindischen Gesellschaft
Zeitschr. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde

ZMP
ZPC
ZS
ZVSF

Zeitschrift f. Math. U. Physik

Zeitschr. f. physiologischm Chemie
Zeitschr. f. Semitistik
Zeitschr. f. vergl. Sprachfmschung

ence Materials for History and

Archaeolom)
Wietrer Zeitschr. f. Neroenheilkunde

ZAC
ZACIAC
ZAES

Yenching Hsiieh Pao (Yenching

University Journal of Chinese
Studies)
Yale Journal of Biology and
Medicine
Y m c h i n ~ J m aofl Social Studies

ZDMG

Zalmoxis; Revue des gttrdes Religieuses

ZASS

(Berlin)

ADDENDA T O ABBREVIATIONS
This list is Conflated with that on p. 271 of SCC, Vol. 5, part 3. The items which appeared
in that list are indicated here by an asterisk.
AAS
*ACTAS

AIND

Arts Asiatiques
Acta Asiatica (Bull. of Eastern
Culture, T6hd (;akkai, Tokyo)
American Dyestufl Reporter
Arclrir- ,f. d. Grschichte d. Mathematik, d. R'at~rfuiss.U . d. Technik
Ancient India (Bull. Archaeol.

AOAW/PH

An-ei~er d. Ostrrr. A k a d. d. Wiss.

BCED
*BII,(.'A

Biochemical I;ducation
Boletim do Institute Luis de
(,'amoes (Macao)
The Hiolofiist
Brit. Jorrrn. History of Science
Bull. de /a Soc. d'Anipuncture
('shiers Franco-(lhinois (I'aris)
(Ilremistry (Easton, Pa.)
Classica et ~Mediaa!alia
Comprendre (Soc. Eu. d e Culture,

ADR
AGMNT

Survev o f , l n d i ; ~ )
(Vienna, Phi1.-Hist. Klasse)

BIOI,
BJHOS
BSAC
*(..F(,*
*CNEM
CLMED
*COMP

Yenice)

*CRIMSU

Centrnnial Rmiew of Arts and

Science (Michigan State Universit?)

DZA
ER

*E(,'B
ENZ
EPI
ESSOM
GEHI
G ESAV
HAIfR
HAM

D~zttscheZeitschr. f. Akuimnktrrr
Encyclopaedia Rritannica

Economic Botany
I:'nzymologin
Episteme
Esso M a ~ a z i n e
Geriatrics
Gesnrrus
Hispanic Ancerican Historical Reriem
Hamdard Voice of Eastern Medicine (Organ of the Inst. of

Health and Tihbi Research,

Karachi)

JARCHS
flff S
JPMA
MAGW
MARCH
iMl,J
MM1,PS
NAMSL
*NGM
NT
NTS
PAKARCH
PAR
PHM
PIf Y R
PIH
*POI,REC
POPST
I'RPSG
*PV
HIAC

RTS
SCHM
SHM
SO H
T('I'P
ZGNTM

rourn. Archaeol. Science

Japanese Jorrrn. History of Science
Joiirn. Pakistan Med. Assoc.
,Mitt. d. Anthropol. Gesellschaft
in Wien
Mediaeval Archaeolo~y
Mittel-I,ateinisches Jnhrhuch
Memoirs of the manc chest er l i t e r ary and Philosophical Soc.
Nmivelles Archives des ~Zlissions
Scienti'qzies et I,ittPraires
National (;eopraphic :tIagazine
Nm*um Testament7rm
New Testament Studies
Pakistan Archaeology
Parahola
Perspectic~esin Riol. and Med.
Physical Hmiew
Pharnracy in History
Polar Record
Poptilation Studies
Proc. Hoy. I%ilos. Soc. G'laspow
Pacific Viewpoint ( N e w %e;~l;~nd)
H e w e Internationale d'Acrrpuncture
Religious Tract Society

Scriptoritim
Sttrtlies in the Ilistory of Medicine
Sohornost
Trcrnsnctions and Studies of the
('oll(jge of Plr>~siciansof l'hiladelplria
Zeitsclrr. f. Gesch. (1. Nat7irtuks.,
Teclrnik U . Med.

A.

C H I N E S E A N D JAPANESE BOOKS BEFORE +l800

Each entry gives particulars in the following order:

(a) title, alphabetically arranged, with charactem;
(b) alternative title, if any;
c translation of title;
cross-reference to closely related book, if any;
(e) dynasty;
(f) date as accurate as possible;
(c) name of author or editor, with characters;
(h) title of other book, if the text of the work now
exists only incorporated therein; or, in special cases.
references to sinological studies of it;
(i) references to translat~ons,~f any, given by the
name of the translator in Bibliography C;
f i ) notice of anv index or concordance to the book if
suzh a work exists;
(k) reference to the number of the book in the Toa
Tsang catalogue of Wieger ( 6 ) , if applicable;
(l) reference to the number of the book in the San
Tsang (Tripi~aka)cataloguesof Nanjio (I) and Takakusu
& Watanahe. if applicable.
-.
Words which assist in the translation of titles are added
in round brackets.
Alternative titles or explanatory additions to the titles
are added in square brackets.
I t will be remembered (p. 05 above) that in Chinese
indexes words beginning Zhh- are all listed together
after Ch-, and Iis- after H-, but that this applies to
initial words of titlea only.

2,

A-Nun Ssu Shih Ching

S)F B.

S a p o n the F o u r Practices spoken to

Ananda.
India.
T r . San Kuo, betw. +222 and f 230 by
Chih-Chhien 2 3.
N1696; TCV1493.
A-Phi-Than-Phi PO-ShaLun $ifj

EBTP%i.

India (this recension not much before

600).
T r . Hsiian-Chuang, +659 9 #.
N/I 263 ; TW11546.

Chang Chen-yen Chin Shih Ling Sha Lun.

See Chin Shih Ling Sha LW.
Chao Fei- Yen Pieh C h w n B % %BB B.
[= Chao Hou I Shih.]
Another Biography of Chao Fei-Yen
pistorical novelette].
Sung.
Chhin S h u n I@'.
Chao Fei- Yen Wm Chuan &i
Z?C f i
Unofficial Biography of Chao Fei-Yen
(d. - 6, celebrated dancing-girl,
consort and empress of H a n
Chh&ngTi).
Ascr. Han.
1st.
Attrib. Ling Hsiian #% 3.

m.

E 8 S.

A Record of the Affairs of the Empresa

Chao ( r s t century).
See Chao Fei- Yen Pieh C h m .

C/Han
E/Wei
HINan
HiShu
HIThang
H/Chin
S/Han
S/Phing
]/Chin
L/Sung
NiChou
NIChhi
N/Sung
hTrWei
S/Chhi
SlSunn
.
Wmei

Chao Hun

ABBREVIATIONS
Former Han.
Eastern Wei.
Later Wan.
Later Shu (Wu Tai).
Later Thang (Wu Tai).
Later Chin (Wu Tai).
Southern Han (Wu Tai).
Southern Phing (Wu Tai).
Jurchen Chin.
Liu Sung.
Northern Chou.
Korthern Chhi.
Korthern Sung (before the removal of the
capital to Hangchow).
Northern Wei.
Southern Chhi.
Southern Sunn (after the removal of the
capital to ~&gchou,).
Western Wei.

W 3.

T h e Summons of the Soul [ode].

Chou (Chhu), c. -240.
Prob. Ching Chhai
g.
Tr. Hawkes (I), p. 103.

E R fR &g.
T h e Inscription on the Regeneration of the
Primary Chhi.
T h a n g o r Sung, must be before the mid
I 3th century.
Writer unknown.

Chcn Chhi Huan Yuan Ming

Abhidhanna Mahdvibhbrha.

Chao Hou I Shih i@

Where there are any differences between the entries in

these bibliographies and those in Vols. 1-4, the information here given is to be taken as more correct.
An interim list of references to the editions used in the
resent work. and to the tshung-shu collections in which
gooks are available, has been given in Vol. 4, pt. 3, pp.
913 ff., and is available as a separate brochure.

TT1261.
Chen Chung Chi R I+ m.
[= K O Hung Chen C h q Shu.]
Pillow-Book (of KO Hung).
Ascr. Chin, c.
320, but actually not
earlier than the +7th century.
Attrib. K O H u n g g it#.
TT/83o.

Chen Chung Chi $% I+ E.

See Sh8 Yang Chen Chung Chi.
Chen-Chung Hung-Pao Yuan-Pi Shu

ft.

T h e Infinite Treasure of the Garden of

Secrets; (Confidential) Pillow-Book (of
the Prince of Huai-Nan).
See Huai-Nun Wan,q Wan Pi Shu.
Cf. Kaltenmark ( z ) , p. 32.

ChenHsi E % .
T h e Legitimate Succession of Perfected, or
Realised, (Immortals).
Thang, +SOS.
L i PO
I n YCCC, ch. 5, pp. I a ff.

+afh.

348

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Chm Kao ER.

Declarations of Perfected, or Realised,
(Immortals) [visitations and revelations of
the Taoist pantheon].
Chin and S/Chhi. Original material fmm
+364 to 370, collected from 484 to
+.+g2 by Thao Hung-Ching (+456 to
+536), who provided commentary and
postface by +493 to +498; finished
+499.
Origmal writers unknown.
Ed. Thao Hung-Ching R f .
TT/IW~.
Chm Yuan Miao Tao Hziu Tan Li Yen Chhuo

R%~&l.tPE#&#!!-

[= Hsiu Chen Li Yen Chhao Thu.1

A Document concerning the Tried and
Tested (Methods for Preparing the)
Restorative Enchyrnoma of the Mysterious
Tao of the Primary (Vitalities) [physiological alchemy].
Thang or Sung, before 1019.
Tung Chen Tzu (ps.)
E
I n YCCC, ch. 72, pp. 17b ff.
8.
Chm Yuan Miao Tao Yao Liieh
Classified Essentials of the Mysterious Tao
of the True Origin (of Things) [alchemy
and chemistry].
Ascr. Chin, jrd, but probably mostly
Thang, 8th and 9th. at any rate
after +7th as it quotes Li Chi.
Attrib. Cheng Ssu-Yuan @
,Ri 24.
TTI917.
C?&g I F a W& (Thai-Shag) Wai Lu I E
E!?

m +.

@-a

%kkfi%#%.

T h e System of the Outer Certificates, a ThaiShang Scripture.

Date unknown, but pre-Thang.
Writer unknown.
TT/1225.
ChhgLeiPt%Tshuo $%R*S.
See Ching-Shih Ch6ng Lei Pei-Chi Pkc Tshuo
and Chhung-Hsiu Chhg-Ho Ching-Shih
Ch&g Lei Pei-Yung P & Tshao
C*
Too Pi Shu Shih Chung B .% a.PC -P S.
Ten Types of Secret Books on the Verification of the Tao.
See F u Chin-Chhiian (6)
Chi Hsiao Hsin Shu
BR
A New Treatise on Military and Naval
Efficiency.
Ming, c. 1575.
Chhi Chi-Kuang
tffYE.
Chi Hsien Chuan
{l11 m.
Biographies of the Company of the Immortals.
Sung, c. I 140.
Tseng Tshao @ B.
chirchi
A Collection of Assorted Stories of Strange
Events.
Thang.
Hsiieh Yung-Jo
a$.

a.

+
%%a.

sm

C h i N i T a u iff-EF.
[-Fan Tau Chi Jan % W 8.1
The Book of Master Chi Ni.
Chou (Yiieh). -4th century.
Attrib. Fan Li W 8,recording the
philosophy of his master Chi Jan 3 B.
Chi S h h g Fang
& 3.
Prescriptions for the Preservation of Health.
Sung, c. 1267.
Yen Yung-Ho
B]!@lFI.
Chi Than Lu H S 6%.
Records of Entertaining Conversations.
Thang, c. +885.
Khang Phien
or R.
Chi Yiin g ST.
Complete Dictionary of the Sounds of
Characters [cf. Chhieh Yiin and Kuang
Yiin].
Sung. i-1037.
et al.
Compiled by Ting T u
Possibly completed in 1067 by Ssuma
Kuang
%.
C f i - Yu Ph Tshuo 3& 7t; S.
See Chia-Yu Pu-Chu Shm Nung P& Tshao.
Chia- Yu Pu-Chu Shm Nu* Pkc T s h o g

%#P%zb9.

Supplementary Commentary on the Phanacopoeia of the Heavenly Husbandman,

commissioned in the Chia-Yu reignperiod.
Sung, commissioned 1057, finished
1060.
Chang YU-Hsi L @ I,
Lin I $#B,
& Chang Tuna l%
C h i a g Huai I J m Lu E B B h 6%.
Records of (Twenty-five) Strange MagicianTechnicians between the Yangtze and the
Huai River (during the Thang, Wu and
Nan Thang Dynasties, c. 850 to 950).
Sung, c. 975.
Wu Shu
%3
I33.
Chinng I4'A-Thung Chi ?
Literary Collection of Chiang Wen-Thung
(Chiang Yen).
S/Chhi, c. 500.
Chiang Yen E S.
Chko Chhuang Chiu Lu B &8 rh R.
Nine Dissertations from the (Desk at the)
Banana-Grove Window.
Ming, c. 1575.
ft
Hsiang Yuan-Pien
Chim Wu Chi i@
@ 3.
On the Gradual Understanding (of the
Tao).
Sung, mid 12th century.
MaYii %G.
TT/I 128.
Chih Chen Tzu Lung Hu Ta Tan Shih E E 4

m.

+
ss.

n.

?f&RA?fn.

Song of the Great Dragon-and-Tiger Enchymoma of the Perfected-Truth Master.

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

349

T h e authorship of this important work is

obscure. I n his preface MCng Hsti says
that in 12x8 he met in the mountains
Ph&ngSsu, who transmitted to him a
short work which PhGng himself had received from Pai Yii-Chhan. This is ch. I
of the present book. Two years later M@ng
met an adept named Lan Yuan-Lao, who
aA@%!%claimed to be an avatar of Pai Yii-Chhan
Technical >lethods of the Adept (KO)ChihChhuan (i.e. KO Hung), with Critical
and transmitted to MCng a longer text;
Annotations [and illustrations of althis is the part which contains descriptions
chemical apparatus].
of the complicated alchemical apparatus
and appears as ch. 2 of the present work.
Ascr. Chin, c. +320, but probably later.
The name of the book is taken from that
Attrib. KO Hung
g.
of the alchemical elaborator- of Lan YuanTTI895.
Lso, which was called Chin Hua Chhung
Chih Chih H s k g Shuo San Chhhrg Pi Yao
jbj#:azs~,-g.
PiTanShih b t g @ g f i g .
See Wu Chen Phien Chih Chih Hsiang Shuo
Chin Hua Tsung Chih 4 g $Fii
[= Thai-I Chin Hua Tsung Chih, also entitled
San Chhhg Pi Yao.
C h h a g Sh&g Shu; former title: Lu
Cf. Davis & Chao Yiin-Tshung (6).
Tsu Chhuan Shou Tsung Chih.]
Chih-Chou hsicn-s&g Chin Tan Chih Chih fi P)
Principles of the (Inner) Radiance of the
TXiLk42fiTti%%.
Metallous (Enchymoma) [a Taoist nei tan
Straightfonvard Indications about the
treatise on meditation and sexual techMetallous Enchyrnoma by the Paperniques, with Buddhist influence].
Boat Teacher.
Ming and Chhing, c. 1403, finalised
Sung, prob.
12th.
+ 1663, but may have been transmitted
Chin Yiieh-Yen 4 8 B.
orally from an earlier date. Present title
TT1239.
Chih Hsiian Phien @ ft B.
from 1668.
Writer unknown. Attrib. Lil Yen 8 88
A Pointer to the Mysteries bsycho-physio(Lii Tung-Pin) and his school, late
logical alchemy].
Sung, c. +1215.
+8th.
Pai Yii-Chhan Q X 1.
Commentary by Tan Jan-Hui
F
R
S
I n Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z6o), chs. 1-8.
(1921).
Chih Kuei Chi
Prefaces by Chang San-Ftng
G ab:
(c. 1410) and several others, some perPointing the Way Home (to Life Eternal); a
Collection.
haps apocryphal.
See also Lii Tsu Shih Hsim-Thim Hsii W u
Sung, c. I 165.
W u W u &E&@.
Thai-I Chin Hua Tsung Chih.
Cf. Wilhelm & Jung (I).
TT1914
ChinHua Y i i I Ta Tan &Sti24@%$f.
Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, pp. 389,
T h e Great. Elixir of the Golden Flower (or,
390.
Metallous Radiance) and the Juice of
Chih Tao Phicn g '3B (or B).
Jade.
A Demonstration of the Tao.
Date unknown, probably Thang.
Sui or just before, c. 580.
S u Yuan-Ming (or -Lang)
Z [aj
Writer unknown.
= Chhing Hsia Tzu 3 3.
TT/903Now extant only in quotations.
Chin Hua Yii Nii Shuo Tan CIn'ng bt E
Chih Tshao Thu
=%fi@.
See Thai-Shang Ling-Pao C M Tshao Thu.
Sermon of the Jade Girl of the Golden
Flower about Elixirs and Enchyrnomas.
Chin Hua Chhung Pi Tan Ching Pi Chih & g
J,!.R%EB.
Wu Tai or Sung.
Writer unknown.
Confidential Instructions on the Manual of
the Heaven-Piercing Golden Flower
I n YCCC, ch. 64, pp. I a ff.
Elixir [xvith illustrations of alchemical
Chin I Hum Tan Pai W& Chiieh 4B W E
apparatus].
BA1 3.
Sung, 1225.
Questions and Answers on Potable Gold
PhGng Ssu 3 R & M&ngHsii Z
(Metallous Fluid) and Cyclically(pref. and ed. M&ngHsii).
Transformed Elixirs and Enchyrnomm.
Received from Pai Yii-Chhan fi
and
Sung.
Li Kuang-Hsiian @ % 3.
Lan Yuan-Lao g 2.
TT/907TT1263.

Chi Chen T m Lung H u Ta Tan Shih (cont.)

Sung, +1026.
Chou Fang (Chih Chen Tzu)
fJfi.
Presented to the throne by L u Thien[-Chi]
IWRE4.c. + I I I ~ .
TT/266.
CM-Chhuan Chen-Jen Chiao C h h g Shu #E 111

(m)

m.

35 0

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

C h i n I H u a n T a n Y i n C h h g Thu

4SBpf.W

E?R.

Illustrations and Evidential Signs of the

Regenerative Enchymoma (constituted
by, or elaborated from) the Metallous
Fluid.
Sung, prob.
~ z t h perhaps
,
c. f1218,
date of preface.
Lung Mei Tzu (ps.) B M F.
TT11q8.
Chin Ku Chhi Kuan 9.-& 3
Strange Tales New and Old.
1632 and
Ming, c. 1620; pr. betw.
I 644.
F&ngM&ng-Lung 2% 6 1111.
Cf. Pelliot (57).
Chin Mu Wan Ling Lun & g tS l
.
Essay on the Tens of Thousands of
Efficacious (Substances) among Metals
and Plants.
Ascr. Chin, c. 320. Actually prob. late
Sung or Yuan.
Attrib. KO Hung g g..
TTI933.
Chin Pi JVu Hsiang Lci Tshan Thung Chhi 4 g

m.

x#I3%23FlfW.

Gold and Caerulean Jade Treatise on the

Similarities and Categories of the Five
(Substances) and the Kinship of the Three
[a poem on physiological alchemy].
Ascr. H/Han, c. +zoo.
Attrib. Yin Chhang-Sheng B G &.
TTI897.
Cf. H o Ping-Yn(12).
Not to be confused with the T s h Thung
Chhi Wu Hsiang Lci Pi Yao, q.v.
Chin Shih Ling Sha Lun 4 ;tiI
@ 3%.
A Discourse on Metals, Minerals and
Cinnabar (by the Adept Chang).
Thang, between +713 and +741.
Chang Yin-Chii g B E.
TT/88o.
Chin Shih P u Wu Chiu Shu Chiich 4 h
.. B
. .5
-

h@%.

Explanation of the Inventory of Metals and

Minerals according to the Numbers Five
(Earth) and Nine (Metal) [catalogue of
substances with provenances, including
some from foreign countries].
Thang, perhaps c. +670 (contains a story
relating to +664).
Writer unknown.
TT/goo.
Chin Shih Wu Hsiang Ln'
Z 3i $3.
[= Yin Chen C h h Chin Shih Wu H
*
Lei.]
The Similarities and Categories of the Five
(Substances) among Metals and Minerals
(sulphur, realgar, orpiment, mercury and
lead) (by the Deified Adept Yin).
Date unknown (ascr. 2nd or 3rd
century).

Attrib. Yin Chen-Chiln 1E g w i n

Chhang-ShCng).
TT1899.
Chin Tan Chm Chuan & P f E B.
A Record of the Primary (Vitalities, regained by) the Metallous Enchqmoma.
Ming, +1615.
Sun Ju-Chung R
,E.
Chin Tan Chktg Li Ta Chhiian 4 P f EB 9
Comprehensive Collection of Writings on
the True Principles of the &ietallous
Enchymorna [a florilegium].
Ming, c. 1440.
Ed. Han Chhan Tzu 2%
4.
Cf. Davis & Chao Yiln-'I'shung (6).
B.
Chin Tan Chieh Yao 4 f l
Important Sections on the hletallous
Enchymoma.
Part of San-F&g Tan Chiieh (q.v.).
Chin Tan Chih Chih +& Pf W? $8.
Straightfonvard Explanation of the Metallous Enchymoma.
Sung, prob.
12th.
E.
Chou WU-SO
TTIro58.
Cf. Clzih-Chou hn'm-s&g Chin Tan Chih
Chih.
See Chhen Kuo-FU (I), vol. 2, pp. 447 ff.
Chin Tan Chin Pi Chhien Thung Chtreh & Pf $2

%@i&i%.
Oral Instructions explaining the Abscondite
Truths of the Gold and Caerulean Jade
(Components of the) AIetallous Enchymoma.
Date unknown, not earlier than Wu Tai.
Writer unknown.
Incomplete in YCCC, ch. 73, pp. 7 a R.
Chin Tan At 4 Pf H.
Rhapsodical Ode on the Metallous Enchymorna.
Sung, +xjth.
Writer unknown.
Cornrn. by AIa Li-Chao W B
TTI258.
Cf. Xei Tan Fu. the text of which is verv
similar.
Chin Tan Lung Hu Chitrg & -fP
S.
Gold Elixir Dragon and Tiger AIanual.
Thang or early Sung.
]Triter unknown.
Extant only in quotations, as in Chu Chia
Shen PIrin Tan Fa, q.v.
Chin Tan Pi Yao Tshan Thung Lu & Pf 3

m.

S M&%.

a,

Essentials of the Gold Elixir: a Record of the

Concordance (or insh hi^)' of the Three.
Sung.
MCng Yao-Fu Z ES R.
In Chzc Chia Shen P11in Tan Fa, q.v.
Chin Tan Ssu P a i Tzu & f i Pi 9.
The Four-Hundred Word Epitome of the
Metallous Enchymoma.

351

B I B L I O GRAPHY A

Chin Tarr Ssu Pai T m (cont.)

Sung, c. 1065.
Chang PO-Tuan &
(Q
l?
S.
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z60),ch. 5 ,
pp. I a ff.
TT/1o67.
Comms. by PhCng Hao-Ku and Min I-Tt
in Too Tsanf Hsii Pien (Chhu chi), 21.
Tr. Davis & Chao Yun-Tshung (2).
Chin Tan To Chhhg 4 ff A G..
Compendium of the Metallous Enchymoma.
Sung, just before 1250.
Hsiao Thing-Chih
B2.
In T T C Y (mao chi, q), and in TTl260,
Hsiu Chen Shih Shu, chs. 9-13 incl.
Chin Tan Ta Yao r;Ft fY -k-S.
[=Shung Y a n T2u
~ Chin Tan Ta Yao.]
Main Essentials of the Metallous Enchymoma; the true Gold Elixir.
1331 (pref.
1335).
Yuan,
Chhen Chih-Hsii F#B&
(Shang Yang Tzu Jz S2 4).
In T T C Y (rnao chi, I , 2 , 3).
TT/1o53.
Chin Tan Ta Yao Hsien Phm ( Yuan Liu) 4 P)

%%?fill W E B ? .

r = Sham

Yam T m Chin Tan Ta Yao

- ~sienlPhai.j-

A History of the Schools of Immortals

mentioned in the Main Essentials of the
Metallous Enchymoma; the true Gold Elixir.
Yuan, c. 1333.
Chhen Chih-Hsii
B
(Shang Yang Tzu _t R F).
I n T T C Y , Chin Tan Ta Yao, ch. 3, pp.

40 ff.

TT/1o56.
Chin Tan Ta Yao Lich Hsien Chih

H {l4 B.

4P)R B

[= Shang Yang T m Chin Tan Ta Yao Lieh

Hsien Chih.]
Records of the Immortals mentioned in the
Main Essentials of the Metallous Enchymoma; the true Gold Elixir.
Yuan, C. 1333.
Chhen Chih-Hsti
BB
(Shana
.. Yana
- Tzu 1= R 4).
~~11055.
Chzn Tan Ta Yao Pao C h h h 42 -19. A l 3.
Precious Instructions on the Great Medicines of the Golden Elixir (Type).
Sung, c. 1045.
Tshui Fang
Preface preserved in Khx Tao Chi, ch. I ,
p. 8 b, but othenvise only extant in
occasional quotations.
Perhaps the same book as the Wui Tan
P& Tshao (q. v.).
Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu $2 % k lW.
[= Shang Yang Tzu Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu.]
Illustrations for the Main Essentials of the
Metal!ous Enchymoma; the tntc Gold Elixir.

~.

Yuan,
1333.
Chhen Chih-Hsii
g EftP
(Shang Yang Tzu _t E 3).
Based on drawings and tables of the 10th
century onwards by PhCng Hsiao BI
,
Chang PO-Tuan SFt .ltf
(hence the
name T m Yang Tan Fm,q Pao Chien
Tlu), Lin Shen-FEng H @ 4 and
others.
In T T C Y (Chin Tan Ta Yao, ch. 3,
PP. 26a ff.).

T T ~ I O ~ ~ .

Cf. Ho Pinn-YU & Needham ( 2 ) .

Ching Chhu ~ u i - ~ h Chi
ih AB
B.
Annual Folk Customs of the States of
Ching and Chhu [i.e. of the districts corresponding to those ancient States;
Hupei. Hunan and Chiangsi].
Prob. Liang, c. 550, but perhaps partly
Sui, c. +610.
Tsung Lin S@.
See des Rotoum (I), p. cii.
Ching-Shih C h N Ln' Pei-Chi P& Tshao
Jt!

&&

tnFC&*S.

The Classified and Consolidated Armarnentarium of Pharmaceutical Natural History.

Sung, 1083, repr.
IOW.
Thang Shen-Wei E f@ $li.
Ching Shih Thung Yen
3.
Stories to Warn Men.
Ming, c. I 640.
FCng MCng-Lung E B B.
Chkg Tien Shih W& S 9Q %.
Textual Criticism of the Classics.
Sui, c. 600.
Lu T&-Ming !S! B M.
Ching Yen Fang @ @ 3 .
Tried and Tested Prescriptions.
Sung, 1025.
Chang ShEng-Tao
E$;%.
Now extant only in quotations.
Ching Yen LMng Fang
B W 2.
Valuable Tried and Tested Prescriptions.
Yuan.
Writer unknown.
Chiu Ch& Lu $X X &.
Drawing near to the Right Way; a Guide
[to physiological alchemy].
Chhing, prefs. 1678, 1697.
L u Shih-Chhen
tttl W.
In Tao Tsang Hsii Pien (Chhu c m , 8.
Chiu Chuan Chhing Chin Ling Sha Tan -h W

+
a a

&BW,fl.
The Kinefold Cyclically Transformed
Caerulean Golden Numinous Cinnabar
Elixir.
Date unknown.
Writer unknown, but much overlap with
TT/886.
TT/887.
Chiu Chuan Ling Sha Ta Tan h tfl l
&$

8.

352

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Chin, c. +340.
Chiu Chum Ling Sha Ta Tan (cat.)
T h e Great Ninefold Cyclically Transformed
KO Hung g@.
Numinous Cinnabar Elixir.
Chou Hou Pai IFang H B A - 3
Date unknown.
See Chou Hou Pei Chi Fang.
Writer unknown.
Chou Hou Tsu Chiu Fang fl$
$r 29 3
See Chou Hou Pei Chi Fang.
TT/886.
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Jlj 8
Chiu Chuan Ling Sha Ta Tan Tzu Shkrg HsCan
S.
Chinn h5%lS?i!b%%%E22@.
See also titles under Tshan Thung Chhi.
Mysterious (or Esoteric) SagehoodChou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chieh M & H ?lP M.
Enhancing Canon of the Great Ninefold
The Kinship of the Three a d the Book of
Cyclically Transformed Numinous CinnaChanges, with Explanation.
bar Elixir (or Enchymoma).
Text, H/Han, c. 140.
Date unknown, probably Thang; the text is
Comm., Sung, 1234.
in sijtra form.
Ed. & comm. Chhen Hsien-Wei
$li.
Writer unknown.
TTl998.
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu H & 1M 9P M.
TT/879.
T h e Kinship of the Three a d the Book of
Chiu Chuan Liu Cku Shen Hsin, Chiu Tan Ching
h@%l%.flfl4
he@.
Changes, with Commentary.
Text, H/Han, c. 140.
Manual of the Kine Elixirs of the Holy
Immortals and of the Ninefold Cyclically
Comrn. ascr. H/Han, c. 160, but probTransformed Mercury.
ably Sung.
Not later than Sung, but contains material
Attrib., ed. and comm. Yin Chhang-Sh&ng
from much earlier dates.
BE&.
Thai-Chhing Chen Jen & fi4 5$ A.
TTI990.
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu j
Sj
A W 8.
TTl945.
Chiu Huan Chin Tan Erh Chong hi* iA4 Pf =S.
T h e Kinship of the Three and the Book of
Two Chapters on the Ninefold Cyclically
Changes, with Commentary.
Transformed Gold Elixir.
Text, H/Han, c. 140.
Alternative title of Ta-Tung Lien Chen Pao
Comm. probably Sung.
Ching, Chin Huan Chin Tan Miao Chiieh
Ed. and comm. unknown.
(q.v.).
TT/991.
In YCCC, ch. 68, pp. 80 ff.
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu R S lal W B.
Chk Phu BR.
The Kinship of the Three and the Book of
A Treatise on Wine.
Changes, with Commentary.
Sung, 1020.
Text, H/Han, c. 140.
Tou Phing
F.
Comm. probably Sung.
Chiu Shih $!j 2.
Ed. and comm. unknown.
A History of Wine.
TT199.5.
Ming, 16th (but first pr.
1750).
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu W
lal M.
F&ngShih-Hua ;,gl!+ 4L.
The Kinship o f the Three and the Book o f
Chiu Thang Shu g Bj 3 .
Changes, with Commentary.
Old History of the Thang Dynasty [+618
Text, H/Han, c. 140.
to +go6].
Comm., Sung, c. 1230.
Wu Tai (H/Chin), +945.
Ed. & comm. Chhu Hua-Ku I G.
Liu Hsii
iiq.
TT1999.
Cf. des Rotours (2), p. 64.
Chou I Tslran Thung Chhi Chu (TT/992).
For translations of passages see the index of
Alternative title for Tshan Thung Chhi
Frankel (I).
Khao I (Chu Hsi's) q.v.
Chiu Ting Shen Tan Ching Chiieh
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Fa Hui W # P]
See Huang T i Chitc Ting Shm Tan Ching
53 B.
Chiieh.
Elucidations of the Kinship of the Three and
the Book of Changes [alchemy].
Cho KEnx Lu @! Pft &.
Text, H/Han, c. 140.
[Sometimes Nan Tshun Cho K&g Lu.]
Comm., Yuan, 1284.
Talks (at South Village) while the Plough is
Resting.
Ed. & comm. YU Yen
1.
Yuan,
1366.
Tr. Wu & Davis (I).
g.
TT1996.
Thao Tsung-I
Q 3.
Chou Hoit Pei Chi Fuqq 8;J
Cho~rI Tshan Thitng Chhi F& Chang Chu (Chieh)
[= Chozc I-lar Tsu Chiu Fanx
fl&@A%f3.BS(W.).
or Chou Hou Pm I Fang
The Kinship of the Three and the Book of
or K O Hsien Ong Chou Hou Pei Chi Fang.]
Changes divided into (short) chapters,
with Commentary and Analysis.
Handbook of Medicines for Emergencies.

&a

353

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Chou I Tskan Tkung Chhi Fhr Chung Chu (Chieh) Chu Fan Chih g !# ,E.
(cont.)
Records of Foreign Peoples (and their Trade).
Text, Hsn, c. 140.
Sung, c. 1225. (This is Pelliot's dating;
Comm., Yuan, C. 1330.
Hirth & Rockhill favoured between
$j
1242 and 1258.)
Comm. Chhen Chih-Hsii
(Shang Yang Tzu k F).
Chao Ju-Kua
2.
Tr. Hirth & Rockhill ( I ) .
T T C Y p h 93.
Chou I Tshun Thung Chhi F& Chung Thung
Chu Yeh Thing Tsa Chi f l B 4i;i B E.
Chml W&!~~A%~l%3Ti~ii&.
Miscellaneous Records of the Bamboo Leaf
The Kinship of the Three and the Book of
Pavilion.
Changes divided into (short) chapten, for
Chhing, begun c. 1790 but not finished
the Understanding of its Real Meanings.
till c. 1820.
Text, H/Han, c. 140.
Yao Yuan-Chih % Z 2.
Comm., Wu Tai 947.
ChuunHsi WangMu W o K u F a PBrBEBS
Ed. & cornrn. Pheng Hsiao 1A.
B S.
Tr. Wu & Davis (I).
[= Thai-Shang Chum Hsi Wang M u W O
TTl993Ku Fa.]
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Shih I BB 8 $$S lal S
A Recording of the Method of Grasping
the Firmness (taught by) the Mother
Clarification of Doubtful Mattem in the
Goddess of the West.
Kinship of the Three and the Book of
paoist heliotherapy and meditation. 'GraspChanges.
ing the firmness' was a technical term for
Yuan, 1284.
a way of clenching the hands during
meditation.]
Ed. & comm. Yii Yen ?j&
TT/997Thang or earlier.
ChouITshunThungCkhiSuLileh JSJ&SR
Writer unknown.
Fragment in Hsiu C h Shih Shu (TT/260),
%R%.
Brief Explanation of the Kinrhp of the Three
ch. 24, p. I a ff.
and the Book of Changes.
Cf. Maspem (7). p. 376.
Chuang Lou Chi
lkft 3.
Ming, I 564.
Records of the Ornamental Pavilion.
Ed. & comm. Wang Wtn-Lu E R
Chou I Tshan Thmg Chhi TTing Chki KOMing
Wu Tai or Sung, c. 960.
ChingThu & W I W % ! I B % ! % E 8 @ 4
Chang Mi %$M.
Chiin-Chai Tu Shu Chih #i
b.
M.
An Illuminating Chart for the Mnemonic
Memoir on the Authenticities of Ancient
Rhymes about Reaction-Vessels in the
Books, by (Chhao) Chun-Chai.
Kinship of the Three and the Book of
Su g, + I I ~ I .
Chanqes.
Ch! ao Kung-Wu
& S.
Text, HIHan, c. 140 (Ting Chhi KO
Chh-Chai Tu Shu Fu Chih jftR P B 68,S.
portion only).
Supplement to Chtin-Chai's (Chhao KungWu's) Memoir on the Authenticities of
Comm., Wu Tai, 947.
Ed. & comm. Pheng Hsiao gZ A.
Ancient Books.
Sung, c. 1200.
TTI994.
C h u C h h g P i m I %B+?$@.
Chao Hsi-Pien
% 3.
Resolution of Diagnostic Doubts.
CMn-Chai Tu Shu Hou Chih
af Ffa @ ,S.
Ming, late 15th.
Further Supplement to Chiin-Chai's (Chhaz
Wu Chhiu
f,R.
Kung-Wu's) Memoir on the Authenticities
Chu C h h M Chi
7
% B.
of Ancient Books.
The Bamboo Springs Collection boems
Sung, pref. 1151,pr; 1250.
and personal testimonies on physiological
Chhao Kung-Wu &. 4 R, re-compiled by
alchemy].
Chao Hsi-Pien $fj
from the ediMing, 1465.
tion of Yao Ying-Chi
E
Tung Chhung-Li et al. BB[ g.
Chiin Phu
A Treatise on Fungi.
In Wai Chin Tan (q.v.), ch. 3.
Chu Chia S h m Phin Tan Fa 3 @ & f i E.
Sung, 1245.
Methods of the Various Schools for Magical
Chhen Jen-Yu
E.
Elixir Preparations (an alchemical anChungHuaKuChinChu +%84%.
Commentary on Things Old and New in
thology).
China.
Sung.
M&ngYao-Fu
FfJ
Wu Tai (HIThang), +g23 to +926.
(HsUan Chen Tzu 3 4)et al.
Ma Kao
TT191I .
See des Rotoun, ( I ) ,p. xcix.

+
+

%S

a.

*.

+
+

+
e,
a a.

m%.

1s.

3 54

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

C~UW
~ m m,,
g ~hing B B
[ X Thai-Chhing Chung Huung Chen c h k g
or Thai Tsang Lun.]
True Manual of the Middle (Radiance) of
the Yellow (Courts), (central regions of the
three parts of the body) [Taoist anatomy
and physiology with Buddhist influence].
Prob. Sung, 12th or 13th.
Chiu Hsien Chiin (ps.) A {m S.
Comm. Chung Huang Chen Jen (ps). FP

EwA.

TTl81o.
Completing TT1328 and 329 (Wieger).
Cf. hlaspero (7), p. 364.
Chung Lii Chuan Tao Chi Ig
S.
Dialogue between Chungli (Chhiian) and
Lii (Tung-Pin) on the Transmission of
the Tao (and the Art of Longevity, by
Rejuvenation).
Thang, 8th or + g t h
R and Lil
Attrib. Chungli Chhilan
Yen g @ .
B 3.
Ed. Shih Chien-Wu
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z6o), chs.14-16
incl.
Chung Shun Yil Kuei Fu Chhi Ching l+
E

~fifiif~.

Manual of the Absorption of the Chhi,

found in the Jade Casket on ChungShan (Mtn). [Taoist breathing exercises.]
Thang or Sung, +gth or 10th.
Attrib. Chang Tao-Ling (Han) if6t
or
Pi-Yen Chang Tao-ch& B #$B$3 S
or Pi-Yen hsien-s@ng B B % 9.
Comm. by Huang Yuan-Chiin 3Z 73.
In YCCC, ch. 60, pp. I a ff.
Cf. Maspero (7), PP. 204, 215, 353.
Chungli P a T m Chin Fa @ BE A R H E.
The Eight Elegant (Gymnastic) Exercises of
Chungli (Chhuan).
Thang, late 8th.
Chungli Chhuan
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z6o), ch. 19.
Tr. Maspero (7), pp. 418 ff.
Cf. Notice by Ts@ngTshao in Lin Chiang
Hsien (TT/z6o, ch. 23, pp. I b, za) dated
1151. This says that the text was inscribed by Lii Tung-Pin himself on stone
and so handed down.
Chhang Chhun Tzu Phan-Hsi Chi g @P

m a.

S.

Chhiu Chhang-Chhun's Collected ( P m )

at Phan-Hsi.
Sung, c. 1200.
Chhiu Chhu-Chi @ B B.
TT11145.
Chhang S h h g Shu E & N.
The Art and Mystery of Longevity and
Immortality.
Alternative titleof Chin Hua TnmgChih(q.v.).
Chhm Wai Hsia CM C h h B f i B 59! E.
Examples of Men who Renounced Official

Careers and Shook off the Dust of the

World [the eighth and last part (ch. 19)
of Tnm Sh&g Pa Chim, q.v.1.
Ming, +1591.
Kao Lien 8 S.
Chhi Chii An Lo Chim B F% W
On (Health-giving) Rest and Recreations in
a Retired Abode [the third part (Chs. 7,
8) of Tsun S h h g Pa Chien, q.v.1.
Ming, 1591.
Kao Lien
B.
Chhi Fan Ling Sha KO & S 9 R.
Song of the Sevenfold Cyclically Transformed Numinous Cinnabar (Elixir).
See Chhi Fan Tan Sha Chiieh.
Chhi Fan Ling Sha Lun -k
&!b Wi$.
On Numinous Cinnabar Seven Times
Cyclically Transformed.
Alternative title for Ta-Tung Lim Chen Pao
Ching, Hsiu Fu Ling Sha Miuo Chiich
(9.v.).
In YCCC, ch. 69, pp. I a ff.
ChhiFan TanShaChiieh &ZPJ.@R.
[= Wei POYang Chhi Fan Tan Sha CMleh
or Chhi Fan Ling Sha KO.]
Explanation of the Sevenfold Cyclically
Transformed Cinnabar (Elixir), (of Wei
PO-Yang).
Date unknown (W. HIHan).
Writer unknown (attrib. Wei PO-Yang).
Comrn. by Huang Thung-Chiin R W .
Thang or pre-Thang, before 806.
TT1881.
C M Hsioo LMng Fang %j E
. & fi.
Effective Therapeutics.
Ming, c. 1436, pr. 1470.
Fang Hsien f i E.
Chhi Kuo Khao
E< %.
Investigations of the Seven (Warring) Statea
Chhing, c. 1660.
Tung Yueh
8.
Chhi Lu %B.
Bibliography of the Seven Classes of Books.
Liang, +523.
Juan Hsiao-Hsil E M.
Chhi Min Yao Shu
E l.
Important Arts for the People's Welfare
[lit. Equality].
N/Wei (and E/Wei or W/Wei), between
+S33 and +S&
Chia Ssu-Hsieh
g
See des Rotours (I), p.c; Shih ShCng-Han (I).
Chhi Yin Shun Wu Yunn Tzu Hsiu Chen Pim
Nun (Tshan Chhg) E4 3 14E 2 F I
'&

m.

a m.

LR@@@8.

See Hsiu Chen Pim Nun (Tshan Chhg).

Ch&h Yiin
H.
Dictionary of the Sounds of Charactera
[rhyming dictionary].
Sui, +601.
Lu Fa-Yen p
See Kuang Yiin.

35 5

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

ChhhChinFang YenI 7 4 f i R e .
Dilations upon the Thousand Golden
Remedies.
Chhing, 1698.
Chang Lu &!?B.
Chhim Chin I Fang 7 & Bg 3.
Supplement to the Thousad Golden
Remedies [i.e. Revised Prescriptions
saving lives worth a Thousand Ounces of
Gold].
Thang. between 660 and 680.
Sun Ssu-MO g
Chidm Chin Shih Chih FF.4 R E.
A Thousand Golden Rules for Nutrition
and the Preservation of Health [i.e. Diet
and Personal Hygiene saving lives worth a
Thousand Ounces of Gold], (included as
a chapter in the Thousand Golden Remedies).
Thang, +7th (c. +625, certainly before
+659).
Sun Ssu-MO g g
Chhim Chin Yao Fang
$L E ff.
A Thousand Golden Remedies [i.e. Eesmtial Prescriptions saving lives worth a
Thousand Ounces of Gold].
Thang, between 650 and 659.
,gB.
Sun Ssu-MO g,
Chhim Hun Shu
P.
History of the Former Han Dynasty
[-206 to +z4].
H/Han (begun about 651, c. 100.
Pan Ku Bf m. and (after his death in 92)
his sister Pan Chao BfE W.
Partial trs. Dubs (z), Pfizmaier (32-34.
37-51), Wylie (2, 3, 101, Swarm (I).
Yin-T& Index, no. 36.
Chirim Hung Chia Kkrg Chih Pao Chi Chh&ng

a.

a.

4%Y?R~%3Z@2$3Ji%

Complete Compendium on the Perfected

Treasure of Lead, Mercury, Wood and
Metal [with illustrations of alchemical
apparatus].
On the translation of this title, cf. Vol. 5, pt. 3.
Has been considered Thang. 808 ; but
perhaps more probably Wu Tai or Sung.
Cf. p. 276.
Chao Nai-An
TT1912.
ChhimKhunPiYrln EflaB.
The Hidden Casket of Chhien and Khun
(kua, i.e. Yang and Yin) Open'd.
Ming, c. 1430.
Chu Chhtian
(Ning Hsien Wang
$lk E, prince of
the Ming.)
Chhim Khun Shhg I E 5 W.
Principles of the Coming into Being of
Chhien and Khun (kua, i.e. Yang and
Yin).
Ming, c. 1430.
Chu Chhiian

a fls.

*m.

(Ning Hsien Wang P &?. E,

prince of the Ming.)
C M Shui Hsiiun Chu 5 f i 3 W.
The Mysterious Pearl of the Red River [a
system of medicine and iatro-chemistry].
Ming, 1596.
Sun I-Khuei
2.
Chhih Shui Hsiiun C h Chhilnn chi $j?jSr7k 3 ER

9 @.

The Mysterious Pearl of the Red River; a

Complete (Medical) Collection.
See Chhih Shui Hsiiun Chu.
Chhih Shui Yin % ;rk U+.
Chants of the Red River.
See Fu Chin-Chhiian (I).
Chhih Sung Tzu Chou Hou Yaa CMIch 6 P
B;f@i%%.
Oral Instructions of the Red-Pine Master
on Handy (Macrobiotic) Prescriptions.
Pre-Thang.
Writer unknown.
Part of the Thai-Chhing Ching T k - S h i h
Khou Chiieh.
TT1876.
Chhih Sung Tau Hsiian Chi S;I%F~C~E.
Arcane Memorandum of the Red-Pine
Master.
Thang or earlier, before 9th.
Writer unknown.
Quoted in TT1928 and elsewhere.
Chhin Hsiian Fu # gSP B.
Rhapsodical Ode on Grappling with the
Mystery.
Sung, 13th.
Writer unknown.
TT1257.
Chhing HEiong Tso Chi W #E, E.
Miscellaneous Records on Green Bamboo
Tablets.
Sung. c. 1070.
Wu Chhu-Hou R p.
ChhingHsiuMiaoLunCh $f&&#B@.
Subtile Discourses on the Unsullied Restoration (of the Primary Vitalities) [the
first part (chs. I, 2) of Tsun S h h Pa
Chien, q.v.1.
Ming, 1591.
Kao Lien
R.
Chhing I Lu 8 g.
Records of the Unworldly and the Strange.
Wu Tai, c. 950.
Thao Ku BR.
Chhing-Ling Chen-Jen Phei Chrln (Nei) Chuan

8i ?5 A ?X-3R m.

Biography of the Chhing-Ling Adept,

Master Phei.
L/Sung or S/Chhi, 5th, but with early
Thang additions.
Teng Yun Tzu g$
(Phei Hstian-Jen
-9; C was a semilegendary immortal said to have been
born in - 178).

356

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Chhicrg-Ling Chm-yen Phn' Chih, ( N d Ch(cont.) C h h k n Ching

Pf.
Manual of Boxing.
I n YCCC, ch. 105.
Chhing, 18th.
Cf. Maspero (7). pp. 386 ff.
Chhing POTsa Chih B @ ,g.
Chang Khung-Chao
Green-Waves Memories.
Chhun Chhiu Fan Lu $?A E.
String of Pearls on the Spring and Autunm
Sung, I 193.
Chou Hui IbJ B.
Annals.
Chhing W& Tan Chiieh (or Fa)
j$
(B).
C/Han, c. - I 35.
Instructions for Making the Enchymoma in
Tung Chung-Shu S f# @.
Calmness and Purity [physiological
See Wu Khang (I).
alchemy].
Partial trs. Wieger (2); Hughes (I);
Date unknown, perhaps Thang.
d'Hormon (I) (ed.).
Writer unknown.
Chung-Fa Index no. 4.
TT1275.
Chhun Chhiu Wei Yuan Ming Pao
% Z
Chhiu Chhang-Chhun Chlring Thien KO 9 8 Q
63 %l.
Apocryphal Treatise on the Spring
and
W R!%.
Chhiu Chhang-Chhun's Song of the Blue
Autumn Amrals; the Mystical Diagrams
Heavens.
of Cosmic Destiny [astrologicalSung, c. 1200.
astronomical].
Chhiu Chhu-Chi E$
B.
C/Han, c. - 1st.
TT1134Writer unknown.
C h h u C h h h g I S h u #@&P.
In K u Wei Shu, ch. 7.
Remaining Writings of Chhu Chheng.
ChhunChhiuWeiYilnTouShu *%#$=+W.
Chhi, c. 500, probably greatly remodelled
Apocryphal Treatise on the Spring and
in Sung.
Autumn Annals; the Axis of the Turning
of the Ladle (i.e. the Great Bear).
Chhu ChhCng @B.
ChM H& Shen Yin Shu
C/Han, 1st or later.
Book of Daily Occupations for Scholan, in
Writer unknown.
Rural Retirement, by the Emaciated
I n K u Wei Shu, ch. g, pp. 4b ff. and
Immortal.
YHSF, ch. 55, pp. z z a ff.
Ming, c. 1430.
C h C h u C h i W & 5fFJBRw.
Chu ChhUan
Record of Things Heard at Spring Island.
3,prince of
Sung, C.
1095.
(Ning Hsien Wang
the Ming.)
H o Wei
E.
Chhu Hsiieh Chi
8 E.
Chhun-yang etc.
Entry into Learning [encyclopaedia].
See Shun-yang.
Thang, +700.
Chhung-Hsiu Chhg-Ho Ching-Shih Ch& Ln'
Hsii Chien
3.
Pei- Yung P& Tshao
& %fl
&
Chhii I Shuo Tsuan
%fRH*@.
Discussions on the Dispersal of Doubts.
New Revision of the Pharmacopoeia of the
Sung, c. 1230.
Ch&ng-Ho reign-period; the Classified
Chhu Yung H&.
and Consolidated Armamentarium.
Chhu Tzhu
8.
(A Combination of the Chhg-Ho. Chhrg
Elegies of Chhu (State) [or, Songs of the South].
Lei. .P& Tshao with the Pin Tshao Yen I.)
Chou, Cf. -300 (with Han additions).
Yuan, 1249; reprinted many times afterChhii Yuan E E.
wards, esp. in the Ming, 1468, with at
%E.
(& Chia 1, Yen Chi, Sung YC W
least seven Ming editions, the last in
Huainan Hsiao-Shan, et al.) #. fi f-iJi\.
1624 or 1625.
Printed tr. Waley (23); tr. Hawkes ( I ) .
Thang Shen-Wei S W .
C h h h - C h e n CIzi Hsilan Pi Yao & 59 B 3 E l.
Khou Tsung-Shih $ jt.
Esoteric Essentials of the Mysteries (of the
Pr. (or ed.) Chang Tshun-Hui $
@
l?
S.
Tao), according to the Chhiian-Chen
Chhung- Yang Chhiian Chen Chi
g3
(Perfect Truth) School [the Northern
W 2%
School of Taoism in Sung and Yuan times].
(Wang) Chhung-Yang's [Wang Che's]
Records of the Perfect Truth (School).
Yuan, c. 1320.
3S.
Sung, mid 12th cent.
Li Tao-Shun
Wang Ch&
TT/248.
TT/I 139.
Chhiian-Chen Tso POChieh F a R lbt R M B! 8%
Ingenious Method of the Chhiian-Chen
Chhung- Yang Chiao Hua Chi E F !& .(k S.
School for Timing Meditation (and other
Memorials of ('CVang) Chhung-Yang's
Exercises) by a (Sinking-) Bowl Clepsydra.
[Wang Che's] Preaching.
12th cent.
Sung, mid
Sung or Yuan.
Writer unknown.
Wang Ch&
TT/IZI~.
TT11 140.

a m.

f.

*m.

a.

..

.
+

+
3s.

+
zf&.

3 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Chhung- Ymg Chin-Kuan Yii-Suo C&h

&fbd3Z@%.
(Wang) Chhung-Yang's w a n g ' s Ch@'s]
Instructions on the Golden Gate and the
Lock of Jade.
Sung, mid 12th cent.
Wang Che Z 118.
TT11 142.
Chhung- Yang F&-Li Shih-Hun Chi g 5)jlR

f. 4k I.

Writings of (Wang) Chhung-Yang w a n g

ChC] (to commemorate the time when he
received a daily) Ration of Pears, and the
Ten Precepts of his Teacher.
Sung, mid 12th cent.
Wang ChO %W.
TT11 141.
Chhung- Yang Li-Chiao Shih- Wu Lun S E

*.

R+li%.

Fifteen Discourses of (Wang) ChhungYang [Wang Ch&] on the Establishment

of his School.
Sung, mid 12th cent.
Wang Che X%X.
TT11216.

B&-Vie Sd-kJ Todn-thti A B

E 2 W.

T h e Complete Book of the History of

Great Annam.
Vietnam, c. 1479.
NgB Si-Lien 8 & 3.

F a Yen &g.
Admonitory Sayings [in admiration, and
imitation, of the Lun YZJ.
Hsin, +5.
S.
Yang Hsiung
Tr. von Zach (5).
F a Yuan Chu Lin
Yij 333 H.
Forest of Pearls from the Garden of the
[Buddhist] Law.
Thang, +668, +688.
R.
Tao-Shih
Fan Tzu Chi Jan
3 B.
See Chi N i Tzu.
Fang H u W& Shih 2 l f i
Unofficial History of the Land of the Immortals, Fang-hu. (Contains two nei tan
commentaries on the Tshan Thung Chhi,
+1569 and +1573.)
Ming, c. I 590.
L u Hsi-Hsing @ 8 .E.
Cf. Liu Tshun-Jen (I, 2).
Fang Yii Chi fiB$S.
General Geography.
Chin, or at least pre-Sung.
Hsii Chiai
g.
Fei Lu Hui Ta
@ @ S.
Questions and Answers on Things Material
and Moral.
Ming, +1636.
,S.
Kao I-Chih (Alfonso Vagnoni)
Bernard-Maitre (IS), no. 272.

-a
a+

e.

F& Thu B 88.

See H u Kang Tau F& Thu.
F h g S u Thung I JR. %
The Meaning of Popular Traditions and
Customs.
H/Han, 175.
Ying Shao E
Chung-Fa Index, no. 3.
FOShuo Fo I Wang Ching B B 3 B.
Buddha Vaidyarcija Sdtra; or Buddha-prokta
Buddha-bhai~aj.varaja Sirtra (Siitra of the
Buddha of Healing, spoken by
Buddha).
India.
Tr. San Kuo (Wu) +230.
Trs. Liu Yen (Vinay2tapa) & ChihChhien. 3 3.
N/13:7; ?/793.
Fo Tsu Lt Tm Thung Tsai B fidl R 8 l&P.
General Record of Buddhist and Secular
History through the Ages.
Yuan, 1341.
Nien-Chhang (monk) 3R.
F u Chhi Ching I Lun #B g H B B.
Dissertation on the Meaning of 'Absorbing
the Chhi and the Ching' (for Longevity
and Immortality), [Taoist hygienic, r e s p
iratory, pharmaceutical, medical and
(originally) sexual procedures].
Thang, c. +715.
Ssuma Chh&ng-Chen m .R$ W.
I n YCCC, ch. 57.
Cf. Maspero (7), pp. 364 ff.
F u Hung Thu
p,.
Illustrated Manual on the Subduing of
Mercury.
Sui, Thang, J/Chin or possibly Ming.
Sheng Hsiian Tzu g 3 4.
Survives now only in quctations.
F u Nei Yumt Chhi Ching #E W R B.
Manual of Absorbing the Internal Chhi of
Primary (Vitality).
Thang, +&h, probably c. +755.
Huan Chen hsien-sCng (Mr Truth-andIllusion) $9[it
Lk.
TT/821, and in YCCC, ch. 60, pp. ~ o ff.
b
Cf. Maspero (7), p. 199.
F u Shih Lun BE ;ET I.
Treatise on the Consumption of Mineral
Drugs.
Thang, perhaps Sui.
Writer unknown.
Extant only in excerpts preserved in the
I Hsin Fang (+982).
F u Shou Tan Shu $g f i B.
A Book of Elixir-Enchymoma Techniques
for Happiness and Longevity.
Ming, 1621.
Cheng Chih-Chhiao
t#(at least in
part).
Partial tr. of the gymnastic material,
Dudgeon (I).

a.

a.

3s8

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Furd Ryakuki
S g E.
Classified Historical Matters concerning the
Land of Fu-Sang (Japan) [from +898 to
+11971Japan (Kamakura) I 198.
K~en
(monk).

Gmji M o ~ g a t m i R E & '3The Tale of (Prince) Genji.

Japan, 1021.
Murasaki Shikibu $# 2 B.

Hai Yao P& Tshao $ijB & B.

[= Nan Hai Yao Phu.]
Materia Medica of the Countries Beyond
the Seas.
Wu Tai (C/Shu), c. 923.
Li Hsiin r)5 ?mil.
Preserved only in numerous quotations in
Ch&g Lei P& Tshao and later pandects.
HanFeiTmr B9FF.
The Book of Master Han Fei.
Chou, early -3rd century.
91:.
Han Fei
Tr. Liao Wen-Kuei (I).
H a n K u a I BEE.
The Civil Service of the Han Dynasty and
its Regulations.
H/Han 197.
Ying Shao [Ffin.
Ed. Chang Tsung-Yuan B %B (+1752
to 1800).
Cf. Hummel (z), p. 57.
Han Kung Hsiang Fang .aB 8 B 2.
On the Blending of Perfumes in the Palaces
of the Han.
HjHan, I st or 2nd.
Genuine parts preserved c. I I 31 by
Chang Pang-Chi % $$ g.
Attrib. Tung Hsia-Chou
B A.
Comm. by Ch&ngHsiian E3.
'Restored', c. -k 1590, by Kao Lien -gi B.
Han Thien Shih Shih Chia B R &ti ttfi S.
Genealogy of the Family of the Han
Heavenly Teacher.
Date uncertain.
Writers unknown.
With Pu Appendix, 1918, by Chang YuanHsii B
(the 62nd Taoist Patriarch,
Thien Shih).
TT/I+W.
Han Wei Tshung-shu
E8 Jw B.
Collection of Books of the Han and Wei D p asties [first only 38, later increased to
961.
Ming, 1592.
Ed. Thu Lung A E.
Hun W u (Ti) Ku Shih
;je
B
Tales of (the Emperor) Wu of the Han
(r. - 140 to 87).
L/Sung and Chhi, late 5th.
Wanp Chien 5 B.

m)

Perhaps based on an earlier work of the

same kind by KO Hung
#.
Tr. d'Hormon (I).
Han Wu (Ti)Nei Chuan W
The Inside Story of (Emperor) Wu of the
Han (r. 140 to 87).
Material of Chin, L/Sung, Chhi, Liang and
perhaps Chhen date, +320 to +580.
probably stabilised about +580.
Attrib. Pan Ku, KO Hung, etc.
Actual writer unknown.
TT1289.
Tr. Schipper (I).
Han Wu(Ti)NkChumrFuLu S % m ) m #

m)

PfS E?.

See Hun Wu (Ti) Wai C h .

Hun Wu (Ti) Wai Chuan S (%) % CB(.
[=Hun Wu (Ti) Nei Chuan Fu Lu.]
Extraordinary Particulars of (Emperor) Wu
of the Han (and his collaborators), [largely
biographies of the magician-technicians
at Han Wu Ti's court].
Material of partly earlier date collected and
stabilised in Sui or Thang, early +7th
century.
Writers and editor unknown.
Introductory paragraphs added by Wang
Yu-Yen E Zbf (+ 746).
TTIz9o.
Cf. Maspem (7), p. 234, and Schipper (I).
Hn' cfien Shui Hu Lun 2-P&& E m.
Discourse on the Black Lead and the Water
Tiger.
Alternative title of Huan Tan Nei Hsiang
Chin Yo Shih, q.v.
Ho Chi Chii Fang
f l B 3.
Standard Formularies of the (Government)
Pharmacies based on the Thai-Phing
Sh& Hui Fang and other collections].
Sung, c. I 109.
Ed. Chhen Chheng
B , Phei TsungYuan
% z, & Chhen Shih-Wen

!%Et?*.

Cf. SIC, p. 974.

HonanChhenShihHsMngPhu R m @ B ; e m .
See Hsimg Phu by Chhen Ching.
H a a n Chhhg Shih I Shu +J S S Ea96.
Remaining Records of Discourses of the
Chh&ngbrothers of Honan [ChhCng I and
C h h h g Hao, 11th-century NeoConfucian philosophers].
Sung, I 168, pr. c. 1250.
Chu Hsi (ed.) % E.
In Erh C h m Chhiian Shu, q.v.
Cf. Graham (I), p. 141.
H m Ch*
Shih Tshui Y m
"IIPf E E 8.
Authentic Statements of the Chheng brothers
of Honan [Chhing I and ChhCng Hao,
I I th-century Neo-Confucian phiIosophers. In fact more altered and abridged
than the other sources, which are therefore
to be preferred.]

3 59

BIBLIOG RAPHY A
Honnn CShih Tshui Ym (cont.)
Sung, first collected c. I 150, supp08edly
ed. I 166, in its present form by
C.
1340.
Coll. H u Yin #j B.
Supposed ed. Chang Shih
g.
I n Erh Chh& Chhiian Shu, q.v., since
1606.
Cf. Graham (I), p. 145.
H m 6 - Wamya
@ 6.
Synonymic Materia Medica with Japanese
Equivalents.
Japan, +918.
Fukane no Sukehito
R tBQli Zf.
Cf. Karow (I).
Hou Han Shu @ ,$SS.
History of the Later Han Dynasty [+25 to
+zzo].
LISung, +450.
FanYeh B@.
T h e monograph chapters by Ssuma Piao
SJg (d. 305), with commentary by
BB (c. +510), who first inLiu Chao
corporated them in the work.
A few chs. tr. Chavannes (6, 16); Pfizmaier
(52. 53).
Yin-T& Index. no. AI.
H o u T 6 L u g@&. '
Stories of Eminent Virtue.
Sung. early 12th.
Li Yuan-Kang @ 3 m.
H u K a n g T z u F E n T h u ?@@N?WM.
Illustrated Manual of Powders [Salts], by
the Fox-Hard Master.
Sui or Thang.
m P.
H u Kang Tzu
Survives now only in quotations; originally
in T T but lost. Cf. Vol. 4, pt. I, p. 308.
Hua Tho Nei Chao Thu E E
M B.
Hua Tho's Illustrations of Visceral Anatomy.
See Hsiian M& M O Chiieh Nei Chao Thu.
Cf. Miyashita Saburo (I).
Hua- Yang Thao Yin-Chii C h n 9 E BB E
A Biography of Thao Yin-Chii (Thao
Hung-Ching) of Huayang [the great
alchemist, naturalist and physician].
Thang.
Chia Sung
8.
TTIz97.
Hua Ym Ching 3 E B.
Buddha-avatamsaka SUtra; T h e Adornment of Buddha.
India.
Tr. into Chinese. 6th century.
TW1278, 279.
Huai Nun Hung Lieh Chieh Tffj R if R.
See Hum' Nun Tau.
9.
Huai Nun Tzu
[= Huai Hun Hung Lkh Chieh B. i9Q

B .l

T h e Book of (the Prince of) Huai-Nan

[compendium of natural philosophy].

C/Han, c. 120.
Written by the group of scholars gathered
by Liu An (prince of Huai-Nan)
Partial trs. Morgan (I); Erkes (I); Hughes
(I); Chatley ( I ) ; Wieger (2).
Chung-Fa Index, no. 5.
TT11 170.
P
Hucri-Nan (Wang) Wan Pi Shu

a z.

m)

%.

p r o b . = Chm-Chung Hung-Pao Y u a - P i
Shu and variants.]
The Ten Thousand Infallible Arts of (the
Prince of) Huai-Nan [Taoist magical and
technical recipes].
C/Han, - 2nd century.
No longer a separate book but fragments
contained in T P YL, ch. 736 and elsewhere
Reconstituted texts by Yeh T&-Huiin
Kuan K u Thang So Chu Shu, and Sun
Feng-I in W& Ching Thang Tshmg-Shu.
Attrib. Liu An
S.
See Kaltenmark (z), p. 32.
I t is probable that the terms Chm-Chung
Confidential Pillow-Book; HungPao %
Infinite Treasure; Wan-Pi
1 Ten Thousand Infallible; and
Yuan-Pi E
Garden of Secrets; were
originally titles of parts of a Huai-Nan
Wang Shu B 5 (Writings of the
Prince of Huai-Nan) forming the Chung
Phien
(and perhaps also the
Wai Shu f i B) of which the present
Huai Nun Tzu book (q.v.) was the Nei
S.
Shu
Hucm Chen hsim-skrg, etc. .M ff & g.
See Thai Hsi Ching and F u Nei Yuan Chhi
Ching.
Huan Chin Shu 34
An Account of the Regenerative Metallous
Enchymoma.
Thang, probably 9th.
Thao Chih R @l.
TTlg15, also excerpted, in YCCC, ch. 70,
pp. 13 a ff.
Huan Tan Chou Hou Chiieh R P f a;f 3.
Oral Instructions on Handy Formulae for
Cyclically Transformed Elixirs [with
illustrations of alchemical apparatus].
Ascr. Chin, c. +320.
Actually Thang, including a memorandum
of +875 by Wu Ta-Ling & g E,and
the rest probably by other hands within a
few years of this date.
Attrib. KO Hung g g'.
TTlgo8.
Huan Tan Chung H s k Lun g j$*
B.
Pronouncements of the Company of the
Immortals on Cyclically Transformed
Elixirs.
Sung, 1052.
Yang Tsai
v/230.

a.

Is.

3 60

BIBLIOG

Huan Tan Fu Ming Phim

Pf tf& B.
Book on the Restoration of Life by the
Cyclically Transformed Elixir.
Sung, $- 12th cent.. c. 1175.
Hsiieh Tao-Kuang R X.
TT/1o74.
Huan Tan
Hsiang Chin Y o Shih
fi

a.

m $P

IcsUiZ.

r = H P ~chhien
'
Shvi HU Lun and H u m

Chhim Huo Lung Lun.]

A Golden Key to the Physiological Aspects
of the Regenerative Enchymoma.
Wu Tai, c. +950.
Ph&ngHsiao 3
Now but half a chapter in YCCC, ch. 70,
pp. I a ff., though formerly contained in
the Tao Tsang.
Humr Tan Pi Chiieh Yang Chhih-Tau Shen
Fang i@!Pf$B3S-7/i;'f-8~;5.
T h e Wondrous Art of Nourishing the
(Divine) Embryo (lit. the Naked Babe) by
the use of the secret Formula of the Regenerative Enchymoma [physiological
alchemy].
Sung, probably late 12th.
Hsii Ming-Tao 8 S.
TTl229.
Huan Y i i S h i h M o gEf B X .
On the Beginning and End of the World
[the Hebrew-Christian account of creation, the Four Aristotelian Causes.
Elements, etc.].
Ming, 1637.
Kao I-Chih (Alfonso Vagnoni) flS --..g.
Bernard-Maitre (IS), no. 283.
Humr Yuan P&
B JgB.
Book of the Return to the Origin [poems on
the regaining of the primary vitalities in
physiological alchemy].
Sung, c. I 140.
Shih Thai ;S f .
TT/1o77. Also in Hsiu Chen Shih Shu
(TT/z6o). ch. 2.
Huang Chi Ching Shfh Shu S $#f E ftl. S.
Book of the Sublime Principle which
governs All Things within the World.
Sung, c. 1060.
Shao Yung T3B B]
TTlro28. Abridged in Hsing Li Ta C h h h
and H+
Li Ching I.
HuangChiHoPiHsienChing RfijjMMfflB.
[= Yin Chen Jen Twq-Hua CMng MOHuang
Chi Ho Pi Ch&g Tao Hsien Ching.]
T h e Height of Perfection (attained by)
Opening and Closing (the Orifices of the
Body); a Manual of the Immortals [phyaiological alchemy, nei tan techniques].
Ming or Chhing.
Attrib. Yin chen jen (PhCng-Thou)

m.

9+7,5aA(%rn).

Ed. Min 1-1.8 rbJ TFf, c. 1830.

In Too Tsa~rgHsii Pim (Chhu c m ,

2,

a MS. preserved at the Blue Goat Temple

5$ T S (Chhengtu).
Huang Pai Ching E a
Mirror of (the Art of) the Yellow and the
White [physiological alchemy].
Ming, 1598.
Li W&n-Chu ZJS % m.
Comm. Wang Chhing-ChCng 5 E.
In Wai Chin Tan coll., ch. 2 (CTPS,pkt

from

7).
Huang-Thien Shang-Chhing Chin Chhiieh T i
Chiin Ling Shu Tzu- W& Shung Ching

sxk%&nwa%wE%%nkn.

Exalted Canon of the Imperial Lord of the

Golden Gates, Divinely Written in Purple
Script; a Huang-Thien Shang-Chhing
Scripture.
Chin, late +4th, with later revisions.
Writer unknown.
TTI634.
Huang Thing Chung Ching Ching B B I+ j&B.
[= Thai-Shang Huang Thing Chung Ching
Ching.]
Manual of the Middle Radiance of the
Yellow Courts (central regions of the
three parts of the body) [Taoist anatomy
and physiology].
Sui.
Li Chhien-Chheng
S.
TT11382, completing TT/398-400.
Cf. Maspero (7), pp. 195, 203.
Huang Thing Nei Chiqq W u Tsang Liu Fu PII
Hsieh Thu R!BR+kZl;iC;RBRM
Diagrams of the Strengthening and U'eakening of the Five Yin-viscera and the Six
Yang-viscera (in accordance with) the
(Jade Manual of the) Internal Radiance of
the Yellow Courts.
Thang, c. +850.
Hu An
SE.
TTI429.
Huang Thing Nei Ching W u Tsang Liu Fu Thu

RE&?gtXHARM.

Diagrams of the Five Yin-viscera and the

Six Yang-viscera (discussed in the Jade
Manual of the) Internal Radiance of the
Yellow Courts [Taoist anatomy and physiology; no illustrations surviving, but much
therapy and pharmacy].
Thang, +848.
jtf (title: Thai-pai Shan Chien
H u An
SuNU) AtL1CLIPt%&.
I n Hsiu Chm Shih Shu (TT/260), ch. 54.
Illustrations preserved only in Japan, MS. of
before +985.
SIC, p. 223; Watnnabe Kozo (I), pp. 1 1 2 ff.
Huang Thing Nn' Ching Y u Ching
A

5 H.

[= Thai-Shag Huang Thing NR' Cking Yii

Ching.1
Jade Manual of the Internal Radiance of the
Yellow Courts (central regions of the

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Huang Thing Nei Ching Yii Chinz (cont.)
three parts of the body) [Taoist anatomy
and physiology]. In 36 chang.
L/Sung. Chhi, Liang or Chhen, 5th or
+6th. The oldest parts date probably
from Chin, about +365.
Writer unknown. Allegedly transmitted by
immortals to the Lady Wei (Wei Fu Jen),
i.e. Wei Hua-Tshun Tifi 3E
. ..
TT/328.
Paraphrase by Liu Chhang-Sh&ng5Qnl E
(Sui). TTIm8.
&mm;. by LLng Chhiu Tzu R h P
(Thang), TT/3gg, and Chiang Shen-Hsiu
R M B (Sung), TTI400.
Cf. Maspero (7), p. 239.
Huang Thing Nei Ching Yii Ching Chu
ER

a.

*S@&.

Commentary on (and paraphrased text of)

the Jade Manual of the Internal Radiance
of the Yellow Courts.
Sui.
Liu Chhang-Sheng
4.
TTI398.
Huang Thing Nei Ching ( Yii) Ching Chu E

ms(E)as.

Commentary on the Jade Manual of the

Internal Radiance of the Yellow Courts.
Thang, +8th or +gth.
Liang Chhiu Tzu (ps.)
h 3.
TT/399, and in Hsiu Chen Shih Shu
(TT/z6o), chs. 55-57; and in YCCC,
chs. 11, 12 (where the first 3 chmrg (30
verses) have the otherwise lost commentary
of Wu Chheng Tzu B IJi 3).
Cf. Maspero (7), pp. 239 ff.
Huang Thing Nei Wai Ching Yii Ching Chieh

3tE&Pt-*Xf.?!fi$.

Explanation of the Jade Manuals of the

Internal and External Radiances of the
Yellow Courts.
Sung.
Chiang Shen-Hsiu
TTI4oo.
H m g Thing Wm Ching Yti Ching i$F B f i f f

EE.

[= Thai-Shang Huang Thing W a Ching Yti

Ching.1
Jade Manual of the External Radiance of
the Yellow Courts (central regions of the
three parts of the body) [Taoist anatomy
and physiology]. In 3 chilan.
H/Han, San Kuo or Chin, +znd or +grd.
Not later than +300.
Writer unknown.
TTI329.
Comma. by Wu Chheng Tzu fb F (earl/
Thang) YCCC, ch. 12; Liang Chhiu Tzu,
R G 4 (late Thang), TT1260, chs. 58-60;
Chiang Shen-Hsiu R @ #g (Sung),
TT/4oo.
Cf. Maspero (7). pp. 195 ff., 428 ff.

Huang Thing Wai Ching YU Ching Chu

*iEaEiL.

361
B

Commentary on the Jade Manual of the

External Radiance of the Yellow Courts.
Sui or early Thang, +7th.
Wu Chhbng Tzu (ps.) % .j;-lji F.
In YCCC, ch. 12, pp. 3oa ff.
Cf. Maspero (7). p. 239.
Huang Thing Wai Ching Yii Ching Chu R lQ;f i

WER3.

Commentary on the Jade Manuul of the

External Radiance of the Yellow Courts.
Thang, +8th or + g h .
Liang Chhiu Tzu (ps.) =h
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/26o), chs. 5860.
Cf. Maspero (7), pp. 239 ff.
Huang Ti Chiu Ting Shen Tan Ching Chiieh

+.

E%hB$!JR#$!!%.

The Yellow Emperor's Canon of the NineVessel Spiritual Elixir, with Explanations.
Early Thang or early Sung, but incorporating as ch. I a canonical work probably
of the +and cent.
Writer unknown.
TT/878. Also, abridged, in YCCC, ch. 67,
pp. r a ff.
Huang Ti Nei Ching, Ling Shu 3 B
l
W.
The Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal
(Medicine), the Vital Axis [medical
physiology and anatomy].
Probably C/Han, c. - 1st century.
Writers unknown.
Edited Thang, 762, by Wang Ping 3
Analysis by Huang Wen (I).
Tr. Chamfrault & Ung Kang-Sam (I).
Commentaries by Ma Shih
(Ming)
and Chang Chih-Tshung
,ii
(Chhing) in TSCC, I slzu tien,chs. 67to 88.
Huang Ti Nei Ching, Ling Shu, Pai Hua Chieh
See Chhen Pi-Liu 8: Cheng Cho-Jen (1).
Huang Ti IVei Ching, Su W& ci R
3
The Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal (Medicine); Questions (and Answers)
about Living Matter [clinical medicine].
Chou, remodelled in Chhin and Han,
reaching final form c. -2nd century.
Writers unknown.
Ed. & comm., Thang (+762), Wang Ping
3
Sung (c. 1050), Lin I $#;f;.
Partial trs. Hiibotter (I), chs. 4, 5 , 10, 11,
21; Veith (I); complete, Chamfrault &
Ung Kang-Sarn (I).
j See Wang & Wu (I), pp. 28 ff.; Huang Wen
(1).
Huang Tz Nei Ching S u W& I Phien 8%

a.

m.

a;

iF?l%ASR.

The ltlissing Chapters from the Questions

and Answers of the Yellow Emperor's
Illanual of Corporeal (Medin'ne).
Ascr. pre-Han.
Sung, preface, 1099.

3 62

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Huang T i Nei Ching Su W& I Phien*(cat.)

Ed. (perhaps written by) Liu Wen-Shu

Huo K m g Chhieh Yao R & $2 B.

Essentials o f Gunnery.
Ming, I 643.
Chiao Hsu %B.
Often appended to his Su W& Ju Shih Yiin
Chhi Ao Ltm (q.v.)
A 3 2% X I. W i t h the collaboration o f Thang Jo-Wang
( J . A. Schall von Bell)
Huang T i Nei Ching Su W&,Pm Hua Chieh
E.
Bernard-Maitre ( I S ) , no. 334.
See Chou FCng-Wu, TVang Wan-Chieh &
Hsu Kuo-Chhien ( I ) .
Huo Lien Ching R 2 S.
Manual o f the Lotus o f Fire lphysiological
Huang T i Pa-shih-i Nun Ching Tsuan Thu Chit
Chieh i t ' ; % ? ~ 4 - % @ J ~ ~ b B % alchemy].
Ming or Chhing.
Diagrams and a Running Commentary for
Attrib. Liu An,
the Manual of (Explanations Concerning)
-B (Han).
In W m Chin Tan, coll., ch. I (CTPS,p#% 6).
Eighty-one Dificult (Passages)in the Yellow
Emperor's (Manual of Corporeal Medicine). Hue Lung ChinR
%
B.
i
T h e Fire-Drake (Artillery) Manual.
Sung, 1270 (text H/Han, 1st).
Li Kung
Ming, +1412.
Chiao Y i i B E.
TT/ro~z.
T h e first part o f this book, in three sectionq
Huang T i Pao Tsang Ching E R E S.
is attributed fancifully to Chuko Wu-Hou
Perhaps an alternative name for H&(i.e. Chuko Liang), and Liu Chi
g
Yuan Pao Tsang (Chhang Wei) Lun, q.v.
(+ 1311 to 1375) appears as co-editor,
Huang T i Yin Fu Ching
%? %F S.
really perhaps co-author.
See Yin Fu Ching.
T h e second part, also in three sections, ia
Huang T i YinFuChingChu RBfBBS8.
attributed to Liu Chi alone, but edited,
Commentary on the Yellow Emperor's Book
probably written, by Mac Hsi-Ping
on the Harmony of the Seen and the Unseen.
B% in 1632.
Sung.
T h e third part, in two sections, is by Mao
Liu Chhu-HsUan
B 2.
TTIII~.
Yuan-I 8 Z B (P. 1628) and edited
Huang Yeh Fu R B.
by Chuko Kuang-Jung
B
whose preface is o f 1644, I'ang YuanRhapsodic Ode on ' SmeIting the Yellow'
Chuang f i X 8 & Chung Fu-Wu @$B
R.
[alchemy].
Thang, c. 840.
Huo Lung Chiieh A iftf 3.
Oral Instructions on the Fiery Dragon
Li T&-Yil
[proto-chemicaland physiological alchemy].
In Li W&-Jao Pieh Chi, ch. I .
Date uncertain, ascr. Yuan, 14th.
Huang Yeh Lun 3 B %
..
Essay on the 'Smelting o f the Yellow'
Attrib. Shang Yang T s u Shih
B I.
In W m Chin Tan (coll.), ch. 3 (CTPS, p& 8).
[alchemy].
Thang, c. +830.
Hupei Thung Chih M it- &.
Li Te-Yii
B.
Historical Geography o f Hupei Province.
Min Kuo, 1921, but based on much older
In W& Yuan Ying Hua, ch. 739, p. 1 5 4
records.
and L i W&-Jao Wai Chi, ch. 4.
Hui Ming Ching
@ B.
See Yang Chheng-Hsi (ed.) (1)
R
Hi Chhi Tshung Hua
%
[= Tsui-Shang I CM& Hui Ming Ching,
also entitled Hsii Ming Fang.]
( S K C S has Y a m).
Western Pool Collected Remarks.
Manual o f the (Achievement o f )Wisdom
Sung, c. I I 50.
and the (Lengthening o f the) Life-Span.
Chhing, 1794.
Yao Khuan
Liu Hua-Yang @
3 E.
l
Hsi Chhing Ku Chien
& S.
Hsi Chhing Catalogue o f Ancient Mirrors
C f . Wilhelm & Jung ( I ) , editions after 1957.
Hung Chhien Huo Lung Lun #E K I
I.
(and Bronzes) in the Imperial Collection.
(The collection was housed in the Library
Discourse on the Red Lead and the Fire
o f Western Serenity, a building in the
Dragon.
southern part o f the Imperial Palace).
Alternative title o f H u m Tan Nei HEiang
Chhing, 1751.
Chin Yo Shih, q.v.
Hung Chhien Ju Hei CWticn Chiieh #E A .f8
Liang Shih-ChBng g E.
PG%.
Hsi Shun Chhun Hsien Hui Chm Chi B a
Oral Instructions on the Entry o f the Red
flh $7 R
ATrue Account o f theProceedingsof the ComLead into the Black Lead.
panyof Immortalsin theWesternMountains.
Probably Sung, but some o f the material
Thang, c. 800.
perhaps older.
Compiler unknown.
Shih Chien-Wu
H b.
TT/934.
TT1243.

BI%%?-

+a.

m.

&a.
a

3 63

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Hsi Shang Fu Than

I E R.

e 71-year-old Gentleman of the Cedar

Garden.]
Bretschneider (2), vol. I, p. 128.

Old-Fashioned Table Talk.

Yuan, c. 1290.
YuYen &b.

R a.

Hsi Yuan Lu

Hsi Wang Mu Nii Hsiu Chhrg Thu Shih TIC

E Z - 3 k L i E & - f -RI.

The Washing Away of Wrongs (i.e. False

Charges) [treatise on forensic medicine].
Sung, 1247.
Sung Tzhu %S.
Partial tr., H. A. Gilea (7).

The Ten Rules of the Mother (Goddess)

Queen of the West to Guide Women
(Taoists) along the Right Road of
Restoring (the Primary Vitalities) [phyHsiang Chh& B A .
Records of Perfumes and Incense [insiological alchemy].
cluding combustion-clocks].
Ming or Chhing.
Ming, betw. 1618 and 1641.
Attrib. Lu Yen a
(+8th century).
Chou Chia-Chou M g
Shen I-Ping et al. & --*E.
HsMng Clrim B 3.
Cornrn. Min I-T& H
(c. 1830).
Notes on Perfumes and Incense.
In Tao Tsang Hsii Pien (Chhu chi), 19.
Ming, c. 1560.
Hsi- Yang Huo Kung Thu Shuo % A & E.
Thu Lung A B.
Illustrated Treatise on European Gunnery.
HuangKuo e m .
Ming, before 1625.
The Realm of Incenee and Perfumes.
& Sun HsUeh-Shih
Chang Tao
Ming.
%b%.
Mao Chin, f.
Hsi Yo Hua-Shun Chih B
$$CLl l&.
HEimrgLu g&.
Records of Hua-Shan, the Great Western
[= Nan Fan HsMng Lu.]
Mountain.
A Catalogue of Incense.
Sung, c. I 170.
Sung, +1151.
Wang Chhu-I 5 B
Yeh Thing-Kuei 4gi E 3%.
TTI304.
Hsimrg Phu B
Hsi Yo Tou hsien-S& Hsiu Chen Chih Nan
A Treatise on Aromatics and Incense
rn*S%LklV5EtErn.
[-Clocks].
Teacher Tou's South-Pointer for the
Sung, c. 1073.
Regeneration of the Primary (Vitalities),
ShenLi &&.
from the Western Sacred Mountain.
Now extant only in the form of quotations
Sung, probably early 13th.
in later works.
Tou hsien-s&ng
&.
HsMngPhu
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z6o), ch. 21,
A Treatise on Perfumes and Incense.
pp. xa to 66.
Sung, c. I I 15.
Hsi YuChi W@%.
Hung Chhu
A Pilgrimage to the West [novel].
HSinngPhu B%.
Ming, c. I 570.
[ = Hsin T s u a Hsi(Mg P h
Wu Chh&ng-En gt R ,E.
or H m Chhm shih Hsimrg Phu.]
'Tr. Waley (17).
A Treatise on Perfumes and Aromatic SubH n Yu Chi.
stances [including incense and combustSee Chhang-Chhun Chen Jen Hsi Yu Chi.
ion-clocks].
Hsi Yii Chiu W&
M.
Sung, late 12th or 13th; may be as late
Old Traditions of the Western Countries [a
conflation, with abbreviations, of the
aS +1330.
Chhen Ching
1.
Hsi Yii W& Chien Lu and the Sh& Wu
Chi, q.v.1.
H W P h B%.
A Treatise on Incense and Perfumes.
Chhing, 1777 and 1842.
Yuan, 1322.
-t:
Chhun Yuan Chhi-shih-i Lao-jen
Hsiung Ph&ng-Lai
M R.
-f--eA&WeiYuan
Hsirg Yao Chhao
S B.
Arr. C h h g Kuang-Tsu (1843)
#1 m.
Memoir on Aromatic Plants and Incense.
Hsi Yii Thu Chi @j
Japan, c. I 163.
Illustrated Record of Western Countries.
Sui, +610.
&.MS. preserved at
Kuan-Yu (Kanyu)
Phei Chii
B.
g ;fi
Temple. Facsim. rethe
Hsi Yii W&ChienLu Wl&mJJ,@.
prod. in Suppl. to the Japanese Tripipka,
Things Seen and Heard in the Western
301. 11.
Countries.
H k h Thicn Chi
R
Chhing, 1777.
A Divulgation of the Machinery of Nature
Chhun Yuan Chhi-ahih-i Lao-jen
(in the Human Body. permitting the
Formation of the Enchymoma).
i%m-k+-~EA.

+
a.

-.

a.

@a.
+

&a.

z.

a.

3 64

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Hsieh TKm Chi (cont.)

Chhing, c. 1795.
Li Ong (Ni-Wan shih) 4 (Mr Ni-Wan).
Written down in 1833 by Min Hsiao-Ken

W 11. R.

I n Tao Tsang H d Picn (Chhu chi), 4.

HsicnLoChi
(Collected Poems) on the Happiness of the
Holy Immortals.
Sung, late 12th cent.
Liu Chhu-Hsuan
B 3.
TT11127.
Hsim- Y u a Huang Ti Shui Ching Yao Fa @f

f~hss.
+

ER?kmt%i%.

(Thirty-two) Medicinal Methods from the

Aqueous (Solutions) Manual of HsienYuan the Yellow Emperor.
Date uncertain.
Writer unknown.
TT/9zz.
Hsien- Yuan Pao Tsang Chhang Wci Lun @f

*R%E?%.

T h e Yellow Emperor's Expansive yet

Detailed Discourse on the (Contents of
the) Precious Treasury (of the Earth)
[mineralogy and metallurgy].
Alternative title of Pao Tsanz Lun, q.v.
Hn'm- Yuan Pao Tsang Lun R iQW R U .
The Yellow Emperor's Discourse on the
Contents of the Precious Treasury (of the
Earth).
See Pao Tsang Lun.
Hsin Hsiu P & Tshao R $Z S.
The New (lit. Newly Improved) Pharmacopoeia.
Thang, +659.
Ed. Su Ching (= Su Kung) B (RB)
and a commission of 22 collaborators
under the direction first of Li Chi 4 @J
& Yu Chih-Ning 7 ,gv, then of
Chhangsun Wu-Chi g 1% ,Q. This
work was afterwards commonly but incorrectly known as Thang P& Tskao. It
was lost in China, apart from MS. fragments at Tunhuang, but copied by a
Japanese in 73 I and preserved in Japan
though incompletely.
Hsin Lun WC2%.
New Discussions.
H/Han, c. 10 to +20, presented +25.
Huan Than
3.
Cf. Pokora (g).
Hsin Lun
3.
New Discourses.
Liang, c. 530.
Liu Hsieh $7 CB.
Hsin Than< Shu ?pr
S.
New History of the Thang Dynasty
[ + 6 r 8 to +go6].
Sung, 1061.
Ouyang Hsiu W E B & Sung Chhi

% $15.

Cf. des Rotours (2), p. 56.

Partial trs. des Rotours (I, 2); Pfizmaier (6674). For translations of passages see the
index of Frankel (I).
Yin-T6 Index. no. 16.
r E S 3.
Hsin Tsuan Hsiang Phu P
See Hsiang Phu by Chhen Ching.
Hsin Wu Tai Shih
jtih R E.
Xew History of the Five Dynasties [+go7
to +959I.
Sung, c. 1070.
Ouyang Hsiu (%t E #g.
For translations of passages see the index of
Frankel (I).
Hsin Yii R%.
New Discourses.
C/Han, c. - 196.
R.
L u Chia
Tr. v. Gabain (I).
Hsing L i Ching I
#j S.
Essential Ideas of the Hsing-Li (NeoConfucian) School of Philosophers [a condensation of the Hsing Li Ta Chhiian, q.v.1.
Chhing, 1715.
Li Kuang-Ti
% tfi.
Hsing Li Ta C h h u a (Shu) B E3F;4 (P).
Collected Works of (120) Philosophers of
the Hsing-Li (Neo-Confucian) School
[Hsing = human nature; L i = the
principle of organisation in all Nature].
Ming, 1415.
Ed. H u Kuang et al.
Hsing iWng K u k Chih
& 2 g.
A Pointer to the Meaning of (Human)
Kature and the Life-Span [physiological
alchemy; the kuk is a pun on the two
kinds of thu, central earth where the
enchymoma is formed].
Ascr. Sung, pr. Ming and Chhing, 1615,
repr. I 670.
Attrib. Yin Chen Jen P. E A.
Written out by Kao T i B $$.
Prefs. by Yii Yung-Ning et al. & ijc-.
Hs* Shih H 6 n ~Yen F$jttffiz.
Stories to Awaken Men.
Ming, c. 1640.
Feng M&ng-Lung ;,$ !S %.
Hsiu Chen Chih Nan 15t $5R.
South-Pointer for the Regeneration of the
Primary (Vitalities).
See Hsi Yo Tou hsien-s&f Hsiu Chm Chih
Nun.
Hsiu Chen Li Yen Chhno Thu
R @ $3!$l.
[= Chen Yuan Miao Tao Hsiu Tan Li Yen
Chhao.]
Transmitted D i a m m s illustrating Tried and
Tested (Methods of) Regenerating the
Primary Vitalitien [physiological alchemy].
Thang or Sung, before 1019.
No writer named but the version in YCCC,
ch. 72, has Tung Chen Tzu (ps.)
E F.
TTI149.

%a

a.

1
5

3%

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Hsiu Chm Nei Lien Pi ~WiaoChu Chiieh

&

H,$9,m 3.

Collected Instructions on the Esoteric

XIystcries o f Regenerating the Primary
(Vitalities) by Internal Transmutation.
Sung or pre-Sung.
Writer unknown.
Perhaps identical with Hsiu Chm Pi
Chiieh (q.v.); now extant only in
quotations.
Hsiu Chen Pi Chiieh % E 3.
Esoteric Instructions on the Regeneration o f
the Primary (Vitalities).
Sung or pre-Sung, before I 136.
Writer uncertain.
In Lei Shtto, ch. 49, pp. g a f f .
Hsiu Chen Pien iVan (Tshan Clzhg)
E@

BE.

[Chhi Yiin Shun W u Yuan Yzu Hsiu Chm

Pien ATan Tshan C h h ~ . ]
A Discussion o f the Difficultiesencountered
in the Regeneration o f the Primary
(Vitalities) [physiological alchemy]; with
Supporting Evidence.
Chhing, 1798.
Liu I-Ming
( W u Yuan T z u

E zF).

zfl-

Comm., Min I-T&

--S (c. 1830).
In Tao Tsang Hsii Pien (Chhu chi), 23.
Hsiu Chen Shih Shu B E P.
A Collection o f T e n Tractates and Treatises on the Regeneration o f the Primary
(Vitalities) [in fact, many more than
ten].
Sung, c. xzgo.
Editor unknown.
TTlz60.
C f . hlaspero (71, PP. 239,357.
Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Thu

&iidZE3.

Illustrated Treatise on the (Analogy o f the)

Regeneration o f the Primary (Vitalities)
(with the Cosmogony o f ) the Supreme
Pole and Primitive Chaos.
Sung, c. I loo.
Hsiao Tao-Tshun R 3
TT/146.
Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Chih H&m Thu

a.

BEk%GLZ%-$:R.

Illustrated Treatise Expounding the Mystery

o f the (Analogy o f the) Regeneration o f
the Primary (Vitalities) (with the Cosmogony o f )the Supreme Pole and
Primitive Chaos.
Thang, c. +83o.
Chin Chhuan T z u 43P.
TTl147.
HsiuChm Y m I # R % @ .
A Popular Exposition o f (the Methods o f )
Regenerating the Primary (Vitalities)
[Taoist sexual techniques].
Ming, c. 1560.

Teng Hsi-Hsien
pji- ( T z u Chin
Kuang Yao T a Hsien R & X B {a
See van Gulik ( 3 , 8).
Hsiu Hsim Pien Huo Lun Q {h @ g,I .
Resolution o f Doubts concerning the
Restoration to Immortality.
Sung, c. 1220.
KO Chhang-KOng g g IXf
(Pai Yu-Chhan 8 X
In TSCC, Shen i tim, ch. 300, i W&, pp.
11aff.
Hsiu Lien Ta Tan Yao Chih @
U AiPf.l P.
Essential Instructions for the Preparation o f
the Great Elixir [with illustrations o f
alchemical apparatus].
Probably Sung or later.
Writer unknown.
TT/gos.
Hsiu Tan Miao Yung Chih Li Lun bS pl B H
323;S.
A Discussion o f the Marvellous Functions
and Perfect Principles o f the Practice of
the Enchymoma.
Late Sung or later.
Writer unknown.
TTlz31.
Refers to the Sung adept Hai-Chhan hsiensSng
m % Lk (Liu Tshao E).
Hsii Chen-Chiin Pa-shih-zcu Hua Lu 9 S

a).

R 4hik&.

Record o f the Transfiauration of the A d e ~ t

Hsii (Hsun) at the xge o f Eighty-five.
Chin, +@h cent.
Shih Tsh8n
TTI~~s.
Hsii Chen-ChBn Shih Han Chi
7.A 5 E ij.
T h e Adept Hsu (Sun's) Treatise, found in a
Stone Coffer.
Ascr. Chin, +4th cent., perhaps c. 370.
Attrib. Hsu Hsun 3 S.
TTI944.
C f . Davis & Chao Ytin-Tshung (6).
{a M.
Hsii Hsien Chuan
Further Biographies o f the Immortals.
W u Tai (H/Chou),between +g23 and
+936.
Shen Fen &B.
In YCCC, ch. 113.
B B.
Hsti Ku Chai Chi Suan Fa #
Choice Mathematical Remains Collected to
Preserve the Achievements o f Old [magic
squares and other computational examples].
Sung, 1275.
Yang Hui $BB.
( I n Yanx Hui S u m Fa.)
Hsii Kuang-Chhi Shou Chi & % YC:
Manuscript Remains o f Hsu Kuang-Chhi
[facsimilereproductions].
Shanghai, 1962.
H d Ming Fang
& 3.
Precepts for Lengthening the Life-span.
Alternative title o f Hui Ming Ching (q.v.).

+.

m.

3M

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Hsii PO W u Chih
f$
.g.
Supplement to the Record of the Imestigation of Things (cf. PO W u Chih).
Sung, mid
12th century.
Li Shih * E .
H d S h m HEicn Chuan @ {fi 11.
Supplementary Lives of the Hsien (cf.
Shen Hsien Chum).
Thang.
Shen Fen %R5).
Hsii Shih Shih @ SB.
Supplement to the Beginnings of All Aflairs
(cf. Shih Shih).
H/Shu, c. +960.
Ma Chien
@.
H d Yen-Chou Shih Hua R j8j S.
Hsii Yen-Chou's Talks on Poetry.
Sung, early +lath, prob. c. 1111.
Hsii Yen-Chou 3 B
Hsiiun Chieh Lu R &.
See Hsiian Chieh Lu 3 fj$ B.
Hsihn Chieh Lu 2 irp$ B.
The Mysterious Xntidotariurn [warnings
against elixir poisoning, and remedies for
it].
Thang, anonymous preface of +855, prob.
first pr. between 847 and 850.
Writer unknown, perhaps Hokan Chi

m.

E? 8.

T h e first printed book in any civilisation on

a scientific subject.
T T I ~ Z Iand
, in YCCC, ch. 64, pp. ga R.
Hsiian F&g Chhing Hui Lu 2
f%F.
Record of the Auspicious Meeting of the
Mysterious Winds [answers given by
Chhiu Chhu-Chi (Chhang-Chhun Chen
Jen) to Chingiz Khan at their interviews
at Sarnarqand in 12221.
Sung.
1225.
Chhiu Chhu-Chi
TT1173.
Hsiiun-HoPoKuThuLu B@f@Sm&.
[= PO Ku Thu Lu.]
Hsiian-Ho reign-period Illustrated Record
of Ancient Objects [catalogue of the
archaeological museum of the emperor
Hui Tsung].
Sung, + I I I I to +1125.
Wang F u X 9iifi or
et al.
Hsiian Kuai Hsii Lu 2 tB: R.
The Record of Things Dark and Strange,
continued.
Thang.
3.
L i Fu-Yen
Hsiian M& MO Chiielr h'n' Chao Thu 3 $9 Alff

a a.

%RF$~.

[ = Hua Tho Nei Chao Thu.]

Illustrations of Visceral Anatomy, for the
Taoist Sphygmological Instructions.
Sung, I 095, repr.
1273 by Sun Huan
%, # with the inclusion of Yang Chieh's
illustrations.

Attrib. Hua Tho b E.

First pub. Shen Chu &S.
Cf. Ma Chi-Hsing (a).
H d a n Ming F& Chuan 3 @J ~B
B.
On the 'Mysterious Bright Powder' (purified sodium sulphate, Glauber's salt).
Thang, c. 730.
Liu Hsiian-Chen @l
3 E.
Hsiian lVu Ching 3 & S.
Canon of the Mysterious Girl [or, the Dark
Girl].
Han.
Writer unknown.
Only as fragment in Shuung Mci Ching An
Tshung Shu, now conflated with Stc Nii
Ching, q.v.
Partial tn., van Gulik (3, 8).
Hslian Phin Lu 3 R.
Record of the (Different) Grades of Immortals.
Yuan.
Chang Thien-Yii if6t
TT/773Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (l), 1st ed., p. 260.
Hsiian Shih Chih B Z ,g.
Records of Hsiian Shih.
Thang, c. 860.
Chang T u
Hsiian Shuang Chang Shang Lu 3 S O k6%.
Mysterious Frost on the Palm of the Hand;
or, Handy Record of the Mysterious
Frost [preparation of lead acetate].
Date unknown.
Writer unknown.
T T / 938.

m.

@m.

I C h m Thung Ching Yen Fang

I fi.

R R2

Tried and Tested Prescriptions of the

True-Centenarian Hall (a surgery or
pharmacy).
Ming, prob.
15th, c. 1450.
Yang shih
8;.
I Chi Khao B %.
Comprehensive Annotated Bibliography of
Chinese AIedical Literature.
See Taki Mototane (I).
I Cltai Ta Fa @ % % S .
See I I'in Thang I Chtrng Ching Kuang Wei
Ta Fa.
I Chien Chih R ,g.
Strange Stories fom I-Chien.
Sung, c. + I I 85.
Hung Mai
S.
I Chin Citing &
Manual of Exercising the hIuscles and
Tendons [Buddhist].
Ascr. N/Wei.
Chhing, perhaps $. 17th.
Attrib. Ta->To (Bodhidharrna) gAuthor unknown.
Reproduced in IVang Tsu-Yuan (I).

a.

3 67

B I B L I O GRAPHY A

I Ching

&S.

The Classic of Changes [Book of Changes].

Chou with C/Han additions.
Compilers unknown.
See Li Ching-Chih (l, 2 ) ; \Vu Shih-Chhang
(1).
Tr. R. \\'ilhelm (2); Legge (g); de Harlez (I).
Yin-TC Index, no. (suppl.) 10.

I Hsin Fang (Ishinhd) B ,L. 3.

The Iieart of Medicine [partly a collection

of ancient Chinese and Japanese books].
Japan, 982 (not printed till 1854).
Tamba no Yasuyori Pf E B.

I Hsiieh Ju Mt?n
A rq.
Janua Medicinae [a general system of
medicine].
Ming, 1575.
Li Chhan +@.

I Hsueh Yuan Liu Lun

PR i#t: R.

On the Origins and Progress of Medical

Science.
Chhing, 1757.
Hsii ?'a-Chhun
% @$.
(In Hsu Ling-Thai I Shu Chhiian Chi.)

B pq a g.

Pi Cl~ilz

Confidential Guide to Medicine.

Ming, -t- 1578.
Chang Ssu-\Vei
m B.

I Shan Tsa Tsuan

8.

Collected XIiscellany of (Li) I-Shan [Li

Shang-Yin, epigrams].
Thang, c. 850.
Li Shang-Yin ZjS B.
Tr. Ronmarchand (I).

I Shih

i2 g.

B.

Records of Barbarian Customs.

Alternative title of Pei Lu FEng Su, q.v.

m m R.

I Thu iMing Pien

Clarification of the Diagrams in the (Book

o f ) Changes [historical analysis].
Chhing, 4- I 706.
H u IYei

jz.

I Wei Chhien Tso Tu +F,

E t; g.

Apocryphai Treatise on the (Book of)

Chan,qes; a Penetration of the Regularities
of Chhien (the first kua).
C/Han, - I st or 1st century.
Writer unknown.

I IVei Ho Thzr Shri

Islzinha
See I Efin Fang.

Jih Chih Lu

a a a.

Daily Additions to Knowledge.

1673.
Chhing,
Ku Yen-Wu
R.

Jih Hua Chu Chia Pi% Tshao

34

l$.

The Sun-Rays Master's Pharmaceutical

Natural History, collected from Many
Authorities.
Wu Tai and Sung, c. +972.
Often ascribed by later writers to the
Thang, but the correct dating was recognised by Thao Tsung-I in his Cho K&g
Lu (+1366) ch. 24, p. 176.
T a Ming
(Jih Hua Tzu l3 2% P the Sun-Rays
Master.)
(Perhaps Thien Ta-Ming Ej A

m.

-7ih Yiieh H s i h Shu Lun

v).

B El 2 M 2%.

Discourse on the Mysterious Axis of the

Sun and PvIoon [i.e. Yang and Yin in
natural phenomena; the earliest interpretation (or recognition) of the Chou I Tshan
Thung Chhi (q.v.) as a physiological
rather than (or, as well as) a protochemical text].
Thang, c. +740.
Liu Chih-Ku
8.
hTowextant only as quotations in the Tao
Shu (q.v.), though at one time contained
in the Tao Tsang separately.
Ju Yao Cliing A @ $2.
Mirror of the All-Penetrating Medicine (the
enchymoma), [rhyming verses].
Wu Tai, c. 940.
Tshui Hsi-Fan
Tjfm.
TTj132, and in T T C Y (hszi chi, 5).
With commentaries by Wang Tao-Yuan
4. 83 (Yuan); Li Phan-Lung
g
(lqing) & PhSng Hao-KU B 8 S
(hqing).
Also in Hsiu Cknt Shih Sht~(TT/26o),
ch. 13, pp. I a ff. with commentary by
Hsiao Thing-Chih R
(Rling).
Also in Tao Hai Chin Lian,~,pp. 3j a ff.,
with comm. by Fu Chin-Chhiian
@ $E
(Chhing).
See also Thien Yrtan Jzr Yao Chinz.
CF. van Gulik (8), pp. 224 ff.

Leisurely Histories.
Thang.
L u Shih
E.

I Srr Chi 6

going back to I Yin (legendary minister)

and his Phannacal Potions, and to (Chang)
Chung-Ching (famous Han physician).
1294.
Yuan,
Wang Hao-Ku X af g.
ICK, p. 863.

& #$l
m F.

.4pocryphal Treatise on the (Book of)

Chanses; the Numbers of the Ho Thu
(Diagram).
H/Han.
Writer unknown.

I Yilz Than# I Chztng Chin# Kuang Wei Ta Fa

tYFE%fl*@R%E.

[ = I Chia Ta Frr or Kuang JVei Ta Fa.]

The Great Tradition (of Internal Medicine)

jz

e-3

Karr Clihi Shih-liu Chuan Chin Tan

$342 Pf.

a S-f X

The Sixteen-fold Cyclically Transformed

Gold Elixir prepared by the 'Responding

3 68

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

K m Chhi Shih-liu Chuan Chin Tan (cont.)

to the Chhi' Method [with illustrations of
alchemical apparatus].
Sung.
Writer unknown.
TT/g04.
Km Ying Ching W ; m I .
On Stimulus and Response (the Resonance
of Phenomena in Nature).
Thang, c. +640.
Li-Shun-Feng 2J5 #$W.
See Ho & Needham (2).
Km YingLeiTshngChih S I R @ , % .
Record of the Mutual Resonances of
Things according to their Categories.
Chin, c. +295.
S.
l?
Chang Hua &
See Ho & Needham (2).
Koo Shih Chum, & zk B.
Lives of Men of Lofty Attainments.
Chin, c. +275.
Huangfu Mi
g.
K@ Hrin Ye TshB A S W).
Precious Secrete of the Realm of K&g and
Hsin (i.e. all things connected with
metals and minerals, symbolised by theee
two cyclical characters) [on alchemy and
pharmaceutics. K&ng-Hsinis also an
alchemical synonym for gold].
Ming, 1421.
Chu Chhiian &B, (Ning Hsien Wang
3,prince
of the Ming).
?+
l
Extant only in quotations.
K& Tao Chi R g.
Collection of Procedures of the Golden Art
(Alchemy).
Sung or Yuan, date unknown but after I 144
Writers unknown.
B &.
Compiler, M&ngHsien chIi shih #f
TT1946.
Khai-Pao Hzin HJMtg-Ting P& Tshao

m ss
iR'z*sNew and More Detailed Pharmacopoeia of

the Khai-Pao reign-period.

sung. +973.
LiuHan a @ , M a C h i h E,-6;,and
7 other naturalists, under the direction of
Lu To-Hsun W @L S.
Khai-Pao P& Tshao &FI
g.
See Khai-Pao Hzin Hsiang-Ting Pkt Tshao.
Khun Yii KOChih @ ;l;p B.
Investigation of the Earth Western mining methods based on Agricola's De Re
Metallica]
Ming, 1639to 1640. perhaps never printed.
Teng Yii-Han (Johann Schreck) B 1%
& (or) Thang Jo-Wang B
g (John
Adam Schall von Bell).
KlnmgChiKoChih S R B R .
A Treatise on the Material Composition of
the Universe [the Aristotelian Four
Elements, etc.].

Ming, 1633.
Kao I-Chih (Alfonso Vagnoni) X ,S.
Bemard-Maitre (18). no. 227.
Khung shih Tsa Shuo
E B.
Mr Khung's Miscellany.
Sung, c. 1082.
Khung Phing-Chung X zP $+.
KO Chih Ching Y w n #$ fi44 m.
Mirror of Scientific and Technological
Origins.
Chhing, 1735.
Chhen Yuan-Lung
jZ
KO Chih Tshao
B 3.
Scientific Sketches [astronomy and cosmology; part of Hun Yu Thung, q.v.1.
Ming, 1620, pr. 1648.
Hsiung Ming-Yti
@jB.
KOHsien Ong Chou Hou Pk Chi Fang S$4

m.

m24cfi%3?.

The Elder-Immortal KO (Hung's) Handbook of Medicines for Emergencies.

Alt. title of Chou Hou Pk Chi Fang (q.v.).
TT/1287.
KOHung Chen Chung Shu g g15 & @ S.
Alt. title of Chen Chung Chi (q.v.).
KOKu Yao Lun ++$ ZJS.
Handbook of Archaeology, Art and Antiquarianisn.
Ming, 1387, enlarged and reissued f 1459.
Tshao Chao fl BR.
KO Wu Tshu Than
Simple Discourses on the Investigation of
Things.
Sung, c. 980.
Attrib. wrongly to Su Tung-Pho S g.
Actual writer (Lu) Tsan-Ning (B)
g frgc
(Tung-Pho hsien-s&ng).With later additions, some concerning Su Tung-Pho.
Konjaku Monogatan'
3 B B.
Tales of Today and Long Ago (in three
collections: Indian, 187 stories and traditions, Chinese, 180, and Japanese, 736).
Japan (Heian), I 107.
Compilers unknown.
Cf. Anon. (103). pp. 97 ff.
Konjaku Monogatarishn 4 &I B S.
See Kofjaku Monogatmi.
Ku Chin I Thung (Ta Chhiian) -k 4
(A 2).
Complete System of Medical Practice, New
and Old.
Ming, 1556.
Hsu Chhun-Fu I S.
Ku Thung Thu Lu
fl.
Illustrated Account of the (Mining), Smelting and Refining of Copper (and other NonFerrous Metals).
See Masuda Tsuna (I).
Ku WeiShu *@$B.
Old Mysterious Books [a collection of the
apocryphal Chhan-Wei treatises].
Date uncertain, in part C/Han.
Ed. Sun Chio
(Ming).

a&as.

mm

369

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Ku W& Lung Hu Ching Chu Su ii!i X

EI
B flE and Ku W & Lung Hu Shang Ching
Chu &ff8tfdkftSk.
See Lung Hu Shang Ching Chu.
Ku W f n Tshan Thung Chhi Chi Chieh
ff

A%s%.

See Ku W& Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi C h .

Ku W& Tshan Thung Chhi Chim Chu Chi Chieh

$3C&FI%%%fft@.

See Ku W& Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu

Ku W& Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu S ff

PI&BFJ@Z.

Commentary on the Ancient Script Version

of the Kinship of the Thtee.
Chhing,
1732.
Ed. and comm. Yuan Jen-Lin B H.
See Vol. 5, pt. 3.
Ku W & Tshan Thung Chhi San Hsiung Lei Chi
Chieh - k % & [ ; ; l W 3 ~ R i % ~ .
See Ku W & Chou I lihan T h u g Chhi C h .
Kuan Khuk Pien
R
An Optick Glass (for the Enchyrnoma).
See Min I-TC (I).
Kuan Yin Tzu
p7.
[= W & Shih Chen Ching.]
T h e Book of Master Kuan Yin.
Thang, +742 (may be Later Thang or Wu
Tai). A work with this title existed in the
Han, but the text is lost.
Prob. Thien Thung-Hsiu
m E.
Kuang Chhhrg Chi E @,
The Kuang-chh&ng Collection r a o i s t writings of every kind; a florilegium].
Thang, late +gth; or early Wu Tai, before
+933.
T u Kuang-Thing
% B.
TT161 I.
Kucmg Wei T a F a B R % & .
See I Yin Thang I Chung Ching Kuang Wei
Ta Fa.
Kuang Y a I1Ip B.
Enlargement of the Erh Y a ; Literary
Expositor [dictionary].
San Kuo (Wei) +230.
Chang I
f$.
Kuang Yiin E 3.
Enlargement of the Chhieh Yiin; Dictionmy
of the Sounds of Characters.
Sung.
(A completion by later Thang and Sung
scholars, given its present name in Ior I.)
L u Fa-Yen et al.
3.
Kuei Chung Chih Nun B @ $E
A Compass for the Internal Compasses; or,
Orientations concerning the Rules and
Measures of the Inner (World) [i.e. the
preparation of the enchyrnoma in the
microcosm of man's body].
Sung or Yuan,
13th or 14th.
Chhen Chhung-Su
iyl R ( H d Pai
~ z u
F).
TT/240, and in T T C Y (shag mao chi, 5).

m.

z.

m.

aa

Kungyang Chum 4 B.
Master Kungyang's Tradition (or Commentary) on the Spriny and Autumn
Annals.
Chou (with Chhin and Han additions),
late - 3rd and early - 2nd centuries.
Attrib. Kungyang Kao & F ;& but more
probably Kungyang Shou 4 +S.
See Wu Khang (I); van der Loon (I).
Kuo Shih Pu m E M.
Emendations to the National Histories.
Thang, c. 820.
LiChao
K m Yii HR.
Discourses of the (ancient feudal) States.
Late Chou, Chhin and C/Han, containing
much material from ancient written
records.
Writers unknown.

+a.

Luo Hsiieh An Pi Chi sF$%B@EIfe.

Notes from the Hall of Learned Old Age.
Sung, c. I go.
L u Y u E%.
Luo Tzu Chung Ching
F I+ E.
The Median Canon of Lao Tzu [on
physiological micro-cosmography].
Writer unknown.
Pre-Thang.
In YCCC, ch. 18.
Luo Tzu Shuo W u Chhu Ching 2 E 5 B B.
Canon of the Five Kitchens [the five
viscera] Revealed by Lao Tzu [respiratory
techniques].
Thang or pre-Thang.
Writer unknown.
I n YCCC, ch. 61, pp. gb ff.
Lei Chen Chin Tan g &R.
Lei Chen's Book of the Metallous Encyhmoma.
Ming, after 1420.
Lei Chen (ps. ?) 3 S.
In Wai Chin Tan, ch. 5 (CTPS, pkt 10).
LeiChenTanChing g@Pf@.
Alternative title of Lei Chen Chin Tan
(q.v.).
Lei C m Phu Chi P& Shih Fang R B 9

gf i .
Classified Fundamental Prescriptions of
Universal Benefit.
Sung, +1253.
,
Attrib. Hsii Shu-Wei R
(g. 1132)
LeiChingFuI %@F#%.
Supplement to the Classics Classified; (the
Institutes of Medicine).
Ming, 1624.
Chang Chieh-Pin W $p g.
L4 K u n ~Phao Chih
& g.
(Handbook based on the )Venerable Master
G ' s (Treatise on) the Preparation (of
~tugs).
L/Sung, c. +470.

370

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Lei Kung Phao Chi (cont.)

Lei Hsiao 3 S.
Ed. Chang Kuang-Tou
% 4 (Chhing),
1871.
L e i K u n g P h u o C h i h L u n F&@%%.
The Venerable Master Lei's Treatise on
the Decoction and Preparation (of Drugs).
L/Sung, c. +470.
h i Hsiao
Preserved only in quotations in C h h g L&
P& Tshao and elsewhere, and reconstituted by Chang Chi g
LPC, p. r 16.
Lti Kung Phao Chih Yao Hsing (Fu) Chieh

m@.

a.

%?&~~P~S&(WR.-

(Essays and) Studies on the Venerable

Master G ' s (Treatise on) the Natures of
Drugs and their Preparation.
First four chapters J/Chin, c. 1220.
LiKao
Last six chapters Chhing, c. 1650.
Li Chung-Tzu
F/Y R.
(Contains many quotations from earlier
Lei Kung books, 5th century onwards.)
h
i K U ~YRa o Tui 3 4 @ 3.
Answers of the Venerable Master Lei (to
Questions) concerning Drugs.
Perhaps L/Sung, at any rate before N/Chhi.
Attrib. Lei Hsiao 8
Later attrib. a legendary minister of Huang
Ti.
Comrn. by Hsii Chih-Tshai
2 2,
N/Chhi +565.
Now extant only in quotations.
GShuo
A Classified Commonplace-Book [a great
florilegium of excerpts from Sung and
pre-Sung books, many of which are
otherwise lost].
Sung, I 136.
Ed. Ts@ngTshao p B.
LiChi
[= Hsiao Tai L i Chi.]
Record of Rites [compiled by Tai the
Younger].
(Cf. T a Tai L i Chi.)
Ascr. C/Han, c. -701- 50, but really
H/Han, between 80 and 105, though
the earliest pieces included may date from
the time of the Analects (c. -465 to -450).
9.
Attrib. ed. Tai ShCng
Actual ed. Tshao Pao R B.
Trs. Legge (7); Couvreur (3); R. Wilhelm
(6).
Yin-T& Index, no. 27.
L i Hai Chi %%S.
The Beetle and the Sea [title taken from the
proverb that the beetle's eye view cannot encompass the wide s e a - a biological
book].
Ming, late 14th century.
Wang Khuei 5 g.

*#.

a.

na.
+

m%.

m@.

LiSao
Elegy on Encountering Sorrow [ode].
Chou (Chhu), c. -295, perhaps just before
-300. Some scholars place it as late as
269.
Chhii Yuan Tja R.
Tr. Hawkes (I).
L i Shih Chen Hsien Thi Tao Thung Chien

1R{UiEf3jZ533E.

Comprehensive Mirror of the Embodiment

of the Tao by Adepts and Immortals
throughout History.
Prob. Yuan.
Chao Tao-I
TTI293.
Li Tai Ming I M&g Chhiu B R:% B %.
Brief Lives of the Famous Physicians in
All Ages.
Sung, 1040.
Chou Shou-Chung B &.
( L i T a i ) S h m Hsien (Thung) Chien
W) ffi

-.

CB)%.

(Cf. Shen H& Thung Chim.)

General Survey of the Lives of the Holy
Immortals (in all Ages).
Chhing, 1712.
3%) &
Hsii Tao
(assisted by Li Li
ChhCng Yii-Chhi
3 (assisted by
).
Wang Thai-Su E
L i Wn'Tou W e i r f#@4&#.
Apocryphal Treatise on the Record of Rites;
System of the Majesty of the Ladle [the
Great Bear].
C/Han, - 1st or later.
Writer unknown.
Li W&-Jao Chi
E S.
Collected Literary Works of Li T&-Yti
(Wen-Jao), (+ 787 to 849).
Thang, c. +855.
L i TC-Yii *@R.
L
*
Chhiu Tzrt (Nei or Wm) R E 3.
See Huang Thing Nei Ching ( Yii) Ching Chu
and Huang Thing W a i Ching ( Yii)Ching
Chu.
Liang Ssu Kung Chi R E9 S.
Tales of the Four Lords of Liang.
Thang, c. +695.
Chang Ytieh $B
Liao Yang Tien W& T a Pien S Bfa Pdf g
[= Ei'n ChenJen Liao Yang Tien W & T aPien.]
Questions and Answers in the (Eastern
Cloister of the) Liao-yang Hall (of the
White Clouds Temple at Chhingchh&ngShan in Szechuan) [on physiological alchemy, nei tan].
Ming or Chhing.
Attrib. Yin Chen Jen 9ft A (PhengThou %El).
Ed. Min I-T8 &%j c. 1830.
I n Tao Tsang Hsii Pien (C& chi), 3, from
a MS. preserved at the Blue Goat Temple
W F (Chhangtu).

a.

-a,

a.

371

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

LkhHticnChhiianChuan fl{fie(Bt.
LingSha Ta TanPiChiIeh Bt@kPfBs.
Complete Collection of the Biographies of
Secret Doctrine of the Numinous Cinnabar
the Immortals.
and the Great Elixir.
Ming, c. I 580.
Sung, after 1101, when the text was
Wang Shih-Ch&n 3 B.
received by Chang Shih-Chung g
Collated and corrected by Wang YiinWriter unknown, but edited by a Chhan
abbot Kuei-Yen Chhan-shih W
Pheng
Lieh Hsim Chuan
fd (Bt.
mm.
Lives of Famous Immortals (cf. Shm H&
TT/890.
Chuan).
Ling Shu Ching
Chin. 3rd or +qth century, though
See Huang Ti Nei Ching, Ling Shu.
certain parts date from about - 35 and
Ling Wai Tai Ta
f i K g.
shortly after 167.
Information on What is Beyond the Pasees
Attrib. Liu Hsiang
1kJ.
(lit. a book in lieu of individual replies to
Tr. Kaltenmark (2).
questions from friends).
LinChiangHsien ~ ~ { l ~ .
Sung, I 178.
The Immortal of Lin-chiang.
Chou Chhii-Fei B &$p.
Sung. + I I ~ I .
J%I
Shu Ching Yiin 75 4 $31
.
Ts&ngTshao
Collected Essentials of the Sir Scripts.
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z6o), ch. 23,
Ming, c. I 530.
Wei Hsiao B S.
pp. I a ff.
Ling-Pao Chiu Yu CIJMlg Yeh Ch3ti SM Tu Liu Tzu Hsin Lun
P $Jf
WagH*
Chmg S ~ ~ ~ E ~ ~ Z Z E
See~Hsin
Z JLun.
PEtS%.
Lo-Fou Shun Chih BW .S.
Mysterious Cantrap for the Resurrection of
History and Topography of the b f o u
the Body and Salvation from Nothingness
Mountains (north of Canton).
during the Long Night in the Nine UnderChhing, 1716 (but based on older
worlds; a Ling-Pao Scripture.
histories).
Date uncertain.
Thao Ching-I A l& P .
Writer unknown.
Lu Hsing Ching
g.
TT1605.
A Tractate on the Fontanelles of the Skull
Ling-PaoChungChmTanCMlch I f f * & f i
[anatomical-medical].
Late Thang or early Sung, +gth or
Supplementary Elixir Instructions of the
10th.
Company of the Realised Immortals, a
Writer unknown.
Ling-Pao Scripture.
Lu Huo Chien Chieh LU Nk P B.
Sung, after I 101.
Warnings against Inadvisable Practices in
Writer unknown.
the Work of the Stove [alchemical].
TT1416.
Sung, c. 1285.
On the tenn Ling-Pao see Kaltenrnark
Yii Yen &g$.
(4).
Lu Huo P& Tshao fii %S.
Ling-Pao Wu Fu (H@ Bt ff 3i
Spagyrical Natural History.
Possible alternative title of Wm Tan P &
See Thai-Shang Ling-Pao Wu Fu (Ching).
Ling-Pao Wu L+
Tu Jen Shang Phin Miao
Tshao (q.v.).
f
Lir TsuChhin YuanChhun Hlirlji'Bj*.
Ching l * % flehkrPa&!)
The (Taoist) Patriarch Lii (Yen's) 'Spring
#!FWonderful Immeasurable Highly Exalted
in the Prince's Gardens' [a brief epiManual of Salvation; a Ling-Pao Scripture.
grammatic text on physiological alchemy]
Thang, 8th (if genuine).
Liu Chhao, perhaps late +5th, probably
finalised in Thang, +7th.
Attrib. Lii Yen B m.
Writers unknown.
TT1133.
Comm. by Fu Chin-ChhUan
&
TTII.
Lingpi Tan YaoChicn I @ P ) l B .
(c. 1822).
On Numinous and Secret Elixirs and MediIn Too H m Chin Liang, p. 45a. and appended to Shih Chin Shih (Wu Chen Ssu
cines [the seventh part (chs. 16-18) of
Chu Phien ed.).
Tsun Sh& P a Chien, q.v.).
LU Tsu Chhuan Shou Tsung Chih H IRb B %
Ming, 1591.
Kao Lien ifff S.
E?.
Lingpia0 L u Z
Principles (of Macrobiotics) Transmitted
Strange Things Noted in the South.
and Handed Down by the (Taoist)
Patriarch Lii (Yen, Tung-Pin).
Thang, c. +8go.
Orig. title of Chin Hua Tsung C M (q.v.).
Liu HsUn

+.

a @m.

a.

%S

(e).

ases.
m.

m.

372

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Lil Tsu Shiir H&-Thien

HuaTsungChih

&%%g.

Hsii Wu Thai-I Chin

B@iBl$lbXKt%kd

Principles of the (Inner) Radiance of the

Metallous (Enchymoma) (explained in
terms of the) Undifferentiated Universe,
and of all the All-Embracing Potentiality
of the Endowment of Primary Vitality,
taught by the (Taoist) Patriarch Lii (Yen,
Tung-Pin).
Alternative name for Chin Hua Tsung Chih
(q.v.), but with considerable textual
divergences, especially in ch. I.
Ming and Chhing.
Writers unknown.
Attrib. Lu Yen
(Lii Tung-Pin) and
his school, late 8th.
Ed. and comm. Chiang Yuan-Thing
BX and Min I-T& H B, c. 1830.
In TTC Y and in Tao Tsang Hsii Pim
(Chhu chi), I.
Lii Tsu Shih San Ni I Shih Shuo Shu H

am
+

EJ&&tk%%.

A Record of the Lecture by the (Taoist)

Patriarch Lu (Yen, Tung-Pin) on the
Healing of Humanity by the Three Ni
Doctrines (Taoism, Confucianism and
Buddhism) Cphysiological alchemy in
mutationist terms].
Chhing, 1664.
Attrib. Lii Yen a
(+8th cent.).
Pref. by Thao Thai-Ting
k Sif.
Followed by an appendix by Min I-T&

HA@.

I n Tao Tsang Hdi Pien (C& clri), 10, I I.

LunH*g
m#$.
Discourses Weighed in the Balance.
H/Han, 82 or +83.
Wang Chhung 3 S.
Tr. Forke (4); cf. Leslie (3).
Chung-Fa Index, no. I.
Lung Hu Chhim Hung Shuo
R f@ 5Jt E.
A Discourse on the Dragon and Tiger,
(Physiological) Lead and Mercury,
(addressed to his younger brother Su
Tzu-Yu).
Sung, c. I 100.
Su Tung-Pho R 8.
In TSCC, Shnr i tim, ch. 300, i W&,
pp. 6b ff.
Lung Hu Huan Tan Chiich
R B p1 3.
Explanation of the Dragon-and-Tiger
Cyclically Transformed Elixir.
Wu Tai, Sung, or later.
4.
Chin Ling Tzu
TT/902.
Lung Hu Huan Tan Chiieh Sung B fl B Pf 3

33%

A Eulogy of the Instructions for (preparing) the Regenerative Enchymoma of the

Dragon and the Tiger (Yang and Yin).
[physiological alchemy].

Sung, c. +985.
Lin Ta-Ku ,$#A*
(Ku Shen Tzu
# F).
TTlro68.
LungHuShangChingchu I e k S E .
Commentary on the Exalted Dragon-andTiger Manual.
Sung.
Wang Tao %B.
TT1988, 989.
Cf. Davis & Chao Yiin-Tshung (6).
LungHu Ta TanShih IE-kPfS.
Song of the Great Dragon-and-Tiger
Enchyrnoma.
See Chih Chen T m Lrmg Hu Ta Tan S M .
Lung-Shu Phu-Sa Chum F$ W 8 B.
Biography of the Bodhisattva N ~ e j u n a
(+znd-century Buddhist patriarch).
Prob. Sui or Thang.
Writer unknown.
TW/2047.

Man-Anp6 g 3.
A Myriad Healing Prescriptions.
Japan, 1315.
Kajiwara Shozen tE B @ 2.
Manydshtl
$$I.
Anthology of a Myriad Leaves.
Japan (Nara), + 759.
Ed. Tachibana no Moroe tiff R.
or Otomo no Yakamochi A .W?
Cf. Anon. ( I O ~ )pp.
, 14 ff.
Mao Shan Hsien ChC Fu Na CMi Chiieh

Ff*flktrn%%.

B.
9~t.1

Oral Instructions of the Adepta of Mao

Shan for Absorbing the Chhi [Taoist
breathing exercises for longevity and
immortality].
Thang or Sung.
Writer unknown.
In YCCC, ch. 58, pp. gb ff.
Cf. Maspero (7), p. 205.
Mao Thing Kho Hua X B % B.
Discourses with Guests in the Thatched
Pavilion.
Sung, before I I 36.
Huang Hsiu-Fu
B.
Mei-Chhi Shih Chu .#$g R S.
(Wang) Mei-Chhi's Commentaries on
Poetry.
Short title for Tung-Pho Shih Chi Chu
(+v.).
M& Chhi Pi Than
g @.
Dream Pool Essays.
Sung, 1086; last supplement dated
1091.
Shen Kua %g.
Ed. H u Tao-Ching ( I ) ; cf. H o l m a n (I).
Miao Chieh Lu $9 B.
See Yen M& Kung Miao Chieh Lu.
Miao Fa Lien Hun C h i v
fk 3% ?2 S.
Siitra on the Lotus of the Wonderful Law

37 3

BIBLIOGRAPHY A .
Miao F a Lien Hua Ching (cont.)
India.
Tr. Chin, betw. +3g7 and +400 by Kudrajrva (Chiu-MO-Lo-Shih
l
lf+).
N/134; TW/262.
Ming I Pieh Lu g S;bP &.
Informal (or Additional) Records of
Famous Physicians (on Materia Medica).
Ascr. Liang, c. 510.
Attrib. Thao Hung-Ching
B.
Now extant only in quotations in the
pharmaceutical natural histories, and a
reconstitution by Huang Yii ( I ) .
This work was a disentanglement, made by
other hands between 523 and 618 or
656, of the contributions of Li TangChih (c. 3-225) and Wu Phu (c. +235)
and the commentaries of Thao HungChing (+492) from the text of the S h
Nung P& Tshao Ching itself. In other
words it was the non-P&-Ching part of
the P& Tshao Ching Chi Chu (q.v.). It
may or may not have included some or
all of Thao Hung-Ching's commentaries.
Ming Shih
e.
History of the Ming Dynasty
1368 to
+ 16431.
Chhing, begun 1646, completed 1736,
first pr. 1739.
Chang Thing-Yil
5 et al.
Ming Thang Hsiian Chen Ching Ch&h
g -$:

ma

[+

RfSZk-

[= Shang-Chhing Ming Thang Hsikm Chen

Ching Chiieh.]
Explanation of the Manual of (Recovering
the) Mysterious Primary (Vitalities of the)
Cosmic Temple (i.e. the Human Body)
[respiration and heliotherapy].
S/Chhi or Liang, late 5th or early 6th
(but much altered).
Attrib. to the Mother Goddess of the West,
Hsi Wang Mu B3 B.
Writer unknown.
TT/+I.
Cf. M a s ~ e r o(71,P. 376.
Ming Thang Y u a Chm Ching Ch&h
2Z

R E%.

Chm Ching Chileh.

See Miry! Thang HMing Thung Chi X -3W.
Record of Communication with the Hidden
Ones (the Perfected Immortals).
Liang, 516.
Chou Tzu-Liang
3- W.
Ed. Thao Hung-Ching B S.
MoChuungManLu ?%&E@@.
Recollections from the Estate of Literary
Learning.
Sung, c. +IIgI.
Chang Pang-Chi R 911 S.
MO0 HsiuoLu B@/J\@!k.
A Secretary's Commonplace-Book Cpopular
encyclopaedia].

Yuan or Ming, 14th. pr. 1571.

Compiler unknown.
MO Tzu (incl. MOChing)
F.
The Book of Master MO.
Chou, -4th century.
MO T i (and disciples)
a.
Tr. Mei Yi-Pao (I); Forke (3).
Yin-T& Index, no. (suppl.) 21.
TT/1162.
Montoku-Jitsuroku g 8 X
Veritable Records of the Reign of the
Emperor Montoku [from 851 to
+8581.
Japan (Heian) 879.
Fujiwara Mototsune
g.

a.

Nan Fan Hsiang Lu % @BAE.

Catalogue of the Incense of the Southern
Barbarians.
See Hsiang Lu.
Nan Hai Yao Phu
$#.
A Treatise on the Materia Medica of the
South Seas (Indo-China, MalayoIndonesia, the East Indies, etc.).
Alternative title of Hai Yao P h Tshao,
q.v. (according to Li Shih-Chen).
Nan Tshun Cho K&g Lu
H $# &.
See Cho Kktg Lu.
Nan Yo Ssu Ta Chhan-Shih Li Shih Yuan W h

%%,R%i@@Xk%fIizd%.
Text of the Vows (of Aranyaka Austerities)
taken by the Great Chhan Master (Hui-)
Ssu of the Southern Sacred Mountain.
Chhen, c. 565.
Hui-Ssu
,R.
TW/19331 N/1576.
Nn' Chin Tan
4 +'f.
[=Nei Tan Pi Chih or
H& Chih
Lun Chhang S h h g Tu Shih Nei Lien Chin
Tan Fa.]
The Metallous Enchymoma Within (the
Body), [physiological alchemy].
Ming, 1622, part dated 1615.
Perhaps Chhen Ni-Wan R R (Mr
Ni-Wan, Chhen), or Wu Chhung-HsU
ffi FP &.
Contains a system of symbols included in
the text.
CTPS, p h 12.
Nei Ching.
See Huang Ti Nei Ching, Su W h and
Huang Ti Nei Ching, Ling Sh.
Nei Ching Su W h .
See Huang Ti Nei Ching, Su W h .
Nei Kung Thu Shuo R
B.
See Wang Tsu-Yuan (l).
Nei Tan Chiieh F a
8 B.
See Huan Tan Nei Hsiang Chin Yo Shih.
NeiTanFu W % @ .
[= Thao Chen Jen Nai Tan Fu.]
Rhapsodical Ode on the Physiological
Enchymoma.

374

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Nei Tan FU (cont.)

Sung, 13th.
Thao Chih m B .
With commentary by an unknown writer.
TTl256.
Cf. Chin Tan Fu, the text of which is very
similar.
N c i T m P i C h i h ptl-p)%%.
Confidential Directions on the Enchymoma.
Alternative title for N d Chin Tan (q.v.).
NciWaiErhChing Thu fi&'f-zW!Bil.
Illustrations of Internal and Superficial
Anatomy.
Sung, +1118.
Chu Hung
Original text lost, and replaced later;
drawings taken from Yang Chieh's Tshun
Chen Huan Chung Thu.
N&ngK a i Chai Man Lu $E W B @ B.
Miscellaneous Records of the Abjlity-toImprove-Oneself Studio.
Sung. mid 12th century.
W u Tshkng
$9.
Ni-Wan L i Tsu Shih Nii Tsung Shuang Hsiu Pao
Fa E R 4 1 & f j k % E B B R .
See Nii Tsung Shuang Hsiu Pao Fa.
N h - K o k i 8 % 4% W.
Chronicles of Japan, further continued
[from +792 to +833].
Japan (Heian), 840.
Fujiwara Otsugu B A
;f lW"I.
Nihon-Koku Ganzai-sho iMoku7oku B

*a.

R E 8 H%.

Bibliography of Extant Books in Japan.

Japan (Heian), c. +895.
Fujiwara no Sukeyo
E # W.
Cf. Yoshida Mitsukuni ( 6 ) , p. 196.
Nihon Sankai Meibutsu Zue El z#
6

B5 @.

Illustrations of Japanese Pracesses and

Manufactures (lit., of the Famous Products of Japan).
Japan (Tokugawa), Osaka, 1754.
Hirase Tessai
m ff& B.
Ills. by Hasegawa hlitsunobu g
111 Yt.
& Chigusa Shinemon F F.1
@j

B9.

Facsim. repr. with introd. notes, Meicho

Kankokai, Tokyo, 1969.
Nihon-shoki E &@R.
See Nihongi.
Nihon Ryo-iki E z# S E.
Record of Strange and Mysterious Things in
Japan.
Japan (Heian), 823.
Writer unknown.
Nihonni 13*%.
[ = Nihon-shoki.]
Chronicles of Japan [from the earliest
times to +696].
Japan (Nara), +720.
Toneri-shinntl (prince), $? A X,

Ono Yasumaro, -k $??E,8,

Ki no Kiyobito et al.
Tr. Aston (I).
, I ff.
Cf. Anon. ( I O ~ )pp.
NihongiRyaku E &%S.
Classified Matters from the C h ' c I e s of
Japan.
Japan.
Nitto-Guhb Jumei GyUk A
jfj$
(IS& fi W
Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search
of the (Buddhist) Law.
Thang, 838 to 847.
Ennin
Tr. Reischauer (2).
NiiKungChihNan *&BB.
A Direction-Finder for (Inner) Achievement by Women (Taoists).
physiological alchemy, nei tan gymnastic
techniques, etc.]
See Nu Tsung Shuang Hsiu Pao Fa.
NilTsungShuangHsiuPaoFa
[=Ni- Wan Li Tsu Shih Nil Tsung Shuang
Hsiu Pao Fa, or Nu Kung-Chih Nan.]
A Precious Raft (of Salvation) for Women
(Taoists) Practising the Double Regeneration (of the primary vitalities, for
their nature and their life-span, hsing
ming), [physiological alchemy].
Chhing, c. 1795.
Ni-Wan shih W A E,Li Ong (late 16th),
ZjE B, M r Ni-Wan, the Taoist Patriarch
Li.
Written down by Thai-HsU Ong ;f;& S,
Shen I-Ping % S, Ta-Shih (Taoist
abbot), C. 1820.
I n Tao Tsang Hsil Pien (C& chi), 20.
Cf. Tao H a Chin Liag, p. 34a, Shih Chin
Shih, p. 12a.

c:.

*%@&ss.

Pm. hsien-shg Chin Tan Huo Hac Thu a & 5

62fik@is&
Master Pai's Illustrated Tractate on the
' Fire-Times' of the Metallous Enchymoma.
Sung, c. 1210.
Pai Yii-Chhan Q E B.
I n Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z6o), ch. I.
Pao Phu Tzu
E (or $F) 4.
Book of the Preservation-of-Solidarity
Master.
Chin, early +4th century, probably c. +320.
KO Hung g S.
Partial trs. Feifel (I, 2); Wu & Davis (2)
Full tr. Ware (5). Nn' Phien chs. only.
T T I I I ~ I - I173.
Pao Phu Tzu Shen Hsint Chin Shuo Ching
%~$FTT+P~I~&EI#F.
The Preservation-of-Solidarity Master's
Manual of the Bubbling Gold (Potion) of
the Holy Immortals.
Ascr. Chin c. +320. Perhaps pre-Thang,
more probably Thang.

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Pao Phu Tsu Shen Hsim Chin Shuo Ching (cont.)
Attrib. KO Hung g S.
TT191o.
Cf. Ho Ping-Yti (I I).
Pao Phu Tau Yang S h h g Lun 3$ $1. P 3p

g I%The Preservation-of-Solidarity Master's

Essay on Hygiene.
Ascr. Chin c. 320.
Attrib. KO Hung g B .
TT1835.
PaoSh8ngHsinChien R&&@.
Mental Mirror of the Preservation of Life
lerymnastics and other longevity techniques].
Ming, 1506.
Thieh FCng chU-shih
I& E k
(The Recluse of Iron Mountain, ps.).
Ed. c. 1596 by Hu Wen-Huan #l31C f&.
Pao Shou Thang Ching Yen Fang R E@

E%%.

Tried and Tested Prescriptions of the Protection-of-Longevity Hall (a surgery or

pharmacy).
Ming, c. 1450.
Liu Sung-shih
X.
Pao Tsang Lun E 1.
[=Hsien- YuanPao Tsang Chhang Wei Lun.]
(The Yellow Emperor's) Discourse on the
(Contents of the) Precious Treasury (of
the Earth), [mineralogy and metallurgy].
Perhaps in part Thang or pre-Thang; completed in Wu Tai (S/Han). Ts8ng YuanJung (I) notes Chhao Kung-Wu's dating
of it at +918 in his Chhun Chai Tu Shu
C M . Chang Tzu-Kao ( z ) , p. I 18, also
considers it mainly a Wu Tai work.
Attrib. Chhing Hsia Tzu W S P.
If Su Yuan-Ming ilgE IjFj and not
another writer of the same pseudonym,
the earliest parts may have been of the
Chin time ( + ~ r dor +4th); cf Yang
Lieh-Yii (l).
Now only extant in quotations.
Cf. Lu-fa Shan C M , ch. 4 p. 13a.
Pao Yen ThangPiChi SmEsB.
Private Collection of the Pao-Yen Library.
Ming, six collections printed between
1606 and 1620.
Ed. Chhen Chi-Ju
f#j
Pn'LuFkrgSu it@Jf&#.
[ =I Su Chi.]
Customs of the Northern Barbarians (i.e.
the Mongols).
Ming, I 594.
Hsiao Ta-Heng M A
P n ' M h g So Yen it$SfBs.
Fragmentary Notes Indited North of
(Lake) Meng.
Wu Tai (S/Phing), c. +950.
Sun Kuang-Hsien R, % S.
See des Rotours (4), p. 38.

aa

+.

Pei Shun Chiu Ching i t @

B.
!l
Northern Mountain Wine Manual.
Sung, I I 17.
ChuHung Jk&.
PeiShih E E.
History of the Northern Dynasties m a n
Pei Chhao period, +386 to +581].
Thang, c. 670.
Li Yen-Shou
B W.
For translations of passages see the index of
Frankel (I).
Pen Ching F&g Yuan
(Additions to Natural History) aiming at
the Original Perfection of the Classical
Phmmacopaia (of the Heavenly
Husbandman).
Chhing, 1695, pr. 1705.
Chang Lu $,E
LPC, no. 93.
P& Tshao Chhiu Chen -6; 8 % E.
Truth Searched out in Pharmaceutical
Natural History.
Chhing, 1773.
Huang Kung-Hsiu E g ft.
P& Tshao Ching Chi Chu d;f B B.
Collected Commentaries on the Classical
Pharmacopoeia (of the Heavenly Husbandman).
S/Chhi, +492.
Thao Hung-Ching
-&.
Now extant only in fragmentary form as a
Tunhuang or Turfan MS., apart from
the many quotations in the pharmaceutical natural histories, under Thao
Hung-Ching's name.
P& Tshao Hui ji iI[S.
Needles from the Haystack; Selected Wtials of Materia Medica.
Chhing, 1666, pr. 1668.
AIJ.
Kuo Phei-Lan
LPC, no. 84.
Cf. Swingle (4).
P& Tshao Hui Chien
3 I.
Classified Notes on Pharmaceutical Natural
History.
Chhing, begun 1660, pr. 1666.
Ku Yuan-Chiao R Z 2.
LPC, no. 83.
Cf. Swinple (8).
P& Tshao Kang Mu
lps H.
The Great Pharmacopoeia; or. The Pandects of Natural History (Mineralogy,
Metallurgy, Botany, Zoology etc.),
Arrayed in their Headings and Subheadings.
Ming, 1596.
Li Shih-Chen
U+ B.
Paraphrased and abridged tr. Read &
collaborators ( 2 7 ) and Read & Pak (I)
with indexes. Tabulation of plants in
Read (I) (with Liu Ju-Chhiang).
Cf. Swingle (7).

a.

376

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

&ftm Hat.

P& T s h a o K a n g M u S h i h I

Supplementary Arnplifications for the

Pandects of Natural History (of Li ShihChen).
Chhing, begun c. 1760, first prefaced
1765, prolegomena added 1780, last
date in text 1803.
Chhing, first pr. 1871.
Chao Hsiieh-Min
@
S.
i
LPC, no. 101.
Cf. Swingle ( I I).
Tshao M& Chhi&n & g S.
Enlightenment on Pharmaceutical Natural
History.
Ming, 1565.
Chhen Chia-MO
W S.
Tshao Pei Yao ;Ik;
B.
Practical Aspects of Materia Medica.
Chhing, c. 1690, second ed. 1694.
Wang Ang LE%.
LPC, no. go; ICK, pp. 215 ff.
Cf. Swingle (4).
Tshao Phin Hui Ching Yao &Sba R g.
Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked
according to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned).
Ming, 1505.
Liu Wen-Thai
f 8,Wang Phnn E l
& Kao Thing-Ho 8
Tshao Shih I -$
8.
A Supplement for the Pharmaceutical
Natural Histories.
Thang, c. +725.
Chhen Tshang-Chhi
B.
Now extant only in numerous quotations.
Tshao Shu
Explanations of Materia Medica.
Chhing, before 1665, first pr. 1700.
Liu Jo-Chin
S&.
LPC, no. 79.
Cf. Swingle (6).
Tshao Shu Kou Yuan
5Z.
Essentials Extracted from the Explanationr
of Mat& Medica.
See Yang Shih-Thai (l).
Trhao Thu Ching ;Ik; f B.
Illustrated Pharmacopoeia; or, Illustrated
Treatise of Pharmaceutical Natural
History.
Sung, +1o61.
Su Sung
Ej et al.
Now preserved only in numerous quotations in the later pandects of pharmaceutical natural history.
Tshao Thung Hsiian i&g 3.
The Mysteries of Materia Medica Unveiled.
Chhing, begun before 1655, pt. just
before 1667.
Li Chung-Tzu 4 ;PB.
LPC, no. 75.
Cf. Swingle (4).

PCn

PCn

P&

P&

P&

P h

P&

P&

a m.

a.
+

f fl&R.
New Additions to Pharmaceutical Natural
History.
Chhing, 1757.
WuI-L0 ##B.
LPC, no. 99.
P& Tshao Yao Hsing & B B.
The Natures of the Vegetable and Other
Drugs in the Pharmaceutical Treatisea
Thang, c. 620.
Chen Li-Yen B -&- & (perhaps) Chen
ChhUan BM.
Now extant only in quotations.
P h Tshao Yen I
4
Dilations upon Pharmaceutical Natural
History.
Sung, pref. + I I I ~ ,pr. + I I I ~ ,npr. 1185,
+1195.
Khou Tsung-Shih
%
See also Thu Ching Yen I P& Tshao
(TT1761).
P h T s h a o Y e n I P u I &Z$@S#a.
Revision and Amplification of the D i I a h
upon Pharmaceutical Natural History.
Yuan, c. 1330.
Chu Chen-Heng %
LPC, no. 47.
Cf. Swingle (12).
P h Tshao Yuan Shih
b:%f B.
Objective Natural History of Materia
Medica; a True-to-Life Study.
Chhing, begun 1578, pr. 1612.
Li Chung-Li Z$
LPC, no. 60.
P h m r S h a n Y l l L u &%am&.
Record of Discussions at Phan Mountain
[dialogues of pronouncedly medical
character on physiological alchemy].
Sung, prob. early 13th.
Writer unknown.
In Hsiu Chcn Shih Shu ( l T / 2 6 0 ) ,ch. 53.
Ph@ng-Lai Shan Hsi Tsao Huan Tan KO S 8

PCn Tshao Tshung Hsin

a.

*.

+.

+ *,.

clrmssP)bB.

Mnemonic Rhymes of the Cyclically

Transformed Elixir from the Western
Furnace on Phsng-lai Island.
Ascr. c. -98. Probably Thang.
Huang Hsiian-Chung E 3 I.
TTI909.
PhhgTsuChing BM@.
Manual of Ph&ngTsu [Taoist sexual techniques and their natural philosophy].
Late Chou or C/Han, -4th to - 1st.
Attrib. Pheng Tsu 3
Only extant as fragments in C S H K
(Shang Ku Sect.), ch. 16, pp. 5 b ff.
Phu Chi Fang B B 17.
Practical Prescriptions for Everyman.
Ming, c. 1418.
Chu Hsiao & # (ChouTing Wang E
l E,
prince of the Ming).
ICK, P. 9 1 4

a.

377

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Pi Yil Chu Sha Han fin Yil Shu Kuci B E

@!B%X~ff.

On the Caerulean Jade and Cinnabar JadeTree-in-a-Cold-Forest Casing Process.

Sung, early I I th cent.
X.
Chhen Ching-Yuan
TT/Sgr.
PinrHuoPim
Disputations on Doubtful Mattm.
Yuan, 1348.
Hsieh Ying-Fang
PimTaoLun #g%.
On Taoism, True and False.
San Kuo (Wei), c. i-230.
Tshao Chih (prince of the Wei), W
Now extant only in quotations.
PO WUCK @&E.
Notes on the Investigation of Things.
H/Han, c. I go.
T h a w Meng (b) iB S?.
POWu Chih
& .S.
Records of the Investigation of Things (d.
Hsii POWu Chih).
Chin, c. +m(begun about +27o).
Chang Hua
F.
Pu Wu YaoLan f@m%J'E.
The Principal Points about Objects of Art
and Nature.
Ming, c. 1560.
Ku Thai G f.

#am.

z.

m.

Rokubutsu S h h i Y i & %J
.S.
New Record of Six Things [including the
drug mumia]. (In part a translation from
Dutch texts.)
Japan, +1786.
otsuki Gentaku A 2 S.
San Chm Chih Yao Yfi Cliileh

Op

%J

32 3.

Precious Instructions concerning the

Message of the Three Perfected (Immortals). [i.e. Yang Hsi (fl. 370) ;tjb
Hsii Mi (fl. +345) 3E;and Hsti
Hui(d.c. +370) Rikff].
Taoist heliotherapy, respiration and meditation.
Chin, c. +365, edited probably in the
Thang.
TT1419.
Cf. M a s ~ e r o(7). P. 376.
Chi
San-F& Chen Jen HsCan Than C-

=&?SAPR5k%.

a;

Complete Collection of the Mysterious Diecourses of the Adept (Chang) San-F&ng

[physiological alchemy].
Ming, from c. 1410 (if genuine).
Attrib. Chang San-F&ng g bif g.
Ed. Min I-T&(1834) H fg.
In Tao Tsang Hsu"Pim (Chhu cm, 17.
San-F& Tan Chileh
Pf 3 (includes Chin
Tan Chieh Yao and Tshai Chen Chi Yao,

with the Wu Iikr Shu series of poems,

and mme inscriptions).
Oral Instructions of (Chang) San-F&ngon
the Enchymoma Cphysiological alchemy].
Ming, from c. 1410 (if genuine).
Attrib. Chang San-F&ng
5 L.
Ed., with biography, by Fu Chin-Chhlian
(Chi I TZU @$-F)
c. 1820.
San Phin I Shen Pao Ming Shm Tan Fang 3

di'aAHf%.&ir@%fi.

Efficacious Elixir Prescriptions of Three

Grades Inducing the Appropriate Mentality for the Enterprise of Longevity.
Thang, Wu Tai & Sung.
Writers unknown.
YCCC, ch. 78. pp. I a ff.
San-shih-liu Shui Fa f k B.
Thirty-six Methods for Bringing Solids
into Aqueous Solution.
Pre-Thang.
Writer unknown.
TTI973.
SanTshacrtnrHui =*BR.
Universal Encyclopaedia.
Ming, 1609.
Wang Chhi Eg.
San Tung Chu Nmg ff i h
Bag of Pearls from the Three (Collections
that) Penetrate the Mystery [a Taoist
florilegiurn].
Thang, +7th.
Wang Hslian-Ho (ed.) 3 &R.
TT/I 125.
Cf. Maspero (13). p. 77; Schipper (I), p. 11.
San Yen 58.
See H* Shih H& Yen, Yii Shih Ming
Yen, Ching Shih Tinang Yen.
setsuya ~oketsu.
See She^ Yang Yao Chitch.
Shan H a Ching
B.
Classic of the Mountains and Rivers.
Chou and C/Han, - 8th to - 1st.
Writers unknown.
Partial tr. de Rosny (I).
Chung-Fa Index, no. 9.
Shnng-Chhing Chi k #S.
A Literary Collection (inspired by) the
Shang-Chhing Scriptures [prose and
poems on physiological alchemy].
sung. c. 1220.
KO Chhang-Keng g A E (Pai YUChhan Q 3 m).
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu TT/z60), &S. 37 to 44
Shang-Chhing Ching
BB.
[Part of Thai Shang San-shih-liu Pu Tsun
Ching.1
The Shang-Chhing (Heavenly Purity)
Scripture.
Chin, oldest parts date from about +316.
Attrib. Wei Hua-Tshun 1 8,dictated
to Yang Hsi B S.
In TT/8.

a.

aa

378

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Shang-Chhing Chiu Chm Chung Ching Nei
Shang-Chhing Tung-Chen Chiu Kung Tau Fang
Chiieh k*hEEP@ZRW.
Thu ki@rnR9~S#i%BIB.
Description of the Purple Charnben of the
Confidential Explanation of the Interior
Nine Palaces; a Tung-Chen Scripture of
Manual of the Nine (Adepts); a Shangthe Shang-Chhing Heavens Iparts of the
Chhing Scripture.
microcosmic body corresponding to stars
Ascr. Chin, +4th, probably pre-Thang.
EF (Huang
in the macrocosm].
Attrib. Chhih Sung Tzu
q).
Sung, probably 12th century.
Chhu-Phing
TTI~oI.
Writer unknown.
Shang Chhing Han Hsiong Chien Chim Thu
TT/153.
k.7i$BBfl11.
Shang-Chhing W OChung C&h
L $4II+ 3.
Explanation of (the Method of) Grasping
The Image and Sword Mirror Diagram; a
the Central (Luminary); a Shang-Chhing
Shang-chhing Scripture.
Scripture [Taoist meditation and helioThang, c. +7oo.
Ssurna Chheng-ChCn fl H R B.
therapy].
Date unknown, Liang or perhaps Thang.
TT/428.
Shang-Chhing Hou S h h g Tao Chtln L& Chi
Writer unknown.
Based on the procedures of Fan Yu-Chhung
k@@si%%P~R!.
Annals of the Latter-Day Sage, the Lord of
%&h S (H/Han).
the Tao; a Shang-Chhing Scripture.
TT11376
Chin, late +4th.
Cf. M a s ~ e r o(7)s P: 373Revealed to Yang Hsi
Shang Phin Tan Fa Chaeh Tzhu k & Pf E
TTI439.
R.
Shang-Chhing Huang Shu Kuo T u I L E
Expositions of the Techniques for Making
the Best Quality Enchymoma Iphysio%%E%#.
logical alchemy].
The System of the Yellow Book for Attaining
Chhing.
Salvation; a Shang-Chhing Scripture [the
@
rituale of the communal Taoist liturgical
Li T&-Hsia
sexual ceremonies,
2nd to +7th cenComm. Min I-T& H-@, c. 1830.
In Tao Tsang Hsii Pien (Chhu chi), 6.
turies].
Shang Shu Ta Chuan fifj 8 3t; B.
Date unknown, but pre-Thang.
Great Commentary on the Shang Shu
Writer unknown.
chapters of the Historical Classic.
TT11276.
Shang-Chhing Ling-Pao Ta Fa k B
A E.
C/Han, c. - 185.
The Great Liturgies; a Shang-Chhing LingFu Sh&ng B@.
Cf. Wu Khang ( I ) ,p. 230.
Pao Scripture.
Shang- Tung Hsin Tan Ching Chileh
Sung, I gth.
4D P)
Chin Yiin-Chung & fC
E?
An Explanation of the Heart Elixir and
T T / ~ z o q1205,
,
1206.
Enchymoma Canon ;a Shang-Tung
Shang-Chhing Ming Thung Hsiian Chen Ching
Chiieh k ~ ~ ~ S ~ @ % .
Scripture.
Date unknown, perhaps Sung.
See M i n . Thang Hsiian Chen Ching C&h.
Writer unknown.
Shang-Chhing San Chen Chih Yao Yii Chiieh
k@ZR BBZ3.
TTl943.
Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, pp. 389, 435.
See San Chen Chih Yao Yii C&h.
Shang Yang Tau Chin Tan Ta Yao k E 44
Shang-Chhing Thai-Shang Pa Su Chen Ching
k E i ? i k kA X E @ .
*%m.
See Chin Tan Ta Yao.
Realisation Canon of the Eight PurificaShang Yang Tzu Chin Tan Ta Yao HPien Phm
tions (or Eightfold Simplicity); a ShangChhing Thai-Shang Scripture.
(YuanLiu) LI%T&P~~Y%?~IIJ~E
Date uncertain, but pre-Thang.
(id12 BE).
See Chin Tan Ta Yao Hsien Phai (Yuan
Writer unknown.
Liu).
TTI423.
Shang Yang Tza Chin Tan Ta Yao Lich H&
Shung-Chhing Thai-Shung T i C& Chiu Chm
Chih kRT-&PfAZ?RIfIlrB.
ChungChing ki@kLRBhSI+@.
See Chin Tan Ta Yao Lieh Hsien Chih.
Ninefold Realised Median Canon of the
Shang Yang Tzu Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu
Imperial Lord; a Shang-Chhing ThaiShang Scripture.
kE;F&Pfkji?FU?.
See Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu.
Compiled from materials probably of Chin
Shao-Hsing Chiao-Ting Ching-Shih Chkrg Lei
period, late +4th.
Pei-Chi P& Tshao
@ E$!$E
E
Writers and editor unknown.
~imiilt%9.
TT/1357.

%a

a'.

e.

+.

379

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Shao-Hn'ng Chino- Ting Ching-Shih C h h g Lei
Pn'-Chi Pk Tshao (cont.)]
T h e Corrected Classified and Consolidated
Arrnarnentarium; Pharmacopoeia of the
Shao-Hsing Reign-Period.
S/Sung, pres.
1157, pr. f 1159, often
copied and repr. especially in Japan.
l ed. Wang ChiThang Shen-Wei f
Hsien 5 @,:X et al.
Cf. Nakao Manza (I, I); Swingle (I I).
Illustrations reproduced in facsimile by
Wada (l); Karow (2).
Facsimile edition of a MS. in the Library of
Ryokoku University, Kyoto M % B

H@%-

Ed. with an analytical and historical introduction, including contents table and indexes (81
by Okanishi Tameto R
A (ShunyM6, Tokyo, 1971).
S M Ta Chhtng Lun Shih # ;lt:A&
Mahijydnu-samgrahu-bhdshya (Explanatory
Discourse to assist the Understanding of
the Great Vehicle).
India, betw. 300 and 500.
Tr. Hsuan-Chuang g g ,c. 650.
NI1171 (4); TW/1597.
(SM Yang) Chm Chrng Chi (or Pang)

m)

a.

(aa)

FP 33 (3).

Pillow-Book on Assisting the Nourishment

(of the Life-Force).
Thang, early 7th.
I S.
Attrib. Sun Ssu-MO
TT/830, and in YCCC, ch. 33.
She Yang Yao Chiich (Setsuyd Yoketw) # 5[ 3.
Important Instructions for the Preservation
of Health conducive to Longevity.
Japan (Heian), c. 820.
Mononobe Kasen (imperial physician)

m%i%G%i.

fa

Shm H s k Chin S b Ching

lIl4 R g.
See Pao Phu Tzu Shm Hsien Chin Shuo
Ching.
Shm Hsien Chuan ipe B.
Lives of the Holy Immortals.
(Cf. Lieh H& Chuan and Hsii Shm Hsim
Chuan.)
Chin, 4th century.
Attrib. KO Hung
B.
Shm H.& F u Erh Tan Shih Hsing Yao Fa

{a

i;lr(lfi4%!@PfEfiBE.

T h e Methods of the Holy Immortals for

Ingesting Cinnabar and (Other)
Minerals, and Using them Medicinally.
Date unknown.
Attrib. Ching-Li hsien-shg R 1& g.
TT/417.
S h m H h F u Shilr Linz-Chih Chhang-Phu Wan
Fang # J B I I V E 3 2 ? 5 3 F T % % , f i .
Prescriptions for Making Pills from
Numinous Mushrooms and Sweet Flag
(Colamus), as taken by the Holy Immortals.
Date unknown

Writer unknown.
TT1837.
Shm Hsien Lien Tan Tien Chu San Yuan Pao
Ching F a @fL46%9?%31S%'RBS.
Methods used by the Holy Immortals to
Prepare the Elixir, Project it, and Cast
the Precious Mirrors of the Three Powers
(or the Three Primary Vitalities), [magical].
Thang, +902.
Writer unknown.
TT/856.
S h m Hsien Thung C h H {L4
l.
(Cf. (Li Tai) Shm Hrien (Thung) Chim.)
General Survey,of the Lives of the Holy
Immortals.
Ming, 1640.
Hsueh Ta-Hstin
Shm Z Chi f@S E.
(Probably an alternative title of Shm I
Ching, q.v.)
Records of the Spiritual and the Strange.
Chin, c. +zgo.
Wang Fou E@.
Shm I Ching M S.
Book of the Spiritual and the Strange.
Ascr. Han, but prob. +grd, +4th or +5th
century.
Attrib. Tungfang Shuo
Probable author, Wang Fou
@
S h m Nung P & Tshao Ching
/I
B.
Classical Pharmacopoeia of the Heavenly
Husbandman.
C/Han, based on Chou and Chhin material,
but not reaching final form before the
2nd century.
Writers unknown.
Lost as a separate work, but the basis of all
subsequent compendia of pharmaceutical
natural history, in which it is constantly
quoted.
Reconstituted and annotated by many
scholars; see Lung PO-Chien (I), pp. 2 ff.,
12 ff.
Best reconstructions by Mori Tateyuki
G &2 (18451, Liu Fu A @! (1942).
Shm shih Liang Fang
E fi 2.
Original title of Su Shen Liang Fang (q.v.).
Shm Thien-Shih Fu Chhi Yao Chiieh Efi X fi

a.

m.

lFi%ikzk.
Important Oral Instructions of the Heavenly
Teacher (or Patriarch) Shen on the
Absorption of the Chhi [Taoist breathing
exercises].
Thang, C. 730.
Shen Yuan-Chih Efi Z 2.
Now extant only as a short passage in
YCCC, ch. 59, pp. 16b ff.
S h q Chi Tsung Lu % B R,R.
Imperial Medical Encyclopaedia [issued by
authority].
Sung, c. + I I I I to +1118.
Ed. by twelve physicians.

380

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
different forms, together with the quesShih Miao Ching & P $9
See Thai-Shang Tung-Hsiian Ling-Pao
tions of authorship and editorship, are
complex.
Mieh Tu (or San Yum) Wu Lien ShPng
See Lung Po-Chien (I), pp. 104, 105, 106;
Shih Mdao Ching.
Wang Yii-Hu (I), 2nd ed. p. 194;
Shkrg Shui Yen Than Lu
fiR l&k.
Swingle (I, 10).
Fleeting Gossip by the River S h h g [in
Shantung].
Shih Yao Erh Ya 5
@.
The Literary Expositor of Chemical Physic;
Sung, late I I th century (before rogq).
or, Synonymic Dictionary of Minerals
Wang Phi-Chih 5 2.
Shih Chin Shih pit & ;fi.
and Drugs.
Thang, +806.
On the Testing of (what is meant by)
'Metal' and 'Mineral'.
Mei Piao
E.
See F u Chin-Chhuan (5).
TTI894.
Shih Yuan
Shih Hun Chi 5 iQ E
;.
On the Origlns of Things.
See H& Chen Chiin Shih Han Chi.
ShihIChi
Sung.
Memoirs on Neglected Matters.
Chu Hui jkm.
Chin, c. +370.
Shoku-Nihongi #& % z.
Chronicles of Japan, continued [from 697
Wang Chia 5 8 .
Cf. Eichhorn (5).
to +791].
Shih l 2'7 Hsiao Fang B
3.
Japan (Nara), +797.
Efficacious Prescriptions of a Family of
Ishikawa Natan ;tiJll.
Physicians.
Fujiwara Tsuginawa B
Yuan, 1337.
Sugeno Sanemichi
H:b 55. g et al.
Wei I-Lin &"ain; H.
Shoku-Nihonkoki
El
fZ575.
Shih Liao P& Tshao
$# f t .
Chronicles of Japan, still further continued
[from +834 to +850].
Nutritional Therapy; a Pharmaceutical
Japan (Heian), 869.
Natural History.
Fujiwara Yoshifusa @ R & W .
Thang, c. 670.
MCng Shen
B.
Shou Yii Shen Fang W M @ 3.
Shih Lin K u w Chi S B !E.
Magical Prescriptions of the Land of the
Old.
Guide through the Forest of Affairs
[encyclopaedia].
Ming, c. 1430.
Chu Chhtian % f# (Ning Hsien Wang
Sung, between I loo and 1250; first
v X, prince of the Ming).
pr.
1325.
Chhen Yuan-Ching D! X E.
S ~ S ~ U @
C %
~%
~ BI.
Memoir on some Traditions of Math( A unique copy of a Ming edition of
ematical Art.
+ 1478 is in the Cambridge University
H/Han, I go, but generally suspected of
Library.)
Shih Ming
having been written by its commentator
Q, c
570. Some place
Chen Luan
Explanation of Names [dictionary].
the text as late as the Wu Tai period
H/Han, C. 100.
(+loth. cent.), e.g. H u Shih; and others
Liu Hsi
R.
such as Li Shu-Hua ( 2 ) prefer a Thang
Shih Pien LMng Fang
@ l?& 3.
Excellent Prescriptions of Perfect
dating.
Convenience.
Hsii Yo @ g .
Sung, I 196.
Shu Yuan Tsa Chi 8
E.
Kuo Than BH.
The Bean-Garden Miscellany.
Cf. SIC, p. 1119; ICK, p. 813.
Ming, +1475.
Shih Wu Chi Yuan #5
E E.
L u Jung E%%.
Records of the Origins of Affairs and
Shuanz Mei Ching An Tshunx Shu
Rg
Things.
% %Double Plum-Tree Collection [of ancient
Sung, c. 1085.
and medieval books and fragments on
Kao Chheng 8 2.
Shih Wu P& Tshao 33 A i 3.
Taoist sexual techniques].
See Yeh TC-Hui (I) B E E$ in Bib. B.
Nutritional Natural History.
Shui Yiin Lu ;k *.? fl.
Ming, f 1571 (repr. from a slightly earlier
Record of Clouds and Waters [iatroedition).
Attrib. Li Kao @ (JlChin) or Wang
chemical].
Sung, c. I 125.
(Mina) in various editions;
Ying I.Z
actual writer Lu Ho
W.
Yeh Meng-T& 3& B $5.
Extant now only in quotations.
The bibliography of this work in its several

a.

S
*

F.

m m m,

@a.

+
a

381

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Shun Yang LP Chm-Jm Yao Shih Chih

E3L73A?%Ei!R-

The Adept Lii Shun-Yang's (i.e. LU

Tung-Pin's) Book o n Preparations of
Drugs and Minerals [in verses].
Late Thang.
B.
Attrib. L u Tung-Pin g
TT/896.
Tr. H o Ping-Yii, Lim & Morsingh (I).
Shuo W&.
See Shuo W& Chieh Tzu.
Shuo U7& Chieh Tau
ft #$
Analytical Dictionary of Characters (lit.
Explanations of Simple Characters and
Analyses of Composite Ones).
H/Han,
121.
Hsu Shen 8
So Sui Ltc fB @.
Sherds, Orts and Unconsidered Fragments
[iatro-chemical].
Sung, prob. late I rth.
Wnter unknown.
Now extant only in quotations. Cf. Winter';
Tale, IV, iii, Timon of Athens, IV, iii, and
Juliu Caesar, IV, i.
Sou Shen Chi @ 8 z.
Reports on Spiritual Manifestations.
Chin, c. +348.
Kan Pao
Partial tr. Bodde (g).
Sou Shen HOU Chi A#@%.
Supplementary Reports on Spiritual
Manifestations.
Chin, late +4th or early +5th century.
Thao Chhien
B.
Sm Khu Thi Yao Pien Chhg W B R # B.
See Yii Chia-Hsi (I).
Ssu Shgng P& Tshao
E ?ti B.
Materia Medica Classified according to the
Four Tones (and the Standard Rhymes),
[the entries arranged in the order of the
pronunciation of the first character of
their names].
Thang, C. 775.
Hsiao Ping R S .
Ssu Shih Thiao She^Chim W E+ fl $E B.
Directions for Harmonising and Strengthening (the Vitalities) according to the Four
Seasons of the Year [the second part
(chs. 3-6) of Tsun Shhg Pa Chien, q.v.1.
Ming,
1591.
Kao Lien E B.
Partial tr. of the gymnastic material,
Dudgeon (I).
Ssu Shih Tsuan Yao W E#8 S.
Important Rules for the Four Seasons
[agriculture and horticulture, family
hygiene and pharmacy, etc.].
Thang, c. +750.
Han 0
Su Nii Ching
& ft.
Canon of the Immaculate Girl.

a.
+

Fa.

@m.

+.

Han.
Writer unknown.
Only as fragment in S h n g Mei Ching An
Tshung Shu, now containing the Hsiian Nii
Ching (q.v.).
Partial trs. van Gulik (3, 8).
Su Nii Miao Lun % & p % .
Mysterious Discourses of the Immaculate
Girl.
Ming, c. 1500.
Writer unknown.
Partial tr. van Gulik (3).
Su Shen Liang Fang
2.
Beneficial Prescriptions collected by Su
(Tung-Pho) and Shen (Kua).
Sung, c. I 120. Some of the data go back
as far as 1060. Preface by Lin Ling-Su

%E%.

Shen Kua 2j: B and S u Tung-Pho

G &i (posthumous).
T h e collection was at first called Shm
shih Liung Fang, so that most of the
entries are Shen Kua's, but as some certainly stem from S u Tung-Pho, the latter
were probably added by editors at the
beginning of the new century.
Cf. ICK, PP. 737, 732.
Su W& Ling Shu Ching.
See Huang Ti Nei Cfing, Su W& and
Huang Ti Nei Ching, Ling Shu.
Su W& Nei Ching.
See Huung Ti Nei Ching, Su W&.
Sui Shu
g.
History of the Sui Dynasty [+581 to
$6171.
Thang, 636 (annals and biographies) ;
+656 (monographs and bibliography).
Wei Ch&ng E!#
et al.
Partial trs. Pfizmaier (61-65); Balazs (7, 8);
Ware (I).
For translations of passages see the index of
Frankel (I).
Sun Kung Than Phu R & M.
The Venerable M r Sung's Conversation
Garden.
Sung, c. 1085.
Sun Sh&ng G R.
Sung Chhao Shih Shih
$W S.
Records of Affairs of the Sung Dynasty.
Yuan, I 3th.
L i Y u F&.
Sung Shun Thai-Wu hsim-skrg Chhi Ching

%m

#!-U;kRXLk%@.
Manual of the (Circulation of the) Chhi,
by M r Grand-Nothingness of Sung
Mountain.
Thang, 766 to 779.
Prob. Li F&ng-Shih 3
(Thai-Wu
hsien-s&ng).
TT1817, and in YCCC, ch. 59 (partially),
PP. 7a fl.
Cf. Maspero (7). p. 199.

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

382

Sung Shih
E.
History of the Sung Dynasty [+g60 to
+ 12791.
Yuan, c. 1345.
Tho-Tho (Toktaga) E R & Ouyang
Hsiian
A 3.
Yin-T& Index, no. gq.
Sxechuan Thung Chih W 11138.
General History and Topography of
Szechuan Province.
Chhing, 18th century (pr. 1816).
Ed. Chhang Ming R B, Yang FangTshan B % & et al.

TaChao A # .
T h e Great Summons (of the Soul), [ode].
Chhu (between Chhin and Han), -206 or
-205.
Writer unknown.
Tr. Hawkes (I), p. ~ o g .
TaChih TuLun A@$L;iifi$.
MUM-prajiiapdrarmarmto-pa&.fa
&
'. sirta
(Cornmentary on the Great Siitra of the Perfection of Wisdom).
India.
Attrib. NfigHjuna, 2nd.
Mostly prob. of Central Asian origin.
Tr. Kurnarajrva, 406.
N11169; TW/rsog.
Ta Chiin K u Thung 7t; 3efi m.
(Illustrated Account of the Mining), Smeltin!: and Refining of Copper [and other NonFerrous Metals], according to the Principles
of Nature (lit. the Great Potter's Wheel).
See Masuda Tsuna ( I ) .
Ta Fang Kuang Fo Hua Yen Ching
ft W B

+
+

%i%%SAvatarirsaka Sutra.
India.
Tr. ~ikshHnanda,+699.
N/88; TW/279.
Ta Huan Tan Chao Chim A 9% Pf 88 P&.
An Elucidation of the Great Cyclically
Transformed Elixir [in verses].
Wu Tai (Shu), 962.
Writer unknown.
TTI919.
Ta Huan Tan ChhiPi Thu 'kBP)W%M.
Esoteric Illustrations of the Concordance of
the Great Regenerative Enchymoma.
Thang or Sung.
Writer unknown.
I n YCCC, ch. 72, pp. I a ff.
Cf. Hsiu Chen L i Yen Chhao Thu and
Chin I Huan Tan Yin Chkrg Thu.
Ta-Kuan Ching-Shih Ch&g Lei Pei-Chi P&
Tshao A ~ @ ! 2 Z B W i ~ &
T h e Classified and Consolidated Armamentarium; Pharmacopoeia of the TaKuan reign-period.
Sung, +1108; repr. + I ~ I I +1z14
,
(J/Chin), 1302 (Yuan).

Thang Shen-Wei f B B.
Ed. Ai Sh&ng ff B.
Ta Ming I Thung Chih A W B ,S.
Comprehensive Geography of the (Chinese)
Empire (under the Ming dynasty).
Ming, commissioned 1450, completed
1461.
Ed. Li Hsien 4 E.
Ta T a i L i C h i AJQm#E.
Record of Rites [compiled by Tai the Elder]
(cf. Hsiuo Tai L i Chi; Li Chi).
Ascr. C/Han, c. -70 to 50, but really
H/Han. between 80 and 105.
Attrib. ed. Tai T& a]t g,in fact probably
ed. Tshao Pao B 3.
See Legge (7).
Trs. Douglas (I); R. Wilhelrn (6).
Ta Tan Chhien Hung L m % P) A I.
Discourse on the Great Elixir [or Enchymoma] of Lead and Mercury.
If Thang, +gth, more probably Sung.
Chin Chu-Pho 4f i g.
TT/gr6.
Cf. Yoshida Mitsukuni (5), pp. 230-2.
Ta Tan Chi
P) 3.
Rewrd of the Great Enchymoma.
Ascr. +znd cent., but probably Sung,
13th.
Attrib. Wei PO-Yang B 4$ B.
TT/Sgz.
Ta Tan Chih Chih A Pf
$3.
Direct Hints on the Great Elixir.
Sung, c. IZOO.
Chhiu Chhu-Chi @ B
TT/z.+I.
Ta Tan W& Ta A P) W S.
Questions and Answers on the Great Elixir
(or Enchymoma) [dialogues between
Ch&ngYin and KO Hung].
Date unknown, prob. late Sung or Yuan.
Writer unknown.
TT1932.
Ta Tan Yao Ch&h P& Tshao A Pf
8

a.

zk B.

Pharmaceutical Natural History in the form

of Instructions about Medicines of the
Great Elixir (Type), [iatro-chemical].
Possible alternative title of Wai Tan P &
Tshao (q.v.).
Ta-Tuqq Lien Chen Pao Ching, Chiu Huan Chin
Tan Miao Chiieh 2 M
B ft

42P1$33t.

~~.

Mysterious Teachings on the Ninefold

Cyclically Transformed Gold Elixir,
supplementary to the Manual of the
Making of the Perfected Treasure; a TaTung Scripture.
Thang, 8th, perhaps c. +712.
Chhen Shao-Wei
9 l.
TT/884. A sequel to TT/883, and in YCCC,
ch. 68, pp. 8 a ff.
Tr. Sivin (4).

383

B I B L I O GRAPHY A
Ta-Tung Lien Chen Pao Ching, Hsiu Fu Ling
s h a ~ i a chiieh
o
7trm154sgg1wgl

ii9&93t.

Mysterious Teachinas on the Alchemical

Preparation of ~ ~ & i n o uCinnabar,
s
supplementary to the Manual of the Making
of the Perfected Treasure; a Ta-Tung
Scripture.
Thang, 8th. perhaps c. 712.
Chhen Shao-Wei
& 1.
TT/883. Alt. title: Chhi Fan Ling Sha Lun,
'as in YCCC, ch. 69, pp. I U ff.
Tr. Sivin (4).
Ta Yu Miao Ching
$f @B.
[= Tung-Chen Thai-Shang Su-Ling TungYuan Ta Yu Miao Ching.]
Book of the G n a t Mystery of Exietenn
[Taoist anatomy and physiology; describes
the s h g tan thien, upper region of vital
heat, in the brain].
Chin, +4th.
Writer unknown.
TT/~zgg.
Cf. ~Maspero(7),p. 192.
B.
Tai Z Phien
On Replacing Doubts by Certainties.
Ming, 1621.
Yang Thing-YUn
S.
Preface by Wang Ch&ng 5 fa
Taketori Monogatari .frf &j 3.
T h e Tale of the Bamboo-Gatherer.
Japan (Heian), c. +865. Cannot be earlier
than c. +81o or later than c. +955.
Writer unknown.
Cf. Matsubara Hisako (I, 2).
Tan Ching Shih Tu Pf.@ Z m.
A Guide to the Reading of the Enchymoma
Manuals.
See Fu Chin-ChhUan (3).
Tan Ching Yao Chiieh.
See Thai-Chhing Tan Ching Yao Chiieh.
Tan Fang Ao Lun Pf B l.
Subtle Discourse on the (Alchemical)
Elaboratory (of the Human Body, for
making the Enchymoma).
Sung, 1020.
Chh&ngLiao-I 17
TT1913, and in T T C Y (chung mao chi,
5).
Tan Fang Chim Yuan Pf 3 R B.
The Mirror of Alchemical Processes (and
Reagents); a Source-book.
Wu Tai (H/Shu), c. +938 to +965.
Tuku Thao H
Descr. Feng Chia-Lo & Collier (I).
See H o Ping-Yu & Su Ying-Hui (I).
TTlg18.
Tan Fang Ching Yuan p)lS)$&
The Mirror of the Alchemical Elaboratory;
a Source-book.
Early Thang, not later than 8oo.
Writer unknown.

-.

a a.

m.

Survives only incowrated in TTlorz

. - and

in CLPT.
See H o Ping-YU & Su Ying-Hui ( l ) .
Tan Fang Hsii Chih P ) B 9.
Indispensable Knowledge for the Chymical
[withillustrationsof apparatus].
Sung, I 163.
w u w u S@
. . .
TT1893.
TanFangPaoChimChihThu p)BE&14ffl.
[= Tzu Yang Tan Fang Pao Chien Chih
Thu.]
Precious Mirror of the Elixir and Enchvmoma Laboratory; Tables and Pictures
(to illustrate the P ~ c i p l e s ) .
Sung, c. 1075.
Chang PO-Tuan
4Q R (Tzu Yang Tzu
B 7- or Tzu Yang Chen Jen).
Incorporated later in Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu
(q.v.)
I n Chin Tan Ta Yao (TTCY ed.), ch. 3,
pp. 34a ff. Also in Wu Chm Phim (in
Hsiu Chen Shih Shu, TT12.60, ch. 26,
PP. 5 a ff.).
Cf. Ho Ping-YU & Needham (2).
TanISanChiian
f&.
See Pa Tzu-Yuan (I).

labo orator^

TanLrmChiiehChihHsinChing

Pfast:&

(Chien or Chao Q , H occur as tabu

forms in the titles of some versions.)
Mental Mirror Reflecting the Essentials of
Oral Instruction about the Discourses on
the Elixir and the Enchymoma.
Thang, probably 9th.
Chang Hsiian-T&
3
criticising the
R.
teachings of Ssuma Hsi-I 3
TTigz8, and in YCCC. ch. 66, pp. I a ff.
Tr. Sivin (5).
Tan Thai Hsin Lu Pf B &.
New Discourse on the Alchemical Laboratory.
Early Sung or pre-Sung.
Attrib. Chhing Hsia Tzu 3 3 or
Hsia Yu-Chang gl S.
Extant only in quotations.
Tan- Yang Chen Jen Yii Lu $j E A $k.
Precious Records of the Adept Tan-Yang.
Sung, mid I 2th cent.
MaYii Ea.
TT/ I o++.
Tan- Yan,g Shm Kuang Tshan Pf jaM B.
Tan Yang (Tzu's Book) on the Resplendent Glow of the Numinous Light.
Sung, mid 12th cent.
MaYii ,F$.$;.
TT/1136.
Tan Yao Pi Chiieh Pf S 3.
Confidential Oral Instructions on Elixirs
and Drugs.
Prob. Yuan or early Ming.
HuYen
Now only extant as quotations in the pharmaceutical natural histories.

a m,

a@.

3 84

BIBLIOG

m.

Tao F a HJin Chkuon

B 1Cr
Transrniclsion of (a Lifetime of) Thought on
Taoist Techniques [physiological alchemy with special reference to microcosm and macrocosm; many poems and a
long exposition].
Yuan, 1294.
Wang Wei-I 3 B
TT/1235, and TTCY (iuia mao chi, 5).
Tao F a Hui Yuun
Liturgical and Apotropaic Encyclopaedia of
Taoism.
Thang and Sung.
Writers and compiIer unknown.
TT/12o3.
TaoHaiChinLirmg $%@6Bj$gR.
A Catena (of Words) to Bridge the Ocean
of the Tao.
See Fu Chin-Chhllan (4).
TaoShu BR.
Axial Principles of the Tao [doctrinal
treatise, mainly on the techniques of
physiological alchemy].
Sung, early 12th; finished by 1145.
Ts@ngTshao .i.f B .
TT/~oog.
Too Su Fu
Ode on a Girl of Matchlees Beauty [Chao
nii, probably Chao Fei-Yen]; or, Of
What does Spotless Beauty Consist?
C/Han, c. - 20.
Pan chieh-yii B B.
In CSHK, Chhien Han Sect., ch. 11,
P. 7f ff.
Tao TE Ckng
B.
Canon of the Tao and its Virtue.
Chou, before -300.
(24).
Attrib. Li Erh (Lao Tzu)
Tr. Waley (4); Chhu Ta-Kao (2); Lin YUThang (I) ; Wieger (7); Duyvendak (18);
and very many others.
E.
Tao Tsang
The Taoist Patrology [containing 1464
Taoist works].
All periods, but first collected in the Thang
about 730, then again about 870 and
definitively in 1019. First printed in the
Sung (+ I I 11 to I I 17). Also printed in
J/Chin (+ 1168 to I I ~ I )Yuan
,
( + 124.+),
1607). and Ming (+ 1445, 1598 and
Writers numerous.
Indexes by Wieger (6),on which see Pelliot's
review (58); and Ong Tu-Chien (Yin-T@
Index. no. 25).
Tao Tsang Chi Yao 3% $# B.
Essentials of the Taoist Patrology [containing 287 books, 173 works from the
Taoist Patrology and I 14 Taoist works
from other sources].
AI1 periods, pr. 1906 at Erh-hsien-ssu
Z
Chhengtu.
Writers numerous.

-.

e.

#ss.

{m +,

& Pheng
Ed. Ho Lung-Hsiang R I
Han-Jan 38 8 (Chhing).

TaoTsangHsilPhienChhuChi B#a##;$lS.
First Series of a Supplement to the Taoist
Patrology.
Chhing, early 19th cent.
Edited by Min I-TB H - B .
Tao Yin Yang Sh& Ching B I
$g.
[= Thai-Chhing Tao Yin Yang Sh& Ching.]
Manual of Nourishing the Life-Force (or,
Attaining Longevity and Immortality) by
Gymnastics.
Late Thang, Wu Tai, or early Sung.
Writer unknown.
T T / ~ I Iand
, in YCCC, ch. 34.
Cf. Maspero (7). pp. 415 ff.
T& Chm Yin Chiieh f a 3.
Confidential Instructions for the Ascent to
Perfected (Immortality).
Chin and S/Chhi. Original material from
the neighbourhood of +365 to +366;
commentary (the ' Confidential Instructions' of the title) by Thao Hung-Ching
(+456 to +536) written between +493
and +498.
Original writer unknown.
Ed. Thao Hung-Ching R
TT/q18, but conservation fragmentary.
Cf. Maspero (7), PP. 192, 374.
Thai-Chhing Chen Jen Ta Tan ;k St A A B.
[Alternative later name of Thai-Chhing
Tan Ching Yao Chiich.]
The Great Elixirs of the Adepts; a ThaiChhing Smipture.
Thang, mid 7th (c. 640).
Prob. Sun Ssu-MO MP
In YCCC, ch. 71.
Tr. Sivin (I), pp. 145 ff.
Thai-Chhing Chin I Shm Chhi Ching
&

e.

a.

nsna.

Manual of the Numinous Chhi of Potable

Gold; a Thai-Chhing Scripture.
Ch. 3 records visitations by the Lady Wei
Hua-Tshun and her companion divinities
mostly paralleling texts in the Chm Kao.
They were taken down by Hsii Mi's greatgrandson Hsii Jung-Ti (d. 435), c. 430.
Chs I and 2 are Thang or Sung, before
I 150. If pre-Thang, cannot be earlier
than +6th.
Writers mainly unknown.
TT/875.
Thai-Chhin~qChin I Shm Tan Chng A B & B

#? f48.

Manual of the Potable Gold (or Metallous

Fluid), and the Magical Elixir (or
Enchymoma); a Thai-Chhing Scripture.
Date unknown, but must be pre-Liang
(Chhen Kuo-Fu ( l ) , vol. 2, p. 419). Contains dates between +320 and +330, but
most of the prose is more probably of the
early 5th century.

385

B I B L I O GR A P H Y A
!CJtai-Chhing Chin I Sirm Tan Ching (cont.)
Preface and main texts of nn' tan character,
all the rest wai tan, including laboratory
instructions.
Writer unknown; chs. variously attriiuted.
The third chapter, devoted to descriptions
of foreign countries which produced
cinnabar and other chemical substances,
may be of the second half of the +7th
century (see Maspero (14)~
pp. 95 ff.).
Most were based on Wan Chen's Nan
Chou I Wu Chih (+3rd cent.), but not
the one on the Roman Orient (Ta-Chhin)
translated by Maspero. Stein (5) has
pointed out however that the term FuLin for Byzantium occurs as early as
+so0 to +520, so the third chapter may
well be of the early +6th century.
W873.
Abridged in YCCC ch. 65, pp. I a ff.
Cf. Ho Pinu-YU (10).
Thai-Chhing CGng ~ & - ~ h i hKhou Chiieh

A*fi!ER~titin~.

Oral Instructions from the Heavenly Mastem

[Taoist Patriarchs] on the Thai-Chhing
Scriptures.
Date unknown, but must be after the mid
5th cent. and before Yuan.
Writer unknown.
TTI876.
-

sitsa.

See Chum H m Chen Clriltp.

~ i t a i - ~ h h Sjrih
i n ~ pi
A
E?$2.
The Records in the Rock Chamber (lit.
Wall); a Thai-Chhing Scripture.
Liang, early 6th. but includes earlier work
of Chin time as old as the late +grd,
attributed to Su Yuan-Ming.
Edited by Chhu Ts&hsien-s&ng
% &.
Original writer, Su Yuan-Ming
%
(Chhing Hsia Tzu B 14).
TTl874.
T~.'HO
Ping-Yii (8).
Cf. Lo-fou Shan Chih, ch. 4 p. 13a.
Thai-Chhing Tan Ching Yao Chiieh A @ $f

lChi

ER.

[= Thai-Chhing Chm Jen Ta Tan.]

Essentials of the Elixir Manuals, for Oral
Transmission; a Thai-Chhing Scripture.
Thang, mid 7th (c. 640).
Prob. Sun Ssu-MO g l
In YCCC, ch. 71.
Tr. Sivin (I), pp. 145 ff.
Thai-Chhing Tao Yin Yang Shktg Ching
jW

a.

Wg13Ee&s.
See Tao Yin Yang Sh&tg Cldng.
Thai-Chhing Thiao Chhi Ching
% I.
Manual of the Harmonising of the Chhi; a
Thai-Chhing Scripture breathing exercises for longevity and immortality].
Thang or Sung, 9th or 10th.

Writer unknown.
TT1813.
Cf. Maspm, (7), p. 202.
Thai-Chhing (Wang Lao) (Fu Chhi) Khou Chiieh
(or ChhuanFa) A?&Z%116tXU%

(BS).

The Venerable Wang's Instructions for

Absorbing the Chhi; a Thai-Chhing
Scripture [Taoist breathing exercises].
Thang or Wu Tai (the name of Wang added
in the I rth).
Writer unknown.
Part due to a woman Taoist, Li I 3 B.
TT1815, and in YCCC, ch. 62, pp. I a ff.
and ch. 59, pp. Ioa ff.
Cf. Maspero (7). p. 209.
Thai-Chhing Yii Pei T m A B E @ F.
The Jade Stele (Inscription); a ThaiChhing Scripture [dialogues between
Cheng Yin and KO Hung].
Date unknown, prob. late Sung or Yuan.
Writer unknown.
TT1920.
Cf. Ta Tan Wht Ta and Chin Mu Wan Ling
Lun, which incorporate parallel passages.
Thai-Chi Chm-Jen Chiu Chum Huan Tan
Ching Yao Chiieh A&iBA-h$$sP)

@%3R.

Essential Teachings of the Manual of the

Supreme-Pole Adept on the Ninefold
Cyclically Transformed Elixir.
Date unknown, perhaps Sung on account
of the pseudonym, but the Manual
(Ching) itself may be pre-Sui because its
title is in the Sui Shu bibliography. Mao
Shan influence is revealed by an account
of five kinds of magic plants or mushrooms that grow on Mt Mao, and instructions of Lord Mao for ingesting
them.
Writer unknown.
TT/88z.
Partial tr. Ho Ping-YU (g).
Thai-Chi Chen-Jen Tsa Tan Yao Fang & S E

nwma.

Tractate of the Supreme-Pole Adept on

Miscellaneous Elixir Recipes [with illustrations of alchemical apparatus].
Date unknown, but probably Sung on
account of the philosophical significance
of the pseudonym.
Writer unknown.
TTI939.
Ih j%3 (gt
nMi-Chi KOH&-Ong Chuan k
Biography of the Supreme-Pole ElderImmortal KO (Hsiian).
Prob. Ming.
Than Ssu-Hsien ,q m X.
TT1447.
Thai Hsi Ching ER@.
Manual of Embryonic Respiration.
Thang, +8th, c. +755.

386

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Thang, c. 800.
Shih Chien-Wu jQB
J S.
TTIg27.
Thai Phing Ching ;k Zp. E.
[= Thai Phing Chhing Ling Shu.]
Canon of the Great Peace (and Equality).
Ascr. H/Han, c. I50 (first mentioned
166) but with later additions and interpolations.
Part attrib. Yti Chi F 3 .
Perhaps based on the Thicn K u m Li Pao
Yuan Thai Phing Ching (c. - 35) of Kan
Chung-Kho -& & W.
TT/1o87. Reconstructed text, ed. Wang
Ming ( 2 ) .
Cf. Yu Ying-Shih (2), p. 84..
According to Hsiung T&-Chl( I ) the parts
which consist of dialogue between a
Heavenly Teacher and a disciple correspond with what the Pao Phu Tau
bibliography lists as Thm Phing Ching
and were composed by Hsiang Khai

Thai Hsi Ching (cont.)

Huan Chen hsien-s&ng M ff % S
(Mr Truth-and-Illusion).
TTl127, and YCCC, ch. 60, pp. 22b ff.
Tr. Balfour (I).
Cf. Maspero (7), p. 211.
ThaiHsiChing WeiLun E , $ . B R I .
Discourse on Embryonic Respiration and
the Subtlety of the Seminal Essence.
Thang or Sung.
Writer unknown.
In YCCC, ch. 58, pp. I a ff.
Cf. Masperoj7). p. 210.
Thai Hn' K6n CM2 Yao CFn?ch a%a B g
Instruction on the Essentials of (Understanding) Embryonic Respiration [Taoist
respiratory and sexual techniques].
Thang or Sung.
Writer unknown.
In YCCC, ch. 58, pp. qb ff.
Cf. Maspero (7), p. 380.
R 3.
Thai Hn' Khou Chiieh B
Oral Explanation of Embryonic Respiration.
Thang or Sung.
Writer unknown.
In YCCC, ch. 58, pp. 12a ff.
Cf Maspero (7), p. 198.
ThaiHsiShuiFa f E;lkS.
Hydraulic Machinery of the West.
Ming, 1612.
Z
Hsiung San-Pa (Sabatino de Ursie)
& Hsu Kuang-Chhi B % 8.
Thai Hsiian Pao Tien
-ft fi&.
Precious Records of the Great Mystery [of
attaining longevity and immortality by
physiological alchemy, nei tan].
Sung or Yuan, 13th or 14th.
Writer unknown.
TT/~ozz,and in TTCY (shang mao c&, 5).
Thai-I Chin Hua Tsung C M ;k 4 (or 2 )4

m.

m a

5z '8.

Principles of the (Inner) Radiance of the

Metallous (Enchymoma), (explained in
terms of the) Undifferentiated Universe.
See Chin Hua Tsung Chih.
Thai-Ku Chi k g.
Collected Works of (Ho) Thai-Ku PO
TaThung].
Sung, c. I 200.
Ho Ta-Thung
A -3.
TT11147.
Thai Ku Thu Tui Ching k g &
Most Ancient Canon of the Joy of the Earth;
or, of the Element Earth and the Kua
Tui [mainly on the alchemical subduing of metals and minerals].
Date unknown, perhaps Thang or slightly
earlier.
Attrib. Chang hsien-s@ng i2gt % g.
TTI942.
ThaiPaiChing A B @ .
The Venus Canon.

a.

B.

The other parts would be for the most part

fragments of the Chia I Ching
Z S,
also mentioned in Pao Phu Tau, and due
to Yii Chi and his disciple Kung Chhung
'& between 125 and 145.
Thai Phing Chhing Ling Shu k p #jR
Received Book of the Great Peace and
Purity.
See Thai Phing Ching.
Thai-Phing Huan Yii Chi
M 9 S.
Thai-Phing reign-period General Descrip
tion of the World [geographical record].
Sung, +976 to +983.
E.
Yiieh Shih
Thai-Phing Hui Min Ho Chi Chil Fang ;k 42. I

a.

5+f! W E.

Standard Formularies of the (Government)

Great Peace People's Welfare Pharmacies
[based on the Ho Chi Chii Fang, etc.].
Sung, +115r.
Ed. Chhen Shih-Wtn
S,Phei
and Chhen
Tsung-Yuan B 3
Chheng pjfl g.
Cf. Li Thao (I, 6); SIC, p. 973.
Thai-Phing Kttang Chi A 3e B R.
Copious Records collected in the ThaiPhing reign-period [anecdotes, stories,
mirabilia and memorabilia].
Sung,. + 978.
Ed. L1 Fang
M.
Thai-Phing Sh6ng Hui Fang ;k I B 3.
Prescriptions Collected by Imperial
Benevolence during the Thai-Phing
reign-period.
Sung, commissioned 982; completed
+ 992.
Ed. Wang Huai-Yin 3 m H, Ch6ng Yeh
fali W et al.
SIC, p. 921; Yii Hm, ch. 63.

z.

387

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Thai-Phing Yil La A
af0 9.
Thai-Phing reign-period Imperial Encyclopaedia (lit. the Emperor's Daily Readings).
Sung, +983.
Ed. L i Fang
B.
Some chs. tr. Pfizmaier (84-106).
Yin-TB Index, no. 23.
Thai-Shag Chu Kuo Chiu Min Tsung C& A'
Yao k k W ~ & E # ! E f ! Z ? S .
Arcane Essentials of the Mainstream of
Taoism, for the Help of the Nation and
the Saving of the People; a Thai-Shang
Scripture [apotropaics and liturgy].
Sung f1116.
Yuan Miao-Tsung
fi
TT/~zxo.
27d-Shang Chuan Hsi Wang Mu WOKu F a

e.

kk#bPiX.ff~EiB.

See Chuan Hsi Wang Mu WOK u Fa.

Thni-Shang H u n g Thing Nei (or Wai or C+)
Ching ( Yu)Ching A Jz BII B R (fi,EF)

gk (3)
B.

See H m g Thing, etc.

Thai-Shong Loo Chiin Yang Shhg Chi&h A

%%S&%.
Oral Instructions of Lao Tzu on Nourishing
the Life-Force; a Thai-Shang Scripture
[Taoist respiratory and gymnastic exercisesl.
Thang.
Attrib. Hua Tho
and Wu Phu

Thai-Shang P a Ti Yuan (Hsilan) Pim Ching

-kkA%t5(3)%ff.
See Tung-Shm P a Ti Yuan (HzQn) Pim
Ching.
Thai Shang-San-shih-liu pu Tnm Cking
L

S-i-ik%#@.
T h e Venerable Scripture in 36 Sections.
TT/8.
See Shung Chhing Ching.
Thai-Shang Tung Fang Nei Chirrg Chu 2 1W

BB@&.

Esoteric Manual of the Innermost Chamber,

a Thai-Shang Scripture; with Comrnen-

W.

Ascr. 1st cent.

Attrib. Chou Chi-Thung W ?J%
TTII~o.
Thai-Shang Tung-Hsilan Ling-Pao Mieh Tu (or
San Yuan) Wu Lien S h g Sh13 Miao
(or G % )
Ching ;klM-$;l%@&Zilt

a.

~L$%&P#@.

Marvellous Manual of the Resurrection (or

Preservation) of the Body, giving Salvation
from Dispersal, by means of (the Three
Primary Vitalities and) the Five Transmutations; a Ling-Pao Thai-Shang TungHsiian Scripture.
Date uncertain.
Writer unknown.
TT/366.
Thai-Shang Tung-HsCIan Ling-Poo Shou Tu I

kkiRPl*%?i%%.

R B.

Actual writer unknown.

TT1814.
Thai-Shang Ling-Pao Chih Tshao Thu

*ZSM.

21

Formulae for the Reception of Salvation; a

Thai-Shang ~ u n ~ - ~ s i Ling-Pao
ian
Scripture [liturgical].
L/Sung, c. +450.
L u Hsiu-Ching
TT1524Thai-Shang Wei Ling Shm Hua Chiu Chumc
T a n S h a F a ~JzBI!EH.~L?L~WIP)~B~~

m.

Illustrations of the Numinous Mushrooms:

a Thai-Shang Ling-Pao Scripture.
Sui or pre-Sui.
Writer unknown.
TT/1387.
E.
Methods of the Guardian of the Mysteries
Thai-Shang Ling-Poo Wu Fu (Ching) 5k 1I
for the Marvellous Thaumaturgical
5%R (S).
Transmutation of Ninefold Cyclically
(Manual of) the Five Categories of ForTransformed Cinnabar; a Thai-Shang
mulae (for achieving Material and
Scripture.
Celestial Immortality); a Thai-Shang
Sung, if not earlier.
Ling-Pao Scripture [liturgical].
Writer unknown.
San Kuo, mid 3rd.
TT/885.
Writers unknown.
Tr. Spooner & Wang (I); Sivin (3).
TTI385.
Thai-Shang Yang Sh& Thai Hsi Chhi Ching
On the term Ling-Pao see Kaltenmark (4).
Thai-Shang Pa-Ching Ssu-Jui Tzu-Chiang (WuSee Yang S h h g Thai Hsi Chhi Ching.
Chu) Chiang-Shhg Shm Tan Fang
1
A-%t-WSR38(~Rk)B!k#fiPf. Thai Tsang Lun % E 5%.
Discourse on the Foetalisation of the
Method for making the Eight-Radiances
Viscera (the Restoration of the EmbryFour-Stamens Purple-Fluid (Five-Pearl)
onic Condition of Youth and Health).
Incarnate Numinous Elixir; a ThaiAlternative title of Chung Huang Chen
Shang Scripture.
Ching (q.v.).
Chin, probably late +4th.
Thai- Wei Ling Shu Tau- W& Lang-Kan Hwa
Putatively dictated to Yang Hsi
@.
In YCCC, ch. 68; another version in
Tan Shm Chm Shan.q Chin.? k B i
5X3CW3FZfi@RIB.
TT11357.

;;f;ks*~a.ns.

388

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Thai- Wei Ling Shu Tru-W& Lung-Kan Hua

Tun Shon Chm Shang Ching (cont.)
Divinely Written Exalted Spiritual Realisation Manual in Purple Script on the
Lang-Kan (Gem) Radiant Elixir; a ThaiWei Scripture.
Chin, late +4th century, pwibly altved
later.
Dictated to Yang Hsi
B.
TT/252.
Thai- Wu hsien-s&g Fu Chhi F a
% & Lrpet

%B?.

Thui-Wu hsien-S& Chhi

Ching.
Than hsien-S& Shtti YUn Chi B R & f i S.
Mr Than's Records of Life among the
Mountain Clouds and Waterfalls.
Sung, mid 12th cent.
Than Chhu-Tuan W
TT11146.
Thang Hui Yao R 4 S.
History of the Administrative Statutes of
the Thang Dynasty.
Sung, +961.
Wang Phu EM.
Cf. des Rotours (2), p. 92.
Thang Liu Tien lifF A $&.
Institutes of the Thang Dynasty (lit.
Administrative Regulations of the Six
Ministries of the Thang).
Thang, 738 or 739.
Ed. Li Lin-Fu ZJZ $# Q.
Cf. des Rotoun, (2). p. 99.
T h a n g P h Tshao F & * 2 3 . 4
Pharmacopoeia of the Thang Dynasty.
= Hsin Hsiu P h Tshao, (q.v.).
Thang YiiLin @E$#.
Miscellanea of the Thang Dynasty.
Sung, collected c. I 107.
Wang Tang SS.
Cf. des Rotours (z), p. 109.
Thao Chen Jm Nei Tan Fu PBB R A F\W P)
See Nei Tan Fu.
ThiKhoKo B @ & .
Song of the Bodily Husk (and the Deliverance from its Ageing).
Wu Tai or Sung, in any case before 1040
Yen Lo Tzu (PS.) $3 B F.
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TTIzh), ch. 18.
Thiao Chhi Ching
R B.
See Thai-CWting Thiao Chhi Ching.
Thieh Wei Shun Tshung Than
m m jBt R.
Collected Conversations at Iron-Fence
Mountain.
Sung, c. 1115.
Tshai Thao
E.
Thien-Hsia Chiin Kuo Li Ping Shu R 7;
See Sung Shan

&a.

a.

31s5%

Merits and Drawbacks of all the Countries

in the World [geography].
Chhing, 1662.
fi B.
Ku Yen-Wu

!l"?tkHsimChkgLiTu'FaTienChing'

ZSff B?L!&PilR4.

The Right Pattern of the Celestial Immortals; Thoughts on Reading the

Consecration of the Law.
See Fu Chin-Chhiian (l).
TiSim H& Chih Lun Chhang Shkrg Tu SIdh
Nei Lim Chin Tan (Chiieh Hsin) F a

% ~ ~ I A ~ E Z I ! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Z
(Confidential) Methods for Processing the
MetaUous Encyhmoma; a Plain Discourse on Longevity and Immortality
(according to the Principles of the),
Celestial Immortals for the Salvation of
the World.
Alternative title for Nei Chin Tan (q.v.).
ThkKungKhaiWu x X & a & ~ .
The Exploitation of the Works of Nature.
Ming, 1637.
Sung Ying-Hsing Sfi E.
Tr. Sun Jen I-Tu & Sun HsUeh-Chum (I).
2'7ubthoi Shan Fang Wai Chih X
fi Of

b.

Supplementary Historical Topography of

Thien-thai Shan.
Ming.
Chhuan-T&ng (monk) B B.
Ti Yin-Yang T a L o F u x H B m A %

R.

Poetical Essay on the Supreme Joy.

Thang, c. 800.
Pai Hsing-Chien a ?-j'
Thien Yuan Ju Yao Ching K jZ A @.
Mirror of the AII-Penetrating Medicine
(the Enchyrnoma; restoring the Endowment) of the Primary Vitalities.
Wu Tai, 940.
Tshui Hsi-Fan
In Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TTlzh), ch. 21,
pp. 6 b to 9 b; a prose text without commentary, not the same as the Ju Yao
Ching (q.v.) and ending with a diagram
absent from the latter.
Cf. van Gulik (8), pp. zzq ff.
Tho YO TZU
4.
Book of the Bellows-and-Tuyhre Master
Cphysiological alchemy in mutationist
terms].
Sung or Yuan.
Writer unknown.
TT11 174, and TTC Y ( f i n mao chi, 5).
Thou Huang Tsa Lu
5% l B.
Miscellaneous Jottings far from Home.
Thang, c. +835.
Fang Chhien-Li Bq 7 B.
Thu Ching ( P h Tshao)
(*p).
Illustrated Treatise (of Pharmaceutical
Natural History). See P h Tshao Thu
Ching.
The term Thu Ching applied originally to
one of the two illustrated parts (the other
being a Yao Thu) of the Hsin Hsiu P&

m.

a.

389

B I B L I O GR A P H Y A

Thu Ching (P& Tshao) (cont.)

Tshao of 659 (q.v.); cf. H& Tlumg

Shu, ch. 59, p. 21 a or TSCCIW, p. 273.
By the middle of the 11th century these
had become lost, so Su Sung's P& Tshao
Thu Ching was prepared as a replacement. The name Thu Ching P& Tshao
was often afterwards applied to Su Sung's
work, but (according to the evidence of
the Sung Shih bibliographies, SSIW,
PP. 179, 529) wrongly.
Thu Ching Chi-Chu Yen I P k Tshao
@ #$

sKr2z*s.

Illustrations and Collected Commentaries

for the Dilations upon PharmaceuticaI
Natural History.
TT/761 (Ong index, no. 767).
See also Thu Ching Yen I P k Tshao.
The Tao Tsang contains two separately
catalogued books, but the Thu Ching ChiChu Yen I P& Tshao is in fact the introductory 5 chapters, and the Thu Ching
Yen I P& Tshao the remaining 42 c h a p
ters of a single work.
Thu Ching Yen I P& Tshao
lRj S 2 ft.
Illustrations (and Commentary) for the
DiIationr upon Pharmaceutical Natural
History. (An abridged confiation of the
Chtkg-Ho . Chhg Lei. P k Tshao with
the P k Tshao Yen I.)
sung, C. 1223.
Thang Shen-Wei f M
Khou TsungShih
Z 9p, ed. Hsti Hung B g.
TT1761 (Ong index, no. 768).
See also Thu Ching Chi-Chu Yen I P&
Tshao.
Cf. Chang Tsan-Chhm (a); Lung POChien ( I ) . nos. 38. 39.
Thu Hsiu Chen Chiin Tsao-Hua Chih Nun

..

..

a,

E?3&4L%3PPii.

Guide to the Creation, by the Earth's

Mansions Immortal.
See Tsao-Hua Chih Nan.
Thu Hsiu P& Tshao & 73 2 3.
The Earth's Mansions Pharmacopoeia.
See Tsao-Hua Chih Nan.
ThungHsiionPiShu B*%%.
The Secret Art of Penetrating the Mystery
[alchemy].
Thang, soon after 864.
Shen Chih-Yen & H 3.
TT1935.
ThungSuFien %#M.
Thesaurus of Popular Terms, Ideas and
Customs.
Chhing, 1751.
Ts&Hao
T w Ya
f@.
Helps to the Understanding of the Literary
Expositor [general encyclopaedia with
much of scientific and technological
interest].

a.

Ming and Chhing, finished 1636, pr.

1666.
Fang I-Chih
B.
l?uatg Yu ChSh $& 3.
Lectures on the Understanding of the
Obscurity (of Nature) [alchemy, protochemical and physiological].
Not earlier than Thang.
Writer unknown.
TT/go6.
Cf. Chhen Kuo-Fu (I), vol. 2, p. 390.
Tien Hm Yii H& Chih
E @j
,g.
A Guide to the Region of the Kunming
Lake (Yunnan).
Chhing, c. 1770, pr. 1799.
Than Tshui
8.
TienShu &S.
Book of Arts.
L/Sung.
Wang Chim-Phing E q.
Ting Chhi KO
&.
Song (or, Mnemonic Rhymes) on the
(Alchemical) Reaction-Vessel.
Han, if indeed originally, as it is now, a
chapter of the Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi
(%V.).
It has sometimes circulated separately.
In Chou I Tshan Thng Chhi F k Chang
Chu Chieh, ch. 33 (ch. 3, pp. 7.a ff.).
Cf. Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Tang Chhi
KOMing Ching Thu (TT/ggq).
Ton Isho
&p>.
Medical Excerpts Urgently Copied.
Japan, + 1304.
Kajiwara Shozm
A&!f 2.
T W i Pogam ?R E4 E B.
See Tung I Pao Chien.
Tou Ircien-S& Hsiu Chen C M Nun
% #

a a

a.
See Hsi Yo Tau hn'en-skra- Hsiu Chm Chiir
-

Et B

Nun.
Tsm HuaChhknChlrui &4t;&@.
The Hammer and Tongs of Creation (i.e.
Nature).
Mhg, C. 1430.
Chu ChhUan A!? 88.
(Ning Hsien ~ & g $ B C 5,
prince of the
Ming.)
Tsao-Hua Chih Nun
4k B.
= ~ h HE~U
u P& ~~ha0.1
~ u i d to
e the Creation (i.e. Nature).
Thang, Sung or possibly Ming. A date
about 1040 may be the best guess, as
there are similarities with the W m Tan
P& Tshao (q.v.).
Thu Hsiu Chen ChUn & JO W (the
Earth's Mansions Immortal).
Preserved only in quotation, as in PT=.
TsE KOLu 811 3Z
Methods of Victory.
Title, in certain editions, of the Huo Kung
Chieh Yao (q.v.).

a.

39O

BIBLIOG RAPHY A

Ts& Kuang Chih NW Pu

B 4dC M.
Additions to the Enlarged Bag of Wisdom
Supplemented.
Ming, c. 1620.
l B.
Fdng Meng-Lung
TsIm' C l m Chi Yao g E -23.
Important (Information on the) Means (by
which one can) Attain (the Regeneration
of the) Primary (Vitalities) [physiological
alchemy, poems and commentary].
Part of San-F& Tan Chiieh (q.v.).
T s h Thung Chln'
B.
The Kinship of the Three; or, The Accordance (of the Book of Changes) with the
Phenomena of Composite Thinm
[alchemy].
H/Han, 142.
Wei PO-Yang
{Q g.
Tshun Thung Chhi.
See also titles under Chou I Tshan Thung
Chhi.
T s h Thung C W Chang Chii S EB S .61
The Kinship of the Three (arranged in)
Chapters and Sections.
Chhing, 1717.
Ed. Li Kuang-Ti
TshanThungChhiKhaoI & H % % B .
[ = C h m I Tshm Thung Chhi C h . ]
A Study of the Kinship of the Three.
Sung, 1197.
Chu Hsi Jk (originally using pseudonym
Tsou Hsin m%).
TTl992.
TshunThungChhiSlian Y u &%/i3JSm@.
Explanation of the Obscurities in the Kinship of the Three.
Chhing, 1669. pref. 1729, pr. 1735.
Ed and comm. Chu Yuan-Yii jk Z W.
TTCY .
Tshan Thung Chhi W u HsiDng Ln' Pi Yao
W

Is

+ a.

R3i;EE1R&S.

Arcane Essentials of the Similarities and

Categories of the Five (Substances) in the
Kinship of the Three (sulphur, realgar,
orpiment, mercury and lead).
Liu Chhao, possibly Thang; prob. between
+ j r d and +7th cents., must be before
the beginning of the +gth cent., though
ascr. +znd.
Writer unknown (attrib. Wei PO-Yang).
Cornrn. by Lu Thien-Chi
X R, wr.
Sung, + I I I I to +1117,probably +IIIA+.
TT/898.
Tr. Ho Ping-Yil & Needham (2).
Tshao Mu Tzu f 4 .
The Book of the Fading-like-Grass Master.
Ming, I 378.
Yeh Tzu-Chhi ET B.
TsM Fu Yuan Kuei Wf fff Z
Collection of Material on the Lives of
Emperors and Ministers, (lit. (Lessons of)
the Archives. (the True) Scapulirnancy);

a.

[a governmental ethical and political

encyclopaedia.]
Sung, commissioned 1005, pr. 1013.
Ed. Wang Chhin-Jo
& 3 & Yang I

B ET.

Cf. des Rotours (2), p. 91.

T s k Hsii Phien
egt E.
Book of the Emerald Heaven.
Sung, c. 1200.
Chhen Nan pja

a.

TTl1q6.
Tshui Kung Ju Yao Cldng Chu (or Ho) Chieh

smsJsrs(+)rn.

See Ju Yao Ching and Thim Yuan Ju Yao

Ching.
Tshun Chen H u m Chuw Thu
EE $
Illustrations of the True Form (of the Body)
and of the (Tracts of) Circulation (of the
Chhi).
Sung, 1113.
Yang Chieh B
Now partially preserved only in the TmIsho and the Man-Anp6 (q.v.). Some of
the drawings are in Chu Hung's Nei
Wai Erh Ching Thu, also in Hua Tho
Nei Chao Thu and K u a w Wei T a Fa
(q.v.1.
TshunFuChai Wkr Chi # @ a f f f f $ .
Literary Collection of the Preservation-andReturn Studio.
Yuan, 1349.
Chu Tt-Jun & E
Tso Chuan
B.
Master Tso chhiu's Tradition (or Enlargement) of the Chhun Chhiu spin^ and
Autumn Annals), [dealing with the period
-722 to -4531.
Late Chou, compiled from ancient written
and oral traditions of several States between -430 and -250, but with additions and changes by Confucian scholars
of the Chhin and Han, especially Liu
Hsin. Greatest of the three commentaries on the Chhun Chhiu, the othera
being the Kungyang Chuan and the
Kuliang Chuan, but unlike them, pmbably originally itself an independent book
of history.
Attrib. Tsochhiu Ming & Q g.
See Karlgren (8); Maspero (I); Chhi SauHo (I); Wu Khang (I); Wu ShihChhang (I); van der Loon (I). Eberhard,
Miiller & Henseling (I).
Tr. Couvreur (I); Legge (11); Pfizmaier
(1-12).
Index by Fraser & Lockhart (I).
Tso Wang Lun #E%.
Discourse on (Taoist) Meditation.
Thang, C. +715.
Ssuma Chheng-Chdn W Itii W.
TT!loq., and in TTCY ( s h a g mao chi,

+.

a.

5).

m.

39*

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
-.
Tsm' Shang I Chhhg Hui Ming Ching
R%&i%.
Exalted Single-Vehicle Manual of the
Sagacious (Lengthening of the) LifeSpan.
See Hui Ming Ching.
Tsun Sh& Pa Chien B & A B.
Eight Disquisitions on Putting Oneself in
Accord with the Life-Force [a collection
of works].
Ming, +1591.
Kao Lien g B .
For the separate parts see:
I. Chhing Hsiu Miao Lun Chien (chs. I , 2).
2. Ssu Shih Thiao She^ Chien (chs. 3-6).
3. Chhi Chii An h Chien (chs. 7, 8).
4. Yen Nien Chhio Ping Chien (chs. 9,
10).
5. Yin Chuan Fu Shih Chint (chs. 11-13).
6. Yen Hsim Chhing Shang Chim
(chs. 14, IS).
7. Ling Pi Tan Yao Chien (chs. 16-18).
8. Lu Wai Hsia Chil Chien (ch. 19).
Tsureauegusa @ g.
Gleanings of Leisure Moments [miscellanea, with much on Confucianism,
Buddhism and Taoist philosophy].
Japan, c. 1330.
Kenk6 hashi @
giti (Yoshida no
a @ $3).
Kaneyoshi
, 197 ff.
Cf. Anon. ( I O ~ )pp.
T u Hsing Tsa Chih
@ 46.
Miscellaneous Records of the Lone
Watcher.
Sung, I 176.
Ts&ngMin-Hsing
fBft H.
T u I C h i h BA,&.
Things Uniquely Strange.
Thang.
L i Jung
X (or K).
T u y m c i d n g $?h@.
See Ling-Pao W u Liang Tu Jen Shang Phin
Miao Ching.
Tu Shih F a q Yii c h i Yao
3 lffC B.
Essentials of Historical Geography.
Chhing, first pr.
I 667, greatly enlarged
before the author's death in 1692, and
pr. C.
1799.
Ku Tsu-Yu m m B.
Tung-Chen Ling Shu Tau- Wk! Lung-Km Hua
Tan
Ching 57 E % S % %B 9

Tung-Chen Thui- Wei Ling Shu Tau- Whr Shang

Ching i F l E k Q l @ % 3 C k @ .
Divinely Written Exalted Canon in Purple
Script; a Tung-Chen Thai-Wei Scripture.
See Thai- Wei Ling Shu Tau- Whr LungKan Hua Tan Shen Chen Shang Ching,
which it formerly contained.
Tung Hsien Pi Lu
R.
Jottings from the Eastern Side-Hall.
Sung, end I I th.
Wei Thai
S.
Tung-Hsiian Chin Yii Chi
3 4E I.
Collections of Gold and Jade; a TungHsuan Scripture.
Sung, mid
12th cent.
M a Y u E&.
TT/II~~.
Tung-Hsiion Ling-Pao Chen Ling W& Yeh Thu

+
a
+

?R~SRE-~~M%F?I.

Charts of the Ranks, Positions and Attributes of the Perfected (Immortals); a

Tung-Hsuan Ling-Pao Scripture.
Ascr. Liang, early 6th.
Attrib. Thao Hung-Ching
A.
TT1164.
Tung Hsiian Tzu
;l-$; F.
Book of the Mystery-Penetrating Master.
Pre-Thang, perhaps 5th century.
Writer unknown.
In S h r q Mei Ching An Tshung Shu.
T r van Gulik (3).
TungIPaoChien %BR@.
Precious Mirror of Eastern Medicine
[system of medicine].
Korea, commissioned in I 596, presented
1610, printed 1613.
H6 Chun 3B.
Tung-Pho Shih Chi Chu R t$ R g S-.
[= Mei-Chhi Shih C h . ]
Collected Commentaries on the Poems of
(Su) Tung-Pho.
Sung, c. I 140.
Wang Shih-Ph&ng E Jyl (i.e. Wang
Alei-Chhi 3 f i :S).
T u n - Shen Ching W
See Tun~qShen Pa T i Miao Chinz Chinz
and Tunp Shen Pa T i Yunn Pien Ching.
Tung Shen Pa T i Miao Ching Ching
ij A R

+
m.

@F3-!l'%

Mysterious Canon of Revelation of the

Eight (Celestial) Emperors; a TungDivinely Written Exalted Manual in Purple
Shen Scripture.
Script on the Lang-Kan (Gem) Radiant
Date uncertain, perhaps Thang but more
Elixir; a Tung-Chen Scripture.
probably earlier.
Alternative name of Thai- Wei Ling Shu
Writer unknown.
Tzu- Whr Lane Kan Hua Tan Shen
TT1635.
Tung Shen Pa T i Y u m (Hsium) Pirn Ching
Chen Shan,q Chhg (q.v.).
Tung-Chen Thai-Shang Su-Ling Tung- Yuan Ta
$l@! A % 7 E ( 3 ) W @ .
YuMiaoChing m ~ & & ~ B j i i j ~ 3 F : Manual of the Mysterious Transformations
of the Eight (Celestial) Emperors; a
B ?@#$E.
See Ta Y u Miuo Ching.
Tung-Shen Scripture [nomenclature of

%%h%?!.

392

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Tung Shen P a Ti Yuan (Hsilan) Picn Ching

(cont.)
spiritual beings, invocations, exorcisms,
techniques of rapport].
Date uncertain, perhaps Thang but more
probably earlier.
Writer unknown.
TT!I 187.
Tau Chin Kuang Yao Ta Hsien Hsiu Chen Ym I

%5%3k~ik!h~~8%~.

See Hsiu Chen Yen I.

Tau-Jan Chi Q % f.
Collected (Poems) on the Spontaneity of
Nature.
Sung, mid 12th cent.
MaYti IS.
TT11130.
Tau- Yang Chnt Jm Nei Chuan
JIC A
Biography of the Adept of the Purple Yang.
H/Han, San Kuo or Chin, before +399.
Writer unknown.
This Tzu-Yang Chen Jen was Chou I-Shan
(not to be confused with Chang
W
PO-Tuan).
Cf. Maspero (7). p. zor ;(r3), pp. 78, 103.
TT/3oo.
Tau-Yang Chm Jm Wu Chm Phien 1
E KA

m m.

fZ?E%.

See Wu Chen P&.

Tru Yang Tan Fang Pao C

h Chih T h S

Pfi%!EetiFd.

See Tan Fang Pao

C h Chih Thu.

WaiChin Tan #&PI..

Disclosures (of the Nature of) the Metallow
Enchymoma [a collection of some thirty
tractates o n nei tan physiological alchemy,
ranging in date from Sung to Chhing and
of varying authenticity].
Sung to Chhing.
Ed. F u Chin-ChhUan
41,c. 1830.
I n CTPS, p& 6-10 incl.
Wm. KAo C h h g Tsung fi R X E.
An Orthodox Manual of External Medicine.
Ming, +1617.
Chhen Shih-Kung
X @J.
Wm Kuo Chuan f i W.
See Wu Shih Wai Kuo Chuan.
Wai Tan P& Tshao &+ f l g.
Iatrochemical Natural History.
Early Sung, c. 1045.
Tshui Fang
Now extant only in quotations.
Cf. Chin Tan Ta Yao Pao Chiich and Ta
Tan Yao Chiieh P & T.chao.
Wai Thai Pi Yao (Fang) f i S M, (2).
Important (Medical) Formulae and Prescriptions now revealed by the Governor
of a Distant Province.
+752.
Wang Thao % R .
On the title see des Rotours (I), pp. 294,

+
~.

721. Wang Thao had had access t o the

books in the Imperial Library as an
Academician before his posting as a high
official to the provinces.
Wakan Sanzai Zue
52 B.
The Chinese and Japanese Universal
Encyclopaedia (based on the San Tshui
Thu Hui).
Japan,
1712.
Terashirna Ryaan
E
. & iQ.
Wamya-Honza. See H m a - Wamya.
Wamya Ruijiishd
(or B) G H
H.
General Encyclopaedic Dictionary.
Japan (Heian), 934.
Minamoto no Shitagau
Wmyashd $U g PP.
See W a m y ~Ruijusha.
Wan Hsing Thung Phu g k$!
H.
General Dictionary of Biography.
Ming, 1579.
Ling Ti-Chih
9.
Wan Ping Wui Chhun
@ lHI @.
T h e Restoration of Well-Being from a
Myriad Diseases.
Ming,
1587, pr. r615.
Kung Thing-Hsien
R.
Wan Shou Hsien Shu B S 4111P.
A Book on the Longevity of the Immortals
[longevity techniques, especially gymnastics and respiratory exercises].
Chhing, 18th.
Tshao Wu-Chi
B.
Included in Pa Tzu-Yuan (I).
Wang Hsien F u W @.
Contemplating the Immortals; a Hymn of
Praise [ode on Wangtzu Chhiao and
Chhih Sung Tzu].
C/Han, -14 or -13.
Huan Then 18.
In C S H K (Hou Han sect.), ch. 12, p. 7 b ;
and several encyclopaedias.
Wang Loo F u Chhi Khou Chiieh E 2 E R

'am.

@a

-+

3.

See Thai-Chhing Wmg Lao F u Chhi Khou

Chiieh.
Wang- Wu Chen-Jm Khou Shou Yin Tan Pi
Chiieh Ling Phien 3 B 5-t A R g ll$ PJ.
%%?X?%%Numinous Record of the Confidential Oral
Instructions on the Yin Enchyrnoma
handed down by the Adept of Wang-Wu
(Shan).
Thang, perhapa c. 765 ; certainly between
8th and late 10th.
Probably Liu Shou
9.
In YCCC, ch. 64, pp. 130 ff.
Wang- Wu Chm-Jen Liu Shou I Chm-Jm Khou
ChiichChinShang EB5EAflq&51

+
+

A U ~ Z A .

Confidential Oral Instructions of the Adept

of Wang-Wu (Shan) presented to the
Court by Liu Shou.

393

B I B L I O GR A P H Y A
Wang- Wu Chm-yen Liu Shou I Chm-yen Khou
Chaeh Chin Shang (cont.)
Thang, c. 785 (after 780); certainly
between +8th and late 10th.
Liu Shou
In YCCC, ch. 64, pp. 14a ff.
WeiLIieh @g.
Compendium of Non-Classical Matters.
Sung. 12th century (end), c. 1190.
Kao Ssu-Sun g # g.
Wei PO-Yang Chhi Fan Tan Sha CMch.
See Chhi Fan Tan Sha Chiieh.
W a Shkrg I Chin Ching B
B S.
See I Chin Ching.
Wei Shu E% @.
History of the (Northern) Wei Dynasty
[+386 to +550, including the Eastern
Wei successor State].
N/Chhi, 554, revised 572.
Wei Shou E% B.
See Ware (3).
One ch. tr. Ware (I, 4).
For translations of passages, see the index
of Frankel (I).
W h Shih Chen Ching
B B.
True Classic of the Original Word (of h o
Chun, third person of the Taoist
Trinity).
Alternative title of Kuan Yin Tau (q.~.).
W h Yuan Ying Hua Z E W F.
The Brightest Flowers in the Garden of
Literature [imperially commissioned
collection, intended as a continuation of
the W& Hsiian (q.v.) and containing
therefore compositions written between
+500 and +960].
Sung, +987; first pr. 1567.
Ed. Li Fang 4
Sung Pai R Q et
al.
Cf des Rotours (2), p. 93.
Wu Chm Phien E R E.
[= T y - Yang Chen Jm Wu Chm Phicn.]
Poehcal Essay on Realising (the Necessity
of Regenerating the) Primary (Vitalities)
[Taoist physiological alchemy].
Sung, 1075.
Chang PO-Tuan
{Q S.
In, e.g., Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (TT/z6o), c h .
26-30 incl.
TT1138. Cf. TTl139-43.
Tr. Davis & Chao YiIn-Tshung (7).
Wu Chen Phien Chih Chih HSinng Shuo San
C h M w P i Yao ~ E % % E ~ %

+
a?.

a,

?S.

Precise Ex~lanationof the Dificult Essentials of ;he Essay on Realking the Necessity of Regenerating the Primary Vitalities,
in accordance with the Three Classes of
(Taoist) Scriptures.
Sung, c. I 170.
Ong Pao-Kuang 8 B %.
TTII~o.

WuChmPhimSanChu @ER==.
Three Commentaries on the Essay on
Realising the Necessity of Regenerating the
Primary Vitalities [Taoist physiological
alchemy].
Sung and Yuan, completed c. 1331.
Hsiieh Tao-Kuang R E (or Ong Pao%RX), Lu Shu B A &
Kuang
Tai Chhi-Tsung afl@
(or Chhen

~ f . ' ~ & i&s Chao Yiin-Tshung (7).

Wu Chhkrg T m B &
See Huang Thing Wai Cking Yii Ching
Ch.
WuChhuChing SE@.
See Lao Tau Shuo W" Chhu Ching.
WuHsMtgLAPi Yao X$RR%Z.
See Tshan Thung Chhi Wu Hsiang L4 Pi
Yao.
WuHsing Ta I 5 E A S .
Main Principles of the Five Elements.
Sui, c. 600.
Hsiao Chi m g.
Wu Hsiian Phien
3
Essay on Understanding the Mystery (of
the Enchyrnoma), [Taoist physiological
alchemy].
Sung, 11og or 1169.
Yii Tung-Chen
TT/1o34, and in TTCY (shang moo chi,
5).
WuIChi S%%.
The Wu-I Mountains Literary Collection
[prose and poems on physiological
alchemy].
Sung, c. 1220.
KO Chhang-K&ng g E E (Pai YU-Chhan

+.

a.

a.

El SE).
In Hsiu Chm Shih Shu(TT/260), chs. 45-52.
WuKktShu
The Rootless Tree Cpocms on physiological
alchemy].
Ming. c. 1410 (if genuine).
Attrib. Chang San-F&ng @ bif &.
In San-F&g Tan Chiieh (q.v.).
WuLeiHsiangKanChih @BmB.%.
On the Mutual Responses of Things according to their Categories.
Sung, c. 980.
Attrib. wrongly to Su Tung-Pho B E

%@m.

E.

3 ~Actual
3 Rwriter (Lu) Tsan-Ning (monk)

@%?P.

See Su Ying-Hui (I, 2).

Wu Li Hsiao Shih
pB /J\ S.
Small Encyclopaedia of the Principles of
Things.
Ming and Chhing, finished by 1643, pr.
1664.
Fang I-Chih 2 l;l B.
Cf. Hou Wai-Lu (3, 4).

394

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

W u L u Rfi.
Record of the Kingdom of U'u.
San Kuo, 3rd century.
Chang Pho
B.
W u Shang Pi Yao B & fLJ B.
Essentials of the Matchless Books (of
Taoism), [a florilegium].
N/Chou, between 561 and 578.
Compiler unknown.
TT/IIz~.
Cf. Maspero (13)~p. 7 7 ; Schipper (I), p. 11.
W u shih P& Tshao
E d;E.
M r Wu's Pharmaceutical Natural History.
San Kuo (TVei), c. +235.
Wu Phu $&S.
Extant only in quotations in later literature.
W u Shih Wai Kuo Chuan
Ej f i Q$.
Records of the Foreign Countries in the
Time of the State of Wu.
San Kuo, c. 260.
Khang Thai
B.
Only in fragments in T P Y L and other
sources.
W u Tai Shih Chi.
See Hsin W u Tai Shih.
w u Yuan
g.
The Origins of Things.
Ming, I 5th.
LoChhi

@m.

Yang H&g Yen Ming Lu

E & B.
On Delaying Destiny by Nourishing the
Natural Forces (or, Achieving Longevity
and Immortality by Regaining the Vitality
of Youth), [Taoist sexuaI and respiratory
techniques].
Sung, hetw. -I-1013and +l161 (acc. to
Maspero), but as it appears in YCCC it
must be earlier than 1020, very probably pre-Sung.
Attrib. Thao Hung-Ching or Sun Ssu-MO.
Actual writer unknown.
TTj831, abridged version in YCCC, ch. 32,
pp. I a ff.
Cf. Maspero (7),p. 232.
Yang Hui Suan Fa & 3 E.
Yang Hui's Methods of Computation.
Sung, 1275.
Yang Hui B B .
,g.
Yang Sh6n.q Shih Chi
Nutritional Recommendations and Prohibitions for Health [appended to Pao
S h h g Hsin Chien, q.v.1.
Ming, c. 1506.
Thieh F&ngChii-Shih
l$B 4.
(The Recluse of Iron hIountain, ps.).
Ed. H u W&n-Huan (c. r 596)
g B.
Yang Shkng Tao Yin Fa jk & F3 B.
Methods of Nourishing the Vitality by
Gymnastics (and Massage), [appended to
Pao S h h g Hsin Chien, q.v.1.
Ming, c. I 506.

Thieh F&ngChii-Shih B F$ B 4.
(The Recluse of Iron hIountain, ps.)
Ed. H u \{'h-Huan (c. 1596) &
% R.
l
Yang S h h g Thai Hsi Chhi Ching j% Lk g ,@R
.

W.

[= Thai-Shang Yang Shktg Thai Hsi Chhi

Ching.]
Manual of Nourishing the Life-Force (or,
Attaining Longevity and Immortality) by
Embryonic Respiration.
Late Thang or Sung.
Writer unknown.
TTl812.
Cf. Maspero (7), PP. 358, 365.
Yang S h h g Yen Ming Lu
g&
On Delaying Destiny by Sourishing the
Natural Forces.
Alternative title for Yang Hsing Yen Ming
Lu (.v.).
Yao Chung Chhao E H P3.
Memoir on Several Varieties of Drug Plants.
Japan, c. + I 163.
Kuan-Yu (Kanyu)
f&. MS. preserved
at the
E ;Ei <p Temple. Facsim.
reprod. in Suppl. to the Japanese Tripitaka,
vol. 1 1 .
Yao Hsing Lun E B S.
Discourse on the Katures and Properties of
Drugs.
Liang (or Thang, if identical with P&
Tshao Yao Hsing, q.v.).
Attrib. Thao Hung-Ching
%
,!
Only extant in quotations in books on
pharmaceutical natural history.
ICK, p. 169.
Yao Hsing P& T s ~ ~Eo& d;8.
See P& Tshao Yao Hsing.
Yao &ling Yin Chiieh E 3 3.
Secret Instructions on the Names of Drugs
and Chemicals.
Perhaps an alternative title for the ThaiChhing SIiih Pi Chi (q.v.).
Yeh Chung Chi %l7 @ R.
Record of Affairs at the Capital of the Later
Chao Dynasty.
Chin.
LuHui
Cf. Hirth (17).
YenFanLu
Extension of the String of Pearls (on the
Spring and Autumn Annals), [on the
meaning of many Thang and Sung
expressions].
Sung, I I 80.
ChhCng Ta-Chhang
A g.
See des Rotours ( I ) , p. cix.
Yen Hsien Chhing Shun.? Chien
W E.
The Use of Leisure and Innocent Enjoyments in a Retired Life [the sixth part
(chs. 14,15)of Tsun S h h g Pa Chien, q.v.1.
Ming, 1591.
Kao Lien
R.

a.

e.

@a.

395

B I B L I O GR A P H Y A
Y m I I M o u L u %l%FiR@%.
Handing Down Good Plans for Posterity
from the Wings of Yen.
Sung, 1227.
Wang Yung 3 t*.
Yen-Ling hsien-s&g Chi Hsin Chiu Fu Chhi
Ching @EX&S%BHE%S.
New and Old Manuals of Absorbing the Chhi,
Collected by the Teacher of Yen-Ling.
Thang, early 8th, c. 745.
Writer unidentified.
Comm. by Sang Yii Tzu (+gth or 10th)

%RT.

TTl818, and (partially) in YCCC, ch. 58,

p. 2a et passim, ch. 59, pp. I a ff., 186 ff.,
ch. 61, pp. 19a ff.
Cf. Maspero (7),pp. 220, 222.
Ym M& Kung Miao Chieh Lu
4 $9#$ &.
T h e Venerable Yen Men's Record of hlarvellous Antidotes [alchemy and elixir
poisoning].
Thang, probably in the neighbourhood of
1- 847 since the text is substantially
identical with the Hsiian Chieh Lu
(.v.) of this date.
PPEJ (perhaps a ps. taken
Yen Men
from the pass and fortress o n the
Great Wall, cf. Vol. 4, pt. 3, pp. 11,
48 and Fig. 711).
TTl937.
Ym Nien Chhio Ping Chien
yl R.
How to Lengthen one's Years and Ward off
all Diseases [the fourth part (chs. 9, 10)
of Tsun S h h g Pa Chien, q.v.1.
Ming.
1591.
Kao Lien 8 B.
Partial tr. of the gymnastic material,
Dudgeon ( I ) .
Ym Shou Chhih Shu
38 3%W.
Red Book on the Promotion of Longevity.
Thang, perhaps Sui.
(g).
Phei Yi.i (or Hsiian)
Extant only in excerpts preserved in the
I Hsin Fan2 (+982), SIC, p. 465.
Ym Thieh Lun %
. R$ l.
Discourses on Salt and Iron [record of the
debate of -81 on State control of commerce and industry].
C/Han, c. - 80 to - 60.
B
Huan Khuan j
Partial tr. Gale ( I ) ; Gale, Boodberg & Lin.
Yin Chen ChGn Chin Shih W u Hsiang Lei B f

a.

SnzixMm.

Alternative title of Chin Shih W u Hoiang

Lei (.V.).
Yin Chen Jen Liao Yang Tint W& Ta Pien

PanaEBfipszn.

See Liao Yang Tien W& Ta Pien.

Yin ChmJen Tun#-Hun Ch& MOHuang Chi
Ho Pi Ch& Tao Hsien Ching p E A

%TIEE5%%Mm32344@.

See Huang Clzi Ho Pi Hsien Ching.

Yin Chwn Fu Skih Chien & @ E E.

Explanations on Diet, Nutrition and
Clothing [the fifth part (chs. 11-13) of
Tsun Sh&g Pa Chien, q.v.1.
Ming, 1-1591.
Kao Lien 8 B.
Yin Fu Ching B R S.
T h e Harmony of the Seen and the Unseen.
Thang, c. +735 (unless in essence a preserved late LVarring States document).
Li Chhiian ZJ5 S .
TT/so.
Cf. T T / ~ o g - 24.
r Also in T T C Y (tou chi, 6).
Tr. Legge (5).
Cf. Maspero (7). p. 222.
Yin Shan Ch&g Yao
S.
Principles of Correct Diet [on deficiency
diseases, with the aphorism 'many
diseases can be cured by diet alone'].
Yuan, 1330, re-issued by imperial order
in 1456.
H u Ssu-Hui ;Za g S.
See L u & Needham ( I ) .
Yin Tan Nei Phien ,@ P) B.
Esoteric Essay on the Yin Enchyrnoma.
Appendix to the Tho Yo Tzu (.v.).
Yin- Ya:tg Chiu Chuan Chh&g Tzu-Chin TimHua Huan Tan Chueh B R f t E

+
+

eIra;.rt;i3R%.

Secret of the Cyclically Transformed Elixir,

Treated through Nine Yin-Yang Cycles
to Form Purple Gold and Projected to
Bring about Transformation.
Date unknown.
Writer unknown, but someone with Mao
Shan afiliations.
TT/888.
Ying Chhan Tzu Yii Lu
T @.
Collected Discourses of the LuminousToad Master.
Yuan, c. 1320.
L i Tao-Shun @'B$$ (Ying Chhan Tzu

23 B4).

TT11o47.
Ying Yai Sh&gLun
Triumphant Visions of the Ocean Shores
[relative to the voyages of Cheng Ho].
Ming, 1451. (Begun 1416 and completed about 1435.)
Ma Huan R B.
Tr. ;\Tills ( 1 1 ) ; Groeneveldt ( I ) ; Phillips ( I ) ;
Duyvendak ( 1 0 ) .
Ying Yai S h h g Lun Chi
E W.B.
Abstract of the Tritmphant L-isions of the
Ocean Shores [a refacimento of Ma Huan's
book].
Ming, +1522.
Chang Sheng (b)
8.
Passages cit. in TSCC, Pien i tien, chs. 58,
73, 78, 85, 86, 96, 95, 98, 99, 101. 103,
106.
Tr. Rockhill ( I ) .

Wg@$v.

396

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

a.

Yiljdkun S &
Instructions on Hygiene and the Prolongstion of Life.
Japan (Tokugawa), c. 1700.
Kaibara Ekiken W jl;i lfff (ed. Sugiyasu
S a b u r ~ $9@ GB).
Yii-Chhing Chin-Ssu Chhing-Hua Pi-W& ChinPao Nei-Lien Tan Chiieh E S &

%@3XlS&EP31Pf%.

T h e Green-and-Elegant Secret Papers in

the Jade-Purity Golden Box on the
Essentials of the Internal Refining of the
Golden Treasure, the Enchymoma.
Sung, late I I th century.
Chang PO-Tuan
(Q G.
TT/237.
Cf. Davis & Chao YUn-Tshung (5).
Yil-CMa'ng Nn' Shu E i$ I.
Inner Writings of the Jade-Purity (Heaven).
Probably Sung, but present version incomplete, and some of the material may
be, or may have been, older.
Compiler unknown.
TTI940.
l
.
Yil Fang Chih Yao 5
Important Matters of the Jade Chamber.
Pre-Sui, perhaps +4th century.
Writer unknown.
I n I Hsin Fang (Ishinhd) and Shuang Mn'
Ching An Tshung Shu.
Partial trs. van Gulik (3, 8).
YiiFangPiChirch =B@%.
Secret Instructions concerning the Jade
Chamber.
Pre-Sui, perhaps +4th century.
Writer unknown.
Partial tr. van Gulik (3).
Only as fragment in Shuang Mei Cfing An
Tshung Shu (q.v.).
YuHuanChi W& BEE!!!#.
Things Seen and Heard on my official Travels.
sung,
1233.
Chang Shih-Nan S @
Yil Phien 3 g%.
Jade Page Dictionary.
Liang, 543.
K u Yeh-Wang
b X.
Extended and edited in the Thang (+674)
by Sun Chhiang R ?H.
Yil Shih Ming Yen @$tag.
Stories to Enlighten Men.
Ming, c. 1640.
F6ng M&ng-Lung ;,g l
Yil Tung Ta Shen Tan Sha Chen Yao ChDeh

m.

a.

Zrn9i-kfi5!!ESX.

True and Essential Teachings about the

Great Magical Cinnabar of the Jade
Heaven [paraphrase of 8th-century
materials].
Thang, not before 8th.
Attrib. Chang Kuo $Eg.
TT/889.

Yu-Ymg Tsa Tsu B ! i f j @ H .

Miscellany of the Yu-yang Mountain (Cave)
[in S.E. Szechuan].
Thang, +863.
Tuan Chheng-Shih E
3.
See des Rotours (I), p. civ.
Yuan Chhi Lun
l
.
Discourse on the Primary Vitality (and the
Cosmogonic Chhi).
Thang, late 8th or perhaps 9th.
Writer unknown.
I n YCCC, ch. 56.
Cf. Maspem (7), p. 207.
Yuun-Shih Shang Chen Chung Hsim Chi Z B

kiR%{Ih%fp,.

Record of the Assemblies of the Perfected

Immortals; a Yuan-Shih Scripture.
Ascr. Chin, c. 320, more probably 5th
or +6th.
Attrib. KO Hung
&.
TTl163.
Yuan Yang Ching ZE S.
Manual of the Primary Yang (Vitality).
Chin, L/Sung, Chhi or Liang, before
+ 550.
Writer unknown.
Extant only in quotations, in Yang Hsing
Yen Ming Lu, etc.
Cf. Maspero (7), p. 232.
Yuan Yu
g.
Roaming the Universe; or, T h e Journey into
Remoteness [ode].
C/Han, c. - I 10.
Writer's name unknown, but a Taoist.
Tr. Hawkes (I).
YirchWeiTshaoThangPiChi M @ ~ ~ @ ! j E .
Jottings from the Yueh-wei Cottage.
Chhing, 1800.
Chi Yiin
M.
Yiin Chai Kuang Lu
4%.
Extended Records of the Cloudy Studio.
Sung.
Li Hsien-Min
A.
YiinChhi Y u I % B E B .
Discussions with Friends at Cloudy Pool
Thang, c. 870.
Fan Shu %j.g.
YDn Chi Chhi Chhien W g & B.
T h e Seven Bamboo Tablets of the Cloudy
Satchel [an important collection of Taoist
material made by the editor of the first
definitive form of the Tao Tsanq (+ I O I ~ ) ,
and including much material which is not
in the Patrology as we now have it].
Sung, c. 1022.
Chang Chiin-Fang S R; E.
TT/~ozo.
Yiln Hsien Tsa Chi S {fi#E 33.
Miscellaneous Records of the Cloudy
Immortals.
Thang or Wu Tai, c. 904.
F&ngChih 8 W.

BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Yibr Hsim San Lu S {a $&B.
Scattered Remains on the Cloudy Immortals.
h.
Thang or Wu Tai, c. +go& actually
probably Sung.
Attrib. F&ngChih
S, but probably by
Wang Chih E@.

397

Yiln Kuang Chi q4 %S.

Collected (Poems)of Light (through the)
Clouds.
Sung, c. I 170.
Wang Chhu-I 3B

TT111.38.

-.

ADDENDA T O BIBLIOGRAPHY A
Ch&g M&g iE @
Right Teaching for Youth
[or, Intellectual Discipline for Beginnm].
Sung, c. 1060.
Chang Tsai ';t: 1
C h h g M6ng Chu X '#? i*
Commentary on the Chang M b g Right
Teaching for Youth (of Chang Tsai).
Chhing, c . 1650.
Wang Chhuan-Shan E M lll
Chih Yu Tzu 3 ::iYfi 4.
Book of the Attainment-through-Wandering
Master.
Ming (preface of 1566 by Yao Ju-Hsiin.
fdt ifr 65
Probable writer, Chang Shang-Ying.
$S f: WR (+ 15th. cent.)
Cf. SKCSITMTY. ch. 147. p. 96
Chin Ssu Lu X !2,$4
Modem Thought.
Sung, + I 175.
Chu Hsi & Lii Tsu-Chhien 9k f . X R LI
Tr. Graf (2). Chhen Jung-Chieh ( II).
Chumg T m dE f [= N m Hua Chen Ching.]
The Book of Master Chuang.
Chou, c. 290.
Chuang Chou 6 l
Tr. Legge (5): FSng Yu-Lan (5); Lin Yii-Thang
(11.
Yin-Ti Index no. (Suppl.) 20.
Chhian Ching B $5
Manual of Boxing.
Chhing, 18th.
Chang Khung-Chao B R BR

Chhurm Shm I Shu E LLI 3 f:

Collected Writings of Wang Fu-Chih
(Chhuan-Shan).
Chhing, 2nd half I 7th century.
Wang Chhuan-Shan E C 111
[ ~ sed.
t + 1840; ed. used + 1933.1
Hsing Chh2ng Chi ?r E .'I
Memoirs of my Official Journey
(to the Western Regions).
Sung, +984.
Chang Khuang-Yeh % E lfB
Pai W6n Phien f i SJ 19i
The Hundred Questions [dialogue between
Chungli Chhiian and Lii Tung-Pin].
Ch. 5 of Tao Shu, q.v.
Cf. Chung UI Chuan Tao Chi.
Tr. Homann ( 2 ) .
Tao Tsang Ching Hua jlf. S IS
Intrinsic Glories of the Taoist Patrology.
Repr. Thaiwan, 1958.
Ed. anon.
Thim Loo Shen Kurmg Ching X Z M Yt M
The Celestial Elder's Canon of
the Spirit Lights
Thang, +633; later enlarged.
Li Ching f R
TV59.
Tr. Sivin (16).
Ymg-Chou Shao- Yao Phu B 5 %!
A Treatise on the Herbaceous
Peonies of Yangchow.
Sung, 1075.
Wang Kuan

C O N C O R D A N C E FOR
T A 0 T S A N G B O O K S AND T R A C T A T E S
Wieger nos.
Ong nos.
I (Ling-Pao W u L i a g ) Tu J m (Shnng
I
Phin Miao) Ching
8 Thai-Shag San-shih-liu Pu Tnm
8
Ching (contains Shang Chhing
Ching)
31
30 (Huang Ti) Yin Fu Ching
119 Huang T i YinFuChingChu
122
127 Thai Hn' Ching Chu
130
I 30 Thai-Shang Tung Fang Nn' Ching Chu I33
132 (Tshui Kung) Ju Yao Ching Chu
I35
Chieh
133 LUShun-Yang~ken$!?lChhinYUUfI 136
Chhun Tan Tzhu Chu Chieh
134 (Chhiu Chhang-Chhun) Chhing Thim 137
KO Chu Shih
137 Shang-Chhing W OChung ChQch
140
138 (Tzu- Yang Chen Jen) W u Chm
141
Phien Chu Su
139 WuChmPhienSanChu
I42
I40 ( Tau- Yang Chen Jen) W u C k a
I43
Phien Chih Chih Hsiang Shuo San
Chhhg Pi Yao
149
146 Hsiu-Chen Thai Chi Hun Yuan Thu
147 Hsiu-Chen Thai Chi Htar Yuan Chih 150
Hsiian Thu
148 C h i n I H u a n T a n Y i n C h h g T i r u
151
149 Hsiu-Chen Li Yen Chhao Thu
152
153 Shang-Chhing Tung-Chen Chiu Kung 156
Tzu Fang Thu
I 63 Yurm-Shih Shang Chen Chung Hsim
166
Chi
164 T q - H s t i a n Ling-Pao Chm Ling W& 167
Yeh Thu
176
173 Hsiian F& bhhing Hui lu
228 Chen I Chin Tan Chiieh
23 1
229 Huan Tan Pi Chileh Yang Chhih-Tau 232
shm Fag
230 Huan Tan Chung H& Lun
233
23 I Hsiu Tan Miao Yung Chih Li Lun
234
240
237 Yii-Chhing Chin-Ssu Chhing-Hua
Pi-W& Chin-Pao Nei-Lien Tan
Chiieh
239 Chih-Chw hn'm-s&g Chin Tan Chih 242
Chih
240 (Chhen H&-Pai hsim-$&g) Kuei
243
Chung Chih Nan
241 Ta Tan Chih Chih
244
243 Hsi Shan Chhun Hsien Hui Chen Chi 246
248 Chhiian-Chen Chi Hsiiar Pi Yao
25 1
252 Thai- Wei Ling Shu Tzu- W & Lang255
Kan Hua Tan Shen Chen Shang
Ching
256 (Thao Chen Jen) Nei Tan Fu
259
257 Chhin Hsiian Fu
260

Wieger nos.
Ong nor.
26I
258 Chin Tan Fu
260 Hsiu-Chm Shih Shu
263
261 Chen Chhi H u m Yuan M h g
264
263 Chin I Huan Tan Pai W& C-h
266
266 Chih Chen Tau Lung Hu Ta Tan Shih 269
275 Chhing Wei Tan Chiieh (or Fa)
278
289 Hun W u (Ti) Nei Chuan
292
290 Han W u ( T i ) Wai Chuan
293
293 Li-Shih Chm Hsim Thi Tao Thung
296
Chien
297 Hun- Yrmg Thao Yin-CM Chuun
300
300 Tau- Yang Chen J m (Chou LShan)
303
Nei Chuan
301 (San) Mao Shmt Chih
304
307
304 Hsi Yo Hua-Shan Chih
328 (Thai-Shang) Huang Thing Nn' Chkg 33I
Yii Ching
329 (Thai-Shang) Humrg Thing Wai
332
Ching Yii Ching
369
366 (Thai-Shang Tung-HJaan Ling-Pao
Mieh Tu (or San Yuan) W u Lien)
Sh&g Shih Miao Ching
385 Thai-Shang Ling-Pao W u Fu ( C M ) 388
398 H u n g Thing Nei Ching Yii Ching
401
Chu by Liu Chhang-ShCng
399 H u n g Thing Nei Ching ( Y d ) Ching
402
Chu by Liang Chhiu Tzu
400 H m g Thing Nei Wai Ching YU
403
Ching Chieh
416 Ling-Pao Chung Chm Tan Chileh
419
420
417 Shen Hsim Fu Erh Tan Shih Hsing
Yao Fa
418 T h g Chen Yin CX&h
421
419 (Shang-Chhing)San Cken Chih Yao 422
Yii Chiieh
421 (Shang-Chhing)Ming Thmrg Yuan
424
Chm Ching Chiieh
426
423 Shang-Chhing Thai-Shang Pa Su
chen chin2
428 Shq-Chhing Han Hsiang Chien
431
Chien Thu
432
429 Huang Thing Nei Ching W u Tsang
Liu Fu Pu H&h Thu
442
439 Shang-Chhing Huu Sh& Tao Chan
L
Cki
-.i.~
. .h
- ...
445 (Hsi Shun) Hsil Chm-Chan (HH
448
Hsiin) Pa-shih-wu Hua Lu
450
447 Thai-Chi KO Hsien-Ong (or Kung)
(KOHsiian) Chum
524 &i-shang TUig-~silan
Ling-Pao
528
Shou Tu I
605 Ling-Pao Chiu Y u Chhang Yeh Chhi 610
Shih Tu Wang Hsiian Chang
61I Kuang Chh&g Chi
616

400

T A 0 TSANG

BOOR:S A N D T R A C T A T E S

Wi-r nos.
Ong nos.
634 Huang-Thien Shung-Chhing Chin
639
Chhileh Ti Chun Ling Shu Tzu-W&
SChing
635 Tung Shm Pa T i Miao Chtng Ching
640
761 Thu Ching (Chi Chu) Y m I P&
Tshao
773 Hsiian Phin Lu
780
816
810 (Thai-Chhing)Chung Huag Chm
Ching
811 (Thai-Chhing)Tao Yin Yang-Shhg
817
Ching
812 (Thai-S*)
Yang-Shhrg Thai-Hn'
818
Chhi Ching
813 Thai-Chhing Thiao Chhi Ching
819
814 Thai-Shang Luo Chihr Yang-ShCng
820
Chiieh
815 Thai-Chhing ( Wang Luo) Fu Chin'
821
Khar Chileh (or Chhuam Fa)
817 Sung Shan Thai- Wu hsien-s&g Chin'
823
Ching
818 (Yen-Ling hsien-shcg Chi) Hsin Chiu
824
Fu Chhi Ching
821 (Huan-Chen hsien-S@) Fu Nei Yuan 827
Chhi Chiieh
830 Chen Chung Chi
836
(830) (She Yang) Chen Chng Chi (or
(836)
Fang)
83 I Yang Hsing Y m Mtng La
837
835 (Pao Phu Tau) Yang Shkrg Lun
841
838 Shang-Chhing Ching Chen Tan Pi
844
Chiieh
856 Shen H& Lien Tan Tien Chu San
862
Yuan Pao Chao Fa
873 Thai-Chhing (or S*-Chhing)
879
Chin I Shen Tan Ching
874 Thai-Chhing Shih Pi Chi
880
875 Thai-Chhing Chin I Shen Chhi Chhg 881
876 (Thai-Chhing Ching) Thien-Shih
882
Khou Chiieh
878 (Huang Ti) Chiu Ting Shen Tan
884
Ching Chiieh
879 Chiu Chuan Ling Sha Ta Tan Tau
885
Shkrg Hsiian Ching
880 (Chung Chen Jen) Chin Shih Ling
886
Sha Lim
881 (Wei PO-Ymg) Chhi Fan Tan Sha
887
Chueh
882 (Thai-Chi Chen Jen) Chiu C h
888
Huun Tan Ching Yao Chiieh
883 (Ta-Tung Lien Chen Pao Ching) H& 889
Fu Ling Slra Miao Chileh
884 (Ta-Tung Lien Chen Pao Ching) Chiu 890
Huan Chin Tan Miao Chueh
885 (Thai-Shang Wet' Ling Shen Hua)
891
Chiu Chuan Tan Sha Fa
886 Chiu Chuan Ling Sha Ta Tan
892
887 Chiu Chuan Chhing Chin Ling Sha Tan 893
894
888 Yin-Yang Chiu Chwn Chhhg Tmru
Chin Tien Hua Huan Tan Chdeh
889 Yu-Tmrg Ta Shen Tan Sha Chen
895
Yao Chueh

{;g

Wieger nos.
Ong nos.
890 Ling Sha Ta Tan Pi Chileh
896
891 Pi Yu Chu Sha Hun Lin YU Shu
897
Kuei
892 Ta Tan Chi
898
893 Tan Fang H& Chih
899
900
894 Shih Yao Erh Ya
895 (Chih-ChhuanChen Jen) Chiao
901
Chhg Shu
896 Shun- Yang Lfl Chm Jen Yao Shih
goa
Chih
897 Chin Pi Wu Hsiong Lei Tshan Thung 903
Chhi
Tshan Thung Chhi Wu Hsiang Lei
Pi Yao
(Yin Chen Chih) Chin Shih Wu
Hriang Lei
Chin Shih Pu Wu Chiu Shu Chrich
Shang-Chhing Chiu Chen Chung
Ching Nei Chueh
Lung Hu Huan Tan Chileh
Chin Hua Yu I Ta Tan
Kan Chhi Shih-liu Chuan Chin Tan
Hsiu Lien Ta Tan Yao Chih (or
Chiieh)
Thung Yu Chiieh
Chin Hua Chhuna
- Pi Tan China- Pi
Chih
Humt Tan chou Hou Chiich
Phg-Lai Shan Hsi TsaoHuan Tan KO
(pao>hu Tzu) Shen Hsien Chin
Shuo Ching
Chu Chia Shen Phin Tan Fa
Chhien Hung Chia Kkrg Chih Pao
Chi Chhhg
Tan Fang A0 Lun
Chih Kuei Chi
Huan Chin Shu
Ta Tan Chhien Hung Lun
Chen Yuan Miao Tao Yao Lfieh
Tan Fang Chien Yuan
Ta Huan Tan Chao Chien
Thai-Chhing Yu Pei T m
Hsiian Chieh Lu
(Hsien-Yuan H m g Ti) Shui Ching
Yao Fa
San-shih-liu Shui Fa
Thai Pai Ching
Tan Lun Chueh Chih Hsin Chien
Ta Tan W& Ta
Chin Mu Wan Ling Lun
Hung Chhien Ju Hei Chhien Chueh
Thung Hsiian Pi Shu
Yen M& Kung Miao Chich Lu
(-921)
Hsiian Shuang Chang Shang Lu
Thai-Chi Chen yen Tsa Tan Yao
Fang
Yu Chhing Nei Shu
Thai-Ku Thu Tui Ching
Shmrg- Tung Hsin Tan Ching Chiieh
(Hsii Chen-Chiin) Shih Han Chi

T A 0 TSANG

BOOKS A N D T R A C T A T E S

Wieger nos.
Ong nos.
945 Chiu Chum Liu (or Ling) Chu Shen
951
Hsim Chiu Tan Ching
946 K&g Tao Chi
952
988 ( K u W&) Lung Hu Ching Chu S u
994
995
989 ( K u W&) Lung Hu Shang Ching
Chu
ggo Chou I Tshon Thwg Chhi (Chu)
996
comm. by Y i n Chhang-Sh&ng
991 Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu
997
comm. anon.
998
992 Tshan Thung Chhi Khuo I (or
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu)
comm. by Chu Hsi
993 Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi F&
999
Chung Thung Chen I comm. by
Ph&ngHsiao
994 Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Ting Chhi 1000
K O Ming Ching Thu comm, by
Ph6ng Hsiao
1001
995 Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu
comm. anon.
996 Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Fa Hui
1002
comm. by Yii Y e n
1003
997 Chou I Tshan Thung CMi Shih I
comm. by Yii Y e n
1004
998 Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chieh
comm. by Chhen Hsien-\Vei
1005
999 Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu
comm. by Chhu Hua-Ku
1Chen Kao
1010
1005 Too Shu
1020 Yiin Chi Chhi Chhien
1026
1022 Thai HsZlnn Pao T i m
I""
1028
1024 Tso Wang Lun
1030
1028 H u n g Chi Ching Shih (Shu)
1034
1034 W u Hsiia Phim
I 040
1044 Tan- Yang Chen Jar Yil Lu
1050
I047 Ying Chhun Tzu Yil Lu
1053
1053 (Shang Yang Tau) Chin Tan Ta
1059
Yao
1060
1054 (Shang Yang Tzu) Chin Tan Ta
Yao Thu
1061
1055 (Shang Yang Tzu) Chin Tan T a
Yao Lieh Hsien Chih
1062
1056 (Sheng Yang Tau) Chin Tan Ta
Yao Hsien Phai ( Yuan Liu)
1064
1058 Chin Tan Chih Chih
1073
1067 Chin Tan Ssu Pai Tau (Chu)
1074
1068 Lung Hu Huan Tan Chiieh Sung
1080
1074 Huan Tan Fu Ming Phien
1076 Tshui Hsi2 Phim
1082

40 I

Wieger nos.
Ong nos.
1077 H u m Yuan Phien
1083
1087 Thai Phing Ching
1093
I 124 JVu Shang Pi Yao
I 130
1125 San Tung Chu Nang
1131
I 127 Hsien Lo Chi
I133
I 128 Chien W u Chi
I134
I 130 Tau-Jan Chi
1136
113s Tung-HsilonChin YUChi
I 141
I I 36 Tan- Yang Shen Kuang Tshan
1142
I 138 Yiin Kuang Chi
1I44
I 139 ( Wang) Chhung- Yang Chhilan Chm I 145
Chi
I 140 ( W a g ) Chhung- Yang Chiao Hua
I 146
Chi
I 141 (Wang) Chhung- Yang F&-Li
1147
Shih-Hua Chi
1142 (Wang) Chhung- Yang (Chen J m )
I 148
Chin-Kuan (or Chhfkh) Yu-So
Chiieh
I 145 Chhang-Chhun Tzu P h - C h h i Chi
I 151
I 146 Than brim-s&g Shui Yun Chi
1152
1147 Thai-Ku Chi
I153
1162 MO Tzu
1168
1170 Huai Nan (Tau) Hung Lieh Chieh
1176
I 171 Pao Phu Tzu, Net' Phim
I I77
1172 Pao Phrc Tzu, Pieh Chih
1178
1173 Pao Phu Tzu, Wai Phim
I179
1174 Tho Y o Tzu
1180
1187 Tung Shen Pa T i Yuan (Hstlan)
I 193
Pim Ching
1211
1205 Shang-Chhing Ling-Pao Ta Fa
1206
1212 Chlrtla-ChmTsoPoChiehFa
1219
1216 (Wang) Chhung- Yang Li-Chiao
1223
Shih- Wu Lun
1225 C f i g I F a W&(Thai-Shang)
I233
Wai Lu I
1235 Tao Fa Hsin Chfruan
1243
1273 Shang-Chhing Ching A' C&h
1281
1276 Shang-Chhing Huang S h u K m Tu I 1284
1287 K O Hsien-Ong ( K OHung) Chou
1295
Hou Pei Chi Fang
1295 (Tung-Chen Thai-Shang Su-Ling
I303
Tung-Yuan) Ta Y u Miao Ching
1357 Shang-Chhizg Thai-Shang T i Chiin 1365
Chiu Chen Chung Ching
1382 Huang Thing Chung Ching Ching
1390
1405 Thai-Shang Lao Chiin Thai Su Cldng 1413
(see index S.V. Thai Su Chuan)
14.42 Hun Thien Shih Shih Chia
1451

""I

{::::

B.

C H I N E S E AND JAPANESE BOOKS AND JOURNAL

A R T I C L E S S I N C E +l800

Achiwa Gor6 (I) m B 8 h

Rangaku-ki no Shizen Ryfi-nb-seb Kenkyfl

a.

m b M o EI%Wi%%!Gff%.
A Study of the Theory of Nature-Healing
in the Period of Dutch Learning in Japan.
ID, 1965 No. 31,2223.
S.
Akitsuki Kanei (l) 8 H
Kata Kannen no Shiroku R
%
, 0

33 B.

On the Genealogy of the Huang-Leo Concept (in Taoism).

THG, 1955,109 69.
And6 Kasei (l) E B E &.
Kanshin
R.
Life of Chien-Chen (+688 to +763),
[outstanding Buddhist missionary to
Japan, skilled also in medicine and architecture].
Bijutsu Shuppansha, Tokyo 1958, repr.
1963.
Abstr. RBS, 1964,4 no. 889.
And6 Kasei (a)
B E &.
Nihon no Miira H -45 o z 4 3.
Mummification in Japan.
Mainichi Shimbunsha, Tokyo, 1961.
Abstr. RBS, 1965, 7,no. 575.
Anon. (10).
TunhumrgA'HuaChi ?&E:@as.
Album of Coloured Reproductions of the
fresco-paintings at the Tunhuang cavetemples.
Peking, 1957.
Anon. (11).
Changsha Fa Chrieh Pao-Kao A B

$8 S .

Report on the Excavations (of Tombs of

the Chhu State, of the Warring States
period, and of the Han Dynasties) at
Chhangsha.
Acad. Sinica Archaeol. Inst., Kho-Heileh,
Peking, 1957.
Anon. (17).
Shou-hsien Tshai Hou Mu Chhu Thu I Wu

%%!%BI~B*zt@n.

Objects Excavated from the Tomb of the

Duke of Tshai at Shou-hsien.
Acad. Sinica. Archaeol. Inst., Peking, 1956.
Anon. (27).
Shang-Tshun-Ling Kuo K m Mu Ti

I6J#%rffAAta.
The Cemetery (and Princely Tombs) of the
State of (Northern) Kuo at Shangtshun-ling (near Shen-hsien in the Sanmen Gorge Dam Area of the Yellow
River).

Institute of Archaeology, Academia Sinica,

Peking, 1959 (Field Expedition Reports,
Ting Series, no. IO), (Yellow River
Excavations Report no. 3).
Anon. (28).
Yiirman Chin-Ning Shih-Chai Shun Ku Mu
Chhun Fa-Chiieh Pao-Kao S R %

E%FLLI~SD~fl~*.

Report on the Excavation of a Group of

Tombs (of the Tien Culture) at Shih-chai
Shan near Chin-ning in Yunnan.
2 vols.
Yunnan Provincial Museum.
Wen-Wu, Peking, 1959.
Anon. (57).
Chung Yao Chih q ,g.
Repertorium of Chinese Matena Medica
(Dmg Plants and their Parts, Animals
and Minerals).
4 vols.
Jen-min Wei-sheng, Peking, 1961.
Anon. (73) (Anhui Medical College Physiotherapy Dept.).
Chunz I An-MO Hsiieh Chien Phien @

%@blM.
Introduction to the Massage Techniques in
Chinese Medicine.
Jen-min Wei-sheng, Peking, 1960, repr. 1963
Anon. (74) (National Physical Education
Council).
Thai Chi Chhiim Yiin Tung k
jHt
The Chinese Boxing Movements [instmctions for the exercises].
Jen-min Thi-yii, Peking, 1962.
Anon. (77).
ChhiKungLiaoFaChiangI ?#@~t#fssgE.
Lectures on Respiratory Physiotherapy.
Kho-hsiieh Chi-shu, Shanghai, 1958.
Anon. (78).
Chung-Kuo C M Chhim CM Tin8 Liang
Fh-Hsi #H%lfdEtZBffR.
Analyses of Chinese Coins (of different
Dynasties).
KHS, 1921, 6 (no. II), 1173.
Table reprinted in Wang Chin (a), p. 88.
Anon. (loo).
Shao-Hsing Chiu Ninng Tsao 493
B.
Methods of Fermentation (and Distillation)
of Wine used at Shao-hsing (Chekiang).
Chhing Kung Yeh, Peking, 1958.
Anon. (101).
Chung-Kuo Ming Tshai P h rP l % 9H.
Famous Dishes of Chinese Cookery.
I 2 vols.
Chhing Kung Yeh, Peking, 1965.

m.

BIBLIOG
Anon. (I 03).
Nihon Miira no Kmkya

4 70

H R.

Researches on Mummies (and Self-Mummification) in Japan.

Heibonsha, Tokyo, 1971.
Anon. (104).
Chhangsha Ma Wang Tui i Ha0 Han Mu
Fa-Chiieh Chien-Pao E @ & 3 ifji ?#.

Anon. (113).
Shih T h Chi-nun Wu-ying Shan C h Thu-ti Hsi Hun, La Wu, Tsa Chi, Yen Huan
Thao Yuw X%%@fEEiZBCLlkB4:M

EB%B$%%2sBmm.

A Discourse on the Early Han pottery models

of musicians, dancers, acrobats and miscellaneous artists performing at a banquet,
discovered in a Tomb at \Vu-ying Shan
(Shadowless Hill) near Chinan (in Shan%3zBflfPB%i.
tung province).
Preliminary Report on the Excavation of Han
Tomb No. I at Ma-wang-tui (Hayagriva
m T K , 1972, (no. 51, 19.
Hill) near Chhangsha [the Lady of Tai, Anon. (115).
Tzhu-Hang Ta Shih C M
BA
c. -1801.
A Biography of the Great Buddhist Teachef,
Wen Wu, Peking, 1972.
Tzhu-Hang (d., self-mummified, 1954).
Anon. (105).
Thaipei, 1959 (Kan Lu Tshung Shu ser.
Kakogaku-sha no Shin-Hakkm; Nisen-yonm
no. 11).
mae no Kimte On'mom Som-hoka S$ S
e ~ o ~ s g , ; z = ~ ! ~ ? + nAoki Masaru (l) B f i B.
Chiika Meibutsu K6
tfl g &j %.
RRMhl+o&.
Studies on Things of Renown in (Ancient
A New Discovery in Archaeology; Painted
and Medieval) China, [including aroSilks, Textiles and other Things more than
matics, incense and spices].
Two Thousand Years old.
Shunjiisha, Tokyo, 1959.
JC, 1972 (no. g), 68, with colour-plates.
Abstr. RBS, 1965. 5, no. 836.
Anon. (106).
W&-Hua Ta KO-MingChhi C h i n Chhu Thu Asahina Yasuhiko (1) (ed.) bW t;S with
16 collaborators.
W& Wu X4t;-kZ&BP6]ttl.rt:
Shosain Yakubutsu jE& E B.
X@.
The Shasuin Medicinals; a Report on
Cultural Relics Unearthed during the wriod
Scientific Researches.
of the Great Cultural evolution (1~65-71),
With an English abstract by Obata Shigevol. I [album].
yoshi.
Wen Wu, Peking, 1972.
Shokubutsu Bunken Kanku-kai, Osaka, 1955.
Anon. (l 09).
Chung-Kuo Kao T& C M - Wu Thu Chim
Chan Jan-Hui (1) # tR R.
*mRs@mmR.
Alternative orthography of Tan Jan-Hui (l).
Icmographia Cormophytonmr Siniconmc
Chang Chhang-Shao (l)
g
(Flora of Chinese Higher Plants).
2 vols. Kho-Hsiieh, Peking, 1972 (for Nat.
Hsien-tai-ti Chung Yao Yen-Chiu B R M
Inst. of Botany).
*@H%.
-.
Modern Researches on Chinese Drugs.
Anon. (110).
Kho-hsiieh Chi-shu, Shanghai, 1956.
Chhang Yung Chung Tshao Yao Thu Phu
Chang Chhi-Yiin (2) (ed.) % g A.
'RHFP~LBI~.
Chung-Hua Min KILOTi-Thu Chi
Illustrated Flora of the Most Commonly
SE
Used Drug Plants in Chinese Medicine.
Atlas of the Chinese Republic (5 vols.):
Jen-min Wei-sh&ng,Peking, 1970.
vol. I Thaiwan, vol. z, Central Asia,
Anon. (111).
vol. 3 North China, vol. 4 South China,
Man-chh&rg Han Mu Fa-ChiiLh Chi Yao
vol. 5 General maps.
~ ~ S 2 % ~ @ I E ~ .
National Defence College
The Essential Findings of the Excavations of
Thaipei, 19623.
National Geographical
the (Two) Han Tombs at Man-chh@ng
Institute
(Hopei), [Liu ShCng, Prince Ching of
Chang Ching-Lu (I).
Chung-shan, and his consort Tou Wan].
Chunx-Kuo Chin-Tai Chhu-Pan Shih-LMo
KKTH, 1972, (no. I), 8.
Anon. (I 12).
ChhuPhien +AZRtlJj$Z!i!!H%lI.
Materials for a History of Modem BwkMan-chhhg Hun Mu 'Chin Lou Yi7-I' ti
Publishing in China, Pt. I.
Chhinz-Li ho Fu- Yuan @j #, JAQ, g r& @
Chang Hsin-Chh@ng(l) ilgt B.
E&JB~~~J~B~IZR.
On the Origin and Detailed Structure of
Wei Shu Thung Khao
35&!.
A Complete Investigation of the (Ancient
the Jade Body-cases Sewn with Gold
and Medieval) Books of Doubtful
Thread found in the Han Tombs at ManAuthenticity.
chhtng.
z vols., Com. Press, 1939, rcpr. 1957.
KKTH, 1972, (no. z), 39.

m.

a.

mw?.ms.

404

B I B L I O GR A P H Y B

On the Origin and Development of Chinese

Chang Hsing-YUn ( l ) %I & g.
Alchemy.
Yin Shih Pien
gF R.
A Discussion of Foods and Beverages.
C H . , 1 9 6 0 ~ 7(no. 2). 35.
1814, repr. 1824.
Chang Tzu-Kao ( 4 ) % T 8.
Tshuw Tu Hsi Thunrr Chhi Than Tao ' Wu'
Cf. Dudgeon (2).
W.
Chang Hsiian ( l )
T~;P&I @ ~ & c w ~ ~ s a
Chung W& Chhang Yung San Chhint Tsu
S%.
Hsing I S h i h + 3 T X f J f j 3 ~ ~ 3 5 ~ l d B . Tin-Plated Bronzes and the Poasible
Etymologies of Three Thousand Chinese
Original Meaning of the Character m.
Characters in Common Use.
ASICJA, 1958 (no. 3), 73.
Hongkong Univ. Press, 1968.
Chang Tzu-Kao (5) ilgt 6
Chao Hsiieh-Min ' P & Tshao Kang Mu
Chang Hung-Chao ( l )
$11.
Shih Y a E%.
Shih I' Chu SItu Nicn-Tai, Chien-Lm
WO-KuoShou-Tzhu Yung Chhiang-Shiu
Lapidarium Sininmr; a Study of the Rocks,
KhoThvngPanShih @@A&'SSf@
Fossils and Minerals as known in
Chinese Literature.
!**~%%qR*m*MP*ma
Chinese GeoI. Survey, Peiping: 1st ed. 1921,
;Ikfl&ltEiX.
On the Date of Publication of Chao Hsllehand ed. 1927.
Min's Supplement to the Great PhmmaMGSC (ser. B), no. 2, 1-432 (with Engl.
copoeia, and the Earliest Use of Acids for
summary).
Etching Copper Plates in China.
Crit. P. Dernidville, BEFEO, 1924. 24,
KHSC, 1962, I (no. 4), 106.
276.
Chang Tzu-Kao (6) B gt=I;
Chang Hung-Chao (3) S B
Lun W OKuo Niane Chiu Chhi- Ywn ti
Chung-Kuo Yung Hsin ti Chhi- Ywn

r~J~

a.

a.

a.

FPWB]i@&Brn.

Origins and Development of Zinc Technology in China.

K H S , 1923, 8 (no. 3), 233, repr. in Wang
Chin (z), p. 21.
Cf. Chang Hung-Chao (2).
Chang Hung-Chao (6) S
Tsai Shu Chung-Kuo Yung Hsin ti ChhiYuan FP%+E!?98J.$+&@fi.
Further Remarks on the Origins and
Development of Zinc Technology in
China.
KHS, I 925, 9 (no. g), I I 16, repr. in Wang
Chin (z), p. 29.
Cf. Chang Hung-Chao (3).
Chang Hung-Chao (8) R
Lo shih 'Chunp-Kuo I - h ' Chilan Chin

aa.

aa.

Metals and Minerals as Treated in Laufer's

' Sino-Iranica', translated with Commentaries.
MGSC 1925 (Ser. B), no. 3, 1-119.
With English preface by Ong Wen-Hao.
Chang Tzu-Kao ( l ) GE P g.
Kho-Hsiieh Fa Ta Liiah Shih H

@% 5P.

On the Question of the Origin of Wine in

China.
CHJ, 1960,17 (7). no. 2, 31.
Chang Tzu-Kung ( l )
W B.
Lzieh Lun Chung-Kuo ti Nieh Chih PmThung ho tha tsai Li-Shth shang yii OuYaKoKuotiK~nn-Hsi @$R+MH

&RE~@%U~&EEE~WWS+$B
m M M.

On Chinese Nickel and Paktong, and on

their Role in the Historical Relations
between Asia and Europe.
K H S , 19.579 33 (no. 21, 91Chang Tzu-Kung (2) $B W B.
Yuan Su Fa-Hsitn Shih X a% B S E.
The Discovery of the Chemical Elements
(a translation of Weeks (I), with some
40% of original material added).
Shanghai, 1941.
Chang Wen-Yuan (l).
Thai Chi Chhiian Chhang Shih Wkr Ta

kBSR%P61S.

Explanation of the Standard Principles of

Chinese Boxing.
Jen-min Thi-yii, Peking, 1962.
Chao Pi-Chhen ( l ) ffY R p.
H s i n ~Ming Fa Chiieh Ming Chih & @ W

A Classified History of the Natural Sciences.

Com. Press, Shanghai, 1923. repr. 1936.
Chang Tzu-Kao (2) $I?
E.
X rnR.
A Clear Explanation of the Oral InstructChung-Kuo Hua-Hsiieh Shih Kao (Ku-Tm
ions concerning the Techniques of the
chih Pu) tPFljcJ.rti%E%(2iRZ%).
Nature and the Life-Span.
A Draft his to^ of Chemistry in China
Chhi-shan-mei, Thaipei, Thaiwan, 1963.
(Section on Antiquity).
Tr. Lu Khuan-Yii (4).
Kho-Hsueh, Peking, I 964.
Chi Yun (I).
Chang Tzu-Kao (3) % 4 X.
~iie~
h e Tshao
i
Thang Pi Chi
#$ 2
Lien Tan Shu Fa-Sheng fl Fa-Chan

Upf.~B&W3??E.

S 33.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

405

(Hygiene and Health due to the CirculaChi Y t h (I) ( c a t . )

Jottings from the YUeh-wei Cottage.
tion of the Chhi).
1800.
Wei-Sh&ng,Shanghai, 1956, repr. 1957.
Chia Tsu-Chang & Chia Tsu-Shan ( 1 ) X #l, Chiang Wei-Chhiao
B & Liu Kuei-Chen

73 1 8 4 1 .

(1).

+&m

Chung-Kuo C M - W U Thu Chim

ChungIThonChhiKwcgLMoFa
m $E.
RZhtlB.
Illustrated Dictionary of Chinese Flora
Resp~ratoryPhysiotherapy in Chinese
[arranged on the Engler system; 2602
Medicine.
entries].
Thai-Phing, Hongkong, 1964.
Chung-hua, Peking, 1936, repr. 1955, 1958.
Chieh Hsi-Kung (l)
B.
Chia Yo-Han (Kerr, J. G.) g fi & Ho
Thai-pan Tung-thai-pao Chlm Thu ti Han
Liao-Jan m 7 B (I).
2% ThunsChhi 2iR%AEttjrt:H
Hun Hsiieh Chhu Chiai dt;
.sfi@%%.
First Steps in Chemistry.
Bronze Objects of Han Date Excavated at
Canton, I 870.
Tung-thai-pao Village near Thaiyuan
Chiang Thien-Shu (l)
R R.
(Shansi), [including five unicorn-foot
' Chhu Tzhu Hsin Chu' Too Lun r@
horse-hoof gold pieces, about 140 gms. wt.,
with almost illegible inscriptions].
&J SjrP.
A Critique of the New Commentmy on the
W W T K , 1962 (no. 4/5), no. 138-9, 66
Odes of Chhu.
(71)~ill. p. 11.
C H W S L T , 1962, I , 81.
Abstr. R B S , 1969, 8, no. 360 (p. 196).
Abstr. R B S , 1969, 8, no. 558.
Chikashige Masumi (1) = (I)
R f.
Chiang Wei-Chhiao (I) p i n Shih Tzu]
T6y6 Renkinjutsu: Kagakuj6 yori mitaru
8.
Yin Shih Tzu Ching Tso Fa
4 -&
T6yQ'ddai no Bunkn

a
a m.

S.

Yin Shih Tzu's Methods of Meditation

[Taoist].
Shih-yung, Hongkong, 19x4, npr. 1960,
1969.
With Buddhist addendum, HsU Phien

B%.

Cf. Lu Khuan-Yii (I), pp. 167. 193.

Chi ang Wei-Chhiao (a) p i n Shih Tzu]
B
Ching Tso Fa Chi Yao
rt? & $F# B.
The Important Essentials of Meditation
Practice.
Repr. Thaiwan Yin Ching Chhu, Thaipei,
I 962.
[Chiang Wei-Chhiao] (3)Yin Shih Tzu
R.
Hu Hsi Hsi Ching Ymg S h h g Fa % B g

b339E.
Methods of Nourishing the Life-Force by
Respiratory Physiotherapy and Meditation Technique.
Repr. Thai-Phing, Hongkong, 1963.
[Chiang Wei-Chhiao] (4) Yin Shih Tzu
R.
Yin Shih T z u Ching Tso Wei S h h g Shih
Yen Than m 2 ~ ' @ # @ f & ' i i P I % .
Talks on the Preservation of Health by
Experiments in Meditation.
Printed together with the HsU Phien of (I).
Tzu-Yu. Thaichung, Thaiwan
Hongkong 1957.
Cf. Lu Khuan-Yil. (I), pp. 157, 160, 193.
Chiang Wei-Chhiao (5) R %.
Chung-Kuo-ti Hu Hsi Hsi Ching Yang
Sh& Fa (Chhi Kung Fang Chih Fa)

B ~ + s & N ; 4LQk r e
%kR oxit;.

aX

East Asian Alchemy; the Cultun of

East Asia in Early Times seen from the
Chemical Point of View.
Rokakuho Uchida, Tokyo, 1929, npr.
1936.
Based partly on (4) and on papers in
SN 1918, 3 (no. 2) and 1919, 4 (no. 2).
Chikashige Masumi (2)
3 W g.
T6y6 Kod6ki no Kagaku-teki KenKya

? E % r & @ i i ~ 4t;dMtfiliff.
~

A Chemical Investigation of Ancient

Chinese Bronze [and Brass] Vessels.
SN. 1918, 3 (no. z), 177.
Chikashige Masumi (3)
E g.
Kagaku yori mitaru T6y6j6dai no Bunka
4 ~ 8 Y2
6~$krto~4t
The Culture of Ancient East Asia seen
from the Viewpoint of Chemistry.
S N , 1919, 4 (no. 2), 169.
Chikashige Masumi ( 4 ) Z Z E S.
Toy6 Kodai Bunka no Kagakukan

at;

;.

~ ~ ~ t t ~i~~llea.
4 t ; o
A Chemical View of Ancient East Asian
Culture.
Pr. pr. Tokyo, 1920.
Chojiya Heibei (I).
Shoseki Seirenho
;fi fl B.
The Manufacture of Saltpetre.
Yedo, 1863.
Ch6n Sangun (a) 3 @ I.
Han'guk h,ahak kisul sa

wmt93%%%~4&(%%~
hQ.rn#@R%*.
A Brief History of Science and Technology
%S).
The Chinese Methods of Prolongevity by
Respiratory and Meditational Technique

in Korea.
World Science Co. Seoul, 1966.

406

BIBLIOG

Chou F&ng-Wu H S, Wang Wan-Chieh

4 & & Hsii Kuo-Chhien
ff (I).
Huang T i Nci Ching S u W&, Pai Hua CIdch

W%F9L%FlB%%.

The Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal

(Medicine); Questions (and A n ~ t r s about
)
Living Matter ; done into Colloquial
Language.
Jen-min Wei-shtng, Peking, 1963.
Chou Shao-Hsien (I) jEj ia)B W.
TaoChiayiiShenHsien S S R H f f i .
The Holy Immortals of Taoism; the
Development of a Religion.
Chung-Hua, Thaipei (Thaiwan), rg70.
Chu Chi-Hai (I) % B.
'C& Tzhu' Chieh KU Shilr I ' s A J M a

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Commentary on I'arts of the Odes of Chhu

(especially Li Sao and Chiu Pien), [with
special attention to botanical identifications].
C H W S L T , 1962,2,77.
Abstr. RBS,1969, 8, no. 557.
Chu Lien (1) % B.
Hsin Chen Chiu Hnieh RfjW&s.
New Treatise on Acupuncture and Moxibustion.
Jen-min Wei-shtng. Peking, 1954.
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Shuo Fu Khao
!ffi
%.
A Study of the Shrro Fu Florilegiurn.
Chinese Planning Commission for East
Asian Studies, Thaipei (Thaiwan), 1962.
Chhen Ching (l)
H.
Chhiu Ku Chin,q ShB Chin Shih Thu #?

@a.

Riti&?iI.

Illustrations of Antiques in Bronze and

Stone from the Spirit-of-Searching-OutAntiquity Cottage.
Chhm Kung-Jou (3) E &.S.
Pai-Sha Thang Mu C h m Pao $ f Eg

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Preliminary Report on (the Excavation of) a

Thang Tomb at the Pai-sha (Reservoir),
(in Yu-hsien, Honan).
K K T H , 1955 (no. I), 22.
8.
Chhen Kuo-Fu (l)
' Tao Tsang ' Y m Liu Khao '
iB EJ$B Bf,%.
A Study on the Evolution of the Taoist
Patrology.
1st ed. Chung-Hua, Shanghai, 1949.
2nd ed. in 2 vols., Chung-Hua, Peking, 1963.
Chhen M&ng-Chia(4) M B S.
Yin Hsii Pu Tzhu T S U ~Shu
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A study of the Characters on the Shang

Oracle-Bones.
Kho-Hstieh, Peking, 1956.
Chhen Pang-Hsien (I)
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Chung Kuo I-Hsiieh Shih
@.
History of Chinese Medicine.
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1937, 1957.

!+

Chhen Phan (7) E#! 83.

Chan-Kuo Chhin Hun C h Fang-Shih
J w z a o L ~ @$itlSSMfi=t:dI,
Investigations on the Magicians of the
Warring States, Chhin and Han periods.
ASJBIHP, 1948, 17,7.
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Chhen Pi-Liu
B S A.
Ling Shu Ching, Pai Hua Chieh iB

a %M.

The Yellow EmpetmSsManual of C-eal

(Medicine);the Vital Axis; done into
Colloquial Language.
Jen-min Wei-sh&ng,Peking, 1963.
Chhen Thao (I).
Chhi Kung Kho-Hsilch Chhamg Shih S M

F+%%%.

A General Introduction to the Science of

Respiratory Physiotherapy.
Kho-hsueh Chi-shu, Shanghai, 1958.
Chhen Wen-Hsi ( I ) jZ#
,S.
Lu-kan-shih ' Tutty ' Thou-shih Thong-Thi

w w a Tutty&;f3'1&.

A Study of the Designation8 of Zinc Ores,

lu-kan-shih, tutty and brass.
HITC 1 9 3 3 . 1 ~839;
~ 1934,13,401.
Chhen Yin-Kho (3) E$! 3 S.
Thien Shih Tao yu Pin-Hai Ti- Y3 chih
Kuan-Hsi X&5BRB#$Mi&&I$%
On the Taoist Church and its Relation to
the Coastal Regions of China (c. + l 2 6 to
+536).
ASIBIHP, 1934 (no. 3/4)r439.
Chhen Yuan (4) m &
S M Hzn Chii Li 2 $$EDJ.
On the Tabu Changes of Personal Names in
History; Some Examples.
Chung-Hua, Peking, 1962, repr. 1963.

Dohi K e i s (l) & BE R.

Sh6s6in Yakushi no Shiteki K6satsu JE

RE!&rnO Em%z5.

Historical Investigation of the Drugs presewed in the Imperial Treasury at

Nara.
In Zoku Shusain Shiron
E B E 2 R.
1932, NO. 15, Neiyaku !@S.
1st pagination, p. I 33.
Dano Tsurumatsu (l) S b
Kodai no S h i m ni okeru Kagakushisira ioku
m' Genzoshis6 m bsuite
K o 2 K:

a.

F?@
'4-

-c.

- f k ~ ~ ~ . ~ % K : 7 C 3 % ~ Z ~ E t

On Ancient Chemical Ideas in China, with

Special Reference to the Idea of Elements [comparison with the Four
Aristotelian Elements and the Spagyrical
Tria Prima].
%IT, 1931, I, 159.
Fan Hsing-Chun (6)
fi b.
Chung Hua I-Hsiieh Shih

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Chinese Medical History.
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Liang Hun San Kuo Nan Pei Chhao Sui
Thang I Fang Chim Lu
f W it:
aFBtjif&2fl%@.
A Brief Bibliography of (Lost) Books on
Medicine and Pharmacy written during
the Han, Three Kingdoms, Northern and
Southern Dynasties and Sui and Thang
Periods.
CHWSLT, 19656, 295.
F b g Chheng-Chiin (I)
8 B.
Chung-Kuo Nan- Yang Chiao-Thung Shih

Hua-Tung, Shanghai, 1954.

Revised ed. Jen-Min, Shanghai, 1962.
Fu Chhin-Chia (l) B R.
Chung-Kiro Tao Chiao Shih
3 2.
A History of Taoism in China.
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1937.
Fu Chin-Chhiian (l)
#z &.
Chhih Shui Yin
7k D+.
Chants of the Red River Cphysiologicsl
alchemy].
1823.
In CTPS, p b 4.
4 B.
Fu Chin-Chhiian ( a )
Thien Hsien Chhg Li Tu 'Fa Tim Ching'

+a

Xfh iEQSE!?%P?+-

The Right Pattern of the Celestial Immortals; Thoughts on Reading the

FPE~FER~~&E.
Consecration of the Lau, [physiological
History of the Contacts of China with the
alchemy. Tien ching refers to the cereSouth Sea Regions.
mony of painting in the pupils of the eyes
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1937, repr. Thaiin an image or other representation].
Phing, Hongkong, 1963.
F h g Chia-Shhg ( I ) ;g 8.
1820.
In CTPS, p b 5.
Huo- Yao ti Fa-Hsien chi chhi Chhuan Pu
Yi@i#BWZk#%#i.
Fu Chin-Chhiian (3) B & 6%
The Discovery of Gunpowder and its
Tan Ching Sluh Tu f i
A Guide to the Reading of the Enchymoma
Diffusion.
Manuals [dialogue of pupil and teacher on
APIHJ, 194795, 29.
Feng Chia-Sheng (2) 7.g A.
physiological alchemy]
c. 1825.
Hui Chiao Kuo ton' Huo- Yao yu C M - K u o
Chhuan Ju Ou-Chou ti Chhiao Liang
In CTPS, p& 11.
&AE$k@E!?i$~@AR$F1Mf%R. FuChin-ChhUan(4) QR4e.
The Muslims as the Transmitters of GunToo Hai Chin LMlg B &?j
BE.
A Catena (of Words) to Bridge the Ocean
powder from China to Europe.
of the Tao [mutationism, Taoist-BuddhAf'IHJ, 194991.
R.
ist-Confucian syncretism, and physioF@ngChia-Sheng (3)
logical alchemy].
Tu Hsi- Yang ti Chi Chung Huo-Chhi Shih
Hou B @ F f @ ~ % l R % s h ! @ .
1822.
I n CTPS, pi% XI.
Notes on reading some of the Western
Histories of Firearms.
Fu Chin-Chhiian (5) B 4 B.
APIHJ, 1947,5, 279.
Shih Chin Shih B Bk. E.
F@ngChia-Sh&ng(4) I
8.
On the Testing of (what is meant by)
' Metal' and 'Mineral'.
Huo- Yao ti Yu Lai chi chhi Chhuun Ju
Ou-choutiChingKuo A ~ & ? J E Q R W
c. 1820.
In Wu Chen Phim Szu Chu ed.
#RgAllaMM@i&.
On the Origin of Gunpowder and its Trans- Fu Chin-Chhiian (6) (ed.) @'l 4 g,
Chhg Tao Pi Shu Shih Chung
mission to Europe.
8 -f- I
Ten Types of Secret Books on the Verificah a y in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien ChUn-Yeh
tion of the Tao.
(q.v.), P. 33Peking, 1955.
Early 19th.
Fu Lan-Ya (Fryer, John)
l# !J
& HBU
fi Shou
F h g Chia-Sh@ng(5) 7Ag Z$f 3.
Lien Tan Shu ti Chhhg Chhang chi chhi
S E!$ (1) (W.).
HsiChhuan @ ~ ~ @ I F I E ~ E ~ $ E
Hua-Hsrieh
~ $ . Chicn Yuun {L;
Authentic Mirror of Chemical Science
Achievements of (ancient Chinese) Al(translation of Wells, I).
chemy and its Transmission to the West.
Chiangnan Arsenal Transl. Bureau, ShangEssay in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien ChUn-Yeh
(q.v.), p. 120.
hai, 1871.
Fukui Kfijun (l) Sia # B
Peking 1955.
Feng Chia-Sh&ng(6) E$ R 9.
Toy6 Shis6 no Kenkyil q ,E 0 W R.
Studies in the History of East Asian
Huo- Yuo ti Fa-Ming ho Hsi C h h
S
b ! J % ? ~ ~ & ~ .
Philosophy.
Ris~sha,Tokyo, 1956.
The Discovery of Gunpowder and its
Abstr. RBS, I 959, 2, no. 564.
Transmission to the West.

m.

m.

m.

408

BIBLIOGRAPHY B

Fukunaga Mitauji (I)

& SJ.
H6zensetsu no Keisei
$
B$
0 l A.
The Evolution of the Theory of the Feng and
Shan Sacrifices (in Chhin and Han Times).
T S , 1954, I (no. 6), 28, (no. 7), 45.
iejI A & Tazawa Kingo (I)

Harada Yoshito

fflR&Z.
Rakura Gokm-en C) Ku no Fumbo

'g'@ZKf0 iaa.

Lo-Lang; a Report on the Excavation of

Wang Hsti's Tomb in the Lo-Lang Province (an ancient Chinese Colony in Korea).
Tokyo Univ. Tokyo, 1930.
Hasegawa Usahuro (1) A G 111m WK.
Shin Igaku Zen R E m.
New Applications of Zen Buddhist Techniques in Medicine.
So Gensha, Tokyo, 1970. (In the Haraotsukuruzen Series.)
Hiraoka Teikichi (2) p M
Enanji ' m arawareta K i no Kmkyu '
B

*.

=F~~%Rbftk%oR%.

Studies on the Meaning and the Conception

of 'chhi' in the Huai Nun Tau book.
Kan Gi Bunka Gakkai, Tokyo, 1961.
Abstr. RBS, 1968, 7, no. 620.
Ho Han-Nan (I)
:&R.
Sian Shih Hsi-yao-shih Tshun Thung Mu
Chhing-Li Chi E ij5
f f H F&

?EZB?ZB.

A Summary Account of the Thang Tomb at

Hsi-yao-shih Village near Sian [the tomb
which yielded early Arabic coins].
Cf. Hsia Nai (3).
K K T H , 1965, no. 8 (no. log), pp. 383, 388.
Ho Hsin (I) (Hobson, Benjamin)
W.
PO WuHsinPhim #&R%.
New Treatise on Natural Philosophy and
Natural History [the first book on modem
chemistry in Chinese].
Shanghai, 1855.
Ho Ping-Yii
iif & Chhen Thieh-Fan (I)

m. R R.

Lun ' Shun Yang Lii Chen Jm Yao Shih

Chih' ti Chu Chhing Sitih-Tai R

8 R A S E # J i%%Ai%4t

On the Dating of the ' hlanipulations of

Drugs and Minerals, by the Adept LU
Shun-Yang', a Taoist Pharmaceutical and
Alchemical Manual.
JOSHK, 1971, g , 181-5228.
Ho-Ping-Yii
iif & Su Ying-Hui #f
(1).
' Tan Fag Ching Yuan' Khao 'PI. B @$

2$.

On the Mirror of the Alchemical

Elnboratory, (a Thang Manual of
Practical Experimentation).
J O S H K , I ~ ~ O8,(no. I), I, 23.
Hori I c h i r ~(I) fl BB.
Y u d m s a n Kei no S o K u s (Miira)
~
to

sonoHmkn' Q B B . ~ E!JA@(t
o
4
9 ) k '?a=&-fR.
The Preserved Buddhas (Mummies) at the
Temples on Yudono Mountain.
TBKK, 1961, no. 35 (no. 3).
Repr. in Hori Ichira (z), p. 191.
Hori Ichir6 (2)
68.
Shukya Shilzoku no Seikatsu Kisei 5?j' @ W

a--

#lQ&i9i%I%.

Life and Customs of the Religious Sects (in

Buddhism).
Miraisha, Tokyo, 1963.
Hou Pao-Chang ( 1 ) E R B.
C h w - K u o Chieh-Phou Shih
M %2
!l
A History of Anatomy in China.
ISTC, 1957, 8 (no. I), 64.
Hou Wai-Lu (3) E f i
Fang I-Chih-Chung-Kuo ti Pm Kho
Chhiian Shu Phai Ta CM-Hsiieh Chia

m.

ZH~-+BWKH~%EAS
C %Fang 1-Chih--China's Great Encyclopaedist
Philosopher.
LSYC, 1957 (no. 6), I ; 1957 (no. 7). I.
Hou Wai-Lu (4) Z
!f 5
Shih-liu Shih-Chi Chung-Kuo ti Chin-Pu
ti ChCHsiieh Ssu-Chhao Km-Shu -fk

m.

i ! t R + ~ i % ~ 5 b ! Y J ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ %
Progressive Philosophical Thinking in
+ 16th-century China.
LSYC, 1959 (no. IO), 39.
Chao Chi-Pin
Hou Wai-Lu E f i
E S,
T u Kuo-Hsiang
@ & Chhiu
Han-Sheng (I) E$
&.
Chun~-KuoSsu-Hsiong Thung Shih

m,

I+

,%B!~5t.

General History of Chinese Thought.

5 vols.
Jen-Min, Peking, 1957.
Hu Shih (7) $4 B.
Lun l i d e h Chin Chu,tt-i Chi M b

84-f.

Recent Studies on Literature (first series).

Hu Yao-Chen (I).
ChhiKungChienShenFa $$M#$&-B.
Respiratory Exercises and the Strengthening of the Body.
Thai-Phing, Hongkong, 1963.
Huang Chu-HsUn (I) E 3
Chung-Kuo Khuang Chhan
g.
The Mineral Wealth and Productivity of
China.
2nd ed., Com. Pnss, Shanghai. 1930.
Hung Huan-Chhun ( l ) #t.j& #$.
Shih chih Shih-sun Shih-Chi C h g - K u o
Kho-Hsiieh-ti Chu- Yao Chhhg-Chiu.

m. +

-P3-P~-BfE~~W~#3Z3Z!&~.

The Principal Scientific (and Technological) Achievements in China from the

10th to the 13th centuries (inclusive),
[the Sung period].
LSYC, 19.59, 5 (no- 3)s 27.

409

BIBLIOGRAPHY B
Hung Yeh ( 2 ) # S.
Tsai Shuo ' Hsi Ching Tsa Chi'

88

% ft 8,.

Further Notea on the Miscellaneous Records

of the Western Capital [with a study of
the dates of KO Hung].
ASIBIHP, 1963, M (no. 21, 397.
Hsia Nai (2) E S.
Khao-Ku-Hsiieh Lun W& Chi 5$ b l

X S.

Collected Papera on Archaeological Subjects.

Academia Sinica, Peking, 1961.
Hsia Nai (g) E g .
Sian Thang Mu Chhu Thu A-la-pa Chin
pi

El%k5~~rt6ii]8c~El4rW:.

Arab Gold Coins unearthed from a Thang

Dynasty Tomb (at Hsi-yao-thou Village)
near Sian, Shensi (gold d ~ n ~ofr sthe
Umayyad Caliphs ' Abd al-hlalik,
702,
'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Xzlz, 1-718, and
M a m m 11, 746).
Cf. Ho Han-Nan (I).
K K T H , 1965, no. 8 (no. I O ~ )420,
,
with
figs 1-6 on pl. I.
Hsiang T a (3) TiiJ g.
Than# Tai Chhang-An yii Hsi Yii W & Ming

F%RWeB?i!3%?Ck!JJ.

Western Cultures at the Chinese Capital

(Chhang-an) during the Thang Dynasty.
YCHP 1,lonographseries, no. 2. Peiping,
1933.
Hsieh Sung-Mu (I)
3 B.
Chung-K~roLi-Tai I-Hsiieh Wei Shu Khao

$DlE~f?@@!B?3%-

A Study of the Authenticity of (Ancient

and ;2ledie\.al) Chinese Medical Books.
ISTC, 1947, I (no. I), 53.
Hsiung T&-Chi (I)
g.
' Thai Phin.q Chin~q'ti Tso-Cl16ho SsuHsiatzg chi chhi yii Huang Chin ho Thien
Shih Tao ti Kuan-Hsi 'A
M fi

#%U,H~E#~G:~~JWXR
R g.

The Authorship and Ideology of the Canon

o f the Great Peace; and its Relation with
the Yellow Turbans (Rebellion) and the
Taoist Church (Tao of the Heavenly
Teacher).
L S Y C 1962 (no. 4), 8.
Abstr. R B S , 1969, 8, no. 737.
HsU Chien-Yin (I) j$? B g.
KO Chih Tshung Shu % g S.
A General Treatise on the Natural Sciences.
Shanghai, IYI.
HsU Chih-I (I)
W u Chin Thai Chi C m a
g 9i @ij
S.
Chinese Boxing Calisthenics according to
the Wu Tradition.
Hsin-Wen, Hongkong, 1969.
HsU Chung-Shu (7)
8.
Chin JV6n Chia Tzhr Shih Li 42 Z @ R

a --.

I+

B %l-

Terms and Forms of the Prayers for Blessings in the Bronze Inscriptions.
ASIBIHP, 1936, (no. 4), 15.
HsU Chung-Shu (8)
$@
Chhen Hou Ssu Chhi Khao Shih P48 E

%%%%

Researches on Four Bronze Vessels of the

Llarquis Chhen [i.e. Prince Wei of Chhi
State, r. -378 to -3421.
ASIBIHP. 19349 (no. 3/41, 499.
HsU Ti-Shan ( I ) B ia U.
Tao Chiao Shih
& 2.
History of Taoism.
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1934.
HsU Ti-Shan (2) 3 f& U.
Tno Chia Ssu-Hsiang yii Tao Chiao B

,EB@iW&.
Taoist Philosophy and Taoist Religion.
YCHP, 1gz7,z, 249.
Hsiieh Yii (I) if+ +E.
Tao-Chia Hsien Yao chih Hua-Hsrleh Kuan
@
R 84
!I12 It\ @ $24.
A Look at the Chemical Reactions involved in the Elixir-mnking of the Taoists
HSS. 1942, X (no. S), 126.
Huang Lan-Sun (I) (ed.) E S.
Chung-Kuo Yao- Wu-ti Kho-Hsiieh YenChiu FPMiSll43MFl@R%.
Scientific Researches on Chinese hlateria
Medica.
Chhien-Chhing Thang, Shanghai, 1952.

+ +

Imai Usabura ( l )
9
BB.
' Goshinpen' no Seisho to Shisd

R jE?j 0

Dk%$k~z!3.

..

The Poetical Essay on Realising the.

Primary Vitalities [by Chang PO-Tuan,
10751; its System of Thought and how
it came to be written.
T S , 1962, 19, I.
Abstr. R B S , 1969, 8, no. 799.
Ishihara
~ ~ B ~Akira (I) ;Ei m W.
Gozdnyatai no Igi ni tsuite i!i A 8% 0 8
S K 9 L . -C.
The Buddhist Meaning of the Visceral
Models (in the Sakyamuni Statue at the
Seiryoji Temple).
N I Z , 1956, 7 (nos. I-3), 5.
Ishihara Akira (2)
W.
Indo Kaibdgaku no Seiritsu to s a o Ryaden

EO@ffi~611S~E&~-t-~~BFEB.
On the Introduction of Indian Anatomical
Knowledge (to China and Japan).
N I Z , 1956, 7 (nos. 1-3). 64.
Ishii hlasako (I) E
g -F.
Kohon ' Chen Kao'
'iPI; R.,
Draft of an Edition of the Dec!arotions of
Perfected Immortals, (with Notes on
Variant Readings).
I n several volumes.
Toyoshirna Shoba, Tokyo, (for Dakya
Kank~kai
PJ fiB), 1966.

BIBLIOGRAPHY B

410

Ishii Maaako ( 2 ) E # 8 4.
' Chen Kao' no Seiritsu o Meguru Shiry6teki
Kent6; ' T&g Chen Yin Chiieh', ' C h m
Ling Wei Yeh Thu' qycbi ' IVu Shang Pi
Yao' tono Kankei W O ChUshin-m 'E

Kao Hsien (l) et al. 6 g.

Hua-Hsiieh Yaa Phin Tzhti-Tien

.IkQ g

&&E%&.

Dictionary of Chemistry and Pharmacy

(based on T. C. Gregory (I),with the
by A. Rose & E. Rose).
D E f i k Q < ~ ~ R ? B M & ~ W ; ~supplement
? ~ ~ L
K ~ JrESfi15EPd~
,
W d ' @ k % I ~ Shanghai Sei & Tech. Pub., Shanghai,
to
k !+'L\ iz.
I 960.
Documents for the Study of the Fonnation
Kawabata Otakeshi JI[R 94 & Yoneda
of the Declaratio~rsojPetfectedImmwtals..
Ytitar6 X ffl B k El5 (1)
D K , 1968,3, 79-195 (with French summary
Tdsei Biyaku-K6 R E
9$.
on p. iv).
Die Liebestdnke in Europa und Orient.
Bunkifisha, Tokyo.
Ishii Masako (3) ;Ei R g .F.
'Chen Kao' no Sein'tsu m Kansuru Kdsatsu
Kawakubo TeiM ( l ) Jl[A
RE.
Shindai M a n s h ~m okeru Shaka no Zokucei
rB%~o%~k~
3 -r g
aB
?.
A Study of the Formation of the Declarani tsuite SRif$jH K Ss M 6 B B 0
tions o f Perfected Immortals.
&KQWT.
On the (Kao-liang) Spirits Distilleries in
DK,1965, I, 215 (French summary, p. X).
Manchuria in the Chhing Period and
Ishii hlasako ( 4 ) E # g 4.
their Economic Role i n Rural ColonisaThno Hung-Ching Dmkik6
f$R S.
A Biography of Thao Hung-Ching.
tion.
Art. in Wada Hakase Koki Kinm T6y6shi
D K , 1971,4, 29-1 13 (with French summary, p. iv).
RmU (Wada Festschrift)
H fltiR[ zk g
Ishijima Yasutaka (I) ;fi tft g.
Hi FiB 3 3R 82 E B 32,Kodansha, Tokyo,
Hdhokrrshi Itzsho K6 ?a $b 991 %.
1961,P. 303.
A Study of the Books quoted in the Pao
Abstr. R B S , 1968,7,no. 758.
Phu Tzu and its Bibliography.
Khung Chhing-I,ai et al. (1) .3C
(13 colB K , 1956~20,877.
laborators).
Abstr. R B S , 1959,2, no. 565.
Chih-Wu-Hsiieh T a Tzhu Tien #l&j 6
Ita Kenkichi ( l )
E% E .
Sd no Mihotoke @ o + U.
General Dictionary of Chinese Flora.
Com. Press, Shanghai and Hongkong,
Sexual Buddhas (Japanese Tantric images
etc.).
1918,repr. 1933 and often subsequently.
Zufushinsha, Tokyo, 1965.
Kimiya Yasuhiko ( l ) % g j$Z.
Ita Mitsutashi ( l ) fFB%k%.
Nikka Btinka K 6 w h i El T K 4t; 2
Yang Shsng Nei Kung Pi Chiieh
A History of Cultural Relations between
&
Japan and China.
Confidential Instructions on Nourishing the
Fuzarnba, Tokyo, 1955.
Life Force by Gymnastics (and other
Abstr RBS,1959,2, no. 37.
physiological techniques).
Kobayashi Katsuhito ( l ) /l\ 8 B A.
Tr. from the Japanese by Tuan ChuY6 Shu GaIntha no hitobite B
E
Chiin
f& g.
h P.
Thaipei (Thaiwan), 1966. !
On the disciple^ and Representatives of the
(Hedonist) School of Yang Chu.
Jen Ying-Chhiu (I) E E H.
T Y G K , 1961,5, 29.
Thung S u Chung-Kuo I-H&h Skih Hua
Abstr. R B S , 1968, 7, no. 606.
%@rfiF!d&b5?%.
Koyanagi Shikita ( l ) I]\ # 8 A.
Popular Talks on the History of Medicine.
Tao Chiao Kai Skuo
W t&E W.
A Brief Survey of Taoism.
Chungking, 1957.
Jung Keng (3) 27 R.
Tr. Chhen Pin-Ho M
Chin W& Pien 42 ?Cl.
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1926.
Bronze Forms of Characters.
Repr. Com. Press, Thaipei, 1966.
Peking, 1925,repr. 1959.
Kuo MO-Jo (8)
2;k X.
Chhu Thu W & W UErh San Shih H f
Kao Chih-Hsi ( l ) 8 2 8.
WI~Ej$.
One or two Points about CulturaI Relics
hTiu T&
An ' Ox Lamp' (bronze vessel of Chhien
recently Excavated (including Japanese
coin inscriptions).
Han date, probably for sublimation,
W W T K , 1972(no. 3), 2.
with the boiler below formed in the shape
of an ox, and the rising tubes a continuaKuo Pao-Chiin ( l )
$2.
Hsiin-hsien Hsin-tshun K u Tshan Mu chih
tion of its horns).
WTVTK, 1959 (no. 7), 66.
ChhingLi ~%+$$2iBS&%BqP&.

..

*.

e.

&z.

m.

+a.

41 I

BIBLIOGRAPHY B
Kuo Pao-ChUn (I) (cont.)
Preliminary Report on the Excavations at
the Ancient Cemetery of Hsin-tshun
village, IIsun-hsien (Honan).
T Y K K , 1936, I , 167.
Kuo Pao-ChUn ( 2 )
%
B.l!
Hsiin-hsien Hsin-tshun
M $ M.
(Archaeological Discoveries at) Hsin-tshun
Village in Hstin-hsien (Honan).
Inst. of Archaeology, Academia Sinica,
Peking, 1964 (Field Expedition Reports,
I series, no. 13).
E fi.
Kurihara Keisuke ( l )
Gusai no Gireiteki Igi B
$&M

7835.
The Meaning and Practice of the YU
Sacrifice, as seen in the Personal
Conduct Ritual.
NCGH, 1961, 13, 19.
Abstr. RBS, 1968, 7, no. 615.
Kuroda Genji ( l )
B 3.
K i R.
On the Concept of Chhi (pneuma; in
ancient Chinese thought).
T S , 1954 (no. 4/5), 1; 1955 (no. 7h 16.

z!

Lai Chia-Tu ( l ) R
E.
' Thien Kung Khai Wu' chi chhi Chu ch8;
Sung Ying-Hsing
X
Wg

W.

The Exploitation of the Works of Nature and

its Author; Sung Ying-Hsing.
Essay in Li Kuang-Pi & Chhien C h h Yeh (q.v.), p. 338.
Peking, 1955.
Lai Tou-Yen ( l ) R ff S.
IShihSuiChin %%@H.
Medico-historical Gleanings.
ISTC, 1948, 2 (nos 3/4), 41.
Lao Kan (6) % $$?.
Chunz-Kuo Tan-Sha chih Ying-Yung chi
chhiThui-Yen rftm+'f@&EflE#

pi .R.

The Utilisation of Cinnabar in China and

its Historical Implications.
ASIBIHf', 1936, 7 (no. 4), 519.
Li Chhiao-Phing (I) 2 3F-.
Chung-Kuo Hua-Hsiieh Shih
4k

!+

L i Nien (g) ZjS B.

Chung Suan Shih Lun Tshung

d.

t+

X21

Gesammelte Abhandlungen U. die Geschichte d. chinesischen Mathematik.

3 vols. 1933-5; 4th vol. (in 2 parts), 1947.
Com. Press, Shanghai.
Li Nien (PI)
B.
Chtmg Suan Shih Lun Tshung (second
series)
X El
$&.
Collected Essays on the History of Chinese
Mathematics-vol. I, 1954; vol. 2,
1951; vol. 3, 1955; vol. 41 1955; vol. 5,
1955.
Kho-HsUeh, Peking.
Li Shu-Hua (3)
g 3.
Li Shu-Hua Yu Chi 4 f BE.
Travel Diaries of Li Shu-Hua [recording
visits to temples and other notable places
around Huang Shan, Fang Shan, Thienthai Shan, Yen-tang Shan etc. in 1935
and 19361.
Chhuan-chi Wen-hsiieh, Thaipei, 1969.
Li Shu-Huan (I)
H ;F.
Tao Chiao Yao I W6n Ta Citi Chhhg
$&

sS%rrss$tii%.

A Catechism of the Most Important Ideas

and Doctrines of the Taoist Religion.
Pr. Kao-hsiung and Thaipei, Thaiwan, 1970.
Distributed by the Chhing Sung Kuan
(Caerulean Pine-tree Taoist Abbey),
Chhing Shan (Castle Peak), N.T.
Hongkong.
Liang Chin (I)
B.
Chou Tai Ho Chin Chhhg Fkt Khao J!fj R
+?i&ftff%.
A Study of the Analysis of Alloys of the
Chou period.
K H S , 1925, g (no. 3), 1261; repr. in CVang
Chin (z), p. 52.
Lin Thien-Wei (l) jl;l; R
Sung-Tai H&q- Yao MW-I Shih Kao

m.

%!tFFE%?zl*R.

A History of the Perfume and Drug

Trade during the Sung Dynasty.
Chung-kuo Hsiieh-she, Hongkong, 1960.
Ling Shun-Sheng (6) @ f l Y$.
Chun,q-Kuo Chiu chih Chhi Yuan

tB:";.

SE.
History of Chemistry in China.
Com. Press, Chhangsha, 1940, 2nd (enlarged) ed. Thaipei, 1955.
X & Chhien ChCin-Yeh (I)
Li Kuang-Pi

+ L:z

@. 3 G.

Chttnc-Kuo Kho-Hsiieh Chi-Shu Fa-Ming ho

Kho-Hsiieh Chi-Shu Jen Wu Lun Chi

+MR@B%B~@#BBNA~
.%l!
Essnps on Chinese Discoveries and Inventions in Science and Technology, and on
the Men who made them.
San-lien Shu-tien, Peking, 1955.

On the Origin of Wine in China.

ASIBIHP, 1958, 29, 883 (Chao Yuan-Jen
Presentation Volume).
Liu Kuei-Chen (I).
Chhi Kung Liao Fa Shih Chien fB @J
F?R .
The Practice of Respiratory Physiotherapy.
Hopei Jen-min, P a o t i n ~ 1957.
,
Also published as: Shih Yen Chhi Kung Liao
Fa K @ % @ J @ ~ % .
Experimental Tests of Respiratory Physiotherapy.
Thai-Phing, Hongkong, 1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY B

41 2

Liu PO ( l )
B.
MO-Ku chi chhi Tsai-Phei
W # R!&.
Mushrooms, Toadstools, and their Cultivation.
Kho-Hsiieh, Peking, 1959, repr, 1960, 2nd
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Liu Shih-Chi ( l ) SI] tt:
Chung-Kuo Tsang Su Sou Chhi
$91

m.

t%53.
A Study of the Curiosities of Chinese Burial

Customs.
Shanghai Shu-chU, Hongkong, 1957.
Liu Shou-Shan et al. ( I ) @J iS;.
Chung Yao Ym-Chiu IVln-Hsim Tst- Yao
1820-1961
~KWRZ&%8B.
A Selection of the Most Important Findings
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Kho-Hsueh, Peking, 1963.
Liu Wen-Tien (a)
%R.
Hum Kan Hung Lieh Chi Chieh B

z!lz%P@.

Collected Commentaries on the Huoi Nan

Tzu Book.
Com. Press, Shanghai, 1923. 1926.
Liu Yu-Liang ( l ) R Ea.
Khuang W u Yao yii Tan Yao
& l EX

R%.

The Compounding of Mineral and Inorganic Drugs in Chinese Medicine.

Sci. & Tech. Press, Shanghai, 1962.
Lo Hsiang-Lin (3) @ @H.
Than.? Tai K-2-chou Kuang-Hsiao Ssu
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A~

M G.

The Kuang-Hsiao Temple at Canton during

the Thang period, with reference to SinoIndian Relations.
Chung-kuo Hsiieh-she, Hongkong, 1960.
Lo Tsung-Chen (1) ;BQ E.
Chiangsu I-Hsing Chin Mu Fa-Chceh PUP
Kao ? L % ~ ! % ~ ~ f % ? ~
B).
(with a postscript by Hsia Nai
Report of an Excavation of a Chin Tomb at
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ASICJA, 1957 (no. 4), no. 18,83.
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Rejoinder to Shen Shih-Ying (I).
K K T H , 1963 (no. 3), 165.
L u Khuei-ShCng (I) (ed.) v 9g.
C h u n ~Yao Kho-ZYsiieh Ta Tzhu- Tien
@%fl8ki%$lr-.
Dictionary of Scientific Studies of Chinese
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Shanghai Pub. Co., Hongkong, 1957.
Lung PO-Chien (l) I S.
Hsien Tshun P&-Tshao Shu Lu W *3$

B B.

Bibliographical Study of Extant Pharmacopoeias and Treatises on Natural History

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J&n-min Wei-sh&ng, Peking, 1957.
Ma Chi-Hsing (a) ,E@B.
Sung-Tai-ti Jen Thi Chieh Phou Thu

%&!XJAE!MZ!II;~B.

On the Anatomical Illustrations of the Sung

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ISTC, 1957, 8 (no. 2), 125.
43 E @.
Maeno Naoaki (l)
Meikai Yuka X 8 B E .
On the Journey into Hell [critique of
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C m ,1961, 14,38; 15, 33.
Abstr. RBS, 1968, 7,no. 636.
Mao Phan-Lin (l) % # H.
Ed. & comm. Huai Nun Wan Pi Shu (qv.).
In Lung Chhi Ching Shih Tshung-Shu

%$%@.

Collection from the Dragon Pool Studio.

Ed. Cheng Kuo-Hslin
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c. 1821.
Masuda Tsuna (1) B Efl
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Kod6 Zuroku
@
Illustrated Account of the (Mining,) Smelting
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Tr. in CRRR, 1840, 9, 86.
Masutomi Kazunosuke (1) %$
2
Shasain Yakubutsu o Chiishin to suru Kodai
Sekiyaku no K m k y ~ E$$
40
2 -? 5 &4'cEEo7ifF32.
A study of Ancient ,Mineral D r u p based on
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Nihon Kabutsu shumi no Kai, Kyoto, 1957.
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Jiien to Ninjin to Chdbi &,% t h E
E.
% ~ On Turkestan salt, Ginseng and Sable Furs.
S W 1957,66,49.
Mei Jung-Chao ( l )
H.
WOKuo ti-i p& Wei-chi-f& HsGh h' i-p&;
' Tai Wei Chi Shih Chi' Chhu Pan I Pai
C ~ ONien
U
%Fi!ZI%-*@%@~~

mm

a.

m.

S*;'.ft6!4f%E@~lB8ZdB-E44.

The Centenary of the First Translation into

Chinese of a book on Analytical Geometry and Calculus; (Li Shan-Lan's
translation of EIias Loomis).
KHSC, 1960,3, 59.
Abstr. RBS,1968, 7,no. 747.
MCng Nai-Chhang (1)
fi 3.
Ki~nn-yiiChunpKuo Lien-Tan-Shu C h q
Hsiuo-Suan-ti Ying Yung R
%

fi%~rfrhfli'??l%I'TB].

!+

On the (Possible) Applications of Nitric

Acid in (Mediaeval) Chinese Alchemy.
W C , 1966, 9, 24.

41 3

B I B L I O GR A P H Y B
Michiita Ryahti (l)
W be B.
Chngoku B u k b a no Kishin I+

mB

B@.
The' Gods and Spirits' in Chinese Buddhism.
IBK, 1962.10.486.
Abstr. RBS, 1969, 8, no. 700.
Mikami, Yoshio (16) EL
Shim no Muki Snnnri ni Kmtsunr Chirhiki
noHajime B3i3nX@E!tRKHf b

*.

MRnBn.
Le Premier Savoir des Acides Inorganiquen

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Abstr. -S,
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&&&kE%&.
A Historv of Korean Medicine and of
Diseases in Korea.
Sakai, Osaka, 1962.
Miki Sakae (2) f 9.
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i%%t!t%BBEiS%tt9IdFR.
A Systematic History of World Medicine;
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KuanKhukPicn XRS.
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Miyagawa Torao et al. (1) g Jl]B B .
Chhangshu Kanbo no Kiseki; Ymigam Tai
HouFuJmnoSekai g @ g g ~ ' t ; f
W; A ad: R Z i @ & E k A ~ f l t S
Marvellous Relics from a Han Tomb; the
World of the Resurrected Lady of Tai.
S H A 1972 ( e P J )no. ~ I O .
Other important picture also in AGR 1972,
z < Aun.
~ i y a a h i k~aGur6(l) g -f; E
Kanyakii, ShfLteki no Yakushi-gaku teki
KmkVn ,23e@3%Zi0S3fiQtt9?iFFR.
A Historical-Pharmaceutical Study of the
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Miyashita Sabur6 (2) B 7
Senroku-jffichi-rmni Chin Katru ga Seka
shita Sei-hwummzai ni tsuite
3
%K&#71:a&
L LB&**e'/K

m.

m.

--

L8

-c.

On the Preparation of 'Autumn Mineral'

[Steroid Sex Hormones from Urine] by
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NIZ, 1965, 11(no. z), I.
Mizuno Seiichi (3) fi E
Indai Seidb B u n k no KnJrvn $Q R W R

-.

?c 4t; 0 R 92.

FPm~O)~A;#Qit;b3.0,H~.

On the Irnmortalsof Chinese(Taoism);a Study

en Chine.
YID 1931, I (no. 1). 95.
Miki Sakae (l)
9.
Chasm Igakushi oyobi Shippeishi

*m.

JosIntroduction to the Special Number of

Nihon Ishigaku Zasshi (Journ. Jap. Soc.
Hist. of Med.) on the Model. Human
Viscera in the Cavity of the Statue of
Sakyamuni (Buddha) at the Seiriyaji
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Murakami Yoshimi (3) +jh E X.
Chiigoktr no S m i n ; Hdbokushi no Shisa

Researches on the Bronze Culture of the

Shang
- (Yin)
.
. Period.
Kyoto, 1953.
Monta Kamon (I)
l)? pq.

Nakajima Satoshi (l) I+

Shim m' okeru ,%shiki

B.
Shadaha no Kigen

3WKEK6%2CJtk%+&~E%?.
The Origins and Development of the \Vet
Method for Copper Production in China.
In Miscellany of Oriental Studies presented
to Prof. Kata Gen'ichi, Tokyo 1950,

~EBZkB~~.SR*Ee3%%.

Also TYG,1945, 27 (no. 3).

Nakao, Manza (l) @ B E S.
Shokuryd-honsd no Kdsatsu

g,o

% ft.

A Study of the [Tunhuang MS. of the] Shih

Liao Pkr Tshao (Nutritional Therapy;
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SSIP, 1930, I (no. 3).
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Sekai K w a g a h h i .tt4 R 4C @t E.
General History of Chemistry.
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Rev. M. Muccioli, A, 1928, g, 379.
'

dbuchi Ninji (I) A HE W.

Ddky6-shi no K m k w
& n8
Researches on the History of Taoism and
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Okayama, 1964.
Ogata Kaan (1) t;8 fi 2% E.
Byagaku T m o n
@ l.
Survey of Pathology (after Christopher
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Ogata Kaan ( 2 ) R ;fi iff;RE.
Httshi Keiken Ikun
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MrHu's(Christopher Hufeland's) Well-tested
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Tokyo, 1857.
Ogata Tamotsu (I) /1\
R.
Wapa Kuni Sokushinbutnr seinntsuni Kmu~c
shommdai %2161IJ&Bii!Z1!cTcIf

e.

.s%P4B.

".

The Self-Mummified Buddhas of Tanan.,and

Several (Anatomical). Questions
concerning them.
NDI (Spec. N 0.),1962 (no. IS), 16, with 8 pls.

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Sung I-chhicn I Chi Khao SR H B @ %.
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JCn-min Wei-sheng, Peking, 1958.
Okanishi Tarneto (4)
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Tan Fang chih Yen-Chiu f i 3 2 @f%.
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Okanishi Tameto (5)
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Chhung Chi 'Hsin Hsiu P& Tshao' E
'-%JftE*f
JNewly Reconstituted Version of the New
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PH

G\@.

An Index to the Taoist Patrology.

Harvard-Yenching, Peiping, 1935.
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Chung-Kuo Kung Chhm Chih Lfieh

%&3?&.

I+a

The Mineral Reaoums of China (Metals

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N.
Industrial Arts and Technology in (Old)
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Pa Tzu-Yuan (I) (ed.) E M.

TanlSanChium PfA3%.
Three Books of Draft Memoranda on
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Wei Shng Yao Shu &l Lk 381 1.
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Pi Li-Kan (Billequin, M. A.)
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ChhCng Lin R B & Wang ChungHsiang 5 @R S (1).
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Hua-Hsiieh Shun Yuan
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Thung Wen Kuan, Peking, 1882.

& It6
Richie, Donald 'F + IV l.' 9 f
Kenkichi (I) = (I) @ B g 9.
Danioz6 B&?%.

Images of the Male and Female Sexes

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Zufushinsha, Tokyo, 1967.
(1) B FP R.
T6 Inkyo Shaden; Sono Senjutru o tsy'ite
mita Honz6gaku to Senyaku to no Kankn'

~ ~ E I J \ ~ ; + o ~ ~ & % ~ ~

?C*BbtABk OM#.

A Biography of Thao Hung-Ching; his

Knowledge of Botany and Medicines of
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Art. in Wada Hakase Koki Kinen Teashi
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Sawa Ryilken (l) 2 B$ R.
Nihon Mikky6, sono TnJun' to Bijutnr

a%EW*oEBtz%.

Esoteric (Tantric) Buddhism in Japan; itu

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NHK, Tokyo, 1966, repr. 1971.
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~&kemEfiar4B.

Notes on the Chemical Composition of the

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Ku-Tai Kho-Chi Shih Wu Ssu Khao
R

H2%S@es%.

Four Notes on Ancient Scientific Technology; ( a ) Ceramic objects for medical

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Q.
Daki Hy6 Shaka
# rb %.
A Brief Study of the 'Daki' [Numr ChA,7
Temperature Stabiliser (used in breweries
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MOULA. ser. B, 1963 (no. 12). 217.
Shinoda Osamu (a)
B1 R.
Chircei no Sake
$1- 0
Wine-Making in Medieval (China and
Japan).

a.

4I5

BIBLIOGRAPHY B
Shinoda Osamu (a) (cmt.)
Art. in Yabuuchi Kiyoshi (as), p. 321.
Su Fen
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Txhu-Hang Fa Shih Phu-Sa Ssu Pu Hsiu

#i,%&bfi?%Ra$%.

Longevi@ and Immortality and the Plccepts for Lmgthming the Life-Span. [The

former work is that previously entitled

Thai-I Chin Hua Tswq Chih (q.v.) and
the latter is that previously entitled
Tsui-Shang I Chhhg Hui Ming Ching
(q:v.).l
Pe~pmg,1921 (the edition used by Wilhelm
& Jmg, I).
Thang Yung-Thung
& Thang I-Chieh

The Self-Mummification of the Abbot and

Bodhisattva, Tzhu-Hang (d. 1954).
CJFC, 1959 (no. 27), pp. 15, 21, etc.
Su Ying-Hui ( l ) B g B.
Lun ' W u Ld Hsiang Kan C M ' chih TsoChhhSlrih-Tai !%'&R#l%,d~;;4#

l$! 3i It.

On the Time of Completion of the Mutual

Responses of Things according to their
Categ&es.
T L T C 1970, 40 (no. 10).
9L.
Su Ying-Hui (2)
' W u Lei Hsiang Kan Chih' F& Chiian YenKO Khao-Liieh r&
$j
,g,gJ$3B

S%%.

A Study of the Transmission of the Mutual

Responses of Things according to their
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Numbering of its Chapters.
K K T S , 1970, I (no. 2), 23.
Sun FCng-I (I)
7,g E.
Ed. & comm. Huai van Wan Pi Sha (q.v.).
In W& Ching T/mng Tshung-Shu
@2

%@if).

Collection from the Hall of Questioning the

Classics.
1797 to I 802.
Sun Tso-Yiin (l)
+$B.
S h o Yii Jen
A.
On the Feathered and Winged Immortals
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L S Y K K , 1948.

Takeuchi Yoshio (I) A

S.
Shinten Setsu H 3.
The Holy Immortals (a study of ancient
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Tokyo, 1935.
Taki Mototane (l) 3 #EZ I.
I Chi Khao (Iseki-ka)
pet %.
Comprehensive Annotated Bibliography of
Chinese Medical Literature (Lost or
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c. +1825, pr. 1831.
Repr. Tokyo, 1933, and Chinese-Western
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Takizawa Bakin (I) R 7% ,Ej
Kinsei-setsu Bishanen-roku Z B

z.

q6%.

Modem Stories of Youth and Beauty.

Japan (Yedo), c. 1820.
Tan Jan-Hui (1) (ed.) E M S.
'Chhang S h h g S h ' , 'Hsii Ming Fang' Ho
Khan '4% 4 MJ'
B 13 7%
A Joint Edition of the Art and Mysiny of

B-*.

(1)

Khou Chhien-Chih ti Chu-Tso yii SsuH h g %%&i%%f"F$$,RE.

On the Doctrines and Writings of (the

Taoist reformer) Khou Chhien-Chih (in
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LS'YC, 1961, 8 (no. 5). 64.
Abstr. R B S , 1968, 7, no. 659.
Ting Hsii-Hsien (I) T R.
Hua Hsiieh Shih Thung Khao it; R

33 %.

A General Account of the History of

Chemistry.
2 vols., Com. Press, Shanghai, 1936, repr.
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Ting Wei-Liang (Martin, W. A. P.) (I)

T :P

B.

K O W u J u M&
F7.
An Introduction to Xatural Philosophy.
Thung Wen Kuan, Peking, 1868.
Ting Wen-Chiang (I) T ff E.
Biography of Sung Ying-Hsing % B E
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In the Hsi Yung Hsilan Tshung-Shu f
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Tada Kybshun (1) B
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Shina Jadokya ni okerzr Zuichiku YU.0
Setsu no seiritsu Katei ni tsuite v rl- rt:

% K % V 3R%%E!@~20&&%&~
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On the Origin of the Invocation to the

25 Bodhisattvas for Protection against
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Art. in Tsukamoto Hakase Shbju K h
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%@
g ,S B 8
E 76 g,Kyoto, 1961, p. $02.
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Tokiwa, Daijb (I) #f
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Outline of Taoism.
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BB R

E 3.

General Sketch of the Development of

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T Y G , 1921, 11(no. 2). 243.

B I B L I O G RAPHY B

416

Tseng Chao-Lun ( l )
M#
The Translations of the Chiangnan Arsenal
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T&ng Chao-Lun (a)
flB M.
Chung Wai Hua-Hsileh Fa-Chan K m Shu

G fi4L*BR&i?tl.
Chinese and Western Chemical Discoveries;
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TFTC, 1953, 40 (no. 18). 33.
Tstng Chao-Lun (3)
flB M.
Erh-shih Xien Lai Chung-Kuo Hua-Hsikh
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%E?

Advances in Chemistry in China during- the

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TstngHsi-Shu(1) QsS.
Ssu TIu Ta Tau Tien P9 A
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T d n g Yuan-Jung ( l ) 33%.
Chung-Kuo Yung Hsin chih Chhi- Yuan

a.

GrnH@~Bi%.

Some Considerations and Renearchea on the

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I n Man-Sen Chiri Rekishi Kmkyn Hdkoku

%k%H!.%KER%%3+!?(Research

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Studies in Taoism.
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Tuan Wen-Chieh (I) (ed.) @
,
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Yii Lin Khu
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T h e Frescoes of Yu-lin-khu [i.e. Wan-fohsia, a series of cave-temples in Kansu].
Tunhuang Research Institute, Chung-kuo
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g.
Chhing Thung Chhi MLy Tahu Chieh-Shuo

-a

W%CB:%3Iil%.
An Explanation of the Terninology of
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Origins and Development of Zinc Technology in China [with a dating of the

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' Namban Karoku' to ' Shohanshi' to no
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Clhung-Kuo Tso Chiu Hua-Hsikh Shih-Lko
M R.
On the Records of Perfumes and Incense of
$A*@74t;Q!5%+the Southern Barbarians [by Yeh ThingMaterials for the History of Fermentation
Kuei, c. I I 501 and the Records of
(Wine-making) Chemistry in China.
Foreign Peoples [by Chao Ju-Kua, c. 1250,
HZTC, 1922, 6 (no. 61, I.
for whom it was an important source].
Tshao Yuan-YU (3) # 7t F.
Kiian-yti ThanpTm mei-yu Chhg-Liu Chiu
O U S S , 1962, IS, 133.
ti Wh-thi M3=~fZRi%!?f2T~H~P9 Abstr. RBS, 1969, 8, no. 183.
Wang Chi-Liang Z d g & Chi Jen-Jun~
691.
- .(I)
On the Question of whether Distilled Alco%Ern%.
Chria-Kuo Hita-Hdeh Chieh chih Kuoholic Liquors were known in the Thang
chhiiyiiwei-Lai F f r ~ + ~ @ % ~ & ~ &
Period.
K H S C , 1963, no. 6, 24.
bT R.
The Past and Future of Chemistry [and
Tsuda S ~ k i c h (a)
i
W S 25 g.
Chemical Industry] in China.
Shinsm Skis6 m kansuru m-sun no Kusatsu
HHSTH, 1942,3.
@ p f h l R B ~ M5
? ==o%s.

e.

e.

a.

4I7

BIBLIOGRAPHY B
Wang Chi-Wu (I) 3 X .
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B4 H &2*&!f?.
A History of the Relations and Connections
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Com. Pr., Thaiwan, 1965 (Chng-Kuo
W&-Hua Shih Tshung-Shu ser.).
Wang Chin ( l ) 5
Chung-Kuo chih Kho-Hsiieh SW-Hsiang

a.

@ka&H@R7E.
On (the History of) Scientific Thought in
China.
Art. in Kho-Hnleh Thung Lun (H 3

28).

Wang Chin (7) 3 @.

Chung-Km Ku-Tai Chiu-Ching Fa-Chiao
Yehchihipan * a g R a @ B A g

t4P%f.
A Brief Study of the Alcoholic Fermentation
Industry in Ancient (and medieval)
China.
KHS, 1921, 6 (no. 3), 270.
Wang Chin ( 8 ) 4 B.
Chung-Km Ku-Tai Thao Yeh chih KhoHsiiehKuan i+tB,itl?ri(t'RR&#a

a.

Scientific Aspects of the Ceramics Industry

in Ancient China.
KFIS. 1921, 6 (no. g), 869.
Wang Chin (g) S S .
Chung-Kuo Huang Thung Yeh chih Chhiion
Sh& Shih-Chhi FP E4 B #
34
l2 f P

Sci. Soc. of China, Shanghai, 1934.

Orig. pub. K H S , 1922, 7 (no. IO), 1022.
Wang Chin (2) (ed.) 3.B.
Chung-Kuo Ku-Tai Chin-Shu Hua-Hsiieh chi
ChinTanShu $kil?!i+t4Bit;$R
%%l.
On the Date of Full Development of the
62 P)M.
Chinese Brass Industry.
Alchemy and the Development of Metallurgical Chemistry in Ancient and MediKHS, 1925, 10,495.
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Wang Chin (I 0) 4 B.
Chung-kuo Kho-hsiieh Thu-shu I-chhi
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HsiiehKuan ~ ~ l Q ~ ~ B & # p B
Wang Chin (3) 4 iB
Scientific Aspects of the Raw Materials of
Chung-Km Ku-Tai Chin Shu Yuan C M
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chih Hua-Hsiieh I+
R Z& R R
K H S , I 932, 16 (no. z), 163.
2.Z 4k @.
WangChin(11) 3%.
T h e Chemistry of Metallurgical Operations
Chung-Kuo Ku-Tai Hua-Hsiieh ti Chhkrgin Ancient and Medieval China [smeltchiu rPEi&&4t;@fY~&M.
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Wang Chin (l 2) 3 B .
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K O Hung i-chhien chih Chin Tan Shih LCeh
Chung-Kuo Ku-Tai Chin Shu Hua Ho Wu
2%BlAEJir;;48;1P)!e@.
chihHuaHseh *EA&R414f;$.&
A Historical Survey of Alchemy before KO
2 4t b.
The Chemistry of Compounds containing
Hung (c. 300).
Metal Elements in Ancient and Medieval
HITC, 1935, 14,145, 283.
China.
Wang Hsien-Chhien (3) 3 X 3.
K H S , 1920, S (no. 7), 672; repr. in Wang
Shih Ming Su Ch&g Pu BGWern.
Revised and Annotated Edition of the
Chin (2). p. 10.
[Han] Explanation of Names [dictionary].
Wang Chin (S) E
W u Shu CUn'm Hua-Hsileh C--F&
chi
Peking, 1895.
Ku-Tai Ying- Yung ClIhim Hsi Hsin Ln
Wang Khuei-Kho (I) (tr.) 3 3
Khao 552%$3!4L~Iifi5FW2i1'CAH
San-shih-liu Shui-Fu-Chung-Kuo Ku Tai
Kuan-yii Shui Jung I ti I Chung Tsao
$b"?%$$%%.
Chhi Lien Tan W& Hsien '=_ 4 h 7k
An Investigation of the Ancient Technology of Lead, Tin, Zinc and la, together
~FF~S#~ME&B#M-%@
with Chemical Analyses of the Five-Shu
#m!3!??Pf&k.
Coins [of the Han and subsequent
The Thirty-six Methods of R r i n ~ n gSolids
into Agtreous Solution--an Early Chinese
periods].
Alchemical Contribution to the Problem
K H S , 1923, 8 (no. g), 839; repr. in Wang
of Dissolving (Mineral Substances), [a
Chin (z), p. 39.
partial translation of Tshao Thien-Chhin,
Wang Chin (6) E
Ho Ping-Yii & Needham, J. (I).]
Chuq-Kuo Thung Ho Chin m'chih Nieh
FPM~*&~&@.
KHSC, 1963, 5, 67.
On the Chinese Copper Alloys containing
Wang Khuei-Kho (2) E 33.
Chung-Kuo Lim-Tan-Shu Chung ti Chin-I
Nickel [paktong] etc.
KHS,1929, 13, 1418; abstr. in LVang Chin
ho Hua-Chhih + ~ @ ! P ) # + B t J Z & ~
( 2 ) . P. 91.
%Silk.

a.

z.

a.

418

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Wang Khuei-Kho (a) (cont.)

'Potable Gold' and Solvents (for Mineral
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KHSC, 1964,7, 53.
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' Thai Phing Ching' Ho Chiao 'Alp tJ

m,.

a.

A Reconstructed Edition of the Canon of the

Great Peace (and Equality).
Chung-Hua, Peking and Shanghai, 1960.
Wang ~ i n (g)
g 3
' Chou I Tshan Thuna Chhi' Khao Chhra
rEl%~rn*J%-3.
A Critical Study of the Kinship of the
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Wang Ming ( 4 ) 3
'Huang Thing Ching' K h o
B SJ%.
A Study on the Mamcals of the Yellow
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ASIBIHP, 1gq8,zoA.
Wang Ming (5) 3 U.
' Thai Phing Ching' Mu Lu Khao

.-

m.

a,w &a.

A Studv of the Contents Tables of the

C& of the Great Peace (and Equality).
W S , 1965, no. 4, 19.
Wang Tsu-Yuan (l) 3ilflB,.
Nei Kung Thu Shuo m H B.
Illustrations and Explanations of Gymnastic Exercises [based on an earlier
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1881.
Modem reprs. Jen-min Wei-sheng,
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1962.
Wang Yeh-Chhiu, 5 B R Wang Chung-Shu E
#$9g&HsiaNai(1)
Xs.
Bunka Dai-Kakwnei-Kikan Shutsudo Bumbutsu T m a n ?C 4k 9i tfa M P
d ft) &

*rnE%.

Articles to accompany the Exhibition of

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Great Cultural Revolution.
K, 1971 (no. IO), 31, with colour-plates.
Watanabe Kaza ( 1 )
S S 3.
Genzai sum Chiigoku Kinsei made no Goad
Rokufu Zu no Gaisetsu W ;B P 5 FP H

Zfk%T~ZBAR?B~#%%

General Remarks on (the History of) Dissection and Anatomical Illustration in

China.
NIZ, 1956, 7 (nos. 13). 88.
Watanabe Kaza (a)
3Z .
Seiryaji Shaka Tainai Go26 no Kaib&
gakuteki KenRyfi 79. i% 3 f-3 a% F9

x%o K38@&&8%.

An Anatomical Study (of Traditional

Chinese Medicine) in relation to the

Visceral Models in the Sakyarnuni Statue
at the Seiryaji Temple (at Saga, near
Kyoto).
NIZ, 1956, 7 (n-. 1-31. 30.
Wei Yuan (l) E%-@.
S ~ W u C h ilZR.
Records of the Warrior Sages [a history of
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emperors].
1842.
Wen I-To (3)
Shen Hua yii Shih
A R.
Religion and Poetry (in Ancient Times),
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Peking, I 956 (posthumous).
Wu Chhbng-Lo (a)
$6.
Chung-Kuo Tu Liang H& Shih
E

m--=&.

B@R.

+m

History of Chinese Metrology [weights and

measures].
Com. Press. Shanghai, 1937; and ed.
Shanghai, 1957.
Wu Shih-Chhang ( l )
a.
Mi Tang Su H&g Shuo Liieh B 5 B

i@!8 pl$.

A Brief Discussion of Tanmc (Buddhist)

Images.

APIHJ, 1935, I.
Wu Tb-To (l)
@
B.l
Thang Sung W8n-H& chung Km-yzl
ChZng-Liu Chiu yii Ch&q-Liu Chhi W&thi E % ~ ~ * H T z f ! 3 m a
#K- $FFJ B.
On the Question of Liauor Distillation and
Stills in the ~iterstu; of the Thang
and Sung Periods.
KHSC, 1966, no. 9,53.
Yabuuchi Kiyoshi (11) (ed.) iEfi
' Tmka Kaibutnr ' no Kenkya
0

H%.

B.
'RX efA @,I

A Study of the Thkn Kung Khai Wu

(Exploitation of the Works of Nature,
f 1637).
Japanese translation of the text, with
annotative essays by several hands.
K~seisha,Tokyo, 1953.
Rev. Yang Lien-Sheng, HJAS, 195417,
307.
English translation of the text (sparingly
annotated). See Sun & Sun (I).
Chinese translations of the eleven essays:
(a) ' Thien Kung Khai Wu' chih Yen-Chiu
by Su Hsiang-Yii %Ff; $&5 et al.
Tshung-Shu Wei Yuan Hui, Thaiwan,
and Chi-ShCng, Hongkong, 1956
(b) ' Thien Kung K h a TVu' Yen-Chiu Wkt
Chi by Chang Hsiung
fig & Wu
Chieh W#.
Com. Press, Peking, 1961.

z~

BIBLIOG
Yabuuchi Kiyoshi (25) (ed.) ifl @.
Chagoku Chzak Kagaku Gijutsushi no
KenkVn + ~ + F P H ~ R N R 3
Studies in the History of Science and Technology in Medieval China [a collective
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Kadokawa Shoten (for the Jimbun Kagaku
Kenkyusa), Tokyo, 1963.
E.
Yarnada Keiji (I) & W
'Butsurui sdkun shi' no sein'tsu '& g ,S

.g,0 E &.

The Organisation of the Book W u Lci

Ifiang Kan Chih (Mutual Responses of
Things according to their Categories).
S B K , 1965, 13,305.
Yamada Keiji (a)
!3j
E.
Chlisei no Shizen-kan
& 0 Q ff..
T h e Naturalism of the (Chinese) Middle
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Art. in Yabuuchi (25), pp. 55-1 10.
Yamada Kentara (1) I4 H E
3 OK.
Tmai K6yakushi
@jg
R.
A History of Perfumes, Incense, Aromatics
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Tokyo, 1958.
Yamada Kentar6 (2) & B3 B A BB.
Karya no Rekishi
S 0 R.
History of Perfumes, Incense and Aromatics.
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14).
Yarnada Kentara (3) & S kF;f; l.
Ogawa KO-ryb Jihb /]l Jl l ?#3
l@
News from the Ogawa Company; A History
of the Incense, Spice and Perfume
Industry (in Japan).
Ogawa & Co. (pr. pr.). Osaka, 1948.
Yamada Kentar0 ( 4 ) I4 W S ;k
Tda K&ryOshi E X i s s Q .
A History of Incense, Aromatics and Perfumes in East Asia.
T o y ~ t e n Tokyo,
,
1942.
Yamada Kentara (5)
H S l.
Chffgokuno Ansoku-k~to Sky6 no Benzoin
to no Genva.
Bl !E ,g, 75 2O X Y Y 4 Y 2 0 r n .
A Study of the Introduction of an-hn'
hsiang (gum guggul, bdellium) into China,
and that of gum benzoin into Europe.
S B , 1951 (no. z), 1-36.
Yamada Kentar0 (6) & EB %A BK.
Chffseino Chugokujin to Arabiajin ga Shitte
ita Ryan6 no Sanshutsuchi toku ni
Ba'tsu (no) Kuni ni tsuite
B0

m m

a.

m.

A k r trrhd:%Iz,-Cv\2FiE

0StIjktb2 ( k B @ r n K 9 r - C
On the knowledge which the Medieval
Chinese and Arabs possessed of Baros
camphor (from Dryobalanops aromatica)
and its Place of Production, Borneo.
N Y G D R , 1966 (no. S), I.

Yamada Kentar6 (7) & El S ;k BB.

RyunO-R6 (Sono Shahinshi-teki Kgsatsu)
~ % . %%3%(?0BrGE!YJ%E)
A Study of Borneo or Baros camphor
(from Dryobalanups aromatica),and the
History of the Trade in it.
N Y G D R , 1967 (no. 10). 19.
Yamada Kentar0 (8)
H S A BB.
Chin sunawachi KO
f yz 'rb> B.
On the 'Sinking Aromatic' (garroo wood,
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NYGDR, 1970,7 (no. I), I.
Yang Chhitng-Hsi (I) et al. B R R.
Hu-Pei Thung Chih $$j i t .S.
Historical Geography of Hupei Province.
1921.
Yang Ken (I) B S .
Chin Tm' Lii Thung ho-chin-ti Chien-Ting
chi chhi Yeh-Lien Chi-Shu-ti Chhu-Pu
Than-Thao 5R&ESWe&$9f%&W

#&%@?R#ib9aii?i%~3.

An Aluminium-Copper Alloy of the Chin

Dynasty ( 265 to +qzo) ; its Determination and a Preliminary Study of the
Metallurgical Technology (which it
Implies).
ASICJA, 1959 (no. 4), no. 26, 91.
Eng. tr. by D. Bryan (unpub.) for the
Aluminium Development Association,
1962.
Cf. Lo Tsung-Chen (I); Shen ShihYing (l).
Yang Lieh-Yii (I) B
Chung-Km Ku- Tai Lao- Tung Jm-Min ism
Chin-Shu chi Ho-Chin Ying- Yung-shngtiChhhg-Chiu +m&.ft;-g;iBhE;12

a+.

&ME+?&EH&i%&H.
Ancient Chinese Achievements in Practical
Metal and Alloy Technology.
KHTP, 1955.5 (no. 10),77.
Yang Lien-Sh&ng (2)
m E.
Tao Chiao chih Tau-POyu Fo Chiao chih
Tau-Phu j X & % B t % W B i 3 k 2 t E
Penitential Self-Flagellation, Violent Prostration and similar practices in Taoist and
Buddhist Religion.
Art. in Tsukamoto Hakase Shbju Kinen
Rukky6shigaku Ronshu (Tsukamoto
Festschrift),
% @ N ?3W ,3B &
ff e3r_ $
: I.
Kyoto, 1961, p. 962.
Abstr. RBS, 1968, 7, no. 642.
Also ASIBIHP, 1962, 34, 275; abstr. in
R B S , 1969, 8, no. 740.
Yang Ming-Chao (I) .# H.
Critical Notes on the Pao Phu T m
book.
BCS, 1944~4.
Yang PO-Chiin (I) B 4$ R .
Liieh T h WO-Kuo Shih-Chi s h g kuanyii Shih Thi Fang-Fu-ti Chi-Tsai ho
Mu-zcang-tui I-hao Hun-Mu Mu-Chu
W&-Thi %R%E'4RBIfHF?PB

420

BIBLIOG

Yang PO-Chun (I) (cont.)

Alchemy (and Early Chemistry in China

~ R t E i 8 E $ ! t ~ ~ E # E - - ~ S W ~ and
S Japan).

P4 B.

A Brief Discussion of Some Historical Texts

concerning the Preservation of Human
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connection with the Han Burial in Tomb
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W W T K , 1972 (no. g), 36.
Yang Shih-Thai (I)
@ S.
P& Tshao Shu Kou Yuan
% &f Z.
Essentials Extracted from the Explanations
of Materia Medica.
Pref. 1833, first pr. 1842.
LPC, no. 108.
Yeh T&-Hui (I) (ed.) $i;i #2 W .
Shuang Mci Ching An Tshung Shu 1Lg ;raf

Chaa Karonsha, Tokyo, 1963.

Yoshida Mitsukuni (7)
% 3.
Chugoh Kagaku-gtjutsu-shi Ronshil

bBZEl95.

Fifl %P.

Collected Essavs on the History of Science

and ~ e c h n o i in
o ~China.
~
Tokyo, 1972.
Yoshioka Yoshitoyo (I) g A S B.
Da%a Kn'ten Shiron g ft @ R M.
Studies on the History of the Canonical
Taoist Literature.
Dakya Kankakai, Tokyo, 1955, repr. 1966.
Abstr. R B S , 1957, I, no. 415.
Yoshioka Yoshitoyo (a)
g.
Sho T6 m okeru Butsu-DOIionsd no ichi
Shiry6, 'D6ky6 Gisn ' no seiritsu m tsuite

F9f 2% S.

The Tao Chiao I Shu (Basic Principles of

Taoism, by M&ngAn-Phai k B,
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between Buddhism and Taoism at the
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Yoshioka Yoshitoyo (3)
fBa
Eiseieno Nagm'Dbky6
0
I,,%

S R E! m*IBM53EEE#E%.

Taoism; the Quest for Material Immortality

and its Origins.
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YtS Chia-Hsi (I) $? X5; &.
Ssu Khu Thi Yao Pien Chhg Pg B %!

Double Plum-Tree Collection [of ancient

and medieval books and fragments on
Taoist sexual techniques].
Contains Su Nii Ching (incl. H&
Nzi
Ching), Tung Hsiian T m , Yii Fang Chih
Yao, Yii Fang Pi Chiieh, Thien T i Yin
Yang T a IA Fu, etc. (qq.~.).
Chhangsha, 1903 and 1914.
Yeh T&-Hui( 2 )
@, B.
Ed. & comm. Huai Nun Wan Pi Shu (q.v.).
In K w n Ku Thang So Chu Shu @ 2
Writings from the Hall of Pondering
Antiquity.
Chhangsha, 1919.
Yen Tun-Chieh ( S O ) B*@.
Chung-Kuo Ku-Tai Tzu-Jan Kho-Hsiieh
ti Fa-Chan chi chhi CM&-Chiu

T h e Development and Achievements of the

Chinese Natural Sciences (down to 1840).
K H S C , 1969, I (no. 3), 6.
Yen Tun-Chieh (21) E ?&E.
Hsii K m g - C h h i @ % B.
A Biography of Hsu Kuang-Chhi.
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Yin Shih Tzu fAj 4.
See Chiang Wei-Chhiao.
Yoshida Mitsukuni (2)
H% R
' Tenka Kaibutsu' no Seirm Shuxa Gijutsu
r ~ ~ p f a ~ ~
Metallurgy in the Thien Kung Khai W u
(Exploitation of the Works of Nature,
+ 1637).
Art. in Yabuuchi Kiyoshi (II), p. 137.
Yoshida Mitsukuni ( 5 )
8.
ChaJk no Kagaku (Rentan-jitsu) to Smjitsu

~saBi5f;:mi.

rp tD ~ t ' ~ ~ ~ Ir ~ !l4 3 #.R i )

Chemistry and Alchemy in Medieval China.
Art. in Yabuuchi (25), p. zoo.
Yoshida Mitsukuni (6)
EEj 96.
Rmki+tsu
(An Introduction to the History of)

a42.

a @ f r $ 3 va B i B % % ~ - R s
'%&Srn,
o B&

7 L-

-c.

2%.

@?B.

A Critical Study of the Annotations in the

'Analytical Catalogue of the Complete
Library of the Four Caetgories (of

Literature) '.
1937.
9Pl
YU Fei-An (I)
Chung-Kuo Hua Yen-S-ti Ym-Chiu

m.

RE-WBMR??.

+m

A Study of the Pigments Used by Chinese

Painters.
Chao-hua Mei-shu, Peking, 1955, 1957.
Yli Yun-Hsiu (I)
g
Ku-tai Chi-% Ming Hou S u I 8 R E

m.

R%E%S.

Explanations of the Nomenclature of

Diseases in Ancient Times.
Jen-min Wei-sh&ng. Shanghai, 1953.
Rev. Nguyen Tran-Huan, W,1956, g, 275.
Yuan Han-Chhing (I) R% v.
Chung-Kuo Hua-Hsiieh Shih Lun W& Chi

@A4C%B:st!?ZB.

Collected Papers in the History of Chemistry

in China.
San-Lien, Peking, 1956.

ADDENDA T O BIBLIOGRAPHY B
Anon. (196).
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r'q fSi ,%W L)? tR E M ft.
A Brief study of Four Lost Ancient Medical
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Mu-wang-tui Han Mu Chhu Thu I Shu Shih
W ? n ( p t . ~ ) 4f.ftf.iSF%Wrt-WEAX
A Transcription of Some of the Medical Texts
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Anon. (I*)
Mu-wang-tui San Hao Mu PO Hua Tao-Yun
Thu ti Chhu Pu Yen-Chiu .% Z ftf: Y f ++ S 8

~j?C51BlIO+JlP6fR
Preliminary Investigations of the Text and
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( - 168)-with
drawing.
WWTK,1975. (no. 6). no. 229, 6.
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Mu-wang-tui Hun Mu Chhu Thu I Shu
Shih W i n (pt. 2) .#: 3 iff. i9f W _f-. P iC m ft
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Chhangsha Mu-wang-tui Erh, San,Id" Hun
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i%C@fir:MAjE
Brief Preliminary Report on the Excavation
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Anon. ( z o ~ )(, 4 . )
Mu-wag-tui Han Mu PO Shu Ku Ti-thu
L m WinChi .5Eftf:R~R1iFt!i~BlS

2%
Discussion (with Facsimile Reproductions)
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W i n W u and Hsin-Hua, Peking, 1977
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Anon. (206)
Thiai Chhi Wai Tan Thu W k fi f;f 81
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Pao Chim An-MO A ff8 % @
Hygienic and Therapeutic (Self-)Massage.
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Chou Chhien-Chhuan ( I ) IA] ift Ill
Chhi Kung Yao Erh Liao Fa C h h m Shu
3.Ifi d e4 M iik; '6 3
Systematic Treatise on Respiratory
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Chung I-Yen & Ling Hsiang ( I ) Plt M 6f iL 81
W OKuo Hsien I Fa-Hsien-ti Tsui Ku I
Fang-PO Shu 'Wu-shih-erh Ping Fang' fi m

r#e%r#w~fit;&h:
&g 'fi+Z3~
The Oldest Chinese Work on Therapeutics,
the 'Book of Fifty-two Diseases' now
discovered as a Silk Manuscript (in Tomb
No. 3 at Ma-wang-tui, dating from - 168).
W W T K , 1975 (no. g), no. 232, 49.
Fujiyoshi Jikai ( I ) # :i .E i8f
Z a z m to Zabd ni tsuite 4? W t: ,B I: 7 :,L 7
On 'DhyPna sitting' and 'Sitting in
forgetfulness' (Buddhist and Taoist
Meditation).
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Jao Tsung-I (3) R b Ei
Huang-erh Chiu Chieh yQ San Ho I E R h
94 -:fi&
The Ideas of the 'Nine Precepts of the
Hsiang Erh Book' and the 'Triple Harmony.'
CHJIT 1964, 4 (no. 2), 76.
Abstr. RBS 1973. 10, no. 764.
Ku ChBng-Hua ( I ) 6 E S
Pa Tuan Chin yil Liu Tuan Kung 11 W $8 W
F;

P2 m

The Eight Elegant Physical Exercises

[of Chungli Chhiian] and the Six
Meritorious Movements.
I-Mei, Hongkong, 1974.
Li Hsin-Hua ( I ) % $6 1
W OKuo Ku-Tai-ti Ytli Fang I HMeh
fiRFf;tt#~Kib)jR+
On Ancient Chinese Preventive Medicine.
SHIY, 1958 (no. I), 6.
M h g Nai-Chhang (2) & 75 P,
Chhui Shih Shih I; Kuan-yti Chung-Kuo
Ku-Tai Sui Tsai-Thi Chi-Su Chih-Chi-ti Chih
Liieh $ k l i X , & :
M f + m k R B # W & % A%l13%lR

422

ADDENDA T O B I B L I O G R A P H Y B

A Critical Study of 'Autumn Mineral'; on

Urinary Steroid Hormones in Ancient and
Medieval China.
TJKHSYC 1982, I (no. 4). 289.
Ni Chhing-Ho ( I ) 1X M .W
Hsien Chia Chhang Shhg Shu;fu, Chm-I
Tao Jen Ta W2n ~ I Llr Zf ?k :.F : R
tAKr.4
The Prolongevity Arts of the Schools of
the Immortals; with an Appendix,
the Questions and Answers of
the Taoist Chen-I.
Ch-shan-mei, Hongkong, 1968, v.
1975.
Sung Ta-Jen (6) X k
Chung-Kuo I Yao Pa Chieh m u FP R B I A
B88
Paintings of Eight Heroes of Chinese
Medicine and Pharmacy.
Shanghai Gastro-Intestinal Hospital,
Shanghai, 1937.
Than8 Lan (3 f3f
Mu-wang-tui PO Shu 'Chhio ku shih chhi'
PhienKhao .%fi#&%
r ' f J I G & l ~% d

A Study of the Tractate on

'Abstaining from Cereals and Imbibing
the Chhi' in the Silk Manuscripts
movered from Tomb (no. 3) at
Ma-wang-tui ( - 168).
WWTK, 1975. (no. 6). no. 229, 14.
Umezu Jir6 ( I ) &iQkRV
Emukimono S6shi ;M ;BL % S Z.
A Study of Several (Medieval)
Scroll-Paintings.
H6z6kan, Kyoto, 1972.
Wang Chia-Fu ( I ) f X
Tshung Mu-wang-tui san ha0 Han Mu
PO-Hun T ~ oYin
- n u Wun WO-KuoKu-Tai-ti
I-Liao Pao-Chien Thi Tshao Q .% E # Z
+:-, R S m +.a~jImarttn~itmBa
fXBWBFW
The Medical and .Hygienic Physical
Exercises of Chinese Antiquity demonstrated
by the (recently discovered) silk scroll
paintings (and text) in the Han Tomb no. 3
at Ma-wang-tui (- 168).
HTYTC, 1976, no. I (no. 317). 34.

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GENERAL INDEX

(I)Articles (such as 'the', 'al-', etc.) occurring at the h i n n i n p l of an entry, and prefix= (such
as 'de', 'van', etc.) are ignored in the alphabetical sequence. Saints appear among all letters
of the alphabet according to their proper names. Styles such as Mr. Dr, if occurring in book
titles or phrases, are ignored; if with proper names, printed following them.
(2) '177e various parts of hyphenated words are treated as separate words in the alphabet;cal
sequence. It should be remembered that. in accordance with the conventions adopted,
some Chinese proper names are written as separate syllables while others are written as one
word.
(3) In the arrangement of Chinese words, Chh- and Hs- follow normal alphabetical sequence.
and U is treated as equivalent to U .
(4) References to footnotes are not given except for certain special subjects with which the
text does not deal. Thev are indicated by brackets containing the superscript letter of the
footnote.
(5) Explanatory words in brackets indicating fields of work are added for Chinese scientific
and technological persons (and occasionally for some of other cultures), but not for political
or military figures (except kings and princes).

Admonitory Sayings. See Fa Y m

Abdomen, 82,108,109,I ro,I 15,269
anatomv, I I 3
Adrenal cortex, 322
noises in, I 50
Adrenalin-content. 154
region of vital heat in, 38
Adrenals, 301
Yellow Courts in centre of, 75,81
Adsorption and elution techniques, 328
Abdominal cavities, 38-3
Aerophagy, 149-50,182
Abdominal muscles, 269,270,274
Aeschylus, 293
Abdominal pains, 144
Aether, 176
Aberrations, sexual, absence of in Chinese and Taoist
Aetiology, 82
culture, 191(d)
Afghanistan. 284
Ablutio, 10
Agapetae, r 53
Abortifacients, 239
Agastya (magician-alchemist, one of the sittars of
Abrami, Wallich & Bemal (I),270
South India), 285
'Absorbing the chhiof the planets', 143,182
Ageingprocess, 53,123,133,252,
'Absorbing the image of the sun' Cfujih h.Ga,q), 183
amelioration of. 137
'Absorbing the rays of the moon', I 85
arrest and reversal of, 60, 69,107, I 36,288
Absorption, 175
biochemistry of, 292
Academie des Sciences, 16
psychoses of, 3oh
'Achievement of Wisdom and the Lengthening of the
treatments for, 26,27.47.306
Life-Span, The' .See Hui M i w Ching
Agents of Change. See Tsao hua chi
Acids, volatile fatty, 322
Aggregat~on.See Community and aggregation
Actinolite (asbestos tremolite), 226
Aggressiveness. 65,292
Actinotherapy, 3I, 32
sublimation of, 61
Action at a distance, 182
Anhori (ascetics), 278,279,280
Action contrary to nature. See Tien tao
Agrarian matriarchal and communalist society. possAcu-points, I 18,202,264,265,287
ible independent origin of both the Taoist and the
Acupuncture, I 16,309
Yoga-'I'antra-Hathayoga complexes in, 283
Acu-tracts, I 14, I 16,118,202,234,238,254,255,256, Agriculture, I 53
Ahimsa (abstention from hurting or killing any living
265
compared with Tantric nridi. 264-5,287
creature), 259
Adamites. 152
Air
Adamson, John, of Holywell, 263 (f)
in the arteries, 305
Addition of forms, 10-1 I
in the intestinal tract, I 49
Adept Thao's Rhapsodical Ode on the Physiological
retention of, 142,146
Emchqmoma. See Thao ChmJen Nei Tun Fu
swallowing of. 149,I 50. 15I

516

INDEX

Aircraft flight, 292

AjffGcakra, 264
Alhedo. See L,eu&is
Albigensians, 15
Alchemical exercises, I 19
Alchemical laboratory, 289-90
apparatus, 99, loo
'Alchemical Studies' (Jung), z
Alchemical symbolism, 14. 17,124,126. 21 I, 243,
29 I
moral and ethical teachings concealed in, 15
Alchemical terminology, ambiguity in, 24,237,239
Alchemical texts, 6
differentiation between m'tan and wei tan texts, 2 I 8,
2254
European. See European alchemical texts
illustrations in, 220
in Min I-TS's collection, 240
'The Alchemist' (Ren Jonson), 219
Alchemy and alchemists, 322,335
allegorical-mystical, 4,X.q-10, 17, 19,255
Arabic. See Arabs
Byzantine. See Byzantine alchemy
Chinese priority in, 21
Chinese and Westem compared, 19.23.24.218-9
distinction between wm' tun and nei tan, 22, 88, 242,
zgo
iatro-chemical, 257
Indian. See Indian alchemy
laboratory (wai tan). See W a tan
medicine and, 224-5
metallur~ical,148,289
modem chemistry and, 6,14
moral and religious character of, 15,16, 100, 218-9
mystical religion and, 18.23
physiological ( n k tan). See Nei tun
quasi-yogistic, 257
secrecy of. See Secrecy
spiritual, 6, 18, 19,23
Syriac. See Syriac alchemy
Tantrism and. See Tantrism
Taoist. See Taoism
terminology. See Technical terms
Westem. See Europe
Yoga. $ee Yoga alchemy
Alcoholic excess, 145
Alexandrian aurifactors. See Aurifaction. Hellenistic
Alexandrian proto-chemists. See Hellenistic protochemists
Alexandrian times, 10, I I
Alexandrians, 17
Alfonso X, el Sabio, (King of Castile), 316
Allegory, I . 2,219
Allen, FAgar (ed.), 301
Allopathy, 300
Alloying, I
Alpha-waves, during deep meditation, 181
Altitude anoxaemia. See Anoxaemia
Alum, 226,325,332
Aluminium sulphate, 331
Amalgam of mercury and lead, 7.14, zgo
Amalgamation, 226,227

Ambassadors
to China, 286
Chinese ambassador to Sri Njirasimha, 2 8 6 7
Amber, 226
America. See North America
American Oriental Society, 21
Amiot. See Cihot
Ammonia, 322
Amphitheatrum Sapimtiae Aetmac (Khunrath), I 8
Amritkunda (Ocean, or Water, of Life), 285 (e)
Amrta (water of life, saliva, alhanaslan nectar), 261,265
An Lu-Shan, rebellion of, 208
An mo (massage), I 55
Anahlastaein, 28
Anahlastemic (term for the restoration of youth), 28
Anablastemic Enchymoma. See Enchymoma
Anaesthesia
aerophagy m m n g under, 149
in child-birth, 292
AnGhata cakra, 264
Analysis and synthesis, 9
Anand. Chhina 8: Dalder Singh (I), 271
Anand & Chhina (I), 271
Anaphoric water-clocks, 14
Anatomical demonstrations, 148
Anatomical diagrams and drawinp, 107, ~ o g I,10, I I z
Anatomical dissection, 1-10,
112-3, 187
of the bodies of criminals, I 12, r 13
Anatomy, 39, I 12
abdominal and thoracic, r 13
Arabic. See Arabs
European. See Europe
scientific, 109, 112, I 13
Taoist. See Taoism
technical terns. See Technical terms
Yoga. See Yoga
Anatomy (modem)
comparison with Tantric nsdisystem, 264
'Ancestor of Mercury', 2 I 3
Androgens, 301,306,317,322
excretion of, 324
separation from oestrogens, 318.319
Androwy, 9
AngG (yoga term), 258,259
Anima, 27 (b). 247
Animal forms, assumed by shamans, 262
Animal heat, 38
'Animal magnetism', 180 (a)
Animal organisms, 28
'Animal spirits', corresponding to the chhi, 173
Animal substances, consumption of, 31
Animals, 108, 135
domesticated, I 48
gelded, 302
hibernating, 271
placentas of. 303
sex-reversals in, 302
symbolic. See Symbolic animals
Animus, 27(b), 247
Ankles. 161
Annual cycle, 58
Annunciator mechanisms, 144
'Anointing with the oil of Buddhist gladness', 237

INDEX

Anothomia (Mondino de L u u i , I 316), I 14

Anoxaemia, 29,145,152
altitude-, 272
Anterior median acu-tract. See Jen MO
St Anthony, 191
Anti-asceticism, 260
Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria, 300
Antinomianism
not found in China. 279-80.287
Christianity and, 278
in India. 2 7 8 3
Anti-sexual influences, 140, I 84. 197, 201, t w , 297
Anus, 198,202
external air sucked in through, 269
sphincter muscles of, 269
Anxiety, 2,5,6,26,92, 149, 151, 181, 189
Apariqaha (rejection of avarice), 259
Aphrodisiacs, 239,3 I 3-4
Aphrodite, 9
Apnoea. See Breath-holding
Apocryphal Gospels, 3
Apollodorus (historian and mythologist, fl. ca. -I 15).
293 (c)
Apotropaics, I 83,289
Apparatus, See Alchemical laboratory apparatus
Appetite, loss of, 145
Aquose, 248
Arabinose, 3 17
Arabs, 17,286
alchemy, 18,255,298
anatomists, I 14
m n a s t i c s ( h n g f u ) ,155
medicine, I 14
Arachosia, 286 (c)
Archaeus, archaei. See Shm (archaei)
Archelaos (Byzantine alchemist, c. +715), 218
Archetypes of the collective unconsious, 2,7,8, I 1-12
and Christian theology, 9
Ares, 9
d'Argens, Marquis, Jean-Baptiste (sceptical philcsopher, 1704to 1771)~175
Arghiin (Mongol Ilkhiin of Persia, r. + 1284 to
1291). I52
Aristotelian doctrine of the 'three souls', 27, 175
Aristotelian 'forms', 10
Aristotelian four elements, 24,304
Aristotelian theory of male semen and female mentrual
blood as the basic constituents of the embryo, 187,
1954,222,225,240 (c), 274
Aristotle, 14, I 20
Armstrong (I), 312
Aroux(1),15 (2),15
Arrows, in the pitch-pot game, 106,107
Arsenic, 334
Arsenolite, 226,334
Art
Indo-Tibetan, 10
'The Art of Prolonging Life' (Hufeland), 177
Arterial hypertension, voluntary reversible, 270
Artificial intelligence, 297
Artificial production of new plant varieties, 293-4

5I 7

Artisans. See Manual operations

'The Arts of Mr Primaeval-Chaos', 130
Asana (particular attitudes and postures of a gymnastic, or even contortionist, character), 258, 259,
263,265-8
analogue with China, 265
contrasted with Chinese gymnastic techniques, 287
Asanga (f7. c. 400). 260
Asbestos tremolite. See Actinolite
Ascension, of the immortal into the heavens, 42,56,70,
75
Ascent and descent theory, 234
Ascesis, 128, 137,258,308
Ascetics and Asceticism, 217,219,258
Buddhist, 185
in India, 278
Pauline, 297
Aschheim & Zondek, 301
Asclepiuc (Hermetic Book), 3 (c)
Asphyxic symptoms, 145
Assam (Kiimarupa), 284
Assembly of Perfumes. See Chhiin Fang Phu
Astrology, State, 282
Astronomers, of Indian descent in the Chinesc service,
282
Astronomical Bureau, 282
Astronomy, 222
lost treatise on astronomy and astrology from Han
tomb, 136
East Asian, 282 ,
Astrum, 6
Astyanassa, 187 (h)
Ataraxy, 29, 123, 129,222 (c), 259,280,281,296
Atharva Veda, 258
Atheism, 258
Atomic impulsions, 182
Atomic theory, 28
Atractylodes (Atractylis) wata, 32,325
The Attainment-through-Wandering Master, 229
Atwood, Mary Anne, 1 6 1 7
Aurifaction, 16, 18,228,291,298,308,335
Hellenistic, 4,s. 10-1 I
Indian, 262, 277
Aurifiction, 298
Aurora C m r p (+ 14th century), I9
Auspicious Affirmations. See Chhag Ym
Austerities
Yoga and, 262
Auto-hypnosis, I 52, I 80.273
Autonomic nervous system, 264
Autopsies, I 14
Autumn dew, 329,332
'Autumn ice'. See Chhirr shih (Chhiupmg)
'Autumn mineral'. See Chhiu shih
Autumn months, collection of urine in, 329
'Autumn stone'. See Chhiu shih
Avalokiteivara (bodhisattwa),284
Avarice, rejection of, 259
Avian blood, 3 I
Axial Principles of the Tao. See Tao Shu
Azimuthal arrangement of the eight trigrams, 26,52

5I8

INDEX

'Raby boy', (the enchyrnoma), 75, loo, 108, log, r I I ,

223,232,250
Babylonia, 282
Backbone. 108
Bacon, Francis ( + 1560 to 1626). 193 (a)
Bacteria, antibiotic-resistant strains of, 300
1 3 a c t e r i o l ~300
.
Bagchi & Wenger (I), 272
Hahr al-Hayat (Ocean, or Water, of Life), 285 (e)
'Ball of mud'. See Brain
Balloonists, 145
Handha practices, 261,269
known in mediaeval China. 269
Baptisms, I o
Barbarians, 308
Basilides ( 2nd-century Gnostic theologian), I (c)
'Rattle of sexual intercourse', 196
Rax, Clifford, 65
Bay=, (l), 174
Raynes, C. F. (translator), 247
'Rear rambling' exercise, 156
Fkhanan (I), 263,265,266,271
Behanan and Bemard, 269
Beissel, J. K. (head of the Ephrata Community, c.
+ 1735). 153
Bellows bag, representing the human body, I 20,121
Bellows and tuyere. See Tho Y o Ko and Tho Yo Tzu
Bengal, 261
Fast, 284
Berkeley, George (Bishop of Cloyne,
1685 to
+ 1753). 176
Bemal, J. Desmond (X-ray physicist, biochemist and
social thinker, lgor to 1971). 301
Bemard, Claude (eminent physiologist, 1813to 1878),
174
Berthelot, Marallin ( I , 2), 17
Berthold, A. A.
305.309
Hertin, J. R. ( + 1719 to
1792, minister of France),
1% (a)
'Beytrag zur Geschichte der Hohem Chemie' (anon.,
+ 1785). 18
Raoars, 3 14 (c)
Bhaskara Kumara (king of KiimaGpa, 644), 284
Rhastrika (a variety of Yogistic breathing-exercise),
27 1
Rindu (semen), 261
analogue of ching, 276
conservation of, 274
of two kinds, red and white, 274
Biochemical changes, accompanying senescence, 288
Biochemical elixir, 27
Biochemical treatments for ageing, 26
13iochernistry, 180,221,298,299,308,336,337
of ageing, 292
Biography of the Chhing-Ling Adept, Master Phei.
See Chhing-Ling (,'hen-Jen Phei Chun (Nei)
(,'huan
Biological observation, 146
Biological philosophy,r?4-5
Biology, 173
'13ird stretching' exercise, I 56
Birds, anti-malarial effect of cyanuric acid in, 322

Black lead, 224

Black mercury, 223
Blackening. See Melanosis
Bladder, 7 3 , 7 4 , 1 4 6 , ~ 8 6 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 8 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 3 , 3 1 0 ,I3 1
partial vacuum developed in, 270,274
sphincter muscles of, 269
Bleeding hosts, 262 (e)
Blindness, 3 12
Blockage, of pores. See Pores, blockage of
Blood, 2 2 . 4 1 , ~ 46,
. 76.77, 120, 155. 173, 185. 207,
220,222,306,336
avian, 3 I
circulation of, 305,322
conduits for, 137
coughing up of, 310
distinction between arterial and venous, 305
free flow of, 161
menstrual. See Menstrual blood
urinary precipitates and, 3 I 3
Blood lactate level, during deep meditation, 181
Blood, oaths of .secrecy sealed with, 39, 198
Hlood-pressure, I 54,271,303
duringdeep meditation, 181
Blood-stream
absorption of air into, 149
contribution of, to o w n s of the body, 305
'Blue-eyed harharian monk' (supposedly Rodhidharma), I I h
Blue Goat 'I'emple (Chhing-Yang Kung) at ChhPneu,
manuscripts presewed in, 234,244 (d)
Blue Ox Master ( F b g Chun-Ta), 309
Blushing, 27
Bodh-gaya, 285
Rndhicitam notnjet, 275
Rodhidharma(d. c. +475). I 16,166,169
Bodhisattvas, 214,249,250
Bodily decay, 25
Body-fluids, extraction of vital Yin and vital Yang
from, 65
Body-weight, 145
Bochme, Jacob, (mystical thinker,
1575 to 1624)
13.15, 16, 18,23,263 (f)
Boerhaave, Hermann (chemical physician,
1668 to
+ 1738). 14
B o p r (Chinese magician-alchemist of the +3rdcentury, one of the sittars of South India), 285
du Bois Reymond, Emil, (eminent physiologist, 1818
to 1896). 173
Roketonosides, 3 I 7
Bones, 123, 187,222
Bonus, Petms (alchemist, fl. I330 to 1339)~
6. 19
Book of the Attainment-through-Wandering Master.
See Chih Yu Tzu
Book of the Bellows-and-Tuyere Master. See Tho Yo
Tzu
Rook of Changes. See I Ching
Book of Creation. See Sefer Yesirah
Book of Elixir-Enchymoma Techniques for Happiness
and Longevity. See Fu Shou Tan Shu
Book of the Great Mystery of Existence. See Ta Yu
Miao Ching
Book of Macrobiotics. See Yang Hsing Shu

5I9

INDEX
Book of Master Kuan Yin. See K u a Yin Tzu
Book of the Preservation-of-Solidarity Master. See
Pao Phu Tzu
Book of (the Prince of) Huai Nan. See Huai Nan Tzu
Book of Splendour. See Zohar
de Bordeu, Th6ophile (endocrinological pioneer,
1722 to 1776). 305
'Boring holes in Primitivity', 129
Borrowing of terms, between physiological alchemists
and protochemists, 99-100
Botanists and botany, 293
and the manipulation of Nature, 293-4
'Bottlenecks', in the circulation of the chhi. See K u a
Rotulinus toxin, 300 (f)
Boxing (chhiianpo), I 6 9 7 0
Royle, Robert (chemist, 1627 to 1691), 24
Brahmararya (total abstention from generative sex),
259
Brdhmaradhra (perhaps the bregma of the skull), 264
Brain, 38, 4, 71, 72, 77, 79, 104, 1 1 I , I 14, 120, 123,
124, 141, 146, 148, 186, 187, 198, 206, 238, 254,
256
technical term, 72
ventricles of, 39
Breastplates, worn on the abdomen, 39-40
Breasts, massage of the, 239
Breath, 22, 130, 135
cooling and warming, 147
Breath-holding, 142. 143, 146, 147. 148, 149-50, 249,
272,288,308
already practised in China in the - 6th-century, 2%
harmful effects of, 144-5. 147, 155
measurement of duration, 143-4.263
Swedenborg and, I 52
technical terms. See 'Technical terms
under altitude conditions of low barometric pressure, 145
Yoga. See PrcirGyamd
Breath. thought and semen, immobilisation of. See
Khecari-mudrd technique
Breathing. See Respiration
Breathing exercises. See Respiratory techniques
'Breathingout the old, and taking in the new' (thu ku nu
hsin), 154. 190
B r e p a , of the skull. 264
Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, 297 (a)
Bright Mirror of Physiological Alchemy. See Ming
Ching Thu
Bright nindow dust (motes in sunbeams). See .Min~
chhtin~rhen
Brine, evaporation of, 328
British colonial rule, 279
Rrocton, Lake Erie, Brotherhood of the New Life at,
151
Bronchi, I I 2
Bronze figures of dancers. 39
Brosse, 'I'he&se, 270
Brotherhood of the New Life (Brocton, Iake Erie),
151
Browne, Sir Thomas ( 1605 to 1682). I , 253
Bruno, Giordano (Dominican philosopher, + 1548 to
+ ~ h )19, (a)

Brutus, 300 (b)

Buddha, 260,284
Buddhism and Buddhists, 22.36, 38,44, 99, 100, I 18,
124, 139. 140. 166, 185, 228, 231, 232. 237, 239,
273,284,285,289,291
Chhan (Zen), 252
in China, 166, I 68, 169,282,283
ethics, 239
influence on late nei tan literature, 244,249,250.25 I
sexand, 184,197,201,2o9,217,218,250
syncretism with Taoism and Confucianism, 230,
23r.234.252.253.255
Tantric, 2 17
Taoism and, 3 I, 46, 107, 122, 181,230.23 I
technical terms. See Technical terms
use of magic powers forbidden, 262
YW and. 257,258
Buddhist hells, I 18
Buddhist imagery, I 18
Buddhist monasticism and Chin- gymnastics, 1%
Buddhist Tantras, 284
Buddhist temples 36, 169,232, 233
Buddhist Tripitaka, 140
d' HufTon, G. I,. I ~ c l e r (biologist,
c
1707 to 1788),
14.305
Bulbo-urethral secretion, 195
'Buried alive' (Yogi procedure), 267, 271
Burkill, I. H. (I), 33
Burma, 282
Burping, 149
'Butting with ox-horns', 1%
Ryzantine proto-chemical poetry, 218
Byzantine church, I 52

Cabala. See Kabbalah

Cakra (centres in the Tantric nddicirculation systemj,
263,264,287
Cakradattc, 277
Cakrapini ( + loth-century alchemical writer), 277
Caln'natio, 1-1 I
Calcium sulphate. 321. 322, 325, 331
Calculi, u r i n a ~3, 14
Calendrical recurrences, 276
Calligraphy, 85
Callisthenics, 137, 156, 157, 170, 171
Calukya Vallabha, (dynaw of the Deccan.
8thcentury), 286 (b)
Cambridge University Library, I ro
Cammann, S. (10). 284
Canon of the Great Peace. See Thm Phmg Ching
Canon of the Virtue of the Tao. See Tao TP^Ching
Canton (mcgadha), 258
Cantraps, 183
Capitalism, 300
Carbon dioxide elimination during deep meditation,
181
Carcinogens, 28
Carcinoma, mammary, 306
Cardiac-respiratory system, 313
Cardiac strain, 145
Cardinal points, 182
Cardiotonic drugs. 271

INDEX
Carotid arteries, 264
Carp, 262 (C),309
Cartography. in the Han, 136
Carus, K. G., 177
Caste system in India
Tantrism and, 275 (0,279
Castration, 7, 302
Cat, placenta of, used in medicine, 303
Cataleptic trance, 273
Category conception, 92,2989,306,334
Catharsis, 2, 217
Catheters, 270
Cauda-pavonis,12
Cauldron Lake, 210
Cauldrons, 54
Cedrenus (Byzantine Scholar), 218 (b)
'Celestial drum', 141, 150. I 58
Celestial equator, 60
Celibacy, zoo, 201
and nei tan procedures, 35
and Taoist 'nuns', 237
Taoism and, I 86, 190
in Westem communities, I 5 I . I 53
Cemeteries, frequenting of, 278
Cephalic cavities, 38
nomenclature. See Technical terms
'Cephalic' region, 7 5 8 2
Cereals, 3 I , 35
abstaining from, I 37, 140
Ceremonies. See Rites and ceremonies
Chaldaeans, 176
Chan Kuo TshB (Records of the Warring States), 136
C h d o g y a Upanishad,258
Chang Chieh-Pin (physician and medical writer, 3.
+ 1624). 50
Chang Chung-Lan, 192 (a)
Chang Hsiian-Ti (alchemical writer, + gth-century),
226
Chang Kung-Chao ( + 18th-century writer on boxing),
170
Chang Kuo (Taoist adept and teacher, ca. 755). 208
Chang Lu (Ming pharmaceutical writer, + 1605), 331
Chang PO-Tuan (Taoist adept and writer on physiological alchemy, +g83 to 1082). 50, 88, 89,
91,97,98,99, 100, 102,107. 179,334
Chang San-Fing (early Ming adept), 169 (a), 219 (d),
229,240,241,244~246
Chang Shang-Ying (Taoist writer on physiological alchemy, 15th-century), zzq
Chang Shing-Tao (physician, iatro-chemist and medical writer,$. + 1025), 315
Chang Tao-Ling (+znd-century Taoist theocrat),
'979 243 (b)
Chang Tsai (Neo-Confucian philosopher,
lob),
295
Chants of the Red River. See Chhih Shui Yin
Chao Pi-Chhen (writer on physiological alchemy. b.
1860). 243
Charlatanism, 227,228
Charms, 261,289
Chastity, 190,2r7,219
Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (I), 283

Chemical affinity and reaction, 290

analogy of human affections with, 227
Chemical analogies with sex, 186
Chemical apparatus and operations, 298
Chemical changes, 2,5,7,8, 10, I I
cycled repetitions of, 38
Chemical elements, transformation of, into one
another, 19
Chemical experiments. See Experiments
Chemical imagery. See Imagery
Chemical processes, 63,226
and psychological experiences, 5
Chemical reaction, 10, I 3
Chemical substances, 226
and the elixir, 34
'true', 63,226
Chemical terms, used with purely physiological meanin@, 24-5
'Chemicals', term for the precious substances within
the body's ormns, 220
'Chemicals' and 'biologicals', 299
Chemistry, 16.17, 176,209, 293,298,299,337
empirical, 289
Indian. See Indian chemistry
modem, 6,8,14,289
possible origin of the name, 27
technical terms. See Technical terms
Chm (true, primary vitalities), 26,46,225
Chm Chhi Hum Yuan Ming, (The Inscription on the
Regeneration of the Primary Chhi), 292 (d)
Chen i (primal unity), 65,333
Chenjm ('realised man'), 8 9
Chen Kao (Declarations of Perfected Immortals), 182
Chen kua,56.58
Chm Lung Hu Chiao K m Nei Tan Chiieh Thu (Diagram of oral instructions concerning the (formation
of the) enchyrnoma by the intercourse of the vital
dragon and the vital tiger), 75
Chm Wu Hsing Chiao Ho Chhuan Sung Thu (Diagram
of the true interaction and union of the five elements (i.e. the viscera) and what they give and
transmit), 74
Chen Yang(vita1pre-natal Yang), 49,59,60,62,63, 72,
75.77.79.92, 197.214
Chen Yin (vital pm-natal Yin), 49,60,62,63,72,75
Ch* Ln' P& Tshao (Reorganised Pharmacopoeia),
315
Chhg M% (Right Teaching for Youth), 295
Ch&p.. M&K
.. Chu (Commentary on the 'Right Teaching for Youth'), 295
C& Tao Pi Shu Shih Chum?
Books of Tradi.. (Ten
.
tional Lore Testifying to the True Tao), 231
ChGng (Yin), (teacher of KOHung), 201
Chest, pain in, 150
Chevreul, M. E. (chemist, + 1786 to 1889)~16
Chhan Buddhism. See 7xn school of Buddhism
Chhang-an, 82,286
Chhang Jung-chih (Taoist adept, + 5th-century), I 38
C'hhang Yen (Auspicious ,4firmations), I 38
Chhao Chm Thu, 108. I 13
Chhi. (machine or vehicle, ambimity of the term), 225
ChhP-Shih kingdom, 307

INDEX
Chhen Chia-MO (chemical and pharmaceutical writer,
+ 1565), 313,321,322
Chhen Chih-Hsii (Yuan writer on physiological alchemy, + 1331). 40. 42. 44, 49. so, 56, 62, loo,
107,223,225, 228,334
Chhen Hsi-I. See Chhen Thuan
Chhen Hsien Wei (alchemical commentator, 1254).
54
Chhen Kuo-Fu, 141,288
Chhen Ni-Wan (writer on physiological alchemy,
+ 1622)~124, 243
Chhen Ti-An. See Chih-I
Chhen Thuan (Taoist philosopher, + 895 to 989),
52,161,162
Chhen Tshang-Chhi (pharmaceutical naturalist,
+ 725). 303
1033 to
Chh&g I (Neo-Confucian philosopher,
+ 1107)~294,295
ChhCng Liao-I (alchemical writer, c 1020). 226,227
ChhCng Ying (Taoist representative on the Commission for translating the Tao Te^Ching into Sanskrit, fl. 644). 284
ChhPngtu
Blue Goat Temple at, 234
wood-block broadsheet printed at, I 16,117
Chhi (pneuma, subtle matter, matter-energy, 25, 34,
37,40,42,43,44,46,47,48,49, 56,62, 120, 123,
124, 128, 129, 133. 135. 137. 139-40. 155. 173.
182, 197, 211, 220, 222, 259, 263, 265, 281, 282,
288
circulation of, 29, 34, 38, 54, 67, 68, 69,70, 73, 74,
7 5 7 7 tf, 86,92,99, loo, 104, 10s. 107, 108, 111,
112, 114, 116, 124, 129, 138, 143. 1 4 W . 147-8.
149,150,154,179(h),2w,z22, 225,229,234,237,
238,249.255,263,265.305,306
not to be identified with Aristotelean 'matter', 247
(c)
analogue of p r e a , 276
control of, 280
cosmic I 22-3
external, 147, 149, 150
gymnastics and, I 54, I 55
internal, 147, I 50
of the primary vitality Cyua chhz), 26,71,74,79, I 29,
130,147,281,289
in North American literature, I 5I , I 52
visceral, 79
of youth, 236
Chhi of man, and the cosmopnic
chhi, parallelism hetween, I 22,263
Chhi Chi-Kuang (Ming general, 16th-century), 169
Chhi Pi Thu (Esoteric Illustrations of the Concordance), 40,41,42,44
Chhi of the Primordial Unity of the Pre-Natal Endowment. See Hsim Thien Chen I chih Chhi
Chhiao, or H & m chhiao ('mysterious cavity', perhaps a
name for the Yellow Court), 252
Chhien Chin Yao F q (Thousand Golden Remedies),
33-4.3 11
Chhien Hun shu (History of the Former Han Dynasty),
189,199,281,335
Chhien kua, 42. 53, 56, 58.62.64, 66,gr. 92. 118, 21 I.

52I

212,228,238,249,251
Chhih Shui H s i i a Chu (The Mysterious Pearl discovered near the Red River), 45,46,325,328,330
Chhih Shui Yin (Chants of the Red river), 240
Chhih Sung Tzu (the Red Pine-tree Master), 20, 157
Chhih tao (the red road; not the equator of astronomy),
234
Chhin (period), 169
Chhin Hsiiun Fu (Ode on Grappling with the Mystery),
223.332
Chhin Shih Huang T i (the First Emperor, r. - 221 to
- 209). 309
Chhing (period), 35, 166,224,227,23 1,234,237,244.
331
Chhing (the seven emotions), 7 I
Chhing-Ling ehen-ren Phei C h n (Nk)C h u m (Biography of the Ching-Ling Adept, Master Phei),
197.205
Chhiu, Patriarch, 250
Chhiu ping ('autumn ice', i.e. crystals), 3 I I, 3 13. 320.
325,331
Chhiu Ping Ju Fin Wan. From I Chen Thang Ching
Yen Fang, q.v.
Chhiu shih ('autumn mineral'), 311, 313, 314, 315.
319-20,321,328+, 330,331,333,334
first mention of the term, 313
'spurious preparations' passed off as, 33 I
translated as 'urea' by modem Western students,
331
Jesuit account of. 33 IFZ
longevity and, 332
a s a n e i t a t e r m , 333
cover-name for white arsenic, 334
synonym of saltpetre, 334
prepared from urine, 334
early reference to, 334-6
Chhiu Shih. Section of Chhiu H s i i a Fu, 4.0.
Chhiu Shih Huan Yuan Tan (preparation method),
315
Chhiu Shih Wu Ching Wan (medicament), 320
Chhun Fang Phu (Assembly of Perfumes), 293
Chhiung-Chu Ssu (temple), near Kunming. 232,233,
235,236
Chhu Chhing (physician and medical writer, d.
+501). 310
Chhu I Shuo T(Discussions on the Dispersal of
Doubts), 227
Chhu Tzhu (Elegies of Chhu State) 281
Chhu Yung (scholar and writer, c. + ~ t g o )227,228
,
C h h u a Ching (Manual of Boxing), 170
Chhung Ho Tzu (the Complaisant Harmony Master),
1949 1959 198
Chhung Hsiu C h h - H o Ching-Shih Ch*
Lei PeiY q P& Tshao (Reorganised Pharmacopoeia),
315
Chi chi. See 'Perfected equalisation
Chi Chi hexagram, 63,220 (d), 325
Chi Chi Hsuan Shu Pi Fa (the Mysterious Enchymoma Method of the Chi Chi hexagram),
325
Chi Hsiao Hsin Shu (Treatise on Military and Naval
Eficiency), I 69

5 z2

INDEX

Chi Sh& F- (Prescriptions for the Presentation of

Health), 303
Chia chin (bottleneck in the chhicirculation), 73
Chia Wei-Chieh (Scholar interested in anatomy, c.
+1113), 112
Chiang Wei-Chhiao (1-4).179
Chiao Kan (Han diviner, - 1st-century), 52
Chih-I ( + 538 to + 597. founder of the Thien-Thai
school of Buddhism), 140
Chih Kuei Chi (Pointing the Way Home to Life Eternal; a Collection), 34, zgo (b)
Chih Tao Phien (A Demonstration of the Tao), 141
Chih Yu Tzu (Book of the Attainment-throughWandering Master), 229
Chikashige, Xlasumi ( I ) , 21
Children, birth of, 91, 120, 197, 209, 214, 217, 222,
243,247.2499 251
salvation through, 236
Chin (period), 35,83,289,300
Chin Chhiian Tzu (alchemical writer, c. + 830), 74
Chin ching (metallous essence), 42,56
Chin Hua Yii Nu Shuo Tan Ching (What the Jade Girl
of the Golden Flower said about Elixin and Enchymomas), 2 I 3
Chin i ('gold juice', 'potable gold'), 24
Chin I H u a Tan Pai W k Chuch (Questions and Answers on the Metallous Fluid and the CyclicallyTransformed Enchymoma), I 8 I, 332
Chin I H u a Tan Yin C h k Thu (Illustrations and
Evidential Signs of the Regenerative Enchymoma
elaborated from the Metallous Fluid), 21 I , 212
Chin-Kang-Chih. SeeVajrabodhi
Chin kang s h m . See Diamond Body
'Chin lock' (j5bandhat.a). 269
Chin Shao (commentator, +#h-century), 335
Chin Ssu Lu (Summary of Systematic Thought), 294
Chin tan (gold elixir or, metallous enchymoma), 223,
228,289
Chin Tan Chm Chum (Record of the Primary Vitalities regained by the Metallous Enchymoma),
214
Chin Tan Ch& L i Ta Chhiian (Comprehensive Collection of Writings on the True Principles of the
Metallous Enchymoma), 231 (d)
Chin Tan Chih Chih (Straightforward Explanation of
the Metallous Enchymoma), 219
Chin Tan ('hin Pi C'hhim Thung Chiiph (Oral Instructions explaining the Abscondite Truths of
the Gold and Caerulean Jade Components of the
XIetallous Enchymoma), 333 (h)
Chin Tan F a Hsiang Thou Hu Thu, 107
Chin Tan Fu (Rhapscdical Ode on the Metallous Enchymoma), 223
Chin Tan Ssu Pm Tzu (The Four-Hundred Word Epitome of the Metallous Enchymoma), 88,91
Chin Tan Ta Chh* (Compendium of the Metallous
Enchymoma), 49,65,1zo-I, 223
Chin Tan Ta Yao (Main Essentials of the Metallous
Enchymoma, the true Gold Elixir), 40,42, 50.66.
100,223,228
Chin Tan Ta Yao Thu (Illuatrations for the Main Essentials of the Metallous Enchymoma, the true

Gold Elixir)), 49.56, loo, 102, 103, 105, 106, 120

Chin (Jurchen) Tartan, 3 I 6
China (modem), 154,166, 1%
Chinese and Indian ideas compared
'returning' or 're-routing' of the semen, 274
conceptions and definitions of the contemplative
states of mind, 273
rites of sexual union, 275
the three primary vitalities, 276
the pursuit of 'immortality', 276
'secret language', 277
search for some common source, 282
Chinese and Western understanding of alchemy contrasted, 8
Chinese influences
on Europe, 175
on Swedenborg, 152
Chinese relations with South India, 287
Chinese texts, difficulties in translation, 89.91.2468
Ching, 43,46,47,48,%,83,86,91, 11l,123,124.128,
130. 137. 141. 146, 173, 182, 185, 186, 187, zzo,
222,248,281
macrobiotic effects of, 187
Yin-, 195
transmutation into chhi, 248,249,250.25 I
analogue of bindu, 276
primary ching, changes into the seminal essence of
sexual intercourse, 128,288
Ching Fang (Han diviner, - 1st-century), 52
Ching Yen F q (Tried and Tested Prescriptions), 3 15
(Valuable Tried and Tested
Ching Yen Liang FPrescriptions), 3 I 4
Chiu Cl& Lu (Drawing near to the Right Way), 234
Chiu chum hum tan, 25
Chiu Thang Shu (Old History of the Thang Dynasty),
286
Cholesterol, 317.336
Chosen Girl, 189, ]go, 191,193
Chou (dynasty), 189,197
inscription, I 29
Chou court ( - 6th-century), 281
Chou I-Liang(~),283
Chou I-Shin (Taoist adept, +4th-century or earlier),
142
Chou I Tshan Thurrg Chhi(The 'Kinship of the Three'
and the 'Book of C h a n p ' ) , 225
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu (Commentary on the
'Kinship of the Three' and the 'Book of Changes'), 4 4
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi F& Chang Thmg Chen I
(The 'Kinship of the Three and the Book of
Changes' divided into short chapters for the
Understanding of the Real Meanings), 22
Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi Ting Chhi Ko Ming Ch*
Thu (An Illuminating Chart for the Mnemonic
Rhymes about Reaction-Vessels in the 'Kinship
of the Three and the Book of Changes'), 50
Chou Wu-So (physiological alchemist, probably
+ I zth-century), 2 19-20
Christ
identified with the philosophers' stone, 9, I I, I 19
symbolised by sulphur, I 2

523

INDEX

Class-differentiation, 129,217,275.289+30,297
Classified Fundamental Prescriptions of Universal
Benefit. See LA Ch& Phu Chi P& Shih Fang
Cleanliness, 29
Clear Explanation of the Oral Instructions concerning
the Techniques of the Nature and the Life-Span.
See Hsing Ming Fa Chueh Ming Chih
Clepsydra, 144,213,215
Clockwork, 144
Cloth swallowed and withdrawn manually from the
stomach (dh5ntikarma).270
Cocalico River, 153
coccyx, 73,202
Cock, caponised, 305
Cocteau, Jean (and running films backwards), 252 (c)
Coctive regions. See 'Three coctive regions'
Cohausen, J. H. (German physician, fl.
I 742). 297
(8)
Coincidmtia opp~sitonmr.See Conjmtio opp~sitmum
Coition, liturgical, 206
Coitus (alchemical term), 12
Coitus casematus, rgg (d)
Coitus intmuptus, 199 (d), 203
Coitus resmatus, 153, I 99 (d)
Coitus saxmims. 199 (d)
Coitus thesauratus, lgg (d), zoo, 201,206,212,264,274
perinea1 pressure applied with the heel, 208
Cold precipitation techiques, 319,321,323,325,329
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, I 79
Colic valve, 3 I o (e)
Collected Instructions on the Esoteric Mysteries of
Regenerating the Primary (Vitalities) by Internal
Transmutation. See Hsiu Chot N k Lim Pi Miao
Chu C'hueh
Collection of Ten Tractates and Treatises on the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities. See Hsiu
Chen Shih Shu
Colon, expansion of
in, 269
Colonic irrigation, 269
(k)
Cibot, P. M. (Jesuit, 1780), (3), 170. 171, 172. 173. Colostrum, endocrine preparation from, 240
Colour-changes, 4, I I , I 2
174,265,268
Cin6cGra (practices of religious sexuality current in Colour-effects, 182-3
Colour sensations, 273
Great China), 284
Cindcha Sciratantra. See Mah6cinakrmZccira Tran- Colours, 47
associated with directions, elements, organs, etc. roo
tra
interference, 5, 183
Cinnabar, 22,25,4o,41,92,99, 141,213,214,222,223,
Coma, r 81
226,242,333,335
on the Jade Manual of the Internal RadiCommenta~
elixir, 210, 21 I
ance of the Yellow Courts. See H u q Thing N k
technical terms. See Technical terns
Ching Yu Ching Chu
Cinnabar miners, 209
Communist and cooperative experiments in late ChrisCircadian cycles, 58.70
tendom, 151, 153
Circulation-mindedness, of traditional Chinese physCommunity and aggremtion, exaltation of, in Taoist
iological thought, 146. 305
philosophy, 2 I 7
Circulation systems, 237-3.305,306,324
Compendium of the Metallous Enchymoma. See Chin
of chhi. See Chhi
Tan Ta C h h h ~
every organ contributed something valuable to, 76
Complete Chart of the Regeneration of the Primary
maternal, 146
Vitalities. See Hsiu Chen Chhiian Thu
Cibot on Taoist theories of, 170,173
Complete Collection of the Biographies of the Immorin Tantric physiology, 263-4
tals. See Lieh Hsien Chhuan C'huan
Citrinitas. See Xanthosis
Complete Collection of Mysterious Discourses. See
Citta, analogue of shot, 276
San-F&g ('hen J m Hsiian Than Chhiimt Chi
City of jade bli' tu), 204

Christian meditation, 179

Christianity, 3.9, I I, 12, 19,218
antinomianism and, 278
attitude towards break-through of human ignorance, 296
conceptions of immortality, 297
modem science and, 278
and sex, 12,217,219,297
Chromatography, 328
Chu Chen-HPng (one of the 'four famous physicians of
J/Chin and Yuan', + 1281 to
1358). 309. 310.
31 1
Chu ChAg Pien I (Resolution of Diagnostic Doubts),
303
Chu Hsi (Neo-Confucian philosopher,
1130 to
+ 1zoo), 294-5
Chu Huang (semi-legendary adept), 83
Chu Hung (physician, c. + I I 18). I 13
Chu Thi T i m M Ching Lun, I I 3
Chuang Chou (Taoist philosopher, Chuang Tzu,
- 4th-century), 130. 154, 156,280,183
C h u m Tzu hook, 129, 154,156,278
Chun huo, hsiang huo and min huo (ruler fire, minister
fire and people fire), 255.31 I
C
*
Lu Chhum Tao Chi ( D i a l w e between Chungli
Chhuan and Lu Tung Pin on the Transmission of
the Tao), 88,223
C*
tan thim, 79
Chung rhu (centre of the body, corresponding to
Earth), 60.77 (a), 116
Chungchhang Thung (Taoist writer, c. 200). 138
Chungli Chhuan (putative Taoist teacher of Lu Yen,
+ 8th and early + 9th-centuries), 87,88, 159,162,
166, 168, 177,179,266
Chmgli Pa Tuan Chin Fa (Eight Elegant Exercises of
Chungli Chhuan), 88,158,160
'Chymical marriage', 12.37
'The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosencreutz', 12

s24

INDEX

Complexes, 4
Concentration. See Mental concentration
Conception and development, 63
Concubinage, 191,193,201,210,250
Confidential Instructions for the Ascent to Perfected
R Yin C&eh
Immortality. See T ~ Chen
Confidential Instructions on Nourishing the Life
Force by Gymnastics and other Physical Techniques. See Y a S h q iVei Kung Pi ('hueh
Confidential Oral Instructions of the Adept WangU'U. See Wang-W u Chen-% 1,iu Shou I Chm-

Jen K h m Chueh Chin S h a n ~

Conflict of opposites, 8,247 (d)
Confucian women, 237
Confucius and Confucianism, 21, 52, 130, 140. 154,
218
disdain for manual work, tgo
ethics 154, 175,219, 237
impact on Europeen sinophiles, 175,176
sex and, I 84,197,201,209,239,287
syncretism with Taoism and Buddhism, 230, 231,
234
Confuriuc SinPhilosophus, 176
Conjeeveram, 286
Cmjug~o,I z
Conjunctio oppon'tonrm (conjunction of opposites), 9,
10,12,58,66,103,260,262,290

Conjunction of heart and reins (hsin shm chiao hut), 73,

I 16
'Conquering Nature to achieve longevity and immortality), 4668. 293,294
Conradv, A. (I), 283
Conscious control of functions normally involuntary,
274-1
Conscious ego, 5
Conscious states, suppression of, 273
Consciousness, loss of, 145
Conservation of vital juices, 29-30. I 32, I 36
Contemplative states of mind
need for research in Indian and Chinese conceptions
of, 273
Contraception, 239,264 (a)
Contradictions and conflicts, 6
reconciliation of, 13
Contraries, union of. See Cunjunctio oppsitorum
'Contrariness'
in Chinese thought, 261,288,291 ff
in Indian thought, 261, 274
'Copper carbonate', loo
Coptic Gnosticism, 3 (h)
Copulation. See Sexual union
'Corpse-position' (Yogic posture), 267.27 1
Cosmic diagrams, 10
Cosmic egg. r zz
Cosmic mystery, and rites of sexual union, 275
Cosmogony, I 22, 263
Cosmolop, I 83
Coughing, 3 10
Counter-current flow of fluids of the body, 25.31.37,
60, 123, 124,206,214-5,243,247,249,250
beneficial to both sexes, 206,208

Counter-natural inverted Nei Tan correlations, 59

Counter-natural principle. See Tien Tao
Counterfeit practices, 33 I
Counting-mds, for measurement of breath-holding,
144
'Cours de Chymie' (Nicholas Lemery,
1645 to
+ 1715).28
Cover-names, 2,49,75,86, loo, 213,225,334
glossary of, 121
Crane. Ser Symbolic animals
Cremona, autopsy at, I 14
'Crescent moon furnace' (yen~Gehlu), 99,loo, 101
Crrn4mws. 292
Crow. representing the sun, 70.92
Cruelties. See Ritual cruelties
Crystallisation process. 328
Crystalline steroids, 3 I 8
Cultural contacts. 2 8 2 7
China with Japan, 170
China with Persia and Arabia, I 14, 155
China westwards. I 52-3
China and present-day East Asia. 153-4
Chinese-Indian, 278,282
China, India and ancient cultures of Western Asia,
2837
Europe and Arabia, I 14,298
Cupellation, 226.333
Cyanosis of the lips and face, 145
Cyanuric acid, 322
anti-malarial in birds, 322
Cycles of life and death. freedom from, 222
Cycles of Nature, parallel with the properties of drugs.
222
Cycles of operation (chhifan),276
Cyclical calindrical recurrences, 276
Cyclical transformation, 25, 3 I, I 24

Dabistan, 278
Ilally, S . ( I ) , 173
Dancing
religious, I 53
ritual, 169
Dante. I 5
'Dark fountain', 141
Darkness and light, 7
Das & Gastaut ( I ), I 8 I
Daiakumfira-carita (alchemical tractate), 277,279
Davis, Tenney & Chao Yiin-Tshung (2,7), 88,91
Death, 65, I I I , 291, 295
deliverance from, 261
and resurrection, I, 7.10.275~277
Decay. 133
Decimalisation, 282
Declarations of Perfected Immortals. See Chen Kao
Dee, John (naturalist and magician, Fellow of Trinity
College, 1527to + 1608), 18
Deglutition. See Swallowing
Dehydro-epi-androsterone, 3 17
Demonstration of the Tao. See Chih Tao Phien
Depression, 7
Deprivation of forms, 14-1 I

Dexartes, RenC, 28
'Destiny depends on oneself, and not upon Heaven',
46,123,205,292
Detergents, 3 I 7
Determination, embryonic (fixation of fates of the
parts), 252 (c), 257 (a)
Dcocidasis, 258,275 (f)
Dhunurcisuna (position of the bow, Yogi posture), 265,
268
Dh(3rqci (meditation or concentration), 259,273
Dhurqi, (incantations, charms, spells, talismans), 261
Dhariivi-bodhisatt\.a (a form of the Tantric goddess
,
I %G),230
Dhciutikmma ( S m a technique), 270
Dhikr, services of the Muslim sufis, 152,285 (e)
Dhycina (a higher state of contemplation), 259,273
Dhydnabindu Upanishad,264,274
Diabetes mellitus, 3 10(g), 3 I 9
Diagnosis, 82, 137,300,310
Diagram of the Internal Texture of Man. See Nei
C h i q Thu
Diagram of the Mutual Stimuli (and Responses) of
Forms and Things. See H
*
Wu H s i q K m
Thu
Diagram of the Supreme Pole. See ThuiChi Thu
Diagrams of physiological alchemy, 67, k , 70, 71,72.
73,74,75,76,82.85 ( 4 , 114
Diagrams and a Running Commentary for the Manual
of Explanations concerning Eighty-one Difficult
Passages in the Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal Medicine. See Humg Ti Pa-shih-i Nun
Ching Tmun Thu Chu Chieh
Diagmms of the Five Yin-viscera and the Six Yanviscera. See H u q Thing Nk Ching Wu Tsung Fu
Dialectical synthesis, 13
Dialogue between Chungli Chhuan and Lu Tung-Pin
on the Transmission of the Tao. Sec C h q Lu
Chhuun Tao Chi
'Diamond body', transmutation into a, 228,260,276
Diaphragm, 2%. 270
Diarrhoea, 3 I I
Diderot, Denis, (philosopher of technology, 1713 to
+ 1784)~175
Diels, Ono P. H. (organic chemist, 1876 to 1954). 301
Diet and dietary techniques, 291
and longevity, 21, 3 I , 46, 82, 86, 137, 138, 177, 193,
308
abstentions, 82
restricted, 145
Differentiation, 175
Digester, 216
Digestion, 161
Digitalis, 271
Digitonin, 317
Digitonosides, 317
Dioscorides (pharmacist and physician,
2ndcentury), 303
Directional element places, 56,58
The 'dirty unconscious', I 2
Disclosures of the nature of the Metallous Enchymoma. See Wui Chin Tun

Discourse on the Dragon and the Tiger. See Lwg! Hu

Chhien Hung Shuo
Discourse on the Five Ching Essences. See Hsiu Chen
Chun Wu Ching L m
Discourse on Meditation. .See Tso W q Lun
Discourse on the Mysterious Axis of the Sun and
Mmn. See Jih Yiieh Hsiiun Shu L m
Discourse on the Primary Vitality and the Cosmogonic
Chhi. .See Y u a Chhi Lun
Discourses Weighed in the Balance. See L m H h g
Discourses with Guests in the Thatched Pavilion. See
Mao Thing Kho Hua
Discussion of the Difficulties encountered in the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities. See Hsiu
Chm Pien Nun
Discussions on the Dispersal of Doubts. See Chlni' I
Shuo Tman
Disdain of physiological alchemists for laboratory alchemists, 224
Diseases and infirmities, 5, 123, I@, 138, 151, 189,
205,291,300,325
caused by sexual frustration, I ~ I195.203
,
caused by refraining from sexual intercourse, 200,
210
caused by over-indulgence in sexual intercourse,
zoo-1,to4,210
caused by repeated loss of sperm, zog
female, 302, 306
gastro-intestinal, 3 12
gonadal and glandular, 302,306,323,332
iatrogenic, 300
male, 306
occurring in the sexual partner who was the donor,
I94
psycho-somatic, z
sexual and systemtic, 3 I 3
venereal, 204
chhi directed to the site of, 148
curingof, 140,155,161,170,173,192,193,195,200,
~ 0 8 , ~ 1300
0,
See also names of specific diseases
Dissection. See Anatomical dissection
Distillat~on,I , 6
terminology, 24
'Distilled water', from rain, dew or snow, 329
Diurnal cycles, 58.70
Divers, and breath-control, 142
Divination, 52
'Divine embryo', 84,86,99
Diviner's board (shih),52
Diving techniques, 142
Dizisio, 10
Divulgation of the Machinery of Nature. See Hsieh
Thim Chi
Doctrine of the double rise and fall of semen and saliva
(or their chhz) within the body, 30, 34. 37,60,72,
79, 146, 186, 197-9,200,2o1,237,246,25o,
251,
255,292
'Doffing the bodily form', 220
Dog, 303
Donne, John, (poet and divine, 1572 to 163I). 14

5 26

INDEX

'A Door-pivot often used doesn't get wood-worms',

124,161
Dorsal median acu-tract (tu mo). See Tu mo
Dowe, 3
~ I 5, 3 17.3 18
Double-hours, 44,58,74, 162
Double meanings, 99, IOO
Double Regeneration (shuan,g hsiu). See Regeneration,
double
Double rise and fall of semen and saliva. See Doctrine
of the double rise of semen and saliva within the
'Double seed' theory, 195
Dragon. See Symbolic animals
Dragon-and-Tiger Enchymoma (Luw Nu Tan), 333
Dreams, 8
'Dreck-apotheke', 279,306
Drugs. 21. 33.46. 53. 82, 86. 141, 142. 208. 222.239,
309
algorific, 3 10
cardiotonic, 271
contrary or counter-acting, 3oo
hallucinopnic, 273
for lengthening the life-span, for those who cannot
afford the Elixir, 21 I
pharmaceutical, 141
of placental tissue combined with herbal drugs, 303
plant-, 46.93, 181
for prolonging life. See Elixirs of immortality and
longevity
pyretic and anti-pyretic, 300
for suppressing mentruation, 239
and Taoist physiological alchemy, 82
testis tissue as, 303
tranquilising, 273
urine in, 306,308 ff
in Westem medicine, 300
Yang (Calorific), 3 14
Dual Cultivation (shuang hsiu). See Regeneration,
double
Dualities, transcending of, 263
Dudgeon, J.(r), 155,161,166,174.231
Dung, eating of, 279
Duo-decimal system, 282
Dwarfism, pituitary, 306
Dysmenorrhoea, 302,306
F~rly
Hen (period), 257,302,305
Fars, 187
buzzing in the, 145
Earth, true (or vital), 99, I 16
Earth element, 40,56,71,248,250
Earth-shaking Discovery of the Metallous Enchymoma. See *I Chm Chin Tan
Fastem Chin (dynasty, 3 17 to 420)~207
Fastem Orthodoxy, 297
Eating of sweet things, 187
Eating of unclean things, 2 7 8 9
Ecch yloma, 27 (e)
Ecchymoma arteriosum, 27 (e)
Ecchymosis, 27 (e)
Fxhinocystic acid, 317
'Fxlipse' diagrams, 72.78-

Fntasy
erotic, 284
techniques, 3 I
Fntatic aerial voyages, 262
Fxstatic trances, 283
Emtatin (mumz), 258
Edkins, J. ( 1 7 ) z~ b ~
Edwards, John ( r h g ) , 296
Ego, loo
1-ight 1)isquisitions on Putting Oneself in Accord with
the life-l:orce. See Tsrtn ShPng I'a Chim
Eight Elegant Exercises of Chungli Chhuan. See
Chrrn~liPa Trton ('hin F a
Eight \linrrals, 48, 242, 335
Eight Venerable Adepts (of the Prince of Huai-Nan),
336
Eiranaeus Philaletha. See Starkey, G e o w
Ejaculation, 198,201
retrograde, 197
leads to the birth of a child, 209
Ekiigratci methods of mental concentration, 83,269
Electro-encephalograph, I 80,271,272, 273
Electrocardiograph, 270
'Elegant girl', (Chha Nu), 203, 250
Elegies of Chhu (State). See Chhu Tzhu
EIemmta Chymiae (Roerhaave), I 4
Eleusinian Mysteries, I 6
Eliade, llircea (S), 23,260
(6). 274,275,276,277,288
Elixir ideas, 9, 17, to, 21-3.28
Elixirs, 141,299
golden. See Chin tan
Elixirs of immortality and longevity, 21, 46, 140, 155.
186, 191, 193, 201, 209, 21 I , 224, 227, 228, 248,
277,289,298,301
chemical, 158, too
consumption of, 123
cyclically transformed cinnabar, 210.21 I
elixir-making and enchymoma-making generally
ran parallel, 35
golden, 223,228,229
period during which the search for the elixir predominated, 35
poisonous, 227,289
preparation of, 21 I
from metallic and mineral substances, 27, 31, 147.
289
within the organs of the human body, 23
from plants. 27
sexual technology and. zoq
wai ton-, I 77
Embassies, from Europe to China, 174
from India to China, 286
from Tibet to China, 286
Embryo, 26, 187.2 14,305
constituents from which the embryo is built, 187,
1954.274
determination of sex in, 120
growth of, 28
'holy'-. See Enchymoma
nourishment of, 146
order in which organs and structures develop, 120

INDEX

s27

Embryo (contd.)
alchemyand,1~,16,~9,61,65,1oo,r3off.,r35,189,
original endowment of, 224
205,2189
regeneration of, 252
Buddhist, 237
respiration of. See Embryonic respiration theory
Chinese, 279
Embryonic repiration theory, 67.73. 143.1454.147,
Confucian, 154,175,219,237
I 79 (h), I 86,263,288,289
Frankish, 219
physiological fallacy in, 146
modem science and, 20,297
Empiricism, 289.3 I 8,324,336
revealed religion and, 175
and the proto-chemical alchemists, 227
Taoist, 219
Emptiness (i.e. all-embracing totipotence) of the PrimYoga. 259
ary Vitalities, 223
Eucharist, 9,12
Enchyloma (an inspissated juice), 27
Eucommia resin, 3 I
Enchymoma. 27-8.29.34,35,40.41.47.48.49.57.64. Eugenius Philalethis. See Vaughan, Thomas
65.67.72.74.79.92.1 0 0 , 107,114.1~1,
129,140, 'I.:uhemeristic' interpretation, I 5
141,155, 184, 186, 196,197,223, 288, 291, 298, Eumenides, 278
Eunuchism, 302
299.30'*333.337
anahlastemic, 29,44.46.47,60.62.75.77.78.79,8r, Europe and Europeans
alchemy, 1,~,4,6-10,~3,~4,1m,zr8+,255,298
86,99,114,141,196.217,221,334
development of, 78, 197,198, 206, 214,215,220,
anatomy, I 13,I 14
222,229
aurifaction, 291
forming in the midst of the body, 29,75,81. 83,84,
chemistry, 289
Chinese influence on, 175
go,96,99,104,108,r16,217.223,23
I, 234,255
'cycled' ( h u m tan), 38
embassies to China, 174
personified as the 'divine embryo' or 'baby boy', 61
gymnastics, 155.170
double (of saliva and semen), 21I
inadequate understanding of Chinese thought and
furnace fire interpreted as, 289
literature, 247-8
metallous, 75, I 16
knowledge of the three primary vitalities, 173
surrounded by the archaei of the five viscera, 79.80
medicine, 300.3 10
n k tan and wai tan within the, 37,42,43
physicians, 170
as the 'vital power' of Hufeland, 177
physiology, 177
technical terms. See Technical terms
proto-chemistry, I. 4. 10
'If the Enchymoma is not achieved, the Elixir will
and the question of the impiety of stealing Nature's
never be accomplished', 2 I 9
secrets, 296
Enchymoma components, 240
science and technology, 175,296,298
'biological' reaction between, 66
sex, attitude towards, 184,217,219
raising of, up the spinal column, 225
theory of the development of precious metals in the
Enchymoma ideology, 288,322
earth, 226
Enchymosis, 27
use of urine as a medicament, 3 I I,312
Endocrine pharmacology, 280
European alchemical texts, 24,255
Endtxrine phenomena, 239
European concepts used in translation of Chinese texts,
Endocrine physiology, 291,292
2467
Endocrine preparations, 240,299
Evangelical protestantism, I 5I, I 53
Endocrinological treatments for ageing. 26
Evaporation, 6,314,315,316.319.320,
322,323,325,
Endocrinolo~?.,301,304,305.309.
336
329.332
Energy, whether emanating fmm the Sakti or the male
of sea-water, 3 I 3
Ex opera operato, 9
god. 259 ( 4
Engineering, hydraulic. See Hydraulic engineering
Excess, avoidance of, 29,281
'English Physician' (W. Salmon, 1 % ~ ) . 312
Excretions, 249 (h), 299
d'Entremlles, F.X.(Jesuit, + 1662to 1741).
(2).332 Exercises, for the circulation of the chhi, 67
Ephrata Community ( 1735to + 1786).153
'Exhaling the old, and breathing in the new', 154,190
Equinoxes, 47,68,hg
Exorcistic talismans, I I 8
I.:remosis, 3I 0.
Experimental proto-science, 257
Eros, 246,248.25I
Experiments and experimentation, 183,272
Erotic ecstasy, 284
astrological, I 53
Eructation, 149
breathing at different altitudes, 272
Fmteric F ~ s a yon the Yin Enchymoma. See Yin Tun
chemical, 153,219
Nei Phien
on claims that Y e n s could live for considerable
Esoteric Instruction on the Regeneration of the Primperiods 'buried alive', 271
ary Vitalities. See Hsiu C h m Pi Chiieh
laboratory, I, 8
'Essences'of all the o w n s , 147
by Raymond Lull, 14
'Eternal life in the midst of time', 257,277 (d)
metallurgical and proto-chemical, 228
Ethics
physiological, 309

S 28

INDEX

Experiments and experimentation (contd.)

of transplanting the testis of the cock to the abdominal cavity, 305
ujinyi breathing tests, 272
Explanation of the the Heart Elixir and E n c h p o m a
Canon; a Shang-Tung Scripture. See ShungTung Hsin Tan Ching Ckiieh
Explanation of the Method of Grasping the Central
Luminary. .See S h q Chhiw Wo C h m Chueh
Exposition of the Techniques for Making the Best
Quality Enchyrnoma. See S h q Phin Tun Fa
Chieh Tzhu
External elixir. See Outer elixir
Extraversion and introversion, 247
Eyes, 82,249
muscles of, 269

Fa Yen (Admonitory Sayings), 294

Fable (+yen), 219
'Fabricating the embryo', 220
'Facing one another without (true) orppsm', 196
Faeces, 306 (e)
consumption of, 278
Tao present in, 278
transmitting iron into gold by, 277 (b)
Fainting, 145
'Family of Lead', 213
Fan (alchemical technical term), 25
Fan A (pupil of the p h ~ i c i a nHua Tho, c. + go to
+265), 161
Fun chhi (square-pallet chain-pump), 225
Fan Yu-Chhung (Later Han Taoist), 182
Fan Yeh (Liu Sung historian, + 398 to + 445), 307 (a)
Fang Ping-Kuo (courtier inclined to Taoist iatrochemistry, ca. 1545). 332
Fang l'uan (early Ming iatro-chemist), 329
Fang Wai H u m Tan (Regenerative Enchymomas
beyond all ordinary Prescriptions). Section of
Chih Shui Hsiion Chu, 9.c..
Fang Wei-Tien, 289
Fat, of the white tiger, 65
Father eating the son, 7
'the Father sows the white, the mother the red', 38,
207,222
Fear, freedom from, 7
Fei Chhang-Fang (Taoist disciple), 279-80
Female forces. See Male and Female forces
Femaleness, 62,63
and longevity. 65,134
pre-eminence of, 65, 135
Feminine creative energies, 258,260
Feminine qualities. See Femaleness
Fenelon, Fran~ois(French divine, + 1651 to 1715).
175
Fing Chun-Ta (Taoist adept, early 3rd-century).
3079 309
Ferric chloride, 332
'Ferrying over to the other side', 235
Fertile Crescent, 282
Fertility rites, 258
Fever, 300
Ficino, Marsilio (Renaissance Platonist, + 1433 to
+ 1499). 3 (c)

Figuier, M. (I), 17
Filliozat (3). 283
Filtration, 325. 329
Finsen, Niels R. (physician and founder of phototherapy, 1860 to ~goq),184
Fire, 210
standing for the heat of the heart rerrion, 79
something divine in, 176
three fires, see Ckiin huo, Hn'ang huo a d Min hua
'true', 176
shamanists' mastery of, 262
Fire element, 40,41,54,56,58,71,248~249,314
Fire-making, 293
'Fire-times' (huo hou), 45-6, 58, 91, 92, 121, 220, 226,
276
Five Blossoms, 206
Five Elements, 24,42,71,75, 116, 304
reversal of the standard relationships of, 25.40, 41.
42
incorporated in the Wen Wang kua arrangement.
54-5
relationship with the h a , 56,58
operating within the human viscera, 69
formerly lost essays on, from Han tomb, 136
Five Metals, 48,242,335
Five-Mountains Map, 309
Five Viscera, 225,306
See also Viscera
Flatus, 149, 150
The Flower-Intoxicated Taoist, 240.270 (c)
Flowers, new varieties of, 294
The Flowing Fluid of the Great Mystery, 222
Fludd. Robert (iatro-chemical physician and natural
philosopher, + 1574to 1637). 18
Fo-Kuang Ssu (temple). Shansi frescoes, 83
Foetal breathing. See Emhyonic respiration
Foetal intestinal tract. 146
Foetus, 135, 1454,186,214,252
Folklore, 8
of the Hafha-yoga school, 261
Fontanelles, of the skull, 264 (b)
Foods
abstention from, 195
hygiene and packing of, 292
over-indulgence in, 133
rich in air, 149
Forbes, R. J. (I). 305
Forke, A., 3
,
Form and matter, I O , I ~I 20
Former Han (dynasty), 257,302,305
Formication, 145
The Formless Form, 222
Forms, of the Peripatetia, 176
Fortnightly periods, annual cycle of 69, I 18
sets of physical exercises for, 161-2
Founder of Change (or Thinp). See Tsao Hua ( W u )
chi
Four directions of space, 57.99. I 16, I 18
chhi of the. I 82
Four elements. See Aristotelian four elements
Four-Hundred Word Epitome of the Metallous Enchymoma. See Chin Tun Ssu Pai Tzu
Four senses, 47

INDEX
Four Wonderful Materials (cinnabar, mercury, lead,
alum), 92
Fractionation, 329,330
Fractures, 173
Frankenstein, 179
Freemasons, 15, 16, 19
Frenulum of the tongue, cutting of the. 269
FrCret. Nicolas (fl.
1735). 176
Frescoes
at the Fo-Kuang Ssu (temple), Shansi, 83
at the Yung-Lo Kung (temple), Shansi, 87
Frigidity, 306
Frontal gaze. 269
Frugality, 135
Fu (replenishment, alchemical technical term), 25
Fu chhi (absorbing the chhi), 143, 148, I 50
Fu Chin-Chhiian (Chi I 'l'zu, 'l'aoist writer and printer, 1825). 231,240,242
Fu-Hsi (legendary sage), 52
'Fu-Hsi' system. See Trigrams
Fu ling (fungus), 33
Fu Kk Yuan Chhi Ching (Manual of Absorbing the
Internal Chhiof Primary Vitality), 150
Fu-phing Tung-yuan, 139
Fu shen (fungus), 33
Fu Shou Tan Shu (Book of Elixir - Enchymoma Techniques for Happiness and Longevity), 161, 166
Fumusjm~entutis,236, 297 (a)
Funeral rites. See Rites and ceremonies
Fungi, 33
hallucogenic, 3 1, 145
The Furies, 278
Furnace, ( h ) , 101,214
man's body as, 186,211-2,214,219-zo. 222
representing the Yang. 99
pictures of, 220,22 1
interpreted in the sense of the enchyrnoma, 289

Galacto~cy~ues,
239
Galen (Roman physician, r 29 to ca. +zoo), 300
Gall-bladder, 72.73.82
Gall-stones, 3 14 (c)
Gandhiira, 284,286 (d)
Gargling, I 5 I , I 58
Gases, intestinal, 149, 150
Gas.sendi, Pierre (French priest and scientist,
1592
to 1655). 28
Gastro-intestinal ailments, 312
Gastronomy, 302
Gate of Destiny. See Gate of Life
Gate of 'in the beginning', 262
Gate of Life (ming m&), 186,204
Gates, in the circulation of the chhi. See Kuan
Geber (ps. of a Latin alchemist, c. IZW),8, 17
General Adaptation Syndrome, 181 (h)
Generation, theories of, 38, 120, 187, 207, 214-5, 222.
247,249,250,251.255
Aristotelian, 187, 1954,274
Hellenistic, 207
Talmudic, 207
Genetic manipulation, 297
1672 to
Geoffroy, ktierne Fran~ois(apothecary,
1731). 332

Geography, I 36
Geomancy, 52
Geriatrics, 292
Gestures. See Mudrrj
Ghazna, 286 (c)
G h e r ~ d Sqzhitd,
a
261,268
Gichtel, J . G.. 263 (f)
Gilben of Sempringham, I 53 (h)
Giles, H. A., I 69.33 I
Glands. 67
of internal secretion, 301
pituitary, 323
salivary. See Salivary glands
testicular, 25
vestibular, 195
Glandular disorders, 323
Clans, sensitivity of, 194(a)
Gleditschia saponin extracts, 33 I
Gleditschia sinensis, 3 I 7
Glisson, Francis (physiologist and physician,
1597
to + 1677), 175
Glossary of the principal technical terms and covernames used in physiological alchemy (Hsiao
Thing-Chih's Chin Tan T a Chh*, ca. 1250).
I21
Glottis, 149
Glucose, 3 17
Glucuronide combination, 321
Glucuronides, steroid, 315
Glyphomantic constructions, 120
Gnashing of teeth. See Teeth
Gnosis, 258
Gnosticism, 3, 15~19,237
(h), 243 (h), 297 (a)
God
belief in, in Indian culture, 258
bisexuality of, 153
union with, possible only through sexual (nongenerative) union. 260
Goddesses, Tantric, 260,274
Goethe, I 77
'Going against the current', 262
'Going against Nature', in modem technology, 292
'Going contrary to all normal human inclinations, 261,
279
Gold, 6, 16,227
artificial, 334
making of. See Aurifaaion
potable, 24.2 I I , 2 7 6 7
transmutation of base metals into, 155,262
Gold-mercury amalgam, 277
Goldbrunner, J., 4
Golden colour, 10, r I
Golden Elixir, 201
Golden Key to the Physiological Aspects of the Regenerative E n c h p o m a . See H u m Tan

Hsiang Chin Y o Shih

Gonadal disorders. 302.306.323.332
Gonadotrophins, 323,328
Goodwin, R. (I), 20
Gorakniith (semi-legendary developer of Hathayoga,
contemporary of Wu Tai and Sung adepts in
China), 261
Gma+a Sqzhita, 274

53O

INDEX

Goraksa-Zataka, 261
Gospel of Thomas, 237 (b)
Grafting techniques. 293
Grail Corpus, 15
Granet, M., 3
The Great Appendix, of the I Chin#, 50
Great Rear, 70, 182,213
the 'Great Meeting', 203
Great Pharmacopoeia. See P& Tshw Kmg M u
The Great Tradition of Internal Medicine. See I Yin
Thang I Chung C h i w Kuang W k Ta Fa
the 'Great Work' (of alchemy), 3 (a), 6, I I , 13, 26 (a),
200,209,218
Greater Anablastemic Enchymoma. See Enchymoma
Greece and the Greeks,,38, I 87,282
physicians, 29
'double seed' theory, 195
theory of male semen and menstrual blood as the
basic constituents of the emhryo, I 87, 1 9 5 4
theory of pangenesis, 305
Greek legend, 293
Greek texts, I 7
Group catharsis. See Cathanis
Growth-rate curve, re-mounting of, 288
Guhya-samq'a Tantra, 260
Guide to the Reading of the Enchymoma Manuals. See
Tan chin# Shih Tu
Guilt, feelings of, 4, 184,217
van Gulik, Roben, (3, X), 185, 194. 206
Gunpowder. 292
Gymnastic techniques, 21, 29, 82, 88, 100, 123, 130,
1379 140, 141, 154ff. 177.209,213, 231,237,249.
287,289
and the facilitation of the circulation of the rhhi, 154,
155
medical. See Medical gymnastics
for aiding the formation of the enchymoma, 155
connection with alchemy, I 55
for the curing of diseases, 155
for prolonging life, I 55,308
posture, 157
Cibot on, 170
of P. H. Ling. 173
modem Western, 173
in modem China, 166,229
Yogistic. See Asana
contrasted with Yogistic risana, 287
Gynaecomastia, 306
Gypsum, 321,322,325
Haematite, brown, 226
Hagia Sophia, 260
Hahnemann, Samuel (physician 1755 to 1843). 300
Hair, 151, 187
Halcisana (Yogi'plough' posture). 265,268
Halle University, 175
von Haller, Albrecht, (physician and physiologist,
1708 to 1777). 14
Hallucinatory phenomena, 5
respiratory techniques and, 145
sexual deprivation and, r go
See also Visionary phenomena

Hallucinogens, 28,31, 145,273

Haloes, of five colours, 183
al-flamdani. See Rashid-al-Din
Han (period). 21,35.39,52.71,156,172,189,1go,r96,
~o1,242,279,289,3~
TLV-mirron of, 284
tomhsof, 136,156
Han Chhan Tzu, 23 I (d)
Han Thui-Chih. See Han Yii
Han W u N k Chuan (Secret History, or Inside Story of
(Empemr) Wu of the Han), 307,309
Han Wu Ti (emperor of the Han, r. - 146 to -87).
141,169.307.309
H a li'u I T i ) K N Shih (Tales of Emperor Wu of the
Han), 169
Han W u Ti Nn' Chum (Inside Story of Emperor Wu
of the Han), 141
Han Ya (adept, and teacher of Kan Shih, +zndcentury), 307
Han Yii (Thang scholar, 768 to 824,334
Hanging upside down, zRo, 308
Harris, Thomas Lake (founder of a Brotherhood of the
New Life, 1861), 151
Harvey, William, 175, 195,305
Hatha (meaning of the word), 261
Hathavow, 261-z,265,275,283,285,287
longevity and (perhaps material) immortality, 276
and sexuality, 274
Ha!hayqa-Pradipikci, 261,268
Haud al-Hayat (Ocean, or Water, of Life), 285 (e)
Hawkes, R. ( I , 2). 281
Head, 74,95,104, 107-8, n o , r 15, I 16 238
region of vital heat in, 38, 71
Headache, 145
Health, 47.53,76.135.140,158,227,291,314
psychological, 3 I, 324
and sex, 184-5,186, I@, r g a , 217
Hearing, 158, 161
Heart, 26,34,37,41,42.44,47, 57,69,71.72,75,76~
77.79. 108, 114, 116, 118, 187,207,210,249,235,
314
auricles and ventricles of, 39
pain in, I 50
and reins, conjunction of, 73, I 16
Heart-beat, 29,143-4
voluntary acceleration or retardation of, 270,271
voluntary stoppage of, 271
Hean disease, pulse and, 271
'Hean protectors' (hu hsin chin&, 40
Heart sounds abolished, under extreme intre-thoracic
pressure, 271
Heat
eremotic, 3 I 3
insensibility to, 262
of the heart region, 79
sensations of, 145,272
reduction, by urinary precipitate, 3 13
resistance to, 4
Heating precipitation techniques, 319, 32-1, 322,
323.325.329
Heating times, 4 5 5 8
Heavenly unity, 263

53I

INDEX
Hei tao (the black road), 234
Heliotherapy, 100, 179, 181-4, 249, 273,308
Hellenistic age, I 14
Hellenistic aurifaction, 4.8, 1-1 r
Hellenistic proto-chemists, 3, 10, 14, 19,298
Hellenistic theories of generation, z q
Hells, 10, I I
Ruddhist, I 18
van Helmont, J. B. (Belgian iatro-chemist,+ 1579 to
+ 164.4). 296,328
Helvetius, Claude .Adrien (philosopher.
1715 to
+ 1771), 175
Herbalists, 224
Herbert, George (Anglican parish priest and poet,
1593 to 1632), 9-10
Herdboy (Niu-lang), I 14
Hereditary constitution, 53
Heretical ideas, I 5
Hermaphrodite beings as symbols, 10, I I, 13
Hermaphroditism, 302
Hermes Trismegistus, 3 (c)
Hermetic Corpus, 3
Hermetic doctrines, I 5
Hermetic Mass, 12 (b)
'llermetically sealed personality', 249,252
Hermits, 154, 191, 216
Hesiod (Greek poet, ca. - 700). 293 (b)
Hesychasm (in the Byzantine church), 152-3, 179 (C),
285 (e), 297
Hcvqjra Tantra, 260
Hexagrams, 54,58,63, I 19
auspicious and inauspicious, 63
on illustration of furnaces, 220, 221
Hibernation, and the Yogistic state of retarded life, 271
Hieros gantos (consecrated union), I 2
Highmore, Nathaniel (physiologist and physician,
1613to 1685). 195
Himalayas, 282
Hindu systems, 257
Hippocrates, 27,28,29
Hippocratic Corpus, 303
Hippocratic-Epicurean 'douhle seed' theory, 195
Hippopotamus, 303
History of the Former Han Dynasty. See Chhim Hun

shu
History of the Later Han Dynasty. See Hou Han Shu
History of the (Northern) Wei Dynasty. See Wei Shu
Hitchcock, Ethan Allen (American Major-General, fl.
1855), 15-1617
Ho chhP ('river chariot' or 'water-raising machine';
cover-name for lead, and 'true lead'), 225,250
H6 Chun (Korean physician,P. 1600). 34
Ho exhalations, 158
Ho shang chha m i ' ( ' e l ~ girl
t by the riverside', mvername for mercury), 2
Ho Shang Kung ('the Old Gentleman by the River150). 130, 136,
side', Taoist commentator, c.
176,204
H o Thu (magic square), 52
Hoenig, J. (I), 271
the Holy Immortals, 287
Homoeopathy, 300

Horacc, (Roman poet, - 65 to - 8). 293 (c)

Hormones. 2 w . 3 0 1 . 3 1 3 ~ 3 1 4 . 3 1 5 . 3 2 1 . 3 2 2
protein-, 323
sex-, 239.279.299.301,3I5. 324.325
Horse
essay on, from Han tomb, I 36
placenta of, used in medicine, 303
symbolic animal, I 18
'Hone teeth', 2 I3
Horticulturists, and the manipulation of Nature, 293
Hospitals, Chinese, breathing exercises, gymnastics
and meditational techniques, taught and used
today, I 54, I hh
Host and Guest theory, 196,203,208
Hou Han Shu (History of the Later Han Dynasty),
198,308
Hou Thien system. See Trigrams
Hsi Wang Mu (the Mother Queen, or Goddess, of the
West). 141, 194
Hsi W a g Mu Nu Hriu C h k g Thu Shih TsP(Ten Rules
of the .Mother Goddess, Queen of the West, to
Guide Women Taoists along the Right Road of
Restoring the Primary Vitalities), 237, 239
Hsi Y o T m hsim-s&g Hsiu Chm Chih Nan (Teacher
Tou's South-Pointer for the Restoration of the
Primary Vitalities), 120
Hsi Yuun Lu (The Washing away of Wrongs), 302,3 I5
Hsia (period), I 89
Hsia hsim ('falling crescent', waning period of the
moon), 58
Hsiang Yao Chhao (K@J-shri. Memoir on Aromatic
Plants and Incense), 32
Hsiao Tao-Tshun (writer on physiological alchemy, c.
I rm), 67-8.70.71
Hsieh Thim Chi (A Divul~ationof the Machinery of
Nature). 234
Hsiao Thing-Chih (writer on physiological alchemy,
P. + 1250). 49,65. 12c-I, 223
H k (immortals), 20
Hsim thim (primary vitalities with which the embryonic organism is endowed), 26,65, 129,248
Hsien Thien system. See Trigrams
Hsim Thim Chm I chih Chhi (the 'Chhi of the Primordial Unity of the Pre-natal Endowment'), 54
Hsim Thim Chm I chih Shui (the 'Water of the Primordial Unity of the Pre-Natal Endowment'), 54
Hsin lisili P& Tshoo (necly Reor~cmised Pharmacopoeia), 3 I I
Hsin Lun (New Discourses, by Liu Hsieh, d. 550).
279
Hsing M i q Fa C F e h Ming Chih (A Clear Explanation
of the Oral Instructions concerning the Techniques of the Nature and the Life-Span), 243
H a M i q K u k Chih (A Pointer to the meaning of
Human Nature and the Life-Span). 43,48.57.64.
96, 101, 104, 124, 125,202,224,229,230,231
Hsing Wu Hsiaqq K m (chih) Thu (Diagram of the
Mutual Stimuli (and Responses) of Forms and
Things), 102, 103
Hsintu, Szechuan,
tempIesat,36,61,81,84
Hsiu (restoration, alchemical technical term), 25

532

INDEX

Hsiu chen books, 46,47,67 ff, 122,276

Hsiu Chm Chhiirm Thu (Complete Chart of the Regeneration ofthe Primary Vitalities), I 17, I 18,120
Hsiu Chen Chiin Wu Chmg Lun (Discourse on the Five
Ching Essences of the Viscera), 67
Hsiu Chen Li Yen Chhao Thu (Transmitted Diagrams
illustrating Tried and Tested .Methods of Regenerating the Primary Vitalities), 220, 221
H& Chen hk'Lien Pi Miao Chu Chiieh (Collected Instructions on the Esoteric Mysteries of Regenerating the Primary (Vitalities) by Internal Transmutation), 67
Hsiu Chen Pi Chiich (Esoteric Instruction on the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities), 35, 37. 38.
42.44.56
Hsiu ('ht-n Pien .Van (Discussion of the Difficulties encountered in the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities), 240
Hsiu Chen Shih Shu (Collection of Ten Tractates and
Treatises on the Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities), 79, 80, 88, 107, 108, 109, I 10, 120-1, 126,
160

Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Y u m Chih Hsli'an Thu (Illustrated Treatise expounding the Mystery of Regeneration and the Supreme Pole Cosmogony),
74>75
Hsiu Chen Thai Chi Hun Y u m Thu (Illustrated T n a tise on the (Analogy of the) Regeneration of the
Primary (Vitalities) (with the Cosmogony of) the
Supreme Pole and Primitive Chaos), 67,68,72
Hsiu Hsien Pien Huo Lun (Resolution of Doubts concerning the Restoration to Immortality), 22
Hsiu N k Tun Fa Pi Chiich (Confidential Oral Instructions about the hlethods of making the Enchymoma of Internal Regeneration), 67
Hsiupu (repair, alchemical technical term), 25
Hsii Fu ( - 3rd-century Taoist explorer), 309
Hsu I-Chiin (woman adept at Han Wu Ti's court), 199
(e)
Hsu Ming-FPng (19th-century writer), 166
Hsii Shu-U'ei (physician,f7. + I 132). 303
Hsiirm chhiao. See Chhiao
Hsiian-Chuang (eminent + 7th-century Buddhist
monk and traveller), 279,284
Hsiim M& Mo Chiieh Nei Chao Thu (Illustrations of
Visceral Anatomy for the Taoist Sphypological
Instructions), I I 3, I 14
Hsiian Nu (the Mysterious Girl), 187,201, zro, 213
Hsiia phin chih m& (the gate of the Mysterious Feminine), 91 (c), 97
Hsiian-Shou (Sung Taoist), 332 (e)
Hu An (Taoist anatomist and physiologist, P.+ 848).
80,82
Hu chih hsien rhhi ('the (rising) crescent of the chhi of
the 'I'iger', i.e. the Yang coming forth from within
the Yin), 58
Hu hsi chhi (respiratory pneuma), 26
Hua chen. See 'Transforming life into the primary vitalities'
Hua Shan (Western sacred mountain), 120
Hua 7 x 0 (eminent physician and surgeon, c. + 19
to
+ 265). 161,307 (D

Hua Yong Chu Tung Chi (Records of the (Inhabitants

of the) Various Caves on the Southern Slopes of
Mt. Hua), 182
Huoi Nun Tzu (Book of (the Prince of) Huai Nan), I 30,
313.333-4
Huai Nan Wang (the Prince of Huai-nan). See Lui An
Huan Chen hsien-&ng (Mr Truth-and-Illusion,
writer on physiological alchemy. c. +755). 150.
'51
Huan ching pu nao ('making the semen return upwards
to nourish the brain'), 30, 146, 186, 19749, 200,
202,214,237,274,280
oldest mention of. 198
Huun tun (alchemical technical term), 25.79
Hum Tun Chueh Thu (Diagram of the reverted, or
anablastemic, enchymoma). 77
H u m Tun Nei H s i q Chin Y o Shih (Golden Key to
the Physiological Aspects of the Regenerative Enchymoma), 22,66, 2Hum2 Tun Pi Yao Lun. Passage from Chih Shui Hsiim
Chu, 9.0.
Huan Than (Han scholar and writer, c. + 20). 135 (d),
279
H u m Tho Nei Chao Thu. See Hriim M& MO Chiieh
Nei Chao Thu
H u m Yuun Phien (Book of the Return to the Origin),
65, 102 (a)
Huang Chhu-Phing ( 4th-century alchemist). See
Chhih Sung Tzu
Huang Hsiu-Fu (Taoist writer on physiological alchemy, I ~th-century),151
Huang-liar (a bitter herb), 309
Huang Pho ('the Yellow Dame', central site of enchymoma formation), 223
Huung Psi Ching (Mirror of the Art of the Yellow and
the White), 227,242
Huang Shih K q Chi (Record of the Old Gentleman
of the Yellow Stone), 189
Huang tao (the yellow road; not the ecliptic of astronomy), 92,234
Huung thing (the Yellow Courts, a location central in
the body where the enchymoma forms), 82 ff, 85.
105,291
H u q Thing Ching tradition, 80, I 18, 15I
Ifuang Thing S e i ('hing Iiic Tsang F11 Thzc (Diaurams
of the I:ive Yin-viscera and the Six Yang-viscera
(in accordance with) ('Jade llanual of the Internal
Radiance of the Yellolv Courts'), Xo
Humg Thing Nei Ching Y u Ching (Jade Manual of the
Internal Radiance of the Yellow Courts), 85, 86,
124,138.146
Huang Thing Nei C h i q Y u Ching Chu (Liang Chhiu
Tzu's Commentary on the Jade Manual of the Internal Radiance of the Yellow Courts), 126
H u q Thing U a i Ching Y MC h i q (Jade Manual of the
External Radiance of the Yellow Courts), 83, 86,
138, zoo
Huang Ti (the Yellow Emperor), 187, rqm, 192. 201.
203,204.210,21 I7275,28I,333,334
Huung Ti h'n'Ching, Ling Shu (The Yellow Emperor's
Manual of Corporeal Medicine; the Vital Axis),
1379 265

INDEX
Ti Nei Ching, Su W& (The Yellow Emperor's
Manual of Corporeal Medicine; Questions and
Answen about Living Matter), 280,281,305
H m g Ti Pa-shih-i Nan Ching T s m Thu ChP Chieh
(Diagrams and a Running Commentary for the
Manual of Explanations concerning Eighty-one
Difficult Passages in the Yellow Emperor's
Manual of Corporeal Medicine), I 10, r 12
Humrgya (yellow sprouts), 223,333
Huang Yuan-Chiin (Taoist adept, +gth or
rothcentury), 143
Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm (physician and geriatrician, 1762 to 1836). 177
Hui Ming Chitg (Achievement of) Wisdom and the
(Lengthening of the) Life-Span), 246, 252, 253,
254,255,256
Hui-Ssu (Buddhist teacher of Chhen TS-An, + 517 to
+ 577). 140
Hui Tsung(Sung emperor,fl.
I 102 to
r 106). I 12,
316
HulC (matter), I o
Human affections, analogy with chemical affinity and
reaction, 227
Human body, 69
seen as a mountain, 103,105, I 14
transcendental metals identified with various parts
of, 22
organs of, regarded as crucibles or retorts, 23
chhi or substance generated by techniques within
the, ~ 5 ~ 5 4
nei tan techniques and, 54
sagittal seaion of, I 14
depicted as surrounded by the lunar phases, I I 8, I 19
represented by a bellows bag, I 20, I z I
analogy with the ruling of human society, 134, 136
vitality in certain sections of, 143
mechanism of, I 70, I 74
irradiation of, 182
metaphors for, 2 1 9 1 0
as laboratory, 227,260,289
as the true cosmos, 260
must be led to the perfection of health, not mortified,
260
as microcosmos, 260,263
as the real seat of the gods, 26 I
Christian view of, 297
fluids and tissues of, 301
Human ignorance, horror of all attempts to break through, 296
Human nature, 3
Human sacrifice, 279,287
Human society, ruling of, 134,135,136
Hun 'sour, 27,70,133,136,247
of the sun, 183
Hun-tun (primaeval chaos), 129
Hunger, 138,140,161,297
insensibility to, 262
Huo Lien Ching (Manual of the Lotus of Fire), 227,242
Huo yao (the 'fire-drug', the fiery or Yang reagent in
enchyrnoma-making - elsewhere always means
~unpowder),240 (e)
Hydraulic engineering, and circulation of the chhi, 265
H-

Hydro-mechanical clockwork, I&

3&hydroxy steroids, 3 17
Hygiene and hygienic exercises, 23,25,26,29,46, 137,
156,166,176,188,298,317
and control of the chhi, 280
mental-. See Mental health
Hymen (fa)of virginity, 237
Hyper-salivation and aeropha~y,149, I 5 I
Hyper~noea.145
Hypertension. See Arterial hypertension
Hypnosis, 31, 180, 181,237 (a), 262,273
auto-, 152,180,273
yoga and, 262
Hypo-gonadism, 302,306
Hypotheses, in science, 14

I Chen T h a q Ching Yen F a q (Tried and Tested Prescriptions of the True-Centenarian Hall), 319
I Chia Ta Fa. See I Yin Thang I Chutg Ching KWei Ta Fa
I Chin C h i q (Manual of Exercising the Muscles and
Tendons), 166,167
IChing(Rookof Changes), 8,41,50,52, loo, I I ~ , Z I Z ,
234,242
texts identical in content with, from Han tomb, 136
I ling chm hsing ('numinous triune natural life endowment'), 26
I Yin Thang I Chung Ching K u a q Wei Ta Fa (The
Great Tradition of Internal Medicine.. . mmetimes called I Chia Ta Fa), I 13
Iatro-chemistry and iatro-chemists, 35,46,65,76, 166,
240,251,299.301,304,3It ff, 322,323,3291 330,
336
Iatro-mechanists, I 74
Iatmgenic illness, 3oo
Ibn 'Arabi (mystical philosopher, + I 165 to
1240),
285 (e)
Iconography, Tantric, 261
The Id, roo
Id5 channel, 264
Ignorance about the Pharrnacopieai Dissipated. See
PC%Tshao MAg Chhiia
Illuminating Chart for the Mnemomic Rhymes about
Reaction-Vessels in the 'Kinship of the Three'
atld the 'Rook of Changes'. See Char I Tshan
Thung Chhi Ting Chhi Ko iWng Ching Thu
Illustrated Treatise on the (Analogy of the) Regeneration of the Primary (Vitalities) (with the
Cosmogony of) the Supreme Pole and Primitive
Chaos. See Hsiu Chm Thai Chi Hun Yuan Thu
Illustrations
of furnaces, 221
wai tan pictures in nei tan treatises, 220 ff
Illustrations and Evidential Signs of the Regenerative
Enchyrnoma elaborated from the Metallous
Fluid. See Chin I Hum Tan Yin C h h Thu
Illustrations for the Main Essentials of the Metallous
Enchymoma. See C'hin Tan Ta Yao Thu
Illustrations of Internal and Superficial Anatomy. See
A'ei Wm.Erh Ching Thu
Illustrations of the True Form of the Body. See Tshun
Chm Hum Chung Thu

INDEX
Illustrations of Visceral Anatomy for the Taoist
Sphypological Instructions. See Hsiian Mh MO
Chtieh Nei Chao Thu
Imagery, 219
of the alchemical writers, 8,9,278
Buddhist, r 18
chemical, 218,219,234
sexual, See Sexual symbolism
wai tan, 21 3-4
Immaculate Girl. See Su Nu
62.65
Immortality, I,9,10,20,21,
going against Nature and, 62
and respiration techniques taught at the Brotherhood of the New Life, I 5I
and techniques of Kelpius, 153
by perpetual youth, 290
in lndian thought. 276
Christian, Yoga and nei tun conceptions contrasted,
297-8
Yam, 276,277
See also material immortality and longevity
Immortals, 41,56,142,250
heavenly, 42,4.4,56,275,287,288,289,294.295
Imperial Concubine Pernodation Rota, ~ g g
(e)
The 'Impelsonator of the Dead', 281
Important Matters of the Jade Chamber. See YuFang
Chih Yao
Impotence, 7,3o2,306,310.314
'In the way that God intended.. .',292
Incantations, 289
Incense, 206,217
Incest, 3 (a). 7
The Incorruptible, 74.9
Incorruptible diamond body (Buddhist term), 228,276
Incorruptibility, 262
India, 3I, 202,257,282,291
Chinese merchants and, 282
Chinese intelletual travellers to, 285
drinking of urine, 3I 2
Indian alchemy, 276,277,285
Sanskrit texts on, 285
Tamil texts on, 285
and Tantrism, 277
Indian chemistry, 276
lndian influences on Swedenborg, I 52
Indian religion, role of sex in, 257,280
Indian religious art, 297 (a)
Indian samddhi, 181
Indian Tantric writings, 260
lndian tendency to reject the phenomenal world as
ephemeral and illusory, 258
Indicator-rods, 144.215
The 'Individuation process', 6,13,291
Indo-China, 282
Indo-Tibetan religious art, 10
Indol, 322
Indonesia, 257
Indrabhuti, 275 (d)
Induction and competence, embryological, 257 (a)
Indus Valley cultures, goddesses of, 274
Industrial production, 153
Infancy, and infants, 145,252

cutting open of the backs of new-born children, 308

See also 'Returning to the state of infancy'
I n j m o (Dante), I 5
Infinite immanent potentiality, 222 (d)
'Ingrained ideas' (kho z), 154
Inhibition, 305
Inner elixir. See Nei tan
'Inner light', 6
Inorganic salts, 315,320,331,334
Inquisition, 'Holy', 297 (a)
Inscriptions
archaeological,280
of the Huang Thing Nei Ching Yu Ching, 85
on jade, 129,142
on statue of Lao Tzu, 13 I
on stone monument, 139
on the shrine of Lu Tung-Pin, 159
on illustration of furnaces, 220,221
on a temple built by the King of KIiici in honour of
China, 286
Inside Story of Emperor Wu of the Han. See Hun Wu
Ti Nei Chum
Insolation, 182,183
Instructions on the E ~ ~ e n t i aof
l s Understanding Embryonic Respiration. See Thai Hsi K& Chih Yao
Chueh
Intellectualism, 152
'Intellectuality', corresponding to shm, 173
lntensities (tu), 220
Interpretation of ambiguous ancient texts, 2257
Intersexes, 302
lntestinal borborygms, I 50
Intestinal disturbances, 145
Intestinal gases, 149,I 50
Intestinal tract
deglutition of air into, 149
voluntary control of the pcristaltic movements of,
271
Intestines, 123,149
law-. 73,75
small. 73,75,314
Intolerance, 65
Intra-thoracic p m u r e , 271
Introversion. See Extraversion and introversion
Introjection of the psychic forces, 5
Inversion process (rim tao), in the normal relationship
between the elements. See Tim tao
Invisibility, 262
Invulnerability, 262
16sis (ruhedo), I I
Ippen (Japanese Buddhist priest, 1239to 1289),
311.312
al-'Iraqi, Abfi'l-QLim al-Simawi (alchemist, R. ca.
+ 1270).333 (R)
Irenaeus (patristic writer, ca. + 130 to ca. +too),
243 (h)
Iron foundry, in Taoist temple, 239 (b)
'Iron ox' (thieh niu), 99,roo
Irradiation, of the human body, 182
'Irreconcilable' opposites, 8,247(d)
'Irrigating the brain with nectar', 237
Irritability, 175,177

INDEX
Krilacakra Tantra, 260,276
Kallistrate, 187 (h)
K&dkhyri Tantra, 260 (d)
KsmarGpa. See Assam
Kan Hsing (poem by Chu Hsi), 295
Kan Shih (Taoist adept,$. early + 3rdantury), 280,
JZbirian alchemists, 8, 218 (h)
Jade, inscription on, I 29, I 42
307,3Og,310
KZficT(1ndian Kingdom), 286-7
Jade Girl (goddess), 138, 213
Kao Lien (Ming scholar and Taoist naturalist), 162
Jade juice. See- Saliva
Jade Manual of the External Radiance of the Yellow Kao-sung Shan, temple on, I 14
Kao T i (disciple of Adept Yin, + 17th-omtury), 231
Courts. See Huang Thing Wai Ching Y u Ching
Jade Manual of the Internal Radiance of the Yellow Kao Yu ( + 3rd-century commentator of the Hum' Nan
T m book), I 30
Courts. See H u m Thing Nei Ching Y u Ching
Kwla-hhciti (form of respiration), 270.271
Jade stalk. See Y u h&
Kripdlika (ascetics), 278
Jains, 257
Kapila, (legendary founder of Ym).258
Japanandthe Japanme, 1511,153,311
Kipisa
contacts with China, 170
ambassador from, 286
Japanese pirates, I 69
K m y ~ c(universal
i
compassion), 263
Japanese scmll-painting, 3 I I , 3 12
Kasamatsu & Hirai, (I), 180
Japanese texts, r I 2, I I 3
Kelpius, Johannes (founder of the Woman-in-theJealousy, 195.237
Wilderness Community. 1694), 153
J m mo (acu-tract),I 16, r 18,202, 234,238,254,255,256
K& h a , 56
comparison with Tantric ncidT, 264
Khaifhg, 3 16
Jesuits, 33 I
Khajuraho temple, 275 (a)
'Jesus prayer', of Onhodox spirituality, 179 (c)
Jih Yueh HsCan Shu Lun (Discourse on the Mysterious Khan h a , 40,42,44, 53, 54, 56,58,60,62,64.66.91,
Axis of the Sun and Moon, i.e. the Yang and Yin),
103,118,187,~13,214,~29,250,~51,314
Yang line of, 62,95,213,249,323
225
Khan Li chiao kou chih thu ('chan of the intercourse
Jiu-jitsu, 170
between the h a Khan and Li'), 66
al-Jildaki, Ibn Aidamur (alchemist, ca. + 1342),
Khotan, 282
333 (E)
Khou Chhien-Chih (the first 'Taoist Pope', +415).
Jishii (Buddhist sect), 31 I
JFr?an-mukti(de1iveranceor liberation of the individual
138,139
212,238
within this present life), 258, 261, 276, 277 (d), Khun kua,42,53,56,58,62.64,66,g1,9~,
Khun-Lun mountains, 95, roq
287,291
Khmgfan ('meals of emptiness', term for swallowing
Jff&cisiddhi, 275 (d)
air), 150
Johnson, Obed S. ( I ) , zr
Khung Phing-Chung (Sung scholar, fl. + 1082).
Joints, I 14
stiffness of, 161
334 (d)
KShih Tsa Shud (Mr. Khung's Miscellany),
Jonson, Ren, 219
Ju Yao Ching (Mirror of the All Penetrating Med334 ( 4
Khunrath, Heinrich (mystical alchemist,
1560 to
icine), 49.66.88. 121, 196.201, 203
Judgment day, I
+ 1605). 18, I9
Kidneys, 22, r 18,252,253
'Juice of the red dragon', 239
von Kielmayer, C. F., 177
Juices, fluids, 75.91. 120,220,299
King, Harold (organic chemist), 301
circulation of, 73,74,75,99, I W
Kinship of the Three. See Tshan T w Chhi
conservation of, I 36
Kit& al-'Ilm al-Muktasoh.. . (Book of Acquired
Jung, C. G. 2 ff, 19.23.263
Knowledge in the Cultivation of Gold), 333 (g)
access to the original Chinese literature, 246
Kleias, 252
criticism of, I 3 ff, 17
Knowledge
origins of his ideas. I 5, 255
ethic of, 20.2961
Jung Chhcng (semi-legendary founding father of
of Nature, as a way of salvation, 36
Chinese sexology), 199,201,307,308. 309
Jung Chh&ngI'hien. Chapter of the Tao Shzi, 4 . r .
KO Chhang-Khg (Pai Yu-Chhan, fl.
1205 to
+ I 226). 22, 107, 120 (e)
Jung Chhhg Yin Tao (Jung ChhOng's Manual of ComK O chieh (obstructions, in the circulation of the chhr),
merce with Women), 199
148
KOHung (scholar and eminent Taoist alchemist, early
Kabbalah, 3, I 53
Kabbalists, 153
+4th-century), 6,39,83,143,145,158, 183,189,
200,20g-11,216,218,290,298-9
Kaibara Ekiken (Japanese scholar, c. + I ~ w ) 153
,
Kajiwara Shozen (Japanese priest-physician, c. Konarak temple, 275 (a)
Kou h a . 58
+ 1304)~"2
Isvari (supreme God), 258
Isvarakrsna (Indian writer, earlier than
century), 258
It6 Mitsutoshi, (I), 234,238

+hth-

536

INDEX

Late Chou (period), 280

Krasis, 300
LaterHan(period),39,67,83,137. 151, 158, 161, 182
Kraurosis vulvae, 306
Later Thang (dynasty), I 69
Krebs, M,, 31 I
Ku Chhiang (Chin Taoist adept, called 'the Immor- Latin literature, I 8
Latin scholastics. I 52
tal'), 2 I I
Latin technicians, 17
Kheca'-mudrd technique, 265,274
Ku chi (technical term, for tight luting and sub- Laubry & Brosse (I), (2). 270,271
Law, Chinese, 292 (a)
limation), 316,3 17
Ku Chin Lu Yen F a g (Tried and Tested Pre- Lead, 22,40,58,60,99,103.213,214,333
black, 224
scriptions, Old and New), 3 10(g)
cover-name for, 225
Ku Kho-Hsueh (Ming court official and Minister of
and mercury amalgam, 290
Works, + 1545). 332
Ku Yung (Han high official, c. - 25). 325
red, 223
referred to as the ancestor of precious metals, 225-6
Kua. .See Trigrams
Kuun, bottlenecks or gates, in the circulation of the
silver and, 333
'true' or vital, 25,49,60,62,65,66,91,92, 120, 170,
chhi, 72, 73. 76. 77. 78. 104, 107, 116, 123, 148.
213,214,zzo, 221,222,225,226,242,246,333
154,202, 253
K u m (Taoist temples), 153 (b)
'Leading forth pathological influences', 3 10
Kuun Khuk Pien (An Optick Glass for the En- 'Leading something out by the same way that it prechymoma). 234
viously came itself, 31 I
'Leakages' through the sense-organs and other parts of
K m Tzu book, 180,292
Kuan-yin-shih-mu (the goddess THIS, kkti of Avalthe body, 252
h r e s on the Understanding of the Obscurity of
okitdvara), 284
K m Yin Tzu (The Book of Master Kuan Yin), 54
Nature. See Thung Yu Chiieh
Kuan-Yu (Ken-i, Chinese monk in Japan, c. + I 150), Lee,Ann (founder of the Shaken, c. + 1785), 153
Legalists, r 54
32.33
Ln Chen Chin Tun (Earth-shaking Discovery of the
K(brilliant, luminous), 83
Metallous Enchyrnoma), 227,242
Kuang ChhOng Tzu (semi-legendary Taoist Sage), 204
Kubjika Tantra, 277
Lci Ch* Phu Chi P& Shih F a g (Classified Fundamental Prescriptions of Universal Benefit), 303
Kucha, 282,286
Kuei Chia W& (Divination Tortoiseshell Writings), Ln' Ching Fu I (Supplement to the 'Medical Classics
Classified'), 50, 5 I
292 (d)
Kuei Mei hexagram, 220 (d)
Lci Shuo florilegium, 37,334 (d. f)
Kuei li7& Ching (Divination Tortoiseshell Manual), Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (Geman philosopher,
1646to 1716). 175
292 (d)
1644 to 1715)~
Lemery, Nicholas (iatro-chemist,
KukkuripHda, the Tantric poet, 278
KuIGrpi-va Tuntra, 260
27-8
Kumhhaka apnoea. See Breath-holding Yoga
IKng Hsi (Han courtier, fl. 20). 279
Kundalini (perhaps a personification of the reverted E n g Shou-Kuang (expert on sexual techniques,
+ 3rd-century), 198
semen), 264,265
Length of life. See Life-span
Kundalini-yoga. See Yoga
Kungfu (~ymnasticsand physical exercises, methods de Ixon, Xlc,ses ben Shem 'rob (d. + 1305). 3 (e)
of encouraging the preparation of the en- Leucorrhoea, 302
k & i s (alhedo),I r
chyrnoma), 29, 155
Cibot on, 170,174
Levitation. 262
Ikvy-Bmhl, Lucien (anthropologist, 1857 to 1939). 5
Kunrpun Chhou (Chou philosopher, c. - 300). 280
Li (pattern, principle of organisation), 176
Kuo PEn-Tao, I 85 (e), 21 5 (c)
not to be identified with Aristotelian 'form', 247 (c)
Kyper, A. (physiologist and physician, fl. + 1655), 195
nor as 'law' in 'Laws of Nature', 247 (c)
Li FOng-Shih (Thang writer on physiological alchemy,
Laboratories
alchemical, 216,289-90
C. + 770h I47
Li I-Hsing (Sung provincial governor, P. + I 102 to
proto-chemical, 54
+1106), 112
Laboratory alchemy. See Wai tun
Laboratory operations, 227
Li kua, 41, 42, 44, 53, 54. 56, 60, 62, 64, 66, 91, 118,
Laboratory technique, 14
Z I 3 , 2 I 4 . 2 2 9 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 I , 314
Yin line of, 62.95, 213. 323
Landur, N. (I), 16
Lao Tzu (Lao Chun), 37, I 16,130,131,139,204,230, Li Kuang-Hsuan (Sung Taoist alchemist and iatrochemist), 181. 332
283,296
Lao Tzu Shuo Wu Chhu Ching (Manual of the Five Li Kung (Sung physician and Taoist anatomist, fl.
+ 1270). 110,111, 112
Kitchens (i.e. the five viscera), revealed by Lao
Li Ong (Ni-Wan shih, Taoist patriarch or abbot of the
Tzu), I 82
late + 16th-century), 234, 239
Lapis-Christus, I I
Li Shao-Chun (Han alchemist,fl. - 133). 289
Larynx, 149

INDEX
Li Shih-Chen (eminent pharmsautical naturalist,
+ 1518 to + 1593). 46, 302. 303, 304. 306. 310,
311,312ff
Li Tao-Shun. See Ying Chhan Tzu
Li T&-Hsia(Chhing physiological alchemist), 234
Libertine Gnostics, 297 (b)
Lieh Tzu (Lieh Yu-Khou, ancient Taoist philomphical writer), 283
Lu Tsu Shih San N i I Shih Shuo Shu (Record of a lecture by the Taoist Patriarch Lu Yen on the Healing of Humanity by the Three Ni Doctrines), 234
Li Win-Chu (Ming alchemical writer, fl. + 1598). 227,
242
Liang (period), 226
Liang Chhiu Tzu, (Taoist commentator, +8th or
+ 9th-century), 86.124.126, ZOO
Liao (dynasty), I 69
Laao Yang Tim Win Ta Pim (Questions and Answers
of the Liao-Yang Hall), 224, 234
Liberation from the human condition. See Mukh'
Libido, loo, lpo
Lieh H k Chhiim! Chum (Complete Collection of the
Biographies of the Immortals), 89, 178, 188,241,
245.307
Lieh Hsim Chum (Lives of Famous Immortals), 83,
189,198,199,204
Lim chhi(re-casting the chhr), 148
Lien H+
P i CMrh Thu ( D i a p m of sam instructions fm recasting the bodily form), 76
Lien -Yang (Taoist mode of self-training), 20
Life, nature of, 173
Life-force, conserving the, 129
Life-span, 46,62,123,137,140,210,211,294
depends on man's own actions and not on heaven or
fate, 46, I 23,205,2gz
nature and, 240
Life within time and space, deliverance from. 261
Light, effects of, on the human body, 181 ff
Light-mysticism, 83,249
Lignic Secretion, 56, 60
'Like' and 'unlike' materia media, 298,299,300
Lin Shen-Fing (late Sung or early Yuan Taoist), 50,
106,107
Ling, 1'. H. ( + 1776 to 1839), 170,173-4.298
Ling-Pao Chm I Ching (Canon of the Primal Unity; a
Ling-Pao Scripture). 69
Lingam, rgo (d)
Lips, cyanosis of, 145
Lipoidal constituents, 3 18
Lipoproteins, 322
Lipuria, 319
Liquids, special pasmge from the throat for, I I 2
Litera? Expositor of Chemical Physic. See Shih Yao
Erh Ya
Liturgical servias of the Taoist 'nuns', 239
Liturgy, 18
Liu (wife of Wang Chhang-Shing), 207
Liu An (prince of Huai-Nanfl. - 125)~
242, 313,333,
3349 336
Liu Chhao (period), 35,289
Liu Chhtng-Yin (Su Yun Tao Jen,Taoist, 1886), I 14
Liu Chhun (Han Taoist, c. 83). 279
Liu Chih-Ku (Thang alchemical writer, +713 to
+ 755L 225

Liu Ching (Han Taoist), 192

Liu Hsiang (Han scholar and alchemist, c. - 60),189
Liu Hua-Yang (Chhing Buddhist monk, later Taoist,
+ 1794)~252,253
Liu I (twelfth patriarch of the Hsi Shan school of
Taoism), 69
Liu I-Ming (Chhing writer on physiological alchemy,
fl. 1798), 240
Liu i n i lute, for sealing, 226
Liu Shou (Thang writer on physiological alchemy, c.
+ 765). 204.207
Liu Sung-Shih (Ming iatro-chemist), 320
(Liu) T i n g (uncle of Liu Shou, claimed to be I 16 years
old), 207-8
Liu Ying, prince of Chhu (c. + 83). 279
Liver, 22.57.71.72.73.75.77,133.187,303.311
Lives of Famous Immortals. See Lieh Hsim C
h
Living beings. I 74-5
Living matter, properties of. 175
Lo Shu (magic square), 52
Lodestone, I 83
Logos, 246,248.25 I
I ~ n Valley
g
(the nose), 191
Lonuevity, 62,75,133.161,1%
concubinage and, 250
of cranes and tortoises. 158
and elixir procedures, 35
and the feminine, 65
and the future. 292-3
nei tan practices and, 227
and sexuality, 189, IW, 191,192
See also Material immortality and longevity
Lotus, 92, I 18,227,242
Lotus position, I 16, I 57,182,208 (b), 258,265,266
Lou (lit. leaking, applied by Taoist physiological alchemists to seminal retention, and by Buddhists
to extinction of the passions), 58, 128, 132, 135,
252-3
Luu chin ('cessation of leaking, or out flowing'), 252-3,
255
Love, between Taoist men and women, 2 17
'The Love-making of Dragon and Tiger', 104
Love-potions, 239
'Lovely girl' (cover-name for the fluid z), 75
'Lowly origin of the redeemer', 12
Lu. See Furnace
Lu Khuan-Yii (I), 179; (4). 243
Lu Nu-Shing (Taoist magician-technician, early
+ 3rd;century). 3og
Lu Shang-Chhing (Yuan or Ming iatro-chemist). 315
Lu Shih-Chhen (Chhing writer on physiological alchemy). 234
Lu Tsu-Chhien (Neo-Confucian philosopher, + I 137
to + 1 181). 294-5
Lu Tsu Shih Hsien- Thim Hsii Wu Thm' I Chin Hua
Trmg Chih (Principles of the (Inner) Radiance of
the hTetallous (Enchyrnoma) (explained in terms
of the) Undifferentiated Universe and of the AllEmbracing Potentiality of the Endowment of
Primary Vitality), 244
L6 Tsu Shih San Ni I Shih Shuo Shu (Record of a Lecture by the Taoist Patriarch Lu Yen on the Healing of Humanity by the Three Ni Doctrines),
234

5.38

INDEX

Lii Tung-Pin. See L 6 Yen

Lii Yen (Thang alchemical writer, +8th and early
+gth-centuries), 21, 87, 88, 131, 158, 234, 237,
24.49245
shrine of, 159
Luan T a (Han Taoist adept, - 2nd-century), 309
Lull, Raymond (alchemical writer and logician, c.
+ 1232 to + 1316), 14.17
Lun Chih-Huan (Yuan writer on physiological alchemy), I Z I
Lun H& (Discourses Weighed in the Balance), 137,
279.302
Lunar inadiation, 182
Lunar mansions, 60,282
Lunar month, 58
Lunar phases, and the constant cyclical chan*
of
Yang and Yin chhiand iin the body, I 18, I 19,120
Lunar quarters. 58.60
Lunation, 70,222
Lung chih hsien chih 'the (falling) crescent chhi of the
Dragon', i.e. the Yin coming forth fmm within the
Yang), 58
L- Hu Chhim Hung Shun (Discourse on the Dragon
and the Tiger, or Lead and Mercury), 22
Lung hU ~hih,330
Lung Mei 'Tzu (the Dragon-Eyebrow Master, perhaps
12th-century), ~ 1 1 , 2 1 2
Lung-men school. 23 I
Lunm, 22, 24, 30, 57, 71, 72, 73, 76, 77, 79.95, 108,
133. 141. 147, 148, 149. 150. 187, 198. 310. 332,
333
during apnoea, 271
Lupton, Thomas (Elizabethan writer, + 1579), 3 12
Lute, (for sealing), 226, 319,320,330
Luther, Martin, I , 18

Ma Li-Chao (Taoist commentator, probably + 13thcentury), 223

Ma-wang-tui, near Chhangsha
Han tombs at, 136,156, 157
Mohutsu Ichinyo Ekotoha (Japanese scroll-painting),
311,312
McClure, C. M. (I), 270
McKenzie, R. Tait, 173
Macrobiwns, 28,37,40,75,76,77
outer (wm' tan), 42.56
inner (nk tan), 42.56.72
techniques of, 142 ff
Macrobiotic techniques, 3 I , 170, 177,185
still persist in Chinese sanatoria, 166,229
Macrocosm-microcosm doctrine, 68.69.70, I 17, I 18,
I 19,122,136,244,26o, 263,276
Madras, 284,285,286
Magendie, Fran~ois(physiologist, + 1783 to 1855).
I49
Magic, 17,183,211
Magic mushrooms, 140
Magic powers. See Siddhi
Magic rites, 5
and physiological alchemists, I 13
Magic squares, 52,120
Magical numbers. 212

Magician-technicians, biographies of, 141

Magicians (siddha), 261
Magnetic compass, 52
Magnetic needle, 183
Maqetic phenomena, Chinese priority in the exploration of, I 82
Magnetism, 52
Magnetite, 226
Magnificat, 62
Magus, the Renaissance, 3 (c)
Mahicina (Great China), 260 (d), 284
Mahdcina-kramaccird Tantra, 260 (d), 284
Mahscina-Tiri (Tara, goddess of Great China), 260
(d), 284
M&-mrwea Tantra, 262
Mahcir+ (red M u , produced by the female), 274
Mahtiwdta sacrifices, 258
MahQima-s~ibfdIqkGraSZstra, 260,274
de Mailla, Jo.seph (Jesuit, + 1649 to + 1748)~176
Maimonides (Moshe ben Maimon, Hispano-Jewish
philosopher, + I I 35 to + I zoq), 296
Main Essentials of the Metallous Enchyrnoma.. . See
Chin Tan To Yao
Mmthuna (sexual intercourse undertaken as a religious
rite), 274-5
Mmthunosya parZvptar ('returning' or 're-routing' of
the semen), 274
MmitrZyqtf Upunishad, 264.274
'Making the ching return upwards to nourish the
brain'. See H u m chingpu nao
'Making the Yellow River flow backwards', 270
Maladies. See Diseases
Malaria, 300. 322
hlale domination, 65
Male and Female forces, 30
See also Yin and Yang
Male and female reactants, 12
Maleness. See Masculinity
Mammary carcinoma, 306
Man, as the real subject of alchemy, 15,16,20
Man-AnM (Myriad Healing Prescriptions), r rz
M+ala, 10, 13,201,261
of 'ribet, 284
Manichaeism, 3 (h), I I (h), 1z.15, 17 (e), 217,297
Manipiira cakra, 264
Manjusri (WPn-Shu Phu-Sa), 83
Mantra, 179 (c), 261
Manual dexterity (shoufa), 226
Manual of Absorhing the Internal Chhi of Primary
Vitality. See Fu iVei Yurm Chhi Ching
Manual of Exercising the Muscles and Tendons. See I
Chin Ching
Manual of the Five Kitchens. See Lao Tzu Shun Wu
Chhu Ching
Manual of the Lotus of Fire. See Huo Lim Ching
Manual of Nourishing the Life-Fore by Physical
Exercise and Self-Massage. See Thai-Chhing Too
yin Yaw fig thing
Manual of the Potable Gold or Metallous Fluid. . . See
Thai-Chhing C'hin I Shrn Tan Ching
Manual operations, 209,227
distasteful for the 'gentlemen', zgo

INDEX
Meat
abstention from, 237
softening of, by strong urea solutions, 332
Xleckel, J. F., I 77
Xleconium, 146
Medical apotropaics, 183
Medical Excerpts Urgently Copied. See Ton-Isho'
Medical gymnastics, I 55, 170. 298
Medical literature, 39,325
Medical philosophies of China and Europe compared,
I73
Medical terminology, I 18
Medicinal entities. 40-1
exterior (waiyao), 40.42.44
interior (neiyao), 41.42.44
Medicinal substances, 40
Medicine, 137, 166, 170, 176, 280,287,299,301
Arabic. See Arabs
Persian. See Persia
alchemy and, 224-5
and a theory of the chhi, 283
closeness to alchemy in China, 224 (d)
comparative, 287
Westem. See Europe
legal, oldest book on. 302
traditional, 304, 306
Medicines. See Drugs
Medicines of immortality. See Elixirs of immortality
and longevity
Meditation, 44, 229,243.25s.288.291
Christian, 179
concentration in, 269
physical effects during, 181
and the power to impose alterations on matter, 6
as preparation for sexual rites, 205, 206
thempeutic effects of. 270,281
timing of, 144
Meditation techniques, 23,31,65,73,78,79, 107, 113,
122,124,128,140,179-81,2o~,z13,217,237,~~9
in madem China, I 54,166, 179
terminology. See Technical terms
Yogistic. See Ymistic meditation techniques
in the \Vestem bvorld. 297
Mei Piao (Thang alchemical lexicogmpher,
806).
121.334
Mei-Than Tsang Wang (one of the 500 Lohan et the
218,222,229,237,2383,243,246,29,288,299.
temple of Pao-Kuang Ssu), 62
332
Taoist, 28 ff, 39,62, 86, 147, 149, 154, 197,201,291 Melancisis, 9, 10, 12
Melchior, Nicholas (d. 153I), 12 (b)
Mathematics, 283
Memoir on Aromatic Plants and Incense. See Hsiang
Mcitrci unit of measure, 263
Yao Chhao
Matrimmium alchymirum, I 2, 1 0 3 ~12
2
Memoir on Several Varieties of Drug Plants. See Yao
Matsycisma (Yogi posture). 265
C h q Chhao
Matsyendranith (member of a group of magicians,
Ming Kho (philosopher c. - 300). 280
perhaps 6th-century). 261
Menopause neuroses or psychoses. 306
Yogistic posture named after him. 266
Menstrual blood, 185, 187, 195, 196, 207, 301
Matter, nature of, 10
conversion by 'will-power' into corresponding chhi,
Matter and spirit, distinction between, I I , 12
de llaupertius, Pierre Imuis lioreau, (philosopher,
237
endocrine preparations from, 240
+ 1698to + 1 759). 305
1 0 s of,
~ 239
Maums (Salemitan physician, ca. I I&), 310 (g)
as material of foetus, 195-6,207,222
May~ircisana(Yogic posture), 267
retention of. 2qo
'hleals of emptiness', I 50

'Manuals of the Yellow Courts', I 5 I , 204

Manuscripts
from the tomb of the son of the Lady of Tai, 1 3 w
Mao-Shan, 144.180
Mao Thing Kho Hua (Discourses with Guests in the
Thatched Pavilion), I 5 I
Maps
from Han tomb, 136
Mara the Tempter, 2 I 8
Mare, urine of, 324-5
Margarita Preciosa Novella (P. Bonus, pr. 1546). 6,
II,I9
Mark Antony, 3- (b)
Marriage of fire and water, 179 (h), 248
Marriage, group or collective, I 53
'Marrow of the caerulean dragon', 65
'Marrow of the white phoenix', 239
Martin, Jamb ( + 18th-century alchemist), 153
Martin, W. A. P. (X), 21
Marxist identity of opposites, 263
h4asculinisation, 239
Masculinity, 63, 132
hlaspero. Henri (7), 23,38,86,122, 147,149, 180,183,
200, 205,246, 279,280,283
Massage, 29,82, 154, 158, 162,287,289
of the breasts, 239
=If-, 155.237.287
technical terms. See Technical terms
Massignon. Louis, 152
Masturbation, 201,216 (a), 237,251 (a)
Materia prima, I o
Material immortality and longevity, 9, 21, 23, 25, 81,
88, 95, 123, 125. 135, 184, 186, 195, 217, 281,
287-8,291,296,297,308,309,336
Buddhism and, 249
Confucians and, 294
Hathayoga and. See Hayhayoga
India and. 287
proto-chemical alchemy and, 290
Prometheus and, 293
Yeh Tshai on, 295
Material immortality and longevity, techniques for the
attainment of, 28-34, 37.42,86,92, I 23. 124. 129,
134. 138. 140. 145, 146. 154. 155. 170. 177, 184.
186, 193, 200, 201. 204, 206, 207, zog, 210, 21 I,

54O

INDEX

Mental concentration, 83, 179

difficulty in, 145
methods of. See E k w a t d
therapeutic effects of, 270
on some visible thing (kasina), 273
Yoga and. 259
Mental health, -,47
and control of the chhi, 280
Mental Mirror of the presewation of Life. See Pao

Sh*

Hsin Chien

Mental Mirror Reflecting the Essentials of Oral Instruction about the Discourses on the Elixir and
the Enchymoma. See Tan Lun C h e h Chih Hsin

Chien
Mental states, produced by anoxacmia, 29
'Mental tests, after yet exercises, 27 I
Mental visualisation, autonomic response to, 272
Mental withdrawal, 259
Mentality, pneuma and seminality, 220
Mercaptans, 322
Merchants, 282
Mercuric sulphide, 25, 227
Mercury, 16.22, 24, 25,40,41,58,60,66, 99,103, 775,
213,214,227
antithesis between mercury and silver, 333
black, 223
cover-name for, 2
consumption of, 309
in Indian alchemy, 277
'killing'-, 277
I,ignic, 91
technical terms. See Technical terms
'true' or vital, 22, 24, 25, 49, 60, 62, 65, 66, 91, 92,
100, 120, 170, 214, 220, 221, 222, 226, 240, 246,
333
Mercury and lead amalpm, 290
Mercury and sulphur, reactions of, 290
Meridians. See Acu-tracts
Mesmerism, 16,180(a)
See also Hypnosis
Metabolism
during intense meditation, 271
and Yogistic state of retarded life, 271
Metal ('white snow'), 25 1
Metal compounds, 224
Metal element, 24, 37.40.42.56.58. 7 I . 225, 332
The Metallous Enchymoma Within. See Nei Chin Tan
'Metallous essence', 206
'Metallous fluid' (saliva), 141. 332
'Metallous gateway', 39
'Metallous headcloth', 141
'Metallous Pool', 210
Metallurgical change, 10
Metallurgical operations, 227
Metallurgy, 224
Metals, 92, 226
associated with the viscera, 2 4 9 5
classification into male and female (Yin and Yang)
categories, 285
Five-, 48.335
transcendental, 22
obtained from certain plants, 227

transmutation of, 16, 17, 19,21

used in preparation of elixirs, 27,3 I
precious. See Precious metals
Metanoia, 246
Metaphors, (ytiyen), 218, 21g-z0,223,228,240, 242,
243
chemical, 234
Method of Nourishing the Vitality by Gymnastics and
Massage. See Yang She%. Tao Yin Fa
Mi-Chun-Na (ambassador to China, 720). 286,287
Miao-Thai-Tzu (Taoist temple). 239 (b)
Mica powder, 31
Microcosm. See Macrocosm-mimosm doctrine
Microcosmic clock dial, and standard circulation, 74
Microcosmic salt. 328
Microcosmo~raphy,log-10, I 14, I 16
Micturition, I 98
Miles, W. (I), 271
blilk, 319,320,321
from the mother of a male baby, 3 18
formation of, 207
Millenarianism, 153
Millet-grains, 99
Min Hsiao-Ken (perhaps the uncle of Min I-TP, c.
1830). 234
Min I-'I'P (Taoist editor, c. 1830). 224, 231, 234. 237,
240.24.4.248
Mind (;), 26.47
Mineral compounds, 224
Minerals, 92,226
consumption of, 31
Eight, 48,335
used in preparation of elixirs, 27,31
Ming (period), 35, 161, 166, 168, 214. 224, 227, 234,
237>2W.303*314,319
Ming chhuan. chen ('bright window dust'), 99
Ming Chin. Thu (Bright Mirror of Physiological Alchemy), 55.56.62.70, 117. 118
Ming pharmaceutical natural histories, 195
della Mirandola, Pico (Renaissance Platonist,
1470
to + 1533). 3 (c)
Mirror of the All-penetrating Medicine of the Primary
Vitalities. See Thien YuanJu Yao Ching
Mirror of the Art of the Yellow and the White. See
Huang Pai Ching
Mirrors, 284
Missionaries, 174
Missions, diplomatic, from Indian countries to the
Chinese capital, 286
Miyashita SahurT, (I), I 13, I 14
Miyuki Mokusen (I), 252,255
Mnemonic rhymes, 222, 243, 333
Mobed Shah ( 17th-century poet), 279
3lohenjo-Ilaro civilisation ( - 25th to - 20thcenturies), 258,268
Monasticism
Buddhist, 169
Mondino de Luzzi (anatomist, ca. 1275 to 1326),
114
Money-making, by physicians, 321-2
Monistic idealism (adn~uita
cqedGnta),285
Monks, Chinese, pilgrimages to India, 282

'DEX
Monogamy, 191
Monograph on the Herbaceous Peonies of Yangchow.
See Y q - c h o u Shao Yao Phu
Monotheism, 296
de Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat (social philosopher, 1689 to 1755).175
Moon, 40.54,81.96,120,204,222
beneficial influences of, I 82
sun and, interpenetration of, 246
waxing and waning of, 58.70
Moon rays, absorption of, 31-z,35,183,184
Morality. See Ethics
Morphology, 177
Mortido, 100
Mwti'catio, 10
Moshe ben Maim6n. See Maimonides
The Mother's contribution in generation, 38,207
Mountain, the body seen as a, 103, 105,I 14
Mountain-sickness, 145
Mouth exercises, 158
Mrtyum-jayati (the conquest of death, and attainment
of immortality), 276,277 (d), 287,291
Mu i (lignic secretion), 42,56
Mu Yii (bathing and wash in^), 254
Mudrd gestures, I 83 (a), 261,269
Mukti (liberation from the human condition), 258,261
Mulddhdrd cakra, 264
Xlung bean (I'haseolus mungo),3I 5
Musaeum Hermeticum Reformatum et Ampli'catum, I z
(b)
Muscles, 123,156
abdominal, 2@,270,274
control over, 269,271,287
eye-, 2%
involuntary, 240,269,271,287
rectus abdomini, 269
smooth, 303
voluntary, 269,271
Mushrooms, magic, 140
Muslims,
respiratory techniques among, I 52
Mutual conquest of the Five Elements (hsimg shhg or
hsian~kho), 25, 192,193,304
Mutual Conquest Order, 304
Xlutual generation of the Five Elements (hsiang shhg),
25,304
'Mutual irradiation' pattern. See 'Fxlipse' diagram
Mutual Production Order, 304
Myriad Healing Prescriptions. See Man-Anp6
Mysterious Axis (hsiian shu), 212
Mysterious dark pearl, 99
Mysterious Girl. See Hsiian Nu
Mysterious Patriarch of the Supernal Essena, 206
Mysterious Pearl discovered near the Red River. See
Chhih Shui Hsiian Chu
'Mysterium Conjunctionis' (Jung), 2 ff
Mysterium conjunctionisof all opposites, 27s
Mysterium conjunctionisof Yang and Yin, 9 I, 26 I, zgo
Mysticism, and mystical experience, 16.31,152,283
symbols of, I 5
light-mysticism. See Light-mysticism
Mystical and rational theology, 258 (e)

54I

Nddi (network of vessels or 'canals' in Tantric physiology), 263,287

Nag Hammadi library, 3 (b)
Nigirjuna (Indian alchemical philosopher, f z n d century), 259
Nakedness. See Ritual nakedness
Nan-f6ng Shan
sculptured Lohan in cave at, go
Nan Yo Ssu Ta Chhun Shih Li Shih Y u m W& (Text
of the Vows (of Aranyaka Austerities) taken by the
Great Chhan Master (Hui-) Ssu of the Southern
Sacred Mountain), 140
Nasal gaze, 269
Natural healing powers of the body, 300
Natural life-endowment, 47,248
Natural philosophy, 52,73,304.306
physiological alchemists and, 49
Natural processes, reversal of, ~ 5 4 ~ 6 0
Natural science, 288
Nature
disturbance of the balance of, 300
female component in, 30
following the way of, 62,66
going against. See Tien tao
knowledge of, as a way of salvation, 36
manipulation of, 2924
misconceptions about Chinese attitude to, 292
personification of, 5
proceeding according to Nature leads to death while
following counter-Nature leads to immortality,
118
unity of, 180
Naturphilwophie, 173,177,179
Taoist influences on, 175
Nausea, 145
Necrophilia and necrophagy, 278
Nei Chin Tun (The Metallous Enchyrnoma Within),
I 18,I 19,124,128,243
Net' Ching Thu (Diagram of the Internal Texture of
Man), I 14,I 15,I 17,I 18
Nei kung (methods of encouraging the preparation of
an enchymoma), 29
Nei K u w Thu Shuo (Illustrations and Explanations of
Gymnastic Exercises), I 66
Neitun (physiologicalalchemy), 12,19,zo-8,p-5.37,
46,63,92,99, 181,213,220, 225, 229, 243. 246,
257,290,299.322,323,332,333,336
amalgam of mercury and lead dominant conception
in, zgo
beginning of, 129ff
Buddhism and, 244
conceptions of immortality contrasted with Christianity, 297
historical development of, I 29-141
hostility to wai tun, 223-4,2z7-8,251
influence on Western science and technology, 298
overlap with mai tan activities, 120(e), 186,zog,210,
218,219,234,290,333
possible first book on, I 36
proto-chemical, 138,148,211,~1X

INDEX

542

Nei tun (contd.)

religious character of, 290-1
techniques. See Techniques of physiol*cal
alchemy
terminology. Sre Technical terms, alchemy
took precedence of woi tan, 209
Yoga and, 169,218,262,278,283,287-8.298
Nei tan, date of first appearance of the phrase, 140,
'41
Nei tan textJ, 21,24,25,34,35,225,244
romantic quality in, 228
in the mllections of Min I-T6 and Fu Chin-Chhiian,
231.234
Nei Tun Fu (Ode on the Physiological Enchymoma),
223
Nn' Wai Erh Ching Thu (Illustrations of Internal and
Superficial Anatomy), I 13
Nei yao (interior medicinal entity). See Medicinal entities
Neoplasms, 306
Nerves, 120, I 23
Nervous system
autonomic, 264
Nestorian Church, 246 (a)
Neuro-muacular training, 269
Neuro-transmitters. I 8 I
Neuroses, 2,6,8,306
associated with high blood lactate levels, 181
of sexual deprivation, I go
New Discourses (by 1,iu Hsieh). See Hsin Lun
Newly Reorganised Pharmacopoeia. See Hsin Hsiu
P& Tshao
Nguyen Dang T i m (I), 3 17
Ni (counter-current), 292
Nihuan (Buddhist tmnsliteration of nirucina), 38
Ni liu, or ni hing (flow in a direction opposite to the
usual; alchemical technical term), 25
N i wun (Taoist anatomical technical term for the
brain), 38
Niao-Chii Mountains, 3og
Nicander of Colophon (physician, pharmacist, poet
and grammarian, fl. - I 35). 303
Nicephoras the Solitary, 297 (b)
Nkedo. See Melanosis
Nihdyat al- Talah (The End of the Search), 333 (g)
Niko of Samos, I 87 (h)
Nine Palaces, 213
Nine Regenerations (chiu hum), 44
Ning Fing Tzu (legendary patron saint of founders,
metal workers and potters), 155, 157,158,162
Nirdwandra (liberation from all opposites), 262
Niroha. 38.54 (e), 251
Nitre, 328
Nitrogen, 149
Noel, Francis, (Jesuit, fl. 171I), 176
Normal current flow of fluids of the body, 214-5, 222.
243.247
'The Normal Current leads to the generation of children; the C o u n t e r - C u m t leads to the enchyrnorna of life eternal', 243, 247, 249. 25-1.
255
Normal feelings, destruction of, as part of a mystical
way of salvation, 278-9.287

North America, 153

concept of chhi circulation in, I 5 I
Northern Sacred Peak of HPng Shan, 207-8
Northern Sung (period), 3 I 6
Northern Wei (period), 166
Nose, 146
drinking through, 240,270
cleaning exercises for, 270
Nostrils, I 34
Notational signs. See Symbolic notation
Sothingness, as all things inpotentia, 222 (d)
'Sotice du Cong-fou [Kung-fu] des Ronzes Tao-sk
[T'ao shih]' (Cihot), 170, 174
'Nourishing' the upper regions, 37, 60,72, 79, 120,
123,124,141,146
Noyes, J. H. (leader of the Perfectionists of Oneida),
153
Nu Tsung Shmmg Hsiu Pao F a (A Precious Raft of Salvation for Womm Taoists practising the Double
Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities), 239
Nuclear physics, I 8, 19
Nuclear power, 297
Numerals, classification into male and female (YinYang) categories. 285
Numinous Fluid (ling I), 15I
Numinous Record of the Confidential Oral Instructions on the Yin Enchymoma.. . See W-Wu Chm-Jm Khou S h m Yin Tufi Pi Chiieh Ling
Phim
Numinous Root (ling A&), 15I
Numinous Sprout, 204
Nummular enema, 26 (b)
NyGsa rite, 26 I , 275
Oaths, of alchemical secrecy,24 (d), 39,198
Obsessions, 2,6
Obstructions, in the circulation of the chhi, 154
'The Occult', 17
Oddiyina (the presumed original home of the Tantras),284
Ode on Grappling with the Mystery. See Chhin H r i i a
Fu
Ode on the Physiological Enchymoma. See Nei Tan Fu
Oecological pollution, 297
Oesophageal sphincter, 149
Oesophagus, I 12, 149
Oestrogens, 301,303,306,322
excretion of, 324
separation from androgens, 3 18.3 19
Oken, I.orenz (biological philosopher, + 1779 to
1851). 177
Old History of the Thang Dynasty. See Chiu Thuq
Shu
'Old Millennial'. See Ku Chhiang
Oleanolic acid, 3 17
Oligo-dynamic actions, 300 (f)
Omissions from Previous Pharmaceutical Natural Histories. See P& Tshao Shih I
On Delaying Destiny by Nourishing the Natural Forces. See Ymq Hsing (or S h h g ) Ym Ming Lu
'On the Sacred Art' (Archelam), 218
On Taoism, True and False. See Pim Tao Lun
Oneida Community (1844 to 1880), 153

INDEX
Opening and closing (hopht). 254
Opposites
fusion of, I z
'irreconcilable', 8
Marxist identity of, 263
personified, 12
transcendence of, 291
union of. See Cajunctio oppositorum
Oral instructions, 1X6,200,201,207(d), 243
to be handed down only to those worthy to receive
them, 207-8
Ordeals, imposed by Taoist maaten on their disciples.
279
Organic solvents, 336
Organic unity, laws of. I 73
Organism at the beginning of life, enqmic and hormonal situation of, 288
Organs of the body
actions upon one another, 298,304,305
associated with a particular manner of exhalation.
1467
all organs contribute their products to the bloodstream, 147
'essences' of, 147
transplants of, 292,305
stimulatory and inhibitory actions of one organ on
another, 305
Orgasm, 186,191,195, 196,197,201
refraining fmm, 195,198
female abstention from, 206
'Original Whiteness', 206
Original youthful perfection, doctrine of, 276
Orphism, 3
Orpiment, 226
The 'other' and the self, 60.95, zr 5 (b)
Other-worldliness. See Withdrawal fmm the world
Ou Hsi-Fan (Sung rebel leader, c. 1041). I 12, I 13
Outer elixir (wai f a ) , 2.20
ovary, 301,322
Ovid (Roman poet, -43 to 17), 293 (c)
Ox and ploughboy symbolism, I 16
See also 'Iron ox'
O x y ~ e n142,149
,
Oxygen-consumption
during deep meditation, 181
during breathing exercises, 27 I
in mental tests, 271
experiments on breathing at different altitudes, 272
Oxyhaemoglobin, 146

Pa Kung. See the Eight Venerable Adepts

Pa Tzu-Yuan (physiological alchemist and gymnastics
specialist, I 801). I 66
Pace of Yu (ritual dance), 213
Padmrisaa. See Lotus-position
Pagel, Walter ( I I). 14, 17, 19
Pai Chu-1 (Thang poet, 772 to 846). 334
Pai hst?eh (white snow), 223,251,291
Pm W?n Phien (The Hundred Questions), 88 (b), 229
Pai Yu-Chhan. See KOChhang-KGng
Pai-Yiin Kuan (White Clouds Taoist Temple, Peking)
stone stele at, I 14, I 15

Pain, 149
in the heart and chest, I 50
caused byjealousy, 195
ignored by meditating y e n , 272
and pleasure centres in the brain, 273 (a)
Palamas, Gregory (protagonist of hesychasm in the
Byzantine church, d. 1357), 152-3,297 (b)
Palwe, l94 (a)
Palos, Stefan (2). 166
Pangenesis, 305
Pao-Kuanp Ssu (temple)
Buddhist arhat in, 36
image of Mei-Than Tsang Wang at, 61
I ~ h a at,
n 81,84,93,94
Pao Phu Tzu (Book of the Preservation-of-Solidarity
Master), 21, 35, 39, 109, 143, 183, 189, 191, 203,
209,210,21 I , 262,289,2989
'chemicals' and 'biologicals' in, 298-9
rhyme quoted in, 2 0 0
Pao Shhg Hsin Chim (Mental Mirror of the Preservation of Life), 162, 163, 164, 165
Pao Shou Thang Ching Yen Fang (Tried and Tested
Prescriptions of the Pmtection of Longevity
Hall), 320
The Paper-Boat Teacher, 219 (g)
Parable(phuyu,piyi3,z18,z19,
223,243,249
Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim, 1493 to
+ 1541)~6. 15.17,175,177,296
Paradoxes, I 8 I
Parasites, supposedly killed by urinary precipitate, 3 13
Par&.rftti(return), 262
Parricide, 6 , 7
'Participation mystique', 5
Paicimottariscina (Yogi posture), 265
Passionate emotion, avoidance of, 243
Patanjali (often identified with the famous p m marian), 258
Pathological arhythmias, 270
Patholo~y,82,304
Pama, 2x5
St Paul (of Tarsus), 174 (c), 175,297
Pausanias (Greek topographer, ca. 150), 293 (c)
1739 to
de Pauw, Comelius (Dutch philologist,
+ 1799). 175
Peach gum, 3 I
Peach Springs Forest, 229
'Peccant humours', 300
Pei Lin, Sian
stone monument in, 139
Peking, Pai Yun Kuan Taoist temple at, I 14, I 15
Pelliot, Paul (8). 284
Ph Ching F h g Y u a (Additions to Natural History
aiming at the Original Perfection of the 'Classical
Pharmacopoeia'). 33 I
P& Tshao K m Mu (The Great Pharmacopoeia), 46,
302,306.3 14,331
P& Tshao M&x Chhiia (Ignorance about the Pharmacopieai Dissipated), 3 I 3. 321
P& Tshao Shih I (Omissions from Previous Pharmaceutical Naturol Histories), 303
P& Tshao Yen I Pu I (Revision and Amplification of
the General Ideas of the Pharmacopoeia), 309

INDEX

544

Penis,
(d)
technical and vulgar terms for, 19
See also Yu h&
Penis-spur, I 94 (a)
Pentacyclic hydrocarbons, 3 17
People of the Book (Jews, Christians and Muslims),
296
Perception, 175
Perfected equalisation, theory of (chicht), 78.79
P m . Schhatcin S ~ ~ o u s i a(On
s the Techniques of
Sexual Intercourse), 187 (h)
Pericardial cavities, 39
Pericardium, 8z(c), 255
Perinea1pressure, 202, 237,264
applied with the heel, 159 (a), 166 (b), 208,266
used in India, 274
Peripatetics, 176
'Permissive' society, 191
Persia, 282
medicine in, I 14
Persian encyclopaedia, I I 3, I 14
Personality integration, 263, 291,
meditation and, I 81
Perspiration, 144,145,158,161
induced purposively, 272
Phalansteries, I 53 (b)
Phallus of gold-mercury amalgam, 277
P h a S h Yii Lu (Records of Discu~ionsat Phan
Mountain), 122
Phan Wei (19th-century writer on gymnastics),
I 66
Pharmaceutical industry, 299,300
Pharmaceutical natural histories, 195,31I
Pharmaceutical prescriptions, exercises allied with.
I 66
Pharmamlogy, 279
endocrine, 280
Pharmacy and pharmacists, 82,209,301,325,332
Pharynx, 149
Phei Hsiian-Jen (Taoist adept of uncertain date, s u p
posedly b. - 178), 205
P h b g Hsiao (Tmist priest and alchemical writer, c.
+945), 22, 50, ~ 5 ~ 5 6 ~224.225
60,
P h b g Ssu (alchemist, fl. I Z Z ~ )120
, (e)
P h k g Tsu (the Chinese Methuselah, expert in sexual
techniques), 154, 157, 162, 187, 188, 189, 1 9 ,
193,201,208,210,250,27~
Phing Tnr Ching (Manual of the Sexual Longevity
Techniques of P h k g Tsu), I 87, I 89
P h k g Tzu. See Phing Tsu
Phenols, non-steroidal, 322
Phi kuo,63,220
Phi Phei Yin Y q Tlun' Hsi Chiich Thu (Diagram of
oral instructions for the simple mating of Yin and
Yang by means of embryonic respiration), 73
Philadelphia, I 53
Philainis, I 87 (h)
Philaletha, Eirenaeue. See Starkey, George
Philalethes, Eugcnius. See Vaughan, Thomas
Philosopher's Stone, I, 17, 18, 19.21
Christ identified with, 9, I I , 19
Phlegm, 320

pho ' ~ l s ' 27.70,

,
133,247
Phoenix. See Symbolic animals
Phonetics, 161 (f)
Phosphates, 3 I 5
Photo-receptive practices found in China, but not in
India, 273
Phototherapy. See Heliotherapy
Phthisis, 332
Phu Chao Thu ('Univenal Radiance'), 96
Phu Chi Fmg (Practical Prescriptions for Everyman),
329
Physical exercises. See Gymnastic techniques
Physical perfection, 77
Physicians, 73, 148,280,296,303,319, 321,322,324,
329,330,3327334
Greek. See Greece
European. See Europe
Physics, and physicists, 170
nuclear, 18, 19
old Chinese, 182
Physio-pathological system, 137
Physiological alchemy. See Nn' tun
Physiological constituents of an elixir, 27
Physiological fallacies, 146
Physiological processes, chemical terms applied to, 24
Physiological techniques, 23,25,47,54,65, I 13
canied out at different particular hours of the day
and night, 44-5
longevity and, 21 I, 2x8
rules and arrangements for, 213
ancillary to the proto-chemical techniques, 218
periods of activity and repose in, 220
veiled under proto-chemical terminology, 223-4
never harmful, 227
Physiology, 142,146,179,180,195,280,304-5
cultural contacts and, 282-3
elixirs and, 27
European. See Europe
experimental, 177
medical, 82, I 16
Tantric. See Tantrism
Taoist. See Taoism
technical terms. See Technical terms
Yoga. See Yoga
Physiotherapy, 154, 155,156,166,268
in modem Chinese hospitals, 154. 166
history of, 170, 177
techniques, 298
Phi chhi (respiratory technique), 143
Pien Tao Lun (On Taoism, True and False),
307
Fimr oulntrm~esimple, 332
Pietists, I 53
Pig, 303
Pine needles, 3 I
Pine trees, 33
Pivald channel, 264
Pirates, Japanese, 169
Pitch-pot p m e , 106, x g
Pituitary dwarfimn, 306
Pituitary gland, 323
Placebo effect, 300

INDEX
Placenta, 76,146,301,322
absence of, in the adult, 146
of animals, 303
consumption of, 279
in medicine, 303-4
Planchette, 237 (a)
Planets, chhiof the five, 205 (e)
Plant cells, totipotence of, 28
Plant genera
Allium, 3I
Atrartylodes (Artractylis), 32,325
Coptis, 309 (c)
*talk, 271
Eucommia, 3I
Gleditachia,317,331
Paeonia, 293,294
Pachyma. 33
Phaseolus, 3I 5
P o l y m , 33
Stermlia, 3I 7
Plant names, 224
Plant varieties, artificial production of, 293-4
'Planting lotuses in a sea of fire', 92
Plants, 92
hallucogenic, 3I,145
used in preparation of elixim, 27,92,151
consumption of, 31,32,35
small amounts of metals obtained from, 227
Plasticator, 293
Plato, 14. 15
Platonic 'courts of Love', I 5
'Play of the five animals', 161
Pleural cavities, 39
Plexuses of the autonomic nervous system, 264
Plotinus, 14
Pneuma. See Chhi
'Pneuma technology', I 50,263
Pneumatology, 209
Poetical Treatise on the Primary Vitalities. See Wu
Chm Phien
poetry. 9
in Nei Tan literature, 2289,291
Tantrism and, 278
in the Chhu Tzhu, 281
Pointer to the Meaning of Human Nature and the
Life-Span. See Hsing Ming Km' Chih
Pointing the Way Home to Life Etemal. See Chih Kuci
Chi
Poison-damsels, 194(c)
Poisons,
supposedly dispersed by urinary precipitate, 313
in elixin, 227,289
Pokora, 'I'imotheus (4). 279
Political and cultural relations, between China and India, 286
Political importance of the institution of concubinage,
191-2
Political power, I 54
Pollution, oecological, 297
P o l y (~
= P&, Pachyma)cocos, 33
Pool of Chhi, 150-1.186
Pores, blockage of, 148 (d), 154

Possessivenm, I 35
Postures
in Taoist ppnnastics, I 57,249,268
in Taoist meditation techniques. 179
Yogistic. See Asana
Potassium nitrate, 331
Power, desire for, I 35
Practical Prescriptions for Everyman. See Phu Chi

Farm
Pr@d (wisdom), 263
Prajhi-piramit%(Perfection of Wisdom), 260
Rea,263,264
analogue of chhi, 276
Pr@dydma(breath-control,Yoga term), 258,259,260,
263,268,270-1,274,280,288,297

in bandha techniques, 269

Pratilomm (retracing of previous existences in time),
262,288
f i a t y a h a ~(withdrawal of the senses from the phenomenal world), 258,259,273
Prayers, 218
during rites of sexual union, 206,213,217,275
'Pre-natal endowment', 53.62.65.75, 128,129,252
Precious metals, theory that they developed in the
earth from the ignoble metals, 226
Precious Mirror of Eastern Medicine. See Tonguongui
P O R ~
Precious Mirror of the Enchymoma Laboratory. See
Tan Fang P m Chien chih Thu
Pncious Raft of Salvation for Women Taoists practising the Double Regeneration of the Primary Vitalities. See Nu Tsmg *S
Hsiu Pao Fa
Precious Records of the Great Mystery. See Thai
Hsiian Pao Tim
Precipitation and precipitates, 4, 314,316,320, 321,
322,325,329
of a fatty nature, 319
Pregnancies, I 53
Prescriptions, 82
restorative for people on the point of death, 315
Prescriptions for the Prrservation of Health. See Chi
Sldng Fang
Prctiosa ,Mqarita Nwella. See Mmgm'ta Pretiosa
Novella
Primary vitalities, 33 I
and the loss of menstrual blood, 239
See also Three primary vitalities
'Primitive Solidarity', 244 (c)
Primitivity, I 29, I 30
Principles of the (Inner) Radiance of the Metallous
(Enchyrnoma). . . See Thai l Chin Hua Tsung Chi
Private profit, and modem science, 20
Private property, I 29
'Production without possession, action without selfassertion, development without domination', 134
(e)
Prognostication, 302
Projection (psychological technical term), 4-7, 8, I I,
13
(alchemical technical term), 4 (d)
Prometheus, 293
Property-ownemhip, 218

INDEX
Records of Discussions at Phan Mountain. Sec P h Replenishment (fu), 25.47
Reproduction, 174. 177,324
Shan Yu Lu
Records of the (Inhabitants of the) Various Caves on Reservoir of semen (chitg!shih), r 86
the Southern Slopes of Mt. Hua. See Hua Ycnq: Resolution of Doubts concerning the Restoration to
Immortality. See Hsiu Hsien Pien Huo Lun
Chu Tunx Chi
Resolution of Diagnostic Doubts. See Chu C
*
Recards of the Wamng States. See Chan Kuo Tsh;
Pien I
Rectal irrigation, 269
R-rces,
exhaustion of, 297
Rectum, 149
Resperene, 197 (d)
prolapse of, I 50
Respiration, 26, 129,254
Rectus abdomini muscles
associated with the technique of inhaling water
contractions of, 269
through the nose, 270
Red lead. 223
control of. See Breath-holding
"Ihe Red must be converted into the white', 239
embryonic. See Embryonic respiration theory
'Red Sotebook' (Claude Remard), 174
method taught at the Rrotherhood of the New Life,
Redeemer, lowly origin of, 12
151-2
Redemption
d u d to utmost softness, 146
in Christian theology, 9, 10, I I
Respiratory-meditational complex, 280
the visions of 7mimus. 19
Respiratory pneuma, 47
Reformation (Europe), I 8, 19
Respiratory rate, 143
Regeneration, 25,s 1,46,47,64,67,250
during deep meditation, I 8 I
technical term, 28
willed modifications of, 271
tan neilim), 29
by internal transmutation (h
Respiratory techniques, 21, 29,30,34,37,82, 92, ~ m ,
of the primary vitalities, 146,206,236,292
lz0,123, 124,129,130,134,135. 138.141.142-8,
'double' ( s h u m hsiu), 239-40
156, 158, 162, 182, zog, 211, 213, 226, 237, 249,
Reiplesnu ad uiero. 26 (c)
Regulations, for Taoist sexual techniques, and other
289
altitude a n o x m i a and, 272
practices of physiological alchemy, 185 (a), 219 (c)
Byzantine church and, I 52
Reil, Johann Christian (biological philosopher, 1759
Cibot on, 170
to 1813). 177
and control of the chhi, 280
Reitrs, (the urino-genital system). See Shen (reins)
Muslim sufis and, 152
Rejuvenation, 254,28,30.47,75.76.88,91,130,136,
Swedenborg and, 152
138,141, I++. 205,207,224,292
used in modem Chinese hospitals, 154. 166
prominent theme in physiological alchemy, zgo
in the Western world, 297
Taoist 'nuns' and, 237
Yogistic. See Yogistic respiratory techniques
by the union of opposites, 34 ff
Restoration of the prime? infantile vitalities (hsiu), 25,
Relaxation therapy, 154
Religio Medin' (Rrowne), I
27.31.46. 130
technical term, 28
Religion
Resurrection. See Death and resurmction
and alchemical allegory, 17.23
Retrograde ejaculation, 197 (d)
cultural contacts and, 2 8 2 3
Retrogression, 63
and ethics, 175
Return, idea of, 25, 130, 135
Indian. See Indian religion
in Yogistic thought, 267
mystical and individualist, 18
'Returning to the state of infancy', 25, 130. 132, 135,
sex in, 281
288,292
Religious belief, r 35
'Returning wind', technique of the, 123
alchemy and, 218Reversion, 3 1, I 30
Religious dancing, I 53
from an ageing state to an infantile state, 25,46,47,
Religious education, I 5
Religious experience
59.69.709 132, 135- 145-6.236
Revision and Amplification of the General Ideas of the
hallucinogens and. 3 I
Pharmacopoeia. See P& Tshao Yen I Ac I
Religious fanaticism, 279
Revivalist protestantism, I 5 I
Renaissance (Europe),4, 14, 19,296
& Veda (c. - 10th-century), 258
Renal lesions, 3 18
I<hamnose, 317
Renal-urinogenital system, 22 (d), 313,314, 320
Rhapsodical Ode on the Metallous Enchyrnoma. See
See also Shen (*ins)
Chin Tan Fu
Renaudot, Euwbius. 175
Reorganised Pharmacopoeia. See Ch&gLci Pm Tshao Rhinoceros, 282
Rice, levies of, I 38
Reorganised Pharmacopoeia. See Chhung Hsiu
Ricin, 3 0 0 (f)
('hkx-Ho (,'hing-Shih C h k g Lk Pei- Yung Pi%
'Riding the wine-pot' ( c h h k hu), 208
Tshno
Riechert, H. ( I ) , 272
Repair (hsiu pu). 25.46.47.75
Right Teaching for Youth. Sec C h M&
'Repairing the heart' (hsiu hsin), 180

INDEX
Rites and ceremonies
fertility, 258
of Freemasons and Rosicrucians, I 8-19
funeral, 281
nyrjsa, 261
and physiological alchemists, I 13
sacrificial,226,258
of sexual union, 193-4,2054,~17,~75
Siva worshipped in the form of a phallus of goldmercury amalgsm, 277
of Tara, 284
Ritual cruelties, 279
Ritual dance, I 6g
Ritual gestures. See Mudrd
Ritual nakedness, 184,275
'Robbing the power of the natural order of things', 46,
68,293,294
Rock salt, 226
Root of Life ( m k m),I 86
The Rootless Tree. See Wu Kin Shu, 2qt
Rosarium Philosophm ( I 550). 7. 13
Rosenhein, Otto ( o m n i c and biochemist), 301
Rosicrucians, 18,19(a), 153
Rossetti, Gabriel (I),15
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (Swiss philosopher, 1712to
+ 1778)~
175
Royal Society library, r 76
&his, austerities of, 206 (9, 262
Rubedo. See Icisis
Rudolf I1 (Holy Roman Emperor, r. 1575to 161I.
whose court was at Prague), 316
' R u ~ n i n gwater doesn't rot.. .', 124
Russell, Bertrand, 134(e)

S a m l plexus, 264
Sacrifices
during rites of sexual union, 275
human, 279,287
vrdtyastorna and mnh&rdta, 258
Sacrificial rites, 226,258
Srjdhmm (union of two polar principles, in the body
and soul of the practitioner), 260
Sadism, 279,287
SahajnjH (Vaishnava sect) of Bengal, 261,263,275( 9
Saktigoddesses, 258,259(d), 260,263,274
incarnations of, 275
Saliva, 44,49,bo,7 ~ ~ 7 120,
6 , 124,141,147,158,2x0,
21 1,234,332-3
physiological lead and mercury of, 2 13
swallowingof, zg-30,86,95,128,143,1q6,150.
'51,
158,162,166,184,220,237,288
term for, 24
Yoga and. 261,265
See also Doarine of the double rise and fall of semen
and saliva within the body
Salivary glands, 25.76, 151
Salivation. 149. r 5I, 229,274
Salmon, William (physician, + 1695).312
Salt orsalts, 24, 175,226,318,320,328
from evaporated sea-water, 3I 3
i n o m i c , 315,320,331,334
microcosmic, 328

rock,226
soluble, 318
Saltpetre, 328.334
Salvation
two ways of, 258
in yogistic thought, 267,275
destruction of normal feelings as a way of, 278
sex as a way of, 283
Sak~atnrmirrocosmi et mc~ocosmi,I 2
Samrjdhi (the highest stage of isolation, absorption or
trance), 181,255,259,262,273
'with support' (samprajnrj-nrjtasamcidhr],273
without support (asmprajtui-ndto-smcsdhz], 273
Samarasa (an identity of emotion in the perfection of
physical unity), 275
Samkara (Indian philosopher, Rth-century), 285
Simkhva K ~ k d258
,
Siimkhya philosophical system, 258
Samsara, 2 4 ~ ~ I2 5
San chen (the three primary vitalities), 26.46, 173,225
(a)
San chiao. See Three roctive regions
San chieh (Triloka, the 'three worlds' or 'realms' of
Buddhist philosophy; but in Taoist physiological
alchemy, the three primary vitalities), 91
San-F*
Chm-Jm Hsiian Than Chhiian Chi (Complete Collection of Mysterious Discourses. . .),
2 19 (d), 240
San-F& Tan Chiieh (Oral Instructions of Chang SanF8ng on the Enchymoma), 240
San h u m . See Three yellow substances
San huo. See Three fires
San kuan. See Three gates, or bottlenecks
San Kuo (period). 39.83. I 5I
San Kuo Chih (History of the T h m Kingdoms), 161
Son ni ('the three Ki's' i.e. Confucius, Huddha and 1,ao
'rzu), 234
San shih. See Three Corpses, or Worms
San tao. See Three roads
San Thien Chi Chi ChGh Thu (Diagram of the oral
instructions for perfected equalisation in the regions of vital heat), 78
San Thien Wu Hsing C& Too chih Thu (The normal
pattern of the three regions of vital heat and the
five elements, i.e. viscera), 71
San w a n . See 'Three primary vitalities'
Sanatoria, I 66
Sanitation, 29
Sanskrit, 284,285,287
Sqyana ('the same vehicle', Yoga term), 259
Sapidities (wn],314
Saponins, 322.323
and preparation of steroids, 317-8,321
precipitation, 325.330
Saponosides, 317
Smv?ngrjsana (Yogi 'completeness' posture), 265,267
Satyanarayanamurthi & Shastry (I),271
S m a (Yogisticpurification procedures), 261,26g,287
'Scapegoat function' of natural objects, 5
'Scarlet gut' (the heart), zro
'Sceptical Chymist. (Boyle), 24
Schistosomiasis, 3I 8

550

INDEX

Sexual neurones, 306

Sexual normality, 320
Sexual organs, 3 I 4
endocrine functions of, 301
Sexual partners
frequent chanpp of desirable, 186,191,192,193
equal mutual nourishment by, I gq. 196
draining off of vitality, by one or the other partner,
194.196
both parmen, obtained their respective macrobiotic
a d v a n e , I 97
Sexual pleasure, 192-4,219,250
Sexual practices
solitary, 209
Sexual promiscuity, 279
Sexual relationships, 21Sexual symbolism, 12, 13,66,211-12,221
Sexual techniques, 30, 46, 73, 88, 91, 100, 124, 155,
179,184,196,209,211,250,289,307,308
association with alchemy, 186
secrecy of. See Secrecy
books on, I 87 (h)
and cooperative communities in North America, 153
and the preparation of chemical elixirs, zoo
dangers inherent in, 203-4
equivalence of benefit to both sexes, 206
and wui tan proto-chemical alchemy, 209,213
thought of only as a means of prolonging life sufficiently for the making of the golden elixirs, 186,
209
and supernatural powers, zro
veiling of, under the symbolism of proto-chemical
alchemy, 21 1 - 1 2
of the Hayha-yoga schml, 261
Sexual traumata, 7
Sexual union, 47,91,192, r g q - ~ , z r j , z = ~ , 250,251,
288
abstention from, 190,191,zoo, 210
analogised with Yin and Yang, 1 8 5 4 .290
dangers inherent in, 203-4
different functions of men and Win, w ]
in Hayhay-,
274
KOHung on the benefits and dangers of, 210
liturgical, I 97
longevity and, 193
for macrobiotic purpose^, 197
mutual benefit of, I 87
non-generative, 260
over-indulgence in, 200-1, zoq
rites of. See Rites and ceremonies
as symbol of chemical reaction, I 3
in Tantrism and Hayhayop, 262-3.274
and union with God, the T m , or the universe, 284
The Wang-wu adept on, 2.08
YW and, 274
Sexuality, 273
abstention from, 189
common to both M' tun and m.tun alchemy, 290
possible harmful effects of, 189
religious, 280,284
salutary effects of, 189
Shakers, I 53

Shakespeare's 'Julius Caesar', 300 (b)

Shamanic prieats and priestesses, liturgically stylised
love-meetings with goddesm or gods, 281
Shamanism, 262
S W - C h h i n g Tmg-Chm Phin, (The Ranks of Spirits
and Substances, a Tung-Chen Scripture of the
Shang Chhing Heavens), 123
Shang-Chhing Wo Chmg Ch&h (Explanation of the
Method of Grasping the Central Luminary; a
Shang-Chhing Scripture), 182
SW hsien ('rising crescent', waxing period of the
moon), 58
Shang Ku Thien Chen Lun 'What the Ancients said
about (the chhiof) the Natural Endowment'. First
Ti NeiChing, Su W'&, q . ~ .
chapter of the HShang Phin Tan F a Chieh Tzhu (Expositions of the
Techniques for makinp; the Rest Quality Enchymoma), 234
Shanz-Tung IIsin Tan chin^ Chueh (An Explanation
of the Heart Elixir and Enchynoma Canon; a
Shang-Tung Scripture), 66
Shang Yang Tzu. See Chhen Chih-Hsii
Shao-Lin Ssu (Buddhist temple associated with physical exercises especially boxing), 166 (e), 1%
S h ~ o - ~ (aPaemria
b
lartipora) ,294
Shao Yung (Sung Taoist-Confucian philosopher,
I lth-century), 52
Shaping Forms of Nature. See Tsao Hua ch6, Tsao Wu
chi
Sheep, 303
Shen (archaeus, archaei), 79,80, 108,210,261(b), 264,
288
Shm (reins), 22 (d), 34,40,42,44.57,69.71,72.74,75,
77, 79,95, 108, 114, 118, 129, 141, 146, 147, 187,
246.25 1,256
conjunction of heart and, 73. I 16
chhi of, 249
Shen (spirit). z F y , 43.44,46,47,48,69.12o,r23.128,
136, 137, 173, 182, 193, 202, 220, 248, 249, 250,
281,288
analogue of n'tta, 276
Shen Chu-Liang (feudal lord, fl. ca. - 500). 307
Shen I-Ping (Taoist abbot, 18th-century). 237,239
Shen Kua (astronomer, engineer, naturalist and high
official, + 1030to 1094). 329
Shmshui,77,79. 114.116.314
Shtng Chhi Thung Thien Lun, 'On the Communication of the chhi of the Life-Form with all
Nature.' Chapter of the Huang Ti Nei Ching, Su

W&,q.v.
Sherds, Orts and Unconsidered Fmgments. See So
Sui Lu
Shih (mineral product), 328
Shih-chai Shan culture,
bronze figures of dancers from, 39
Shih Chien-Wu (Thang Taoist editor, + 8th or 9thcentury), 223
Shih-erh Tuan Chin Thu (set of I 2 exercises), I 66,168
Shih lin K u u q Chiencyclopaedia, I ro, r I I
Shih Thai (Sung writer and poet interested in physiological alchemy, fl. + r 150). 65. roz
Shih Tsung (Xling emperor, r. + 1522to 1566). 332

INDEX
Shih Yao Erh Y a (The Literary Expositor of Chemical
Physic. . .), I 21,334
Shingon, 230,262 (C)
'Showering down' upon central and lower regions. See
Doctrine of the double rise and fall of semen and
saliva within the body
Shu (plant, Atractylodes), 32, 325
S W hsiu (double regeneration), 239
Shui Yiin Lu (Water and Clouds Record), 313. 314.
316,318
Shun ts6 ssu, ni tsi hsien (normal flow products death,
and children, counter-current flow leads to immortality), 59.91 (i), 118,247
Shuo Kua, part of the I Ching, 9.s.
Siddhas (Yogi magicians or alchemists), 262, 277,285
Siddhayoga, 277
Siddhi (magic powers), 262
helieved in + 4th-century China, 262
aurifaction one of the siddhi, 262, 277
Side-effects, of modem drugs, 3 m
SilHdatya, 286 (h)
Silberer, H. (I), 15
Silk scrolls
from the temple at Kao-sung Shan, I 14, I I 5
from the tomb of the son of the Lady of Tai, 136,
156, 157
Silk-worms, I
Silver, 40,227
antithesis between mercury and silver, 333
and lead, 333
Simeon the New Theologian (+g49 to + 1022). 297
(b)
Simile (phuy17,pi*?, 219
Similia similihuc curantur, 3 0 0
al-Simnani, 'XIS' al-Ilaula (Sufi philosopher, + 1259
to + 1336), 152
Sin, feelings of, 4, I 84
Singer, Charles, I 14
Sinkiang, 282,284
Sinking-bowl clepsydra, 144
'Siris' (Rerkeley, f 1744). 176
Sittars. See Siddhas
Siva, 260,263, 274
mercury as the generative principle of, 277
worshipped in the form of a phallus made of @Idmercury amalgam, 277
~ i v SarphiSa,
o
26 I , 264,268
Six Exhalations (litr chhr), 146-7, 170. 179 (h)
Skatol, 322
Skin, electrical resistance of, during deep meditation,
181
Skull.71, 114
bregma of the, 264
drinking out of, 278
Slaves, 237
Sleep, 181
Sir Thomas Browne on, 253
Small Encyclopaedia of the Principles of Thinm. See
Wu Li Hsiao Shih
Smith, F. Porter (1871). 331
Snake symbolism. 102,103
S o Slri I,u (Sherds, Orts and Unconsidered Frag-

ments), 3 13
Soap-bean juice, 316,321
Soap-bean saponin, 322
Social class. See Class differentiation
Social criticism, 129
Social evolution, 62
Social inequality. See Class differentiation
Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate, 328
Sodium chloride, 331
Sodium sulphate, 33 I
Solidification, 4
Solstices, 47.68, 69
Solutio, I o
Solution, 4
So1r.e et coagula, 9
Solvents, or~anic,336
Song of the Hodilv Husk. See Thi Kho Ko
'Sooty empiricks', 224
Sorcerers, 283
Sorites, 44
Smor mystica, I 3
Soul, renewal of the life of the, I I , 12
Souls, I 35
hun, 27,70,133.136
pho, 27,70, I33
vegetative, sensitive and rational, 27
Space travel, 297
Spagyrical, origin of the word, 9
Span of life. See Life-span
Spells, 21 I , 261
Spemann, Hans (experimental embryologist, 18% to
1941), 257 (a)
Sperm
Iws of, 2og
'in-mission' of, 262
Spermatorrhoea, 302
Sphincter muscles. 240.269, 270
high degree of control over, 269
Spinal channel, for the ascent of the c h k , 125
Spinal column, 79, 114, I 16, 118, 186, 206, 225, 266,
269
three gates in, 73,77.78. I 16
Spinal cord, 108
Spinoza, Ramch (+ 1632 to 1777). 15
Spirit. See Shm (spirit)
Spirit-possession, 262 (g)
Spirit prisoned within matter, I I, 12
Spirits. 135,210
Spiritual Franciscans, 275 (0
Spiritual intent in the alchemical literature, I7
Spiritual Virgins, I 53
Spitting, and loss of vitality, 30
Spleen, 60,69,71,72,73,77,82,1o8,187,31o
removal of, 308
Splendm Solis, 26 (a)
Square-pallet chain-pump, 225
Squinting, and mental concentration, 83
Sri NErasimha Potavarman (king of the State of KZnci,
720). 286-7
Ssu Shih Thiao She^ Chim (Diredons for Harmonising
and Strengthening the Vitalities according to the
Four Seasons), I 62

552

INDEX

Ssu lu shm (mental activity eaten up by anxiety or

worry), 26
Ssuma ChhPng-Ch6n (Thang Taoist philosopher, c.
+715), 178,179
Ssuma Hsi-I (Thang alchemist), 226
Stalk ofjade. See Yu h h g
Stalk of Life (ming tz), 186
Starkey, George (Eirenaeus Philaletha alchemist, ca.
+ 1627 to + 1666), 16
Stars, beneficial influences of. 182
Stasis (yii), 148 (d)
State astrology, 282
State management, 134, I 35, I 36
Statistical analysis, 183
Statuettes,
from hlohenjo-dam, 258,268
Staudenmeier, Ludwig, 273 (b)
Stealing the secrets of Nature for human benefits,
293 ff.
Stele
inscription of the Huang Thing .V& Ching Yii Ching
on, 85
at the \Vhite Clouds Taoist Temple, Peking, I 14.
115
Stephanus of Alexandria (pmto-chemist. .P. + 620). 4,
11, I9
In stercore, I z
Steroid conjugates, 320, 328, 330
Steroid ring system, 301
Steroid sex-hormones, 239, 299, 301.3 15,324
sublimation of, 322,336
Steroidal constituents, 3 I 8
Steroids, 318, 319, 322, 330
androgenic and oestrogenic, 323
crystalline, 3 I 8
urinary. See Urinary steroids
use of saponins in preparation of, 3 17
Stigmata, 262
Still, 216
Stillness of body and mind, in Yoga thought, 261,
266
Stimulus and inhibition, 305
Stimulus diffusion, misinterpretation of, 257
Stockholm
Ling's institute in, 173
Stoics, 154, 176
Stomach, 72, 149, I 50
voluntary vomiting of contents of, 270
'Our Stone'. See Philosophers' Stone
Straightfonvard Explanation of the Metallous Enchymoma. See Chin Tun Chih Chih
Shipuia, I 86 (a)
Styptics, 332
Su Nii (the Immaculate Girl), 80, 82, 187, 190, 192,
201,210
Su Nu Ching (Canon of the Immaculate Girl), 190.
192, 193,201,203
Su Tung-Pho (Sung poet and scholar, + 1036 to
+ 1 101), 22
Su Tzu-Yu (younger brother of Su Tung-Pho), 22 (c)
Su Yuan-Ming (or -Lang, Taoist alchemist, possibly
fl. + 570 to +600), 141
Su Yiin Tao Jen. See Liu Chheng-Yin

Subconscious mind, 6
S u h h 4 i t a - S m a h a , 275 (e)
Subject and object, identity of, 5
Sublimation, I , 313, 3154.319, 322,325, 329, 332
chemical technical term, 316-7
psycholngical technical term, 2
repeated. 330
at temperatures between 120" and 300'C. 322
Suhlimatory cover, small hole left open in, 320
Sublunary world, five layers of, %
Submerged life, 142 (c). 143
Substantial change. S
Subtle Discourse on the Alchemical Elahoratory. See
Tun Fang Ao I,un
Suckling infant, 149
Sufis
respiratory techniques of, I 52
'A Suggestive Enquiry into the Hermetic Mystery.. .'
(Atwood), 16
Sui (period), 80.86, 141
Suicide, 7
~ u k r (white
a
bindu, produced by the male), 261, 274
Sulphate conjugation, 32 I
Sulphates, 3 I 5
steroid, 3 15
Sulphur, 24.25. 175,226,227
as Christ-symbol, 12
as medicinal suhstance, 40
and mercury, reactions of, 290
hardly appears in nei tun writings, 290
Summary of Systematic Thought. See Chin Ssu Lu
Sun, 41.54.56.70.95.96. I 2 0 , 2 0 4 ~ 2 ~249
2~
'absorbing the image of the'. I 83
beneficial influences of, 182
chhi of the, I 82
eating and drinking the sacrament of, 183
hun soul of, 183
imagined circulation of the sun within the body,
1x3
s u n and moon, interpenetration of, 225,246,260,261
Sun and moon (dew) mirrors. 321
Sun En (Taoist hierarch much concerned with liturgical sex rites, later a rebel leader, d. + 402). 243 (h)
Sun hexagram, 42,56,58,220
Sun Huan (Taoist editor, + 1273). I 13. I 14
Sun I-Khuei (\ling medical writer and physician, P.
+ 1596).45-46>128. 17s. 288.292.328.330
Sun Ju-Chung (Ming writer on physiological alchemy,
214
fl. + 1615)~
Sun rays, absorption of, 3 I , 35, 183
Sun Ssu-MO(Sui and Thang alchemist, physician and
.
writer, + 581 to + 682). 34, 1 4 . 3 I I
Sung (period), 31.35.49.67.80. 85.88,151.155. 157,
181, 186,207,209,213,219,220,223,289,290,
301,304>3143 331,332
anatomy, I 12, I 14
dissection in, 109, I 10
philosophers, 295
Sung Shan, 169
Sung Shun Thai- W u k m - S & Chhi Ching (Manual of
the Circulation of the Chhi, by .Mr. GrandNothingness of Sung Mountain), 147
Sung Shih bibliography, 67

INDEX
To Tsang (Tripipka, the Buddhist Patrology), rqo
Sung Ta-Jen (6). 216
Sung Tzhu (Sung physician and official founder of Ta Yu .Miao Ching (Book of the Great Mystery of
Existence), 3 8 9
302
forensic medicine, fl. + 1247)~
Tabriz, I 13
Stinya (emptiness, disillusion), 250 (d), 263
Stinvatci. See %nya
Tai. Lady of (d. c. - 166).136.156
Tai Tsung (Thang emperor, r. 763 to + 780), 207
Superego, I 0 0
Tmttiriya Upanishad,258
Supreme Essence of the Great Emperor, 206
Talismans, rag, 183,210,216,289
Supreme Pole (Thm'Chr), 328
exorcistic, I 18
Surface-films, 5
Tantric, 261
'Suspended womb macdon-vessel' (h
thm' ting),
Talmudic generation doctrine, 207
999 100
Tamil language, 284
SuCruta-samhita, 303
Tamil literaturn, 285
S w m p i vessel, or channel, 202,264,274
Tamilnad (centre of Indian alchemy), 277,284,285
Sutures, of the skull, 264 (b)
Tan (Sanskrit word, to extend, continue or multiply),
Suvaa-prabhha SGtra, 260
Soettihatara C'panished,258,268
259
Swallowing
Tan Chiw Shih Tu (Guide to the Reading of the Enchymoma Manuals), 242
of air, 149,150
Tan Fang Ao Lun (Subtle Discourse on the Alchemical
of saliva, 29-30,86,95,128,
143,146,150,151
Elaboratory), 226
term for, 148
Tan Fang Pao Chim ckih Thu (Precious Mirror of the
Swape, I 30
Enchymorna Laboratory), 9597.98
Swedenborg, Emanuel(+ 1688 to 1772).151~2,153
Sydenham, Thomas (eminent English physician, Tan I San Chiia ( T h m Books of Draft Memoranda
on Elixin and Enchymomas), I h6
+ 1624to + 1689).300
Tan Jan-Hui ( C h h i n ~
Taoist editor), 244,246
Symbolic animals, I I 8
Tan Lun Chiieh Chih Hsin Chien (Mental Mirror Rebird, 57
flecting the Essentials of Oral Instruction about
crane, 158,214,235
the Discourses on the Elixir and the Encrow, 70.92
chymoma), 226,290(b)
dW!on, 7~57,669
997 239,243
dragon and tiger symbolism, 54,91,93,roo, 102, Tan Shu (possibly a generic term meaning books on
iatro-chemical medicines), 304
103,104,1 1 1 , 120
Tan Tao PiShu (Secret Book of the Tao of Elixirs), 304
horse, I I 8
phoenix, 213,239
(b)
Tan thim (the 'red fields', regions of vital heat). See
snake, 102,103
Vital heat, regions of
tiger, 57,66,75.99,1I 1,233
Tanksuq-ncimah-i Ilk& dm fwrrin-i 'ulzim-i Khita'
toad. 81,213,214
(Treasures of the Ilkhan on the Sciences of
tortoise, 57,102,103
Cathay). I 13.I 14
Symbolic correlations, 24, 52,53, 55, 59, 60,63, 182,
Tantric physiology, 263
187.31 1 (e), 332
Tantric texts, 272
Symbolic notation, 124, 126,128,129,243
Tantrism, 23,186(a), 217.259 ff, 275,283-4
Symbolism, 250-1
alchemy and, 277
alchemical. See Alchemical symbolism
antinomianism and, 278-80
Mankhaean allegorical, I 5
Chinese influence on, 283
proto-chemical, 223
and the destruction of old age and death, 276
sexual. See Sexual symbolism
physiology, 263
Taoist, 291
'secret language' of, 277
Yin-Yang, 36, I 16
importance of sex in, 260,274-5
See also Symbolic animals
Tamil, 285
Syncretism of Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism,
Taoism and, 284,285
230.231,234,236
use of magic powen forbidden, 262
Syndromes, I 37
Tao, 37.41,46,69,87,88.122.134,135,138
Synonyms, 95,W
'being without the -', 133
Syriac alchemy, 18
unity of the, 180
present in a mass of dung, 278
TLV-mirrors, 284
Tao of the Deathless, 206
Ta-Hsiang (Lohan), 84
Ta Hum Tan ChhiPi Thu (Esoteric Illustrations of the Tao Fa Hsin Chhum (Transmission of a lifetime of
Thought on Taoist Techniques), 122 (b)
Concordance of the Great Regenerative EnTao Shu (Axial Principles of the Tao), 179,196
chymoma), 220 (b)
Tao T6 Ching (Canon of the Virtue of the Tao), 25, I 30,
T a Huan Tan procedure, 108
135,136,146,181,186,199,204,281
Ta-MO. See Bodhidharma
versions of, from Han tomb, I 36
Ta Tan Chi (Recod of the Great Enchymoma), 333,
oldest translations of, 176
334

5 54

INDEX

Tao T? Ching (contd.)

Technical terms
'absorbing the CM',149
translation into Sanskrit, 284
Tao T s q (Taoist Patrolo~y).34,67,79.121,122,158,
alchemy, 8, 23-4, 25, 26, 34,79, 220, 223, 224,254,
220,223
3'6
Too T s q Chi Yao ( F m t i a l s of the Taoist Patanatomy, 38,197,234
brain, 72
rology), qgff., 105, 106
breath-holding, 144
Tao Tsmg Ching Hua (Intrinsic Glories of the Taoist
Buddhist, 42,224
Patrology), 185 (e)
cephalic cavities, 38
Tao T s q H$ Pim (Supplement to the Taoist Patchemistry, 24-5
rolofl), 23 1,243
cinnabar, 223
Taoyin (self-massage), 55, 158
circulation of the chhi, 148
Taoism and Taoists, 25, 30,45, 54.65, 81.82.99, 130,
enchynoma, 223
166, 170, 176,228, 2 3 4 , ~ 7 2 , 2 7 5284.
,
289, 296,
glossary of, 12 1
324,335
gymnastics, 155
ageing and, 26
alchemy and, 9, 20, 21,22,27,28,63, 108, 1 3 , I 12,
massage, I 5s
mechanisms for the raising of the chhi, 108
118,122, 124,137,138,141
medicine, I 18
anatomy, 3 8 9 , r I I, I 15, 125, 202
meditation techniques, I So
Buddhism and. See Buddhism
mercury, 223
Confucianisation of, 140
ethics, 219
nn'tan alchemy, 49,59,67,141,197,225,332
Neo-Confucian, 42
human feelings and, 291
light-mysticism and, 83
physiolw. 38, 146,197,234
proto-chemistry, 223-4
l i n g and. 173-4
red lead, 223
medicine, 309
regeneration, 28.46
physiolw. 23, 27, 38, 71, 11 1, 115, 117, 125, 138,
sanskrit equivalents of, 284
146,174,263
seminal essence, 34
pre-Han, 129
sublimation, 3 r 6,317
secretiveness of, 335
swallowing air, 148, I 50
sex. 3o,197,217,275, 308
Taoist, 21.38, 234
Tantrism and, 284.285
techniques for the attainment of material immortechnical terms, 21,38
tality, 2 ~ 3 4
technology, attitude to,
Thang m'tan meanin@ for wui tan terms, 88
techniques for the attainment of material immortrachea, 108
tality. See Material immortality and longevity,
'true' or 'vital' lead, 65
techniques
'true' or 'vital' mercury, 65
transmissions westward, I 52-3
urinaw precipitates, 3 I I
women and, 183-4,21743,237
wai tan, 225,325
&-tan and, zgo
waxing and waning of the mmn, 58
Taoist abbeys, I 8 I , 206
Yellow Court, 252
Taoist communities, I 53
Taoist-Legalist writings, from Han Tomb, 136
Yoga, 258Technicians
Taoist 'nuns', 237
Latin, 17
Taoist pantheon, 180
'Technique of the returning wind', 123
Taoist Patrology. See Tao Tsmy!
Techniques of physiological alchemy, 86, 107, 137,
Taoist religion
reformation of, 138
140. 1.539 I54
de-sexualisation of, I 38
sex and, 185,217
likened to a set of arrows in the pitch-pot game, 106,
Taoist symbols, 291
Taoist temples, 29,87, I 14, 131, 148, 159,231,239
107
beginning of, 1.29
Taoist texts, 269, 272, 273,291
but a means to a lengthened life, 140
Taoist Trinity, 68-9, 130, I So
sexual relationships and, 216-7
'Tar-water', I 76
Technology
Tiri (Tantric goddess), 230,260,284,286
Taoist attitude to 130,288
Tattoa (the essences of things), 273
'going against Nature' in modem technolop;y,
Taxes, 138
Teacher Ning. See Ning F k g Tzu
292
Teacher Tou (Sung writer on physiological alchemy, Teeth, 116, 151, 161
cleaning exercises for, 270
early I 3th-century), 120
gnashingof, 29,67, 151, 158, 162, 166, 179 (h), 184,
Teacher Tou's South-Pointer for the Restoration of
198,206,229
the Primary Vitalities. See Hsi Yo Tar him-S&
Telekinesis, 262
Hsiu Chen Chih San

INDEX
Templan, i5
Temples
Blue Goat Temple, Chhingtu, 234
Buddhist, 36, 169,232,233
Chhiung-Chu Ssu, near Kunming, 232.233.235.236
temple in honour of China, or for the worship of
some Chinese divinity, 286
Fo-Kuang Ssu. 83,93.94
on high mountains, 145
at Kao-sung Shan, r 14
Pai Yun Kuan, I 14
Pao-Kuang Ssu, 81
Shun-Yang Kung, I 3 I
Taoist, 2 ~ ~ ~ 1814,
7 13
, 1,148. 159.23 1 , 2 3 9
Yiin Lu Kung. Hunan. 159
Yung-Lo Kung. Shansi, 87
Ten Books of Traditional Lore Testifying to the True
Tao, See Ch&g Tao Pi Shu Shih Chmg
Ten Rules of the hlother Goddess, Queen of the West.
to Guide Women Taoists along the Right Road of
Restoring the Primary Vitalities. !?we Hsi W q
Mu .Vu Hsiu Chhg Thu Shih TsP
T h g Chm Yin Chtieh (Confidential Instructions for
the Ascent to Perfected Immortality). 39. 183
T i n g Pai ( I ) , 87
T i n g Yun Tzu (Taoist philosopher, perhaps, + 5thcentury), 205
Tenri religion, 153 (g)
Terminology, See Technical terms
Terrene, 248
Testes, 195,322
of animals, used in medicine, 303
endocrine secretions of. 301
relation to secondary sexual charactcristica, 302. 305
transplants of, 305
Testicular glands, 25
Testicular tissue as a therapeutic agent, 302-3
Testosterone, 303
Tests. Srr Experiments
Teutonicus Philosophus, 18(g)
Text of the Vows.. . taken hy the Great Chhan Master
(Hui-) Ssu ofthe Southern Sacred Mountain. See
San Yo Ssu Ta Chhan Shih Li Shih Yuan Wtn
Thai-rhirhhuun (callisthenics), 169 (a)
Thai Chi Thu (Diagram of the Supreme Pole), 102,
120,161
Thai Chi Yuan Chen Ti (the Supreme-Pole Ruler of
the Primary Vitalitits). 2 r 3
Thai-Chhing Chin I Shm Tan Ching (Manual of the
Potahle Gold or hletallous Fluid and the Magical
Elixir or Enchymoma; a Thai-Chhing Scripture).
226
Thai-('hhing Tao Yin Yang Sh+ Ching (Manual of
Nourishing the Life-Force by Physical Exercise
and Self-%lassage), I 57. I 58
Thai hexagram, 63,220
Thai Hn' Kt% Chih Yao Chiich (Instructions on the Essentials of Understanding Embryonic Respiration), 186
Thai Hsi Khou Chiich (Oral Explanation of Embryonic
Breathing), 145
Thai Hsiian (the Great Mystery), 104

Thai H&m Pao Tim (Precious Records of the Great

Mystery), 207
Thai 1 Chin Hua Tsunip Chih (Principles o f the (Inner)
Radiance of the Metallous (Enchyrnoma) (explained in terms of the) Undifferentiated Universe), 243 ff.
translation of, 255
Thai kua, 220
Thai-pai Shan, 82
Thai Phing Ching (Canon of the Great Peace), 3 I , I 38,
180
Thai Shan, 63
Thai Shang Lao Chun, I 38
Thai Tsung (Thang emperor. r. 627 to 649). 207
Thaiyuan, Shansi.
Provincial Historical Museum, 13 I
T h a w (d>m.nasty)2.34.35.54,80,86.88,145.147,149,
150, 151. 155, 157, 172, 182, 186, 196, 200, 205,
209.220.289.290.294,304,3 1 I , 329,334
T h q Pin Tshao. See Hsin Hsiu Pm Trhao
Thang Shen-Wei (pharmaceutical naturalist, fl.
+ 1083). 315
Thao Chm J m Nei Tan Fu (The Adept Thao's Rhapsodical Ode on the Physiological Enchyrnoma),
333
Thao Chih (Late Sung writer, on physiological alchemy), 223,333
Thao Hung-Ching (Taoist physician, alchemist and
pharmaceutical naturalist, +q56 to 536). 39.
182,183
'That which the Lord hath made.. .',278
Theology, 176
Theosophy, 17
Therapy, 5.82.137
of syndromes and traumas,' 137
T h e u w , 17
Thi Kho KO(Song of the Bodily Husk), 107, 108, log,
I 12,187
Thieh Feng Chu-Shih (the Recluse of Iron Mountain,
ca. + ISW), I 62
Thim (aether or heaven), 176
Thim chm ('original vitality'), 26
Thim hn'm (celestial genii). 20
Thim kung ('celectial palace', top of the head). 72
Thien-Pao (reign-period, 742 to 755). 208
Thien-Thai school of Buddhism, 140
Thim Ti Yin Yang S
*
Chiarqg rhih Thu (The rise
and descent of the Yin and Yang within the microcosm), 69
Thim Yuan Ju Yao C h k (Mirror o f the Allpenetrating Medicine of the Primary Vitalities),
49,66,88
Thirst
insensibility to, 262
pathological, 31 3-4
'Thinking of Old Friendships' (Ssu Chiu Shih), 334
Thirum~llar(legendary sittar magician-alchemist of
South India, perhaps Chinese), 285 (c)
'This-worldly' ethic, 279
Tho-yo (bellows-and-tuyire), 238
Tho Yo kb (Song of the Bellows-and-Tuycre), 65, I 20.

I21

INDEX
Tho Yo Tzu (Book of the Bellows-and-Tu+re Master). 49
Thoracic cavities, 38-9
Thoracic organs and structures. 76
Thoracic region, 82
Thorax.26, 108, log, 1 1 0 , 115
anatomy, I 13
mastery over the functions of the, 270
region of vital heat in, 38
Thousand Golden Remedies. See Chhien Chm Yao Fang
A 'Thousand Sotable Things' (anon.), 3 I 2
Three Rooks of Draft Memoranda on Elixirs and Enchymomas. See Tan I S a CIni'a
'Three coctive regions' (sun chiao), 39.73.3 I I
'Three corpses (or worms)' of death and decay, I I I
'Three fires', 255
'Three gates' (sun h),
73.77.78, I 16
Three primary vitalities (sun y u a ) , 26, 27, 43. 46. 47.
48.64.67.71.75.92, 1 0 1 , 123, 136.137,146, 151,
154, 173. 176. 177. 185, 186, 220, 222, 248, 281,
290
analogues in India, 276
analogised with the three kinds of chhi, 182,250
regeneration of. Sec Rqeneration
Three 'roads' doctrine, 234
Three Yellow Substances (sulphur, orpimmt, realgar),
92
Throat, I 14. 150.310
passages fmm I I 2, I I 3
-and-trachea, 256
-and-oesophagus, 256
obstructed with the tongue, 274
Thui-Chih, See Han Yii
Thung Chih Lueh bibliography, 67
Thung Jen hexagram, 220
Thung Yu Chiieh (Lectureson the Understanding of
the Obscurity of Nature), 34
Thurneisser, Leonhart (alchemist. + 1531to + 1596).
328
Tihsien (earthly genii), 20
Ti Ku (legendan. emperor), 1%
Tibet and Tibetans, 257.286
ambassador from, 286
mandala paintings from, 284
Tien (white specks or balls of chhi, formed below the
umbilicus), 1 4
Tarn too ('turning nature upside down'), 25,26,40,41,
42,59,60. 6 2 - 3 . 6 6 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 9 2 . 9 ~ ,134.292
Tiger. See Symbolic animals
Time, retracing of, 262
Timing, of the immortality exercises, 144,212,215
Ting. See Reaction-vessel
Ting Chhi KO.Part of T s h a Thung Chhi, q.o.
Ting Kung (the Venerable Ting). 223
To t i tsao-hua. . ., 293 ff.
Toad. See Symbolic animals
Tombs
Han, 136, 156
of the Lady of Tai and of her Jon, 136
Ton-Ishd(X1edical Excerpts Urgently copied), I 1 2
Tongue, I 5 I
turned back to obstruct the throat, 265,269. 274

Tonguongui
Pgqmn (Pmious Mirror of Eastern Medicine),
34
Topfer, Benedict (fl. 1608). 12 (b)
Torpor with exhilaration, 145
Tortoise
longevity of, I 58
symbolic animals. Sec Symbolic animals
Tortoise-head (glans penis). 196
'Tortoise' method of gymnastics, I 58
Totipotence, 223
Trachea, 108,112,114,116
Tractatus de ,liatura Substatiac Enngctica. . .The Energetic Nature of Substances.. . (Clisson), 175
Troctatm Theolqo-Philosophinrc(Fludd), I 8
Tracts. See Acu-tracts
Trade, between China and India, 282
Trading vessels, capacity of, 282
Trance states, 283
techniques of. 3 1 , I 80
Transcendentalists, 177
'Transforming (life) into the primary vitalities', 206
Translation of Chinese texts
misconceptions contained in, 8 9 . 9 1 . 2 4 6 4
Translation problems, and nei tan alchemy, 24
Translations of Indian Tantric writings into Chinese,
260
Transmissions and stimuli. See Cultural contacts
Transmitted Diagrams illustrating Tried and Tested
Methods of Regenerating the Primary Vitalities.
See Hsiu Chen Li Yen Chhao Thu
'Transmitting upwards.. .' See 'Nourishing' the upper
regions
Transmutation of base metals into gold, I 55,262
Transmutation of ching, chhi, and hsing, 240
Transplants, 292
of the testis in the cock to the abdominal cavity, 305
Transubstantiation. 1 2
Traumata, 7, 137,149
Treasures of the ilkhan on the Scienm of Cathay. See
Tanksug-ncimoh-i n k h h dar fumin-i 'ultim-i
Khitai
Tree-peonies (m-ton, P a m i a ruffuticosa), 293
Tria Prima, 2 4 , 2 8 , 1 7 5
Tribal peoples
Chin (Jurchen) Tartan, 316
Tribute
from India to China, 282,286
from barbarians, 308
Tri-cyclic anti-depressant drugs, 197 (d)
Tried and Tested Prescriptions. See Ching Yen Fang
Tried and Tested Prescriptions of the Pmtection of
Longevity Hall. See Pan Shou T h a g Ching Yen

Fan
Tried and tested Prescriptions of the TrueCentenarian Hall. See I Chen Thmg Chin Yen

Fan
Trigrams ( h a ) , 2 2 , 2 6 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 , 52,63, 100, 234,
242,248
in the Fu-Hsi (Hsien Thien) arrangement, 50, 5 1 ,
~2~53.62
in the \l'& Wang (Hou Thien) arrangement, 5 I , 55,
56,58.60

T m point (north, and midnight), 70,74,79

T r i p m s (contd.)
Tzu-Kung (disciple of Confucius), 129-30
date of, 52,54
movement of the Ruo and their lines, used as a lan- Tzu-Yang Chen-Jen (Adept of the Purple Yang, sobriquet of Chang PO-Tuan), loo, 102
@asre. 63
Trinity College, Cambridge, I 8 (d)
Tripartite character of the primary vitalities (in phys- Ujha-sridhana (counter-current), 262
iological alchemy). See Three primary vitalities
Uj~a-vi
(a variety of Ycgistic breathing-exercise), 271-2
Tripartite division of the operations of the vital force C'l!d-s~idhana
(regressive), 262
(in European theory), 173-4
'Umar al-Khawami (Persian poet and mathematician,
Tripi!aka. .See Ta Tsang
d. f 1122). 295 (b)
'Triple Aspea of Chronic Disease' (Bayes), 174
Umbilicus, 144, 145, 151. 186
Trismosin, Solomon (alchemist, fl. 1598),26 (a)
'The Uncarved Block', 244 (c)
'True' lead and mercury. See Lead and X l e r c u ~
The Unconscious, 4,5,8,9, I I , I 2
True Words (Chen-Yen, Shingon, dha6nT Budcollective, 7
dhism), 230
The Understanding-the-Primary-Vitalities Master,
Trunk, of the bodv, 74, I 10
220
Tsao hua chP, Tsao wu che^(the'Founder of Change', or Unicorn, 7
the 'Founder of Things', but better impersonally Cnion of contraries. See Cajunctio opporitmm
as the 'Shaping Forces of Nature'), 293 ff.
Union of the individual with the universe, 257
T s h g Tshao (Sung Taoist librarian, c. + I 145)~179, 'The Unworthiness of the ,Minister.. .',219
Cpanishads, 258,278
1 96
Tshai Huang (Taoist representative on the commis- Urates, 320.33 I
sion for translating the Tao Te^C& into Sans- L"rdhwaretas(upward-flowing), 262 (C)
Urea, 3 I 8,320,322,33 I
krit, fl. +644), 284
Tshai Nu (the Chosen Girl), I 87
Urethra, 239,252,253,254
fluids a s p i d through, 270
Tshan Thwg Chhi (The Kinship of the Three), 21,22,
occlusion of, 197
66,99,121,136,138,225,289,334
Tshao Chih (Prince of the Wei, + 192to + 232, Taoist Uric acid. 3 15,322
writer, poet and naturalist), 307
Urinary analysis, 3 I 4 (c)
Tshao Tshao (founder, and posthumously the first ern- Urinary constituents, 334
Urinary fractionation methods, 304
peror, of the San Kuo (\Vei) Kingdom), 307
Tshui Hsi-Fan (Wu Tai writer on physiolo~icalal- Urinary gravel, 3 14
Urinary normality, 320
chemy, fl. 940). 88,121,196,197
Tshun Chm Huun Chung Thu (Illustrations of the True Urinary pigments, 318,320,322
Urinary sediments and precipitates, 3 10.3 12 ff, 329
Form of the Body), I I 2, I I 3
fint mention of, 3 I r
Tso Chuun (LMaster Tsochhiu's Tradition of the
considered unhygienic, 3 I 3
'Spring and Autumn Annals'), 280
purification of, 31 I , 313
Tso Wmg Lun (Discourse on Meditation), 178,179
Tso Yuan-Fang (magician-technician, early + 3rd- Urinary steroids, 3 17,3 19,330
stable at sublimation temperatures, 329
century), 307
Tsui Hua Tao Jen (the Flower-IntoxicatedTaoist),240 Urinary stone, (calculi), 3 14
Tsun Shhg Pa Chim (Eight Disquisitions on Putting Urine, 7 6 . 1 ~ , 3 o 1 , 3 0 2 . 3 0 4 . 3 0 6 , 3 3 6
supposed anti-tussive effects of, 3 10
Oneself in Accord with the Life-Force), 162,
appearance of, 3 10
329--30
blood and. 306
Tu r o am-tract, I 16,202,234,238,254,255,256
of the Buddhist priest Ippen, 31 1-2
comparison with Tantric midi, 264
calorigenic properties of, 3 10
T u Ting-Shsng, (Sung calligrapher, and exponent of
complete removal of soluble solids in, 3 18
some of the techniques of physiological alchemy,
consumption of, 279,280,308,3 10.3 I 2
+ I lth-century), r 51
dilution of, 3 18
Tuan Fu (physiolo~icalalchemist, 1922). I 16
Tucci, Guiseppe (5). 284
dried solids of, 3 15
endocrine preparations from, 240
Tuckahw (Indian bread), 33
evaporated by the heat of the sun, 325.328
T u i h a , 56.58
of the mare, 324
Tung Chen Tzu (the Understanding-the-Truth (or
in medicinal preparations, 3&,308ff, 3 I I
the Primary Vitalities) Master, some time before
preparations from, 335
+ IOZO),220,221
premancy and, 301
Tungkuo Yen-Nien (Taoist adept, 3. early +3rdsediments and natural precipitates of, 310-1
century), 307
sexual activity and, 3 0 9 ~ 10
3
Turks, 297 (a)
styptic properties of, 3 10
'Turn back, 0 Man.. . ', 65
Turpis curion'tas,296
substances of androgenic and oestroe;enic properties
Tzu (cyclical character), 238
in, 322

INDEX
Urine donors, 319,32*1
age, sexand diet of, 315,320,321,324,325,328,329,
3309 332
Urino-genital organs and structum, 7 5 4
Urinoscopy, 310 (g)
Urso (Salemitan physician, ca. I 160). 3 10 (g)
Use in conformity with knowledge, 203.210
Uterine hypertrophy, 3 4
Uterus, 196

Vagina, 203 (a, b)

Vaginal contents, absorption into the bladder, 274
VairCgya(avoidance of all particular attachments), 259
Vajrabodhi (Chin-Kang-Chih, eminent mahiiyanist
monk, p o ) , 287
Vajraketu (one of the four lokapala, guardian &S),
228 (b)
Vqruyana, 260 (a)
Vq'roli-mudrci,274
Valentine, Basil, (alchemist whose real name was
Johann Thlilde, R. ca. I 570 to ca. 1615). I 5,
16.17
The 'Valley Spirit that never dies', 65,198, rpg, 289
Valuable Tried and Tested Prescriptions. See Ching
Yen L i q FLng
V&micrn- (followers of the left-hand way), 278, 279,
287
Vasa,adatta(alchemical tractate), 277
Vaiisfha (semi-legendary sage), 284
Vaughan, Thomas (Eugenius Philalethes, alchemist
and poet, + 1622 to + 1666). 16.23
Veins, tidal oscillations in, 305
Venereal maladies. 204
Ventral median acu-tract Gm mo). SeeJen mo
Vertebrae, 202
Vertebral axis, 66,202,253
Vertebral column, 108,197
Vertigo, 145
Vesical sphincter, 270
Vesiculae seminales, 187,252,253, 324
Vestibular glands, 195
Virgin-mother, 7
Virility, 302
'Virtue-Cherishing Army', 286
Vis medicatrix naturae, 300
Viscera, 24,37,54.67.69,73,75,77,78,79,109,112,
I 13,114,148,1~0,34
analogised with the Five Elements, 304
anatomyand physiology of, 82, 136
cavities among. 39
five Yin and six Yang, 82,146
Vishnu, 284
Vision, inwardly directed, 249
Visionary phenomena, 5,152,191
See also Hallucinatory phenomena
The Vital Enchvmoma of Emptiness and Nothinpess,
222
Vital heat, regions of (tan thien),38-40, 69. 71, 72, 77,
79,108,116.148.151.197
the 'three fires' and, 255
Vital power, I 77
'Vital spirits or organic forces', corresponding to ching,

I73
Vitalities. See Three primary vitalities
Vitality-drainage theory, 194, 196
Volatility, 4
1694 to 1778,
Voltaire, (Fran~ois-ManeArouet,
philosopher and dramatist), I 53, 175
Voluntary control over involuntary muscles, 2 W o
learnt also in animals, 273 (a)
Vomiting, 145. 270
Voyages ( - 1st-century), 282
VrCva, 258
Vrdtyastara sacrifices, 258
10th-century),
Vrinda (Indian alchemical writer,
277

Wahdat al-shudrid ('unity of vision' school of idealist

metaphysics), 152
Wai Chin Tan (Disclosures of the nature of the Metallous Enchymoma), 242
Wai tan (laboratory alchemy), 2, 8, 10, 16, 17, 20, 21,
22.23-4.31,34.35.3f3.46,60.91,92,
9 ~ ~ 9121,
9.
140,161, 186,201,z11,242,299,306,336
decline of, 2 8 9 9
dislike of nei-tan, 251
double failure of. 289
imagery, 2 I 3-4
influence on Western science and technology, 298
older than nn'tan,224
overlap with nk tan activities, 218,234,290,333
reactions of mercury and sulphur the outstanding
feature of, 290
sexology and, 209,213
Taoism and, 290
terminology. See Technical terms, alchemy
Wai-tanrrei-tanrelationship, 21 I, 227
Wai-tan and nei-ta traditions, synthesis of, 299,
301
Wai tan techniques, applied to nei tan materials, 35,
301
Wai Thai Pi Yao (Important Medical Formulae and
Prescriptions now revealed by the Governor of a
Distant Pmvince), 3 ro (g)
Wai yao (exterior medicinal entity). See Medicinal mtities
Waite, A. E., 17-19.21, 23
Walev, Arthur, 35; (14). 21.22-3,140; ( q ) , 281
'Walking outside society', 279.291
von Walther, P. F. (biological philosopher, + 1781 to
1849)~I77
Wan Ping Hui Chhm (The Restoration of Well-Being
from a Myriad Diseases), 326,329
Wang Chen (semi-legendary Taoist Saint and physiological alchemist), I41
Wang Chhang-ShPng (Thang Taoist adept from
Wang-wu Shan, + 8th-century), 207-8
Wang Chhuan-Shan (philosopher and historian,
+ 1619to + I 693). 29s
Wang Chhung (Han sceptical philosopher, +27 to
+ 97). 137.21 1.279. 302
Wang Chien (Taoist writer, + 5th-centuy), 169
Wang Chih-Chin, (Yuan physiological alchemist),
121-2

INDEX
Wang Hao-Ku (eminent Yuan physician, fl. + 1294 to
+ 1308)~I 13
Wang Hsi-Chih (Chin calligrapher, + 321 to 379).
85
Wang Hsiang-Chin (Ming writer on botany and horticulture, + 1561 to + 1653),293
W m g Hsien Fu (Ode on Contemplating the Immortals), 135 (d)
Wang Kuan (Sung writer on horticulture, fl. + 1075),
294
Wang Mang (Hsin emperor, r. + 9 to 23). I I4
Wang Tsu-Yuan (19th-century expert on Taoist
physical exercises and medical gymnastics), 166
Wang Wei-I (Taoist natural philosopher, fl. + 1294).
I 22 (h)
W w - Wu Chm-Jen Khou Shou Yin Tan Pi Ckieh
Ling Phim (Numinous Record of the Confidential
Oral instructions on the Yin Ench>momahanded
down by the Adept of Wang-Wu), 204
Warn- Wu C h m - M Liu Shou I Chen-JenK h Chiich
Chin S h q (Confidential Oral Instructions of the
Adept of Wang-Wu presented to the Court by 1,iu
Sho), 207-8
Wang-wu Shan, 207,208
Wangtzu Chhiao (prince of Chin State, ca. - 550, later
considered a hsr'en immortal), I 57, 162
War, 5.297
Warring States (period), 39,280,281,309
'The Washing away of 1Vrongs (i.e. False Charges)',
302
Water
'distilled', 329
symbol of the Feminine, 65, 210
standing for shm shui, 79
'true', 176
Water and Clouds Record. See Shui Yiin Lu
Water-clocks. See Clepsvdras
Water element, 40,42,++, 54, 56, 58,71,95, 187,222,
248.249.3 14,320
Water-Fire relationship, 95, 194,248,260,262
Water-raising machines, 60, 99, I 12, r 15, I 16, I 17,
118, 197,225,250
Watts, Alan, 217
Wave motion, 182
'Way of upside-downness'. See Tim tao
Weavin~Girl (Chih-nii), I 14
Wei Kingdom (in San Kuo period), 161
Mr Wei, (early Ming iatro-chemist), 329
Wei Valley, 82
Wei Chi hexagram, 63
Wei-Chih. See Yuan Chen
H'eilou principle ('minimising leaking'), I 28. 252-3
73. 2h4
Ii'ri-lii(t,ottlcrleck in therl~hicirc~rlation).
Wei PO-Yang (eminent alchemist and writer, 3.
+ 140). 20~99.136.333.334.335
Wei Shu (History of the (Northern) Wei Dynasty), I 38
Weights
body-, 145
and measures. 3 I 5 (c)
of organs, I 18
used in an allegorical way, 46,57,242
Well-being, sense of, 67.95, 145

W&-Shu Phu-Sa. See Manjusri

WPn Wang (semi-legendary emperor), 52
'Wen Wang' system. See Trigrams
Wenger & Ragchi (I), 271
Wenger, Ragchi & Anand (I), 272
West. See Europe
Western Asia. 283
\Vhat the Jade Girl of the Golden Flower said about
Elixirs and Enchymomas. See Chin Hua Yu Nu
Shuo Tan Ching
White Clouds Taoist temple. See Pai-yiin Kuan
White snow. See Pai-hriieh
'White tin', rw
FVhitening. See k 6 s i 1
N'ieland, Heinrich Otto ( o m i c chemist, 1877 to
19.57)~
301
Wild worm. See Dragon
Wilhelm, Helmut (6). 280
Wilhelm, Richard, 17,246
(6). 129, 142
Wilhelm, Richard & Jung, C. G., (I), 231, 243ff. 251 ff
Will-power, 243.248
Yoga and, 262,27 I
Wind-sock, 262 (c)
Windaus, Adolf (oqpnic chemist, 1876 to 1939). 301,
317
Wine, 137. 138
abstention from, 237
over-indulgence in, 133
used by the Brotherhood of the New Life, r 5 I
Withdrawal from the world, 154, 180, 184,2r8,291
Wittenberg, 19 (a)
Wizards, 283
Wo ku (method of clenching the hands during meditation, and coitus thesuuratur),183 (0,198 (h)
1679 to
Wolff, Christian (German philosopher,
+ 1754)~175
Woman-in-the-Wilderness Community, I 53
Women, 32, 156, 185.187
Confucian. See Confucian women
equality with men, 217,275
as the incarnation of the gods, 284
incarnating the sakti consorts, 258,260
refraining from, 201
sexual intercourse and, 194-5,21 5
sexual pleasure and, I 92-3
Tantrism and, 260
Taoist. See Taoist women, Taoist 'nuns'
Taoist recognition of the importance of, 217
transformation into men, 195
Wood element, 37,40,41,42,56.58
W d - b l o c k hmadsheet, I 16, I 17
'\Vork' (of alrhem\.). Ser 'Great Work'
Wounds, I 73
Wa (cyclical character), 238
Wu point (south and midday), 70,74,78
Wu Chen Phien (Poetical Essay on the Primary Vitalities), 40,41,88,92,95,97, 100, 225
Wu Chen Phien Ssu Chu (Four Commentaries on the
'Poetical Essay on the Primary Vitalities'), 334 (h)
Wu Chhing Tzu (Taoist Commentator, +7thcentury), 86, zoo

INDEX

560

\NU Chhiu (Ming physician. I gth-antury), 303

Wu Chhung-HsG (Ming writer on physiological alchemy,p. c. + 1550 to c. 1635)~243
Wu Chien (Sung civil official, P . + 1041 to + 1048),
I I2
W u K& Shu (The Rootless Tree),240
IVu I,i Hsiao Shih (Small encyclopaedia of the Principles of Things). 325, 329
W u lou ('not leaking'). See Lou
Wu Phu (pharmaceutical naturalist, pupil of Hua Tho,
fl. c. + 1go to +265), 161
Wu l'ai (period), 67, XX, I 10, 161,213,220, 329
Wu-thai Shan, 83
Wu-thung seed (Sterculia platmrifolia), 3 17
Wu Wu (Sung alchemist, fl. + I zth-century), 34

optical connection, 82-3

technical terms for, 252
'Yellow Dame' (Huang Pho), 203,223
Yellow Emperor. See Huang T i
The Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal (Medicine). See Huang Ti %1 Ching
Yellow Lord of the Centre, 206
'Yellow sprouts', 100,213,223,242,251,333,335
Yellow Way ( h u m tao, not the ecliptic), 92,234
Yellowing. See Xanthrisk
Yen chhi (swallowing air), 148
Yen Kho-Chun (Chhing editor of literary fragments,
+ 1762 to 1843). 1x9
The Yen-Ling Teacher, 150
Yen Lo Tzu (the Smoky-Vine Master), 107, 108, log,
I 10, I 12-3.187
Yen Shih-Ku (famous scholar and commentator,
Xanthrisis (Yellowing), 9, I I
Xylose, 3 17
+ 579 to + 645). 335
Yen Sung (iatro-chemist. c. 1545). 332
Yen Yung-Ho (Sung physician and medical writer, fl.
Mr. Yang, (early Ming iatro-chemist), 3 19
Yang and Yin forces, rising and falling of, 58,60,6g
C. + 1267). 303
Yang chhi within the saliva, 30
Yin and Yann, 7, I 2,21,27,30,37.40.41-2.53.54,62.
Yang, correlation of with externality, 42.44
70, 72, 74,75,78,79.81,91,92,95,96, 102, I 18,
represented by the furnace (h),99
189, 193, 194, 195, 204, 240, 262, 282, 289, 291,
Yang in love with Yin, 102, 103
304,306
Yang Chieh (anatomist and physician, fl. I I 13). I 12.
analogy with sexual union, 1854,187,190
'getting in touch with, by the aid of a long pole, 156
1 I3
Ymg-Char Shao Yao Phu (Monograph on the Hermutual nourishment of, 191,208
baceous Peonies of Yangchow). 294
primary or vital. See Chen Yang. Chen Yin
symbols, 36, I 16
Yang dragon, 75. I I I
two formerly lost essavs on, from Han tomb, 136
Yang Hsi (Taoist religious leader, + 330 to + 387). 85
Yang hsing ('nourishing the nature', Taoist technical Yin, correlation with intemality, 42,44
represented by the reaction-vessel, 99
term), 2 I
Yang Hsity! (or Sh&)
Yen Ming Lu (On Delaying Yin within the Yang, and the Yang within the Yin, 93,
Destiny by Nourishing the Natural Forces), rgo,
94, 104,116,213,2149 333
Yin C h m Chiin Chin Shih W u Hn'mg Lri (The Simi193,292 (d)
Yang H*
Shu (Bookof Macrobiotics), I 37
larities and Categories of the Five Substances
Yang Hsiung (Han mutationist and lexicographer,
among Metals and Minerals, by the Deified Adept
- 53 to + 18). 294
Yin), 334 (c)
Yang iim (purification method for urinary pre- Yin Chen Jen (Yin Phhg-Thou. Adept, probably
early + 17th-century), 224.23 I , 234
cipitates), 3 1 3 , 3 1 4 . 3 1 6 , 3 1 9 . 3 2 3 , 3 2 5 , 3 3 0 . 3 3 1
Y q Sh& h'n' Kung Pi Chueh (Confidential In- Yin Chhang-Shing ( + 2nd-century alchemist, putstructions on Nourishing the Life Force by Gymative master, or first commentator, of \Vei Ponastics and other Physical Techniques), 238
Yanu), 67
Yung Sh& Tao Yin Fa (Method of Nourishing the Yin lien (purification method for urinary precipitates),
Vitality by Gymnastics and Massage), 161, 162
313>3149318,319~
323.325.330.331
Y m g Sh& Yen Ming Lu. See Yang Hsing Yen Mity! Yin Phing-Thou. See Yin Chen Jen
Lu
Yin tan, 42
Y ~ tan,
R 42
Yin Tan ,Vo' Phien (Esoteric Essay on the Yin EnYang Tzu. See Yang Hsiung
chymoma), 49
Yao (legendary emperor), I 89
Yin tao (leading something out by the same way that it
Yao Chung Chhao ( Yakushi-shri, Memoir on Several
previously came itself), 3 I I
Varieties of Drug Plants), 33
Ying Chhan Tzu (The illustrious Moon-Toad MasYao Ju-Hsun (Taoist editor, + 1560). 229
ter, writer on physiological alchemy,$. + 1290 to
Yao-yang-kuan acu-point, 202
f 1320). 41,42,44
Yeh llmg-'1'6 (scholar and writer, + 1077 to + I 148). Ying erh (the 'Baby Boy'), 62,83,84, go, 10% I 12, 134
313,316,317.318.319.321~322
(a), 196,223,246
Yeh Shih-Iin. See Yeh M6ng-Ti
Yo-lu Shan, I 59
Yeh Tshai (Neo-Confucian commentator, fl. + rqR), ben Yochai, R. Simon ( + 2nd-century), 3 (e)
295
Y w , 23,169,218, z57ff
'Yellow and the White', Art of the, 251
alchemy, 169, 218, 262, 276, 277, 278, 283, 287-8,
Yellow Courts (huang thing), %,72,75,81, 82-3, ~ a q ,
298
105, 1 9 , I 16, I 18,129,246,248,291
anatomical ideas, 271

INDEX
Yoga (contd.)
imported to China. 283
conception of immortality, contrasted with Christianiv, 297-8
ethics, 259
'going against Nature' and, 292
Kundalini-, 247, 274
physiology, 27 I
self-training in, by Taoist magi, 240
sex and, 274-5
Tamil MSS on, 285
terminolom. Scr Technical terms
the world regarded as real and not illusion, 258
Yogd-dcniano, 257
Yoga Szitra (Patanjali), 257-8
Yo@dra, 257,258,268,269
studied with modem physiolqical methods, 270
Y q a h ritta~ttinirodhah(the suppression of conscious
states), 273
Y q a t t a t v a C'pamihad, 263,274.277 (b)
Yoginis, 258
Yogistic meditation techniques, 273
basal metabolism during, 271
postures, 266.268
Yogistic quietism, 152
Yo~isticrespiratory techniques, 258,259,260,263
altitude anoxaemia and. 272
oxygen-consumption increased during certain varieties, 271
periods of, and cyclical calendrical recurrences, 276
Yogistic techniques, and detachment from the phenomina1 world, 272
Ya'okun (Instructions on Hygiene and the Prolongation of Life), I g3
Yoni, 190(d)
Youth, revemion to. See Rejuvenation

s~~

Y u - c h i q Shan (bottleneck in the chhi circulation), 73

Y u Fang Chih Yao (Important Matters of the Jade
Chamber), 192,198,203
Y u F q Pi C k e h (Secret Instructions concerning the
Jade Chamber), 194
Yu*
(jade stalk, i.e. penis), 190. 192, 196, 198,201
Yu T i (the Jade Emperor), 20
Yuan(period), 35.49,85,207,231,289, 2 ~ 0303,314
,
Yuan Chen (Wei-Chih, Thang poet, +799 to +831),
334
Yuan chhi (primary chhr>,26,71,74,79, 129,130, 147,
239
Yuan Chhi Lun (Discourn on the Primary Vitality and
the Cosmogonic Chhi), 122
Yuan Chhi Thi Hsiang Thu (Illustration of the Primordial Chhi in the Body), 103.105
Yuan-Chhiu Mountains, 3og
Yuan ching (primary ching). 26
Yuan i (primordial juice), 75
Y u a shen (primary shen), 26,202
Yuan Y q Ching (Manual of the Primary Yang Vitality), 146
Y u n Chi Chhi Chhien collection (The Seven Bamboo
Tablets of the Cloudy Satchel), 22,79, 122,220
Yun-Lu Kung (Taoist temple, near Chhangsha), I 59
Yung chhi ('employment of the chhr"),I 48
Yung-Lo Kung (Taoist temple), Shansi, 87
Yunnan, 39,282
ZZbulistan, ambassador from, 286
Zen school of Buddhism, 22,252,289
Zen sitting (meditation), 181
Zohar (Rookof Splendour), 3 (e)
Zosimus of Panopolis (proto-chemist philosopher,
+ 3rd-century), 4.6, r I , 19

TABLE OF CHINESE DYNASTIES

$j

HSIAkingdom (legendary?)
SHANG(YIN) kingdom

c.
c.

-2000 to c. - 1520
- 1520 to C. - I030
- 1030 to - 722

Early Chou period

c.
Chhun Chhiu period
H -722 to -480
Warring States (Chan
-480 to - 221
Kuo) period E@
First Unification
CHHINdynasty
- 221 to - 207
Chhien Han (Earlier or Western)
- 202 to +g
HANdynasty Hsin interregnum
+g to i-23
(HOU Han (Later or Eastern)
+25 to 220
H SANKUO(Three Kingdoms period)
+221 to
265
First
Gj SHU(HAN)
+221 to +264
Partition
WEI
+220 to 3-265
Wu
222 to
280
Second
CHINdynasty: Western
+265 to +317
Unification
Eastern
+317 to +420
+420 to +479
PI]
(Liu) SUNGdynasty
Second
Northern and Southern Dynasties (Nan Pei chhao)
Partition
R CHHIdynasty
+479 to 502
@ LIANGdynasty
+S02 to 557
bJI CHHENdynasty
+557 to + 589
Northern (Thopa) WEI dynasty
+386 to +535
Western (Thopa) WEI dynasty
+535 to + 556
Eastern (Thopa) WEI dynasty
+ 534 fo + 550
At: fi Northern CHHIdynasty
+550 fo +S77
j
Northern CHOU(Hsienpi) dynasty
+S57 to +581
Third
pp4 SUI dynasty
+581 to +618
Unification
THANG
dynasty
+618 to +go6
Third
K Wu TAI(Five Dynasty period) (Later Liang,
907 to 960
Partition
Later Thang (Turkic), Later Chin (Turkic),
Later Han (Turkic) and Later Chou)
3 LIAO(Chhitan Tartar) dynasty
+go7 to 1124
+l124 to +1211
West LIAOdynasty (Qars-KhitHi)
h Hsi Hsia (Tangut Tibetan) state
3-986 to + 1227
Fourth
Korthern SUNGdynasty
+960 to +1126
Unification
Southern SUNGdynasty
+1127 to +1279
.& CHIN(Jurchen Tartar) dynasty
+ I I I ~
to +I++
+
1260
to + 1368
YUAN(Mongol) dynasty
1368 to 1644
HA MINGdynasty
1644 to 1911
$j CHHING
(Manchu) dynasty
Republic
1912

Jbj CHOUdynasty (Feudal

Age)

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

N.B. When no modifying term in brackets is given, the dynasty was purely Chinese. Where the
overlapping of dynasties and independent states becomes particularly confused, the tables of Wieger ( I )
will be found useful. For such periods, especially the Second and Third Partitions, the best guide is
Eberhard (g). During the Eastern Chin period there were no less than eighteen independent States
(Hunnish, Tibetan, Hsienpi, Turkic, etc.) in the north. The term ' Liu chhao' (Six Dynasties) is often
used by historians of literature. It refers to the south and covers the period from the beginning of the
3rd to the end of the +6th centuries, including (San Kuo) Wu, Chin, (Liu) Sung, Chhi, Liang and
Chhen. For all details of reigns and rulers see Moule & Yetts ( I ) .

SUMMARY O F T H E CONTENTS O F VOLUME 5

CHEMISTRY A N D CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY

Part 2, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention:

Magisteries of Gold and Immortality
33 Alchemy and Chemistry
Introduction; the historical literature
Primary sources
Secondary sources

Concepts, terminology and definitions

Aurifiction and aurifaction in the West
T h e theory of chrysopoia
T h e persistence of the aurifactive dream
T h e artisans' cupel and the enigma of aurifactive
philosophy
Gold and silver in ancient China
Cuoellation and cementation in ancient China
~uiifactionin the Puo II'u Tzu book
T h e drug of deathlessness; macrobiotics and immortalitytheory in East and \Vest
Hellenistic metaphor and Chinese reality
Ideas about the after-life in East and \Vest
T h e hun and pho souls
Material immortality; the hn'm and the celestial
bureaucracy
Macrobiotics and the origin of alchemy in ancient China
T h e missing element; liturgy and the origins of Chinese
alchemy
Incense, ,prototypal reactant
Fumigat~on,expellant and inductant
Nomenclature of chemical substances

The metallurgical-chemical background; identifications of alchemical processes

T h e availability of metallic elements
Golden uniform-substrate alloys
The origin of the brasses
The origins of zinc
Other golden alloys
Arsenical copper
Silvery uniform-substrate allqys
Paktong ('Tanyang copper , cupro-nickel)
Chinese nickel in Greek Bactria?
Other silvery alloys
Amalgams
The treatment of metal and alloy surfaces
Suoerficial enrichment: the addition of a laver of
precious metal (gilding and silvering)
Superficial enrichment; the withdrawal of a layer of
base metal (cementation)
The deposition of coloured surface-films ('tingeing',
bronzing, pickling, dipping)
'Purple sheen gold' and shaky&
Violet alloys, 'purple of Cassius , ruby glass, mosaic gold,
and the panacea antimonialis
Thang lists of 'golds' and 'silvers', artificial and genuine
-

The physiological background; verifications of

the efficacy of elixirs
Initial exhilaration
Terminal incorruptibility

Part 3, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention:

Historical Survey, from Cinnabar Elixirs to Synthetic Insulin
The historical development of alchemy and early
chemistry
T h e origins of alchem in Chou, Chhin and Early Han;
its relation with 'doism
T h e School of Naturalists and the First Emperor
Aurifiction and aurifaction in the Han
T h e three roots of elixir alchemy
Wei PO-Yang; the beginnings of alchemical literature in
the Later Han ( + 2nd cent.)
KO Hung, systematiser of Chinese alchemy (c. + 3w), and
his times
Fathers and masters
T h e Pao Phu T m book and its elixirs
Character and contemporaries
Alchemy in the Taoist Patrology (Tao Tsang)
T h e golden age of alchemy; from the end of Chin ( + 4 w )
t o late Thang ( + 800)
T h e Imperial Elaboratory of the Northern Wei and the
Taoist Church at Mao Shan
Alchemy in the Sui re-unification
Chemical theory and spagyrical poetry under the
Thang
Chemical lexicography and classification in the Thang
Buddhist echoes of Indian alchemy

T h e silver age of alchemy; from the late Thang ( + 800) to

the end of the Sung ( + 1300)
The first scientific printed book, and the court alchemist
Rlistress KCng
From proto-chemistry to proto-physiology
Alchemy in Japan
Handbooks of the Wu Tai
Theocratic mvstification. and the laboratorv in the
'
National idem em^
T h e emperor's artificial gold factory under Metallurgist
\Vang Chieh
Social aspects, conventional attitudes and gnomic
inscriptions
Alchemical compendia and books with illustlations
The Sorthem and Southern Schools of Taoism
Alchemy in its decline; Yuan, Ming and Chhing
The Emaciated Immortal. Prince of the hling
Ben Jonson in China
Chinese alchemy in the age of Libavius and Bether
T h e legacy of the Chinese alchemical tradition
T h e com7ng-of modem chemistry
T h e failure of the Jesuit mission
Mineral acids and gunpowder
A Chinese puzzle--eighth or eighteenth?
T h e Kiannnan Arsenal and the sinisation of modem

SUMMARY O F T H E CONTENTS O F V O L U M E

Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention:

Apparatus and Theory
Laboratory apparatus and equipment

The theoretical background of elixir alchemy

[with Nathan Sirin]

T h e laboratory bench
T h e stoves lu and tsao
T h e reaction-vessels tin^ (tripod, container, cauldron) and
kuei (box, casing, container, aludel)
T h e sealed reaction-vessels shen shih (aludel, lit. magical
reaction-chamber) and s a o fu (chemical pyx)
Steaming apparatus, water-baths, cooling jackets, condenser tubes and temperature stabilisers
Sublimation apparatus
Distillation and extraction apparatus
Destillatio per descensum
T h e distillation of sea-water
East Asian types of still
T h e stills of the Chinese alchemists
T h e evolution of the s t ~ l l
T h e geographical distribution of still types
T h f corning of Ardent \\'ater
I he Salernitan quintessence
%ling naturalists and 'I'bnng 'burnt-wine'
Liang 'frozen-out wine
From icv mountain to torrid still
Oils in ;tills; the rose and the flame-thrower
Laboratory instruments and accessory equipment

Introduction
Areas of uncertainty
Alchemical ideas and Taoist revelations
T h e spectrum of alchemy
T h e role of time
T h e organic development of minerals and metals
Planetary correspondences, the First Law of Chinese
physics, and inductive causation
Time as the essential parameter of mineral growth
T h e subterranean evolution of the natural elixir
T h e alchemist as accelerator of cosmic process
Emphasis on process in theoretical alchemy
l'rototypal two-element processes
Correspondences in duration
Fire phasing
Cosmic correspondences embodied in apparatus
Arrangements for microcosmic circulation
Spatially oriented systems
Chaos and the egg
Proto-chemical ant~cipations
Sumerology and gravimetry
Theories of categories

Reactions in aqueous medium

Comparative survey

T h e f o p a t i o n and use of a mineral acid

'Nitre and hsiao; the recognition and separation of
soluble salts
Saltpetre and copperas as limiting factors in East and \Vest
T h e precip~tationof metallic copper from its salts by
iron
T h e role of bacterial enzyme actions
Geodes and fertility potions
Stabilised lacquer latex and perpetual youth

China and the Hellenistic world

Parallelisms of dating
T h e first occurrence of the term 'chemistry'
T h e origins of the root 'chem-'
I'arallel~smsof content
Parallelisn~sof svmbol
China and the rabic world
Arabic alchemy in rise and decline
T h e meeting of the streams
hlaterial intluences
Theoretical influences
T h e name and concept of 'elixir'
Macrobiotics in the \Yestern world

Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention:

Physiological Alchemy
T h e outer and the inner macrobiogens; the
elixir and the enchyrnoma
Esoteric traditions in European alchemy
Chinese physiological alchemy; the theory of the enchymoma (nei fan) and the three primary vitalities
T h e quest for material immortallty
Rejuvenation by the union of opposites; .Iin civo
reaction
T h e Hsiu Chrn books and the Huang Thing canons
T h e historical development of physiological alchemy
T h e techniques of macrobiogenesis
Itespiration control, aerophagy, salivary deglutition and
the circulation of the chhi
Gymnastics, massage and physiotherapeutic exercise
Meditation and mental concentration
I'hototherapeutic procedures
Sexuality and the role of theories of generation
T h e borderline between proto-chemical (wai fan) and
physiological (nei tan) alchemy

Late enchymoma literature of Ming and Chhing

T h e 'Secret of the Golden Flower' unveil'd
Chinese physiolog~cal alchemy (nei tan) and the Indian
Yoga, Tantric and Hathayoga systems
Originalities and intluences; s~milaritiesand differences
Conclusions; nei fan as proto-blochemistry

The enchymoma in the test-tube; medieval

preparations of urinary steroid and protein
hormones
Introduction
T h e sexual organs in Chinese medicine
Proto-endocrinology in Chinese medical theory
T h e empirical background
r h e main iatro-chemical preparations
Comments and variant processes
T h e history of the technique

ROMANISATION CONVERSION TABLES

BY

R O B I NB R I L L I A N T

PINYIN/MODIFIED WADE-GILES

Pinyin

ang
ao
ba
bai
ban
ban&!
bao
bei
ben
beng
bi
bian
biao
bie
bin
bing
bo
bu
ca
cai
can
cang
cao
ce
cen
ceng
cha
chai
chan
chang
chao
che
chen
cheng
chi

Modified
Wade-Giles

anu
aa
Pa
pai
Pan
pang
Pao
pei
pin
P~"U
pi
pien
pia0
pieh
pin
ping
PO
PU
tsha
tshai
tshan
tshang
tshao
tshi
tshin
tshing
chha
chhai
chhan
chhang
chhao
chh6
chhin
chhing
chhih
chhung

Pinyin
chou
chu
chuai
chuan
chuang
chui
chun
chuo
ci
cong
cou
CU

cuan
cui
cun
cuo
da
dai
dan
dang
dao
de
dei
den
deng
di
dian
diao
die
ding
diu
dong
dou
du
duan
dui
dun
duo

Modified
Wade-Giles
chhou
chhu
chhuai
chhuan
chhuang
chhui
chhun
chho
tzhu
tshung
tshou
tshu
tshuan
tshui
tshun
tsho
ta
tai
tan
tang
tao
ti
tei
tin
ting
ti
tien
tiao
dieh
ting
tiu
tung
tou
tu
tuan
tui
tun

567
Pinyin

eng
er
fa
fan
fang
fei
fen
feng
fo
fou
fu
Ka
gai

Kao
K'=

gei
Ken
RenR
gong
KOU

KU

gua
guai
guan
guang
gui
Run
KUO

ha
hai
han
hang
hao
he
hei
hen
heng
hong
hou
hu
hua
huai
huan
huang
hui
hun
huo
J'

Modified
Wade-Giles

Pinyin

Modified
Wade-Giles

On
Ong
Prh
fa
fan
fang
fei
fOn
fPng
fo
fou
fu
ka
kai
kan
kang
kao
ko
kei
ken
king
kung
kou
ku
kua
kuai
kuan
kuang
kuei
kun
kuo
ha
hai
han
hang
hao
h0
hei
hin
hing
hung
hou
hu
hua
huai
huan
huang
hui
hun
huo
chi

jia
jian
jiang
jiao
jie
jin
jing
jiong
jiu
jU
juan
jue
jun
ka
kai
kan
kang
kao
ke
kei
ken
keng
kong
kou
ku
kua
kuai
kuan
kuang
kui
kun
kuo
la
lai
lan
lang
lao
le
lei
leng
li
lia
lian
liang
liao
lie
lin
ling
liu
l0
long

chia
chien
chiang
chiao
chieh
chin
ching
chiung
chiu
chu
chuan
chueh, chio
chun
kha
khai
khan
khang
khao
kho
khei
khOn
khing
khung
khou
khu
khua
khuai
khuan
khuang
khuei
khun
khuo
la
lai
lan
lang
lao
16
lei
IOng
li
lia
lien
liang
liao
lieh
lin
ling
liu
l0
lung

Pinyin

luan
liie
lun
luo
ma
mai
man
mang
mao
mei
men
meng
mi
mian
miao
mie
min
ming
miu
mo
mou

nai
nan
nang
nao
nei
nen
neng
ng
ni
nian
niang
niao
nie
nin
ning
niu
nong
nou

Modified
Wade-Giles

Pinyin

lou
lu
lii
luan
lueh
lun
l0
ma
mai
man
mang
mao
mei
m tn

Pa
pai
Pan
Pang
Pao
pei
Pen
Pew
pi
pian
piao
pie
pin

mien
miao
mieh
min
ming
miu
mo
mou

PU
qi
qia
qian
qiang
qiao
qie
qin
qing
qiong
qiu
qu
quan
que
qun
ran
rang
rao
re
ren
reng
ri
rong
rou

nai
nan
nang
nao
nei
ntn
ntng
ng
ni
nien
niang
niao
nieh
nin
ning
niu
nung
nou

rua
man
run
N O

nue
nuo

nio
no
0, S
ou

sa
sai
sang
sao

Modified
Wade-Giles
pha
phai
phan
phang
phao
phei
phtn
phtng
phi
phien
phiao
phieh
phin
phing
pho
phou
phu
chhi
chhia
chhien
chhiang
chhiao
chhieh
chhin
chhing
chhiung
chhiu
chhu
chhuan
chhueh, chhio
chhun
jan
jaw
j ao
j6
jtn
jtng
jih
jung
jou
ju
j ua
juan
jui
jun
jo
sa
sai
san
sang
sao

Pinyin
se
sen
seng
sha
shai
shan
shang
shao
she
shei
shen
sheng
shi
shou
shu
shua
shuai
shuan
shuang
shui
shun
shuo
si
song
sou
su
suan
sui
sun
SUO

ta
tai
tan
tang
tao
te
teng
ti
tian
tiao
tie
ting
tong
tou
tu
tuan
tui
tun
tuo
wa
wai

Modified
Wade-Giles

sing
sha
shai
shan
shang
shao
shi
shei
shen
shing, sfng
shih
shou
shu
shua
shuai
shuan
shuang
shui
shun
shuo
ssu
sung
sou
su
suan
sui
sun
so
tha
thai
than
thang
thao
thi
thing
thi
thien
thiao
thieh
thing
thung
thou
thu
thuan
thui
thun
tho
wa
wai

Pinyin

Modified
Wade-Giles

wan
wang
wei
wen
weng

wan
wang
wei
wtn
ong

xia
xian
xiang
xiao
xie
xin
xing
xiong
xiu
xu
xuan
xue
xun
Ya
Yan

wu
hsi
hsia
hsien
hsiang
hsiao
hsieh
hsin
hsing
hsiung
hsiu
hsii
hsiian
hsueh, hsio
hsiin
Ya
Yen

Ye
yi
yin

yin

yun
za
zai
zan
zang
zao
ze
zei
Zen
zeng
zha
zhai
zhan
zhang
zhao
zhe

yuan
yiieh, yo
yun
tsa
tsai
tsan
tsang
tsao
ts2
tsei
tsin
tsfng
cha
chai
chan
chang
chao
chf

yeh
1

570
Pinyin

Modified
Wade-Giles

zhei
zhen
zheng
zhi
zhong
zhou
zhu
zhua
zhuai
zhuan
zhuang

chei
chCn
chCng
chih
chung
chou
chu
chua
chuai
chuan
chuang

Pinyin

Modified
Wade-Giles

zhui
zhun
zhuo
zi
zong
zou
zu
zuan
zui
zun

chui
chun
cho
tzu
tsung

ZUO

tSO

tSOU

tsu
tsuan
tsui
tsun

M O D I F I E D WADE-GILES/PINYIN
Modified
Wade-Giles

'

cha
chai
chan
chang
chao
chC
chei
chCn
chCng
chha
chhai
chhan
chhang
chhao
chhO
chhin
chhCng
chhi
chhia
chhiang
chhiao
chhieh
chhien
chhih
chhin
chhing

Pinyin

zha
chai
zhan
zhang
zhao
zhe
zhei
zhen
zheng
cha
chai
chan
chang
chao
che
chen
cheng
qi
qia
qiang
qiao
qie
qian
chi
qin

Modified
Wade-Giles
chhio
chhiu
chhiung
chho
chhou
chhu
chhuai
chhuan
chhuang
chhui
chhun
chhung
chhii
chhuan
chhueh
chhun
chi
chia
chiang
chiao
chieh
chien
chih
chin
ching
chio
chiu
chiung
cho
chou
chu

Pinyin
que
qiu
qiong
chuo
chou
chu
chuai
chuan
chuang
chui
chun
chong
qu
quan
que
qun
J'

jia
jiang
jiao
j ie
jian
zhi
jin
jing
jue
jiu
jiong
zhuo
zhou
zhu

Modified
Wade-Giles
chua
chuai
chuan
chuang
chui
chun
chung
chii
chuan
chueh
chiin
O
On
Cng
Crh
fa
fan
fang
fei
fOn
fOng
fo
fou
fu
ha
hai
han
hang
hao
hin
hCng
h0
hou
hsi
hsia
hsiang
hsiao
hsieh
hsien
hsin
hsing
hsio
hsiu
hsiung
hsii
hsiian
hsiieh
hsiin
hu
hua
huai

Pinyin
zhua
zhuai
zhuan
zhuang
zhui
zhun
zhong
ju
juan
jue
jun

eng
er
fa
fan
fang
fei
fen
feng
fo
fou
fu
ha
hai
han
hang
hao
hen
heng
he
hou
xi
xia
xiang
xiao
xie
xin
xing
xue
xiu
xiong
xu
xuan
xue
xun
hu
hua
huai

Modified
Wade-Giles
huan
huang
hui
hun
hung
huo
1

jan
jaw
jao
ji
jOn
jOng
jih
jo
jou
jU
jua
juan
jui
jun
jung
ka
kai
kan
kang
kao
kei
kin
kOng
kha
khai
khan
khang
khao
khei
khCn
khOng
kho
khou
khu
khua
khuai
khuan
khuang
khuei
khun
khung
khuo
ko
kou

Pinyin
huan
huang
hui
hun
hong
huo
yi
ran
rang
rao
re
ren
reng
ri
ruo
mu
rua
man
rui
run
rong
ga
gai
Ran
Rang
gao
gei
Ren
ueng
ka
kai
kan
kang
kao
kei
ken
keng
ke
kou
ku
kua
kuai
kuan
kuang
ku i
kun
kong
kuo

572
Modified
Wade-Giles
ku
kua
kuai
kuan
kuang
kuei
kun
kung
kuo
la
lai
lan
lang
lao
16
lei
IPng
li
lia
liang
liao
lieh
lien
lin
ling
liu
l0
IOU
lu
luan
lun
lung
lii
liieh
ma
mai
man
mang
mao
mei
mPn
m&ng
mi
miao
mieh
mien
min
ming
miu
mo
mou

Pinyin

Modified
Wade-Giles

Pinyin

3'

Kua
guai
guan
gui
=
' ' - 'g
gong
RUO

la
lai
lan
lang
lao
le
lei
leng
li
lia
liang
liao
lie
lian
lin
ling
liu
luo, l0

IOU
lu
luan
lun
long
lii
liie
ma
mai
man
mang
mao
mei
men
meng
mi
miao
mie
mian
min
ming
miu
mo
mou

na
nai
nan
nang
nao
nei
ntn
ntng
ni
niang
niao
nieh
nien
nin
ning
niu
niu
nou
nu
nuan
nung
nii

ou
Pa
pai
Pan
Pang
Pao
pei
PS~K
pha
phai
phan
phang
phao
phei
phPn
phEng
phi
phiao
phieh
phien
phin
phing
pho
phou

na
nai
nan
nang
nao
nei
nen
neng
ni
niang
niao
nie
nian
nin
ning
niie
niu
nuo
nou
nu
nuan
nong
n ii
e, 0
weng
ou
ba
_ bai
ban
bang
bao
bei
ben
beng
Pa
pai
Pan
pang
Pao
pei
Pen
PenK
pi
pia0
pie
pian
pin
ping
PO
POU

ILlodified
\Vade-Giles
phu
pi
pia0
pieh
pien
pin
P I ~ R

PO
PU
sa
sai
San
sang
sao
si
sin
sPng
sha
shai
shan
shang
shao
shi
shei
shin
shing
shih
shou
shu
shua
shuai
shuan
shuang
shui
shun
shuo

Pinyin
PU
hi
biao
hie
bian
bin
bing
bo
bu
sa
sai
San
sang
sao
se
sen
seng, sheng
sha
shai
shan
shang
shao
she
shei
shen
sheng
shi
shou
shu
shua
shuai
shuan
shuang
shui
shun
shuo
suo

SOU

SOU

ssu
su
suan
sui
sun
sung

si

tan
tang
tao
tP
tei

SU

suan
sui
sun
song
da
dai
dan
dang
dao
de
dei

Modified
\Vade-Giles
tPn
tPng
tha
thai
than
thang
thao
thP
thing
thi
thiao
thieh
thien
thing
tho
thou
thu
thuan
thui
thun
thung
ti
tiao
tieh
tien
ting
tiu
tou
tsa
tsai
tsan
tsang
tsao
tsi
tsei
tsPn
tsPng
tsha
tshai
tshan
tshang
tshao
tshi
tshPn
tshPng
tsho
tshou
tshu
tshuan
tshui

Pinyin
den
deng
ta
tai
tan
tang
tao
te
teng
ti
tiao
tie
tian
ting
tuo
tou
tu
tuan
tui
tun
tong
di
diao
die
dian
ding
diu
duo
dou
za
zai
zan
zang
zao
ze
zei
Zen
zeng
ca
cai
can
cang
cao
ce
cen
ceng
cuo
cou
CU

cuan

5 74
Modified
Wade-Giles

Pinyin

tshun
tshung
tso
tSOU
tSU
tsuan
tsui
tsun
tsung
tu
tuan
tui
tun
tung
tzhu
tzu
wa
wai
wan

cun
cong
zuo
zou
zu
zuan
zui
zun
zong
du
duan
dui
dun
dong
ci
zi
wa
wai
wan

Modified
Wade-Giles

Pinyin

wang
wei
wen

wang
wei
wen

WO

WO

wu
ya
YanR
Yao
yeh
Yen
yin
ying
YO

WU

ya
Yang
Yao
Ye
Yan
yin
ying
yue, YO

YU

YOU

Yung
yu
yuan
yueh
yun

Yong
YU

Pan
yue
Yun