Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Contents
--------~~~~~~~~~--------------------------------------------t_-------.r".cfiaf<cc"C,c,c,c,c,c,c,c,c,c,c,c,c,cc
.. , ..
To ProjC!J30r Donold L. Katz , University oj Michigan , jor his innumerable
contributions to natural gas engineering; and my family Jor their
constant encouragement and support.
, .... , .............................
VII
Caseous Fuel. ~ral Cas Production and Processing System. Questions and
Problems. References.
Gas Properties
Volume 4
Gas~~lu!:ti" on-Engineering
~
9
f~
* '"::\01
01 .,10'
~~~g
Copyri
@.t. , ' .
Company,
Houston, 1l
1i1~. Printed in the
United States of America. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without
permission of the publisher.
Gas Processing
4. Gas and Liquid Separation ............. . ... . ...... . ..... .. . 18
............ 169
--/ Introduction. Measurement Fundamentals. Methods of Measurement. Orlfice Meters. Other Types of Measurement. Questions and Problems. Refer-
ences.
Preface
With this book I have sought to provide a rigorous and comprehensive
text that reHects a broad spectrum or natural gas engineering experience.
My motivation came primarily from some gas engineering courses I taught
in the United States and overseas that made me realize the limitations of the
existing material and the frustration or having to use several different publications, some of which would contradict others. Notwithstanding the enormity or the task, I decided to write a book to eliminate this conrusion and
provide a wider and more detailed coverage of this topic. Much of the material presented here was drawn from these lectures .
This book is designed to be a moderately advanced textbook ror students
and a handy reference for practicing engineers. It was written with the assumption that some readers with little or no background in gas engineering
will use it as their first book. To keep things interesting for the expert. I have
sought to include the most current developments reported in the latest published works to the extent possible without dragging this book into an interminably long series of books on these topics. Pertinent references are included at the end of each chapter for those wanting more details. Almost
every chapter includes worked examples to enhance understanding and
some practice questions and problems that will aid in testing this understanding. (Answers to the questions and problems are available in a separate
instructor's guide.)
Chapter 1, an introduction to the scope of natural gas engineering, can be
skipped by most seasoned readers. Chapters 2 and 3 describe the properties
of natural gas that are crucial in designing and operating natural gas systems. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 deal with gas processing-Chapter 4 discusses
the separation or gas from oil and water from a typical reservoir; Chapter 5
provides insight into gas-water systems and dehydration processing techniques for natural gas; and Chapter 6 examines some or the important and
widely used desulrurization processes for natural gas,
Chapters 7-11 present important topics in gas production and HowChapter 7 describes relationships for the steady state flow or gas through
horizontal, inclined, and vertical pipes; Chapter 8 outlines the methods of
handling multiphase flow encountered in gas production; Chapter 9 provides information on gas compression; Chapter 10 discusses gas flow measurement; and finally, Chapter 11 describes gas gathering and transmission
systems, and deal.s with the design and modeling of the complete production
"
and
Introduction
The earliest records of natural gas go back to A.D. 221-263 when it was
first used as a fuel in China during the Shu Han dynasty. The gas, obtained
from shallow wells, was distributed through an interesting piping system:
hollow bamboos. Later evidence is not found until the early 17th century.
when natural gas was used on a small scale for heating and lighting in
northern Italy. In the United States, natural gas was first discovered in Fredonia, New York, in 1821. It is this latter discovery that has led, for the most
part, to the developments we see today. In the years following this discovery,
natural gas was used merely as a fuel locally: it was difficult to store and
transport and had Iitt1e or no commercial value. Even in the 19205 and '30s,
natural gas was only produced as an unwanted byproduct of crude oil production. Only a small amount of gas was pipelined to industrial areas for
commercial use, most of it being vented to the air or flared. From these
humble beginning.., the natural gas industry has burgeoned. especially in
the years following World War II. Natural gas now accounts for almost onefifth of the world's primary energy consumption, surpassing coal and second
only to oil (see Tables 1-1 and 1-2).
Several factors are responsible for these developments: New processes permit the manufacture of myriad petrochemicals and fertilizers from natural
gas; gas is a clean, efficient, easily combustible, low-sulfur fuel and has consequently replaced coal as a domestic, industrial, and power generation fuel
in many parts of the world; difficulties in storing and transporting gas have
been overcome by the development of long-distance, large-diameter steel
pipelines and powerful compression equipment; liquefied natural gas
(LNG), produced by liquefying natural gas by a refrigeration cycle to less
(text continued on poge 4)
1
---
Table 11
World Energy Consumption and Fuel Shares-History, 1960, 1973 and 1979"
(Quadrillion Btu)
1160
1973
Fuel Shares
(Pen:enl)
Region or Country
1979
Fuel Shares
(Percent)
Fuel Shllr.s
Tolli
Tot.'
Totl'
(Percent)
Energy
Energy
Energy
Consumed Coal eNt Gas Other Conaumed Coal 011 Gas Other Consumed Coal 011 Gas Oth.r
;Uc"c"Cod~s,C.C,a~CCCC-O---C44C.~2--C23OC-C4:5-~28;-CCC4--C~7:5C.IC--CI~8-C4:7-~30;--C5CCanada
Japan
Western Europe'
Finland/Norway/Sweden
Unit....:! Kingdom/Ireland
IknclUlIDcnmark!T
West GermallY
france
Australia/Switzerland
Spain/Portugal
Italy
GreecefThrkcy
Australia/New Zealand
ThtalOEeD'
Thta.l NonOECD'
OPEC
Other
Thtal Free \\urld'
J,g
3.9
26.9
1.8
8.0
2.7
6.2
14
48
49
36
10
I
27
15
8.1
15.3
H
14
46
79
20
2
26
5
3.7
55
13
70
53
73
51
35
49
29
47
25
35
2
0
0
0
0
3
8
38
I
0
2
11
54.0
3.9
10.4
7.3
11.5
8.2
HI
5
35
II
30
15
63
5H
51
67
58
70
10
0
11
22
10
7
8
37
3
0
2
8
0.9
l.0
2.2
0.4
1.4
BO.4
10.5
1.7
8.8
90.9
24
41
14
41
54
35
31
3
37
35
34
41
54
55
4J
42
57
75
53
43
6
36
0
18
II
21
0"
0
3
16
7
6
6
21
4
6
15
7
2.0
3.0
6.2
1.4
2.9
155.4
25.0
5.0
20.0
180.3
8
]4
15
21
35
18
21
I
25
18
58
70
78
76
50
56
60
66
59
56
7
2
10
0
6
19
II
30
7
18
27
\4
7
3
9
7
8
3
9
8
79.3
10.0
16.1
571
4.9
10.3
6.8
12.4
8.8
17
..,
3.8
2.0
3.8
166.2
35.7
7.0
287
201.9
19
48 26
7
8
41
21
30
II
74
6
9
19 56 14
1I
449245
33
44 18
5
12 57 28
3
25
53 17
5
16 61
10
13
6 41
12
41
16 68
3
13
66917
8
35
00
0
S
39
42
11
8
18 52 20
10
1962910
74 22
3
2J 59
6
12
18 54 18
10
\tee..-,.
Table 1 2
World Energy Consumption and Fuel Shares: Base Scenario Midprlce Projections 1985, 1990, and 1995*
(Quadrillion Btu)
..
,,
1990
1995
Fuel Shares
(Percent)
Region or Country
Fuel Shares
Fuel Share.
Total
(Percent)
Totsl
(Percent)
Energy
Energy
Energy
Consumed Cosl 011 Gas Other Consumed Coal 011 Gas Other Consumed Coal Oil Gas Other
~~~~~~~~~~~CCCC~~
United Ststes"
Canada
Japan
Western Europe'
Finland/Norway/Sweden
United Kingdomllrelsnd
Benelux/Denmark"
west Germany
France
Australia/Switzerland
Spain/Portugal
Italy
Creeee/1tJrkey
AustraliafNew Zealand
ThIIIOECD'
Thtal Non-OEeD'
OPEC
Other
82.3
10.1
19.4
54.6
4.8
9.1
6.5
11.7
8.7
2.2
3.5
6.4
1.8
3.9
170.3
45.6
10.3
35.3
2 15.9
23
8
18
22
4
36
20
32
13
9
14
20
28
33
22
20
0
25
21
42
36
55
46
44
38
46
41
52
41
54
50
55
44
45
59
72
55
47
24
20
15
15
2
18
29
19
9
14
3
20
0
15
19
II
27
6
18
II
36
12
17
50
8
5
8
26
36
29
10
17
8
14
iO
14
14
86.5
\I 2
22.6
58.8
5.2
9.5
7.0
12.6
9.5
2.3
3.8
7.0
1.9
4.3
183.3
55.0
14.0
41.0
238.3
27
5
22
2J
4
37
28
34
1I
9
10
2J
21
33
24
19
0
2S
23
38
32
50
42
40
37
43
37
48
3'.1
53
44
53
39
40
57
74
52
44
~~CCCC~CCCC~~==
22
22
IS
IS
2
18
23
17
10
17
5
21
0
19
19
II
25
6
17
13
41
13
20
54
8
6
12
31
35
32
12
26
\)
17
13
17
16
93.9
12.4
26.0
63.3
5.7
9.8
7.6
13.4
10.4
2.4
4.1
7.8
2.1
4.6
200.2
66.0
19.0
47.0
266.2
31
3
24
24
5
39
32
36
9
8
10
24
19
32
27
19
0
26
25
35
29
46
39
37
37
41
32
44
37
49
41
52
37
37
58
76
51
42
21
23
14
15
2
16
22
19
13
17
5
22
0
22
18
11
23
7
16
13
45
16
22
56
8
5
13
34
38
36
13
29
9
18
12
1
16
17
:
~
~~
O~M
<>iOcgoo <>IO!:,=!~,=!
~~
-- --
r-
~~
~~~ ~~~~~
~~. ";cici
~!2
01"'_'"
~il~
8~~~!:i e;
"'''''''
g~
Table 1-3
Cost Comparison of Vlrious Commercial Fuels
~<OO'!o~
Fuel
Price
Ca.wl.il'k'
Ileating oil
$1.20, gallon
$I iOlgallon
S30.0ibbl
7.5 cenu:kWh
I3S,Oiton
51.9 centsITh'
Electricity
C~I
"atural gllS
", indicates the unit "Thenn"' used
aft~n
",,:r-:~-:o-
~aH~ U~~~
9.00
1.95
4.'"
22.00
'OO
5.79
Table 1-4 shows the production for the twenty leading natural gas producers in the world. The foremost gas producers today are the USA and
USSR, with a gas production of 52 Bscf/d (billion standard cubic feet per
day) and 45 Bscfld, respectively.
What Is Natura1 Cas?
NaturaJ gas is simply a naturally occurring mixture of combustible hydrocarbon (HC) gases and impurities. Typical natural gas components are
shown in Table 1-5. The non-hydrocarbon components of natural gas contain two types of materials: dilllerlts, such as N 2 , CO 2 , and water vapor, and
COntaminants, such as H.aS and other sulfur compounds. Diluents are noncombustible gases that reduce the heating value of the gas. They are not
"very harmful, and may actually be used sometimes as "fillers" to reduce the
heat content. of the supply gas. The disadvantages include greater horsepower ~nd plpelining requirements for the same energy content of the gas,
greater Internal corrosion, and freezing. Contaminants are very detrimental
to production and transport equipment (some are hazardous pollutants),
I/) ...
CIO 0- 0- 0- ..,
Table 15
Typical Constituents of Natural G (Modified after McCain, 1974)
Category
Paraffinic lie's
Cyclic He's
Aromatic HC's
Non.h)drocarbon
Component
Methane (CIi,)
Ethane (C1He)
Propane (CJ{.)
Butane (C, H ,o)
Pentane (4ti,u
Hexa ne (CJ{,,)
Heptane &- higher (G, .. )
Cyclopropane (C,I~)
Crclohexane (CJi u )
Benzene (Celie). others
Nitrogen (Nt)
Carbon dioxide (COl)
H}'drogen sulfide ( H ~)
<>I "'t-<O<')
~~~i'i:;
Helium (lie)
Other sulfur and nitrogen compounds
Wilter (H,O)
Amount, 'MI
7098'\
1 - 1OC%.
trace . 5~
trace 2'"
trace -1%
trace0.5'70
11011(' trace
".~
traces
".~
trace 15%
trace 1%
trace occasionalhtrace _ 5'1'"
trace occasionallr
trace5"',
and the primary reason for gas conditioning and processing is to remove
them as soon as possible from the gas stream. Hundreds of processes and
processing plants have been developed to deal with this problem. Some of
the major contaminants in natural gas are (Curry, 1981):
00000
~~~~~
-- -.....
"":;~C'>
CQ"
Production Enginemng
Dev~lopment
Figure ,.1. Common types of geologic features and structural traps. (From
Wheeler and Whited, 1985.)
Figure 12. Structural traps: (a) anticline, formed by upfolding; (b) normal fault.
(From McElroy, 1987.)
"
10
II
2. Dissolved or associated. Cas in solution with crude oil is tenned dissolved gas, whereas the gas found in contact with the crude oil as gas
cap gas is termed associated gas. Typically, associated gas is poorer in
elL. but richer in heavier components.
3. Gas condensates. Gas condensates have high amounts of hydrocarbon
liquids and may occur as gas in the re5enoir.
The most desirable gas is the non-associated type. because it can be produced at high pressure. Associated or dissolved gas is separated from the
crude oil at lower o;eparator pressure; and. therefore. entails more compression expenses. Such gas is often flared or vented. Gas condensates represent
a greater amount of gas associated with the liquid than the associated or
dissolved gas types. but ~mil&r..e.paration facilities and compression
Figure '-3. Common types of stratigraphic traps. (From Brown and Miller, 1985.)
=.
..-- - -----. "The naturallY'QCCU~ing resour~pf gas ,,\e ot en classified into two categories:
'301~
r
FrlJi~:l
"'001
I P,oIHbIt r Po."bIt
indlc.Md
me....ed
""t<ttd
' ......'''n..
Sut.m.grn..
~...,
R""",c"
l-
--"
F.... ,b,hly 01
0... of un."'ly
'"
12
.-
13
'N,rq
,.-'"
un
-.
,~
y . 101
.,.,
~,103
,--
..... :an
ISH
'7.otT
.~
Besides conventional sancbtone and limestone reservoirs, sources of natural gas include: tight sands, tight shales, geopressured aquifers, and coal.
~
~~
~.
,.)u. ~
.~
,m
1,515
.~
,-
1.300,000
'"
.~
,~
7 .. ,
1.32_ :101
3.101
21M '
'07000
,-,..,-- -.-..,--
212 ....
110.000
Tight Sands
. 01'
,,- ,
,~
1.ITO
',115
,,~
~
~
.,~
~
.,=
,~
137._
.n. ,
'"IV,OOO
370.000
.~
M._
~.
:t:Z.70!;
u_
,,".
.-
UfI.OOO
1301.
on
1.10'
H~.=
Large amounts of gas are locked within very tight formations, with porosities in the range of 5-15 % , irreducible water saturation of 50-70%, and
ultralow permeabilities in the range of 0.001 to 1 md (millidarcy). Many
geologic formations, especially in the Rocky Mountain area of the USA, contain such gas, which is not possible to produce using conventional fracturing
and completion methods .
There is a need to develop special artificial fracturing techniques to
produce gas economically from tight sands. Three major techniques have
been proposed: nuclear explosives, chemical explosives, and massive hydrauHc fracturing (MHF). Nuclear blasts are dangerous and probablY not
feasible at this time. Chemical explosives are also quite dangerous, and effective only in areas where natural fractures: exist (which is not the case for
most tight sands). MHF has been quite successful, and is presently the subject of much research. An MHF treatment typically requires the injection of
a fracturing fluid (water) at high pressures for many hours to induce a fracture, followed by a fluid containing the propping agents (glass beads or
sand). When pumping stops, the fluids low back into the well bore, leaving
the proppant behind to hold the fracture open.
Tight Shales
"----
Shales are generally rich in organic matter, finely laminated, with a permeability of the order of 1 md. Shales. predominantly composed of quartz,
..
14
with some kaolinite. pyrite. feldspar. and other minerals, constitute about
5% of all sedimentary rocks in the USA. The De\-onian ..hales in eastern
Kentuch and western West Virginia are well known gas producers. In these
shales. p~oduction is controlled by natural fractures. The production profile
exhibits a long. slow decline. The gas has a high Btu "alue, as high as 1.250
Btu sci \1HF techniques are useful for tight shales also. These tight shales
are an attracth"c source of gas and may contribute very significantly to gas
production in the coming years.
tONSUIO(RS
t0f01lOII1I'IG
"_
..... ,
"'.... ".,1
ToViME_ I lRlitlt
, ... _1
a~"
~IOII[fAcr(l"
SU\.I'\IR.
ILliG 1
fEIIliU$UI
M~"
...
fLtaO
~-,
Methane gas occluded in coal in minable coal beds with depths less than
3,000 ft has been estimated to be 260 Tscf in the US. This significant resource base, however, may only produce less than 40 Tscf due to practical
constraints.
Another source of gas generation is coal gasification. The gas derived
from coal usually has a lower heating value than natural gas. The commercial viability of coal gasification is not favorable yet.
..
TO
ptT~OOW:"'"
"'''"'c"
~;"CIt.~
_'"'
UQUlOS
TO
tOlOOlllONftG
If..........'"91
PfIOtUS IfOCUSTItY
RECQYEfll
a.L-WAlEfI-OU
S(P,",f1/t.llllOl
_......
~
c;
ST~_I)GAS
...
'''-
"....... , ,
Co.1
_UIOIE TII""SPOIIT
u,
Ccopressured Aquifers
15
,IU.T14[RI'lSUT[III
wAut ...... l
C.. OMES
SUR raCE
\'.'5 REU:""
4. Separation module for calculating the amounts of gas, oil and water
generated by the wellstream. and their compositions.
5. Metering devices for measuring the amount of gas and oil from the
separators.
6. Gas conditioning module for the removal of contaminants from the
g"',
7. Natural gas liquids recovery module.
8. Gas compression/liquefaction for economic transport by tankers, railroad, and road transport.
9. Flow module for the pipeline transport of gas to consumption sites.
16
This book has been desib'lled to provide information on the design. operation, and engineering calculations for all of these modules. except the reser.
voir module. Chapters 2 and 3 pro"ide the basic gas properties that are an
essential input in all computations. Chapters 4 through 6 describe separation and processing for natural gas. Flow calculations are covered in Chapters i and 8. Chapters 9 and 10 provide information on related topics.
namely, gas compression and gas metering, respectively. FinsHv. Chapter 11
describes i!:as gathering and transmission systems and the ~mputational
techniques for handling the complete production system.
'M
1. (a) List some factors that may enhance the appeal of natural gas as a
domestic and industrial fuel. (b) What are some of the factors that
may reduce the appeal of natural gas as a domestic and industrial
fuel?
2. Why is natural gas termed a stable" flammable gas?
3. What impurities can one expect to find in natural gas produced from a
gas field?
4. Why are gas flares a common sight in many petroleum producing ar.
eas? Can such flares be hazardous to the environment? If yes, then
when and why?
5. As a petroleum engineer you are taken to tour a gas-producing field.
Can you tell what type of gas (associated, dissolved, etc.) is being produced? What is the minimum information required to draw such a
conclusion?
6. How are gas reserves estimated?
7 Besides conventional reservoirs, what types of gas reserves hold promise for the Cuture? Why?
References
American Petroleum Institute, 1984. Basic Petroleum Data Book: Petroleum
Industry Statistics. Vol. IV, No.2 (May). API, Washington, D.C.
Barker. C. and Kemp, M. K., 1980. "Generation of Natural Cas and its Sur
vival in the Deep Subsurface," presented at the Conf. on Natural Gas Res.
(}e\'. in MidCont. Basins: Prodn. & Expl. Techniques, Univ. of Tulsa,
Tulsa. Oklahoma, March 11-12.
17
Brown, T. E. and Miller. S., 1985. Layman's Guide to Oil & Gas Investments & Royalty Income, 2nd Edition. Culf Publishing Company, Houston. Texas.
Curr\', R. N., 1981. Fundamentals oj Natural Cas Conditioning. PennWeli
Pub!. Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma. 118 pp.
Crow. C. C .. 1980. "Future Potential Cas Supply in the United StatesCurrent Estimates and Methods of the Potential Cas Committee," presented at the Am. lnst. of Chern. Engrs. Meeting, Philadelphia, PA. June
9.
19
Introduction
The properties exhibited by any substance depend upon its phase,
namely, whether it is in the solid, liquid, or gaseous phase. Substances can
be cla~ified into two types-pure or single component, and mwticomponent. Phase behavior relationships can be determined from laboratory pVT
(pressure, volume. temperature) studies, or using theoretical/empirical
methods such as the equations of state. These relationships are frequently
shown graphically as "phase diagrams" to enhance qualitative understanding. For design purposes, howc\:er, precise quantitative phase behavior data
are crucial. In this chapter, some fundamental concepts in phase equilibrium are introduced.
Single-Component Systems
Figure 2-1 shows a typical p,T phase diagram for a single-component system. The equilibrium lines, AB, BC. and BO indicate the combinations of
pressure and temperature at which the adjacent phases shown on the dia-
ta
I .. __ -U
:I
Camru~
liqu d ,
Solid b ____
Critical pall'll
: Suptrll,alld
i _' ___h!vapar
Liquid
Vapar
B
Cibbs' phase rule for the degrees of freedom of a system is written as:
Tripi, pOll'll
Tlmp,ralure -
system.
N-C-P+2
18
20
21
Figures 2-2a and 2-2b show typical p,T phase diagrams for a reservoir
fluid. The system has three regions: (a) single phase oil, in the region above
S!o;I.......
'"
to
40
60 110
22
the bubble point (SP) curve; (b) single phase gas, in the region towards the
right of the dew point (OP) curve, and (c) the two phase region, which is the
portion bounded by the SP and OP curves. The BP and OP cur\-'es intersect
and terminate at the critical point, C.
Point A represents the maximum pressure at which liquid and vapor may
exist in equilibrium. This pressure is known as the cricondenbar. Similarly,
the cricondentherm is defined as the maximum temperature at which liquid
and vapor can exist in equilibrium. This is indicated as point B in Figure
2-Za. Along \\<;th the critical point. these serve as valuable tools for reconThe
region
retrograde region . exhibits quite an
interesting behavior. Usually, on lowering the pressure, a liquid phase vaporizes to gas. But in this region, on lowering the pressure, the gas at a hegins to generate liquid at b (see Figure 2-2a). On further reduction in pressure, more and more liquid is condensed (refer to the quality lines). until
point c is reached. Outside the retrograde region fTOm c to d,liquid begins to
vaporize until the 100% gas quality line (or the dew-point curve) is reached
at d. It is evident that the retrograde region results from the shape of the
phase envelope and the quality lines. The inflection points of the quality
lines govern the retrograde area, which is bounded by the critical point, C.
the cricondenbar at A. and the cricondentherm at B.
For naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures, the critical point has always been found to occur to the left of the cricondenbar (Campbell, 1984).
If the critical point is to the right of the cricondenbar, two retrograde regions will occur as shown in Figure 2-2b.
23
-,~
.0000
ou
-".~
'.
courtesy of SPE of
AIME.)
envelope are composition dependent. The dashed line drawn tangent to all
the phase envelopes at their critical points is called the critical locus. The
critical point for a mixture is thus a function of its composition. Mixtures
with more than two components have more than one critical locus, and the
problem becom~ quite complex. Simple mixing rules have been devised (to
be discussed later) to represent this shift in terms of -'pseudocritical" properties for correlation purposes. The only reliable method at this point is laboratory measurement, since none of the correlations are very exact.
Plllil poinl
25
,,
0:
C,
JOO%
bon systems, the three pseudocomponents generally used are methane (C,),
ethane through hexane (C 2- 4), and C;., which represents all hydrocarbon
fractions with molecular weight greater than hexane.
Figure 2-4 shows a typical ternary phase diagram for a reservoir fluid.
Each corner of the triangle represents 100% of the component indicated,
whereas the side opposite to this corner represents 0 % of that component.
The distance in between a corner and the opposite side is divided into equal
parts to rep~nt fractions between 100% and 0% of the component. Thus,
the point A in Figure 2-4 represents a mixture containing 67% Cit 18.5%
Ct-Cts. and 15% C7 +. lying in the two-phase region. Such a mixture, under
equilibrium conditions, would result in a gas phase of composition y in equilibrium with a liquid phase of composition x. The dashed line connecting
these equilibrium gas and liquid compositions, occurring on the dew-point
and bubble-point curves, respectively, is called a tie-line. Clearly, there can
be an infinite number of such tie-lines. The tie-lines disappear at the critical
point, also called the plait point, where the liquid and gas phases become
identical. Outside the phase envelope, single-phase gas occurs above the
dew-point curve, whereas single-phase liquid occurs below the bubble-point
curve. The size of the two-phase region depends upon the pressure and temperature. With increasing pressure, the two-phase region collapses to
smaller sizes, whereas with increasing temperature it expands in size.
Lever's rule can be applied to determine the relative amounts of gas and
l~qu~d in ~uilibrium. For example, the mixture at A would split into a gasl~qUld ratio equal to the ratio of the distance of A, along the applicable tiehne, from the bubble-point and dew-point curves, that is, Ax/Ay.
Pml8Urt-Compoeition Diagrarm (Fixed T)
. Pressure-com~ition diagrams also serve as a useful method for displaymg phase behaVior data. These diagrams are obtained for reservoir oi1.s by
100
adding the desired injection fluid to the oil in a high-pressure visual cell.
The appropriate (bubble-point or dew-point) saturation pressures are measured as a function of the injection fluid mole fraction in the total mixture
that ~ults from the mixing of the injection fluid with the reservoir oil. Such
diagrams are easier to obtain than the ternary diagrams, which require obtaining equilibrium samples and compositions, but their applicability is limited since they do not offer information of a general nature. Figure 2-5
sbows a pressure-composition diagram for a reservoir oil as a function of the
mole % methane in the mixture.
26
de -0
(2-1)
Note that "no net transFer" does not imply that the system is static. There is
still a continuous exchange or transfer of material between the phases. But
the rate of transfer of each component from one phase to another is just balanced by the same transfer /XCurring in the opposite direction from the latter to the former phase. Thus. there is no IIet transfer of any molecular species from one phase to another, and no net change in composition occurs in
any of the phases.
An equivalent idea is expressed using the condition that dE "" O. where E
is the total energy content of the system. Note that the derh'ative in Equation 2-1 is "'ith respect to all possible variations. except those of p and T
Gibbs defined chemical potential, p., to express these ideas. The chemical
potential of any component i in a phase is the rate at which the total free
eneTgy of that phase changes as one changes the amount of the component i,
keeping p, T, and amounts of all other components of the phase constant:
(2-2)
+ RT In (pIp)
(2-3)
where R is the gas constant. and the superscript refers to any arbitrary
standard state. For a perfect gas mixture, the chemical potential for any
component i, is given by:
Po, - 1'1" + RT In (p,/pt)
(2-4)
27
The change in free energy, dC, for any substance is given by dC - v dp.
For an ideal gas (pv - RT: see Chapter 3 for further detail), this becomes:
(2-5)
de - RT d In p
To preserve this simple mathematical form of this equation for other cases
where the system is not an ideal gas, Lewis defined a special function called
fugacity, f, as follows:
(2-6)
de" RT d In f
Integrating Equation 2-6. we can obtain:
C -
co -
RT In(fW) -
r,.
vdp
(2-7)
+ RT In (fj/ft)
+ RT In (j/O) - RT In
Yj
(2-8)
Using these relationships, it can be seen that the condition for equilibrium
can. alternatively, be stated in terms of fugacity. A system is in equilibrium
when the fugacities of a given component are equal in all the phases.
The Equilibrium Ratio
The vapor-liquid distribution coefficient, commonly known as the vaporliquid equilibrium ratio or the equilibrium vaporization ratio, Kit for a component i, is simply the ratio of its mole fractions in the vapor (Yi) and liquid
(x;) phases at equilibrium conditions:
(2-9)
28
Equilibrium ratio values can therefore be determined by laboratory equilibrium flash experiments by analyzing the mole fractions of the different components in the vapor and liquid phases.
The PartitJ
PrnlUlT
'+'1""
In f, /px;
Approach
- -In Z +
K-values can be expressed in terms of partial pressures of the components.
The assumption, of course, is that the gas obeys ideal gas laws and behaves
as an ideal mixture. Therefore, such a concept is only applicable at low pressures, up to about 400 psi.
At equilibrium, the partial pressure of component i in the \"apor phase
(- PYJ) must be equal to the vapor pressure exerted by its presence in the
liquid phase (- P.'IX,). Thus, at equilibrium:
So, K, - p,;/p
29
(2-13)
K = ",1'/"'\'
"'r
(2-14)
;rr
where
and
are the fugacity coefficients of component i in the liquid
and vapor phases, respectively, coexisting under equilibrium conditions.
This can be verified, by expanding the right-hand side term of Equation
2-14:
(2-10)
- (YiP)/(x,p) since
rr .. f[ at equilibrium
- }'i/x, - KI
T~
Fugacity !.pprotu:h
Flasb Calculations
Non-ideal behavior can be accounted for by using the fugacity coefficients. The fugacity (or activity) coefficient, "'" for a component i is defined
as the ratio of its fugacity, f" to its partial pressure. p,:
with Iim.."', "" 1
p-u
(2- 11 )
F?r a gas phase, the partial pressure, Pi = YiP. To enable definition of a liq~,d fugacity coefficient, an equivalent hypothetical partial pressure concept
IS used, and liquid phase partial pressures are expressed as I~ _ x,p.
Fugacity coefficients are commonly written as:
In
v -In f/p -
I:
F-L+V
[(v/RT) - (lIp)]dp
- Z - 1 -In Z - (lIRT)
L [p - (RT/v)]dv
and
(2-12)
--~~>r.
no
. . . .__________________________________. . . .___
j"
30
L+V-
howe\'er. are different. It is eas)' to envision that for a stream F for which V
is very small, any error in the calculation of V will be far more detrimental
(2.15a)
and
31
(2 15b)
to accuracy as compared to an error in the calcuJation of L. For such a system. it will therefore be necessary to solve for V using Equation 2-16 using
very rigorous com'ergence criteria (that is, use a very low error tolerance),
and then obtain L by difference. Similarly. for predominantly gas systems.
Equation 2-17 would provide better accuracy.
Thus. we get
Applications
VX, .. z,J(LIV + K)
Reservoir Behavior
and
Figure 2-6 shows a p. T phase diagram for a naturally occurring hydrocarbon fluid of a known composition. Consider four different reservoirs,
with this same fluid, but with different initial conditions denoted by 1;, 21t
3;, and 4;. The vertical lines represent the pressure decline in the reservoir at
constant temperature. The curved lines represent the pressure and temperature chang~ imposed upon the reservoir fluid as it flows upward through
the well bore. and both pressure and temperature decline to the wellhead
producing conditions. The subscripts sand r denote surface and reservoir
conditions, re;pectively.
Reservoir 1, occurring above the bubble-point curve, is called an undersaturated oil reservoir. It is also called a black oil reservoir, depletion drive,
~Ived gas drive, solution gas dri . . e, or internal gas drive reservoir. Cas is
and
V-
"
"
V 1: y, - 1: [~I(Ll KV + I)J
,-I
I-I
R."rvol.,
(216)
L- L
I_I
Equations 216 and 2-17 require a trial and error type of solution scheme.
Both these equ~tions are equivalent, and one has the choice of using either
one; knowing either L or V is sufficient, since L + V-I (Equation 2-15a).
Temp"Olure -
10
32
in-.~itu eventually begins to (Jow toward the well bore in increasing quantities with
goe:;
up. reduction in pressure. The producing gas-oil ratio (COR) therefore
ReserVOir 2, occurring in the two-phase region, is an oil reservoir with an
initiaJ gas cap. With declining pressure, COR increases, and the reservoir
flUid Composition changes.
Reservoir 3. OCCurring in the retrograde region, is a gas condensate reservoir. On pressure reduction. liquid begins to condense at and beyond the
dew-point Curve, Since it clings to the pore spaces in the resenoir, a Critical
saturation has to be bUilt up before it can flo\.\.- toward the weJlbore, Thus,
the producing COR (at the surface) increases, The intermediates that condense out of the gas are verr valuable and their loss is a serious affair. How_
ever, as pressure is reduced further, the liquid begins to revaporize into the
gaseous phase, This revaporization aids liquid recovery and, assuming that
the '''''"voi, flUid oomposition oonstant, may lead to a decline in the producing GOR at the su,face, The """"'oi, fluid oomposition, howeve"
changes as retrograde condensation OCCUrs: the p- T phase envelope shifts to
the right, increasing retrograde liqUid condensation into gas, This retrograde 'ross" is greater for a greater shift of the p_ T phase envelope to the
right, lower reservoir temperature, and higher abandonment pressure.
ReserVOir 4, OCCurring in the single-phase gas region, is a true gas reservoir. It is generally known as a wet gas reservoir if 4 is inside the moo-phase
J
region, Or as a dry gas reservoir if 4. is in the single-phase gas region. In this
reservoir type, the reservoir (point 4,) is aJwars in the single-phase gas region,
of the pressure. So, the reservoir fluid maintains a constant
composition since there is no change of phase in the reservoir.
The prodUCing COR for a reservoir is an exOOlent indication of the reservoir tYPe. Cenerally, a reservoir is claSSified as a gas reservoir if the
GOR> 100,000 scflSib, "an oil """"'oi, if the GOR < 5,000, and as a gas
condensate reservoir if the GOR is between 5,000 to 100,000 scf/stb.
The relationship between the critical temperature, T , and the reservoir
t
OCCUrs or
temperature, T R, determines whether retrograde condensation
not. For retrograde condensation to OCCur, the reservoir temperature must
be in between the Critical temperature and the cricondentherm. ReserVoir
systems in Single phase with a surface COR::> 10,000 scf/stb are likely to
have a high C, fraction, and consequentJy, a low T Expect retrograde cont
densation for such reservoirs, Reservoir systems in single phase that exhibit a
regardJ~
33
Hydrocar
f 'I'res depends upon the
nd,surface .aCI hase
I , gas and oi I Wit
'h a
d' of the producing weII a
The ""gn
'rod ced' gas 0.1,0< tM-P
h d a bons
ature of the fluid bemg p
uf 't Since the inte,mediate y coc , I
n.
COR and the presence 0 \\-a cr. ts it is highl) desirable not to ose
the most valuable
- uid as possible fcom the p,oduced
g",e~ften
~:m
''Ompon~J'
d~gn~e::~ ;;rat;~nal
~e:s~'~~,~:
(m :io~u07
d~:OO
d~~~",(
oompositio~
u~d",
oond,"~n
as
,
nds from the gas so that the g:"
It may. be n""""",)' to remo,'e heaVIer
"
tede pressure- temperature changesI10
does not condense liquids upond ahnhCd'PI"ang s)'stems. 10 enable suc~ c~dslcu ang an
an
be k
LlqUl aecune fo,
; ; ; in the lines,
in the piping
:,',:,,,,,, of the instability caused by
and are genmll, undes"a e
f p,""ure and tempeca'ure,
'cs
changes
occurring
as
a
befunc"on
t~
ne'"
the
phase
envelope
boun
a~,
eq
uipment must never
opera
ature or composition can cause IS. ressure temper
,
where small changes 10 p
i~
vapor-liquid ratio,
proportionately large changes
:~ensrr:~~:::'t::="po;nt
cum~ate
s)~te~s,
~~~;~~~a~;:;"ure
ph~.::
P''''';''
. Engmccnng
,
. and Enhanced Oil Recovery
ReserVOir
.
h as reservOir
. reserve estimates,
Reservoir engineering calculahons, su~ rs require reliable phase behavpredictions, and simulations uSin~,ooalmih~~ i~ miscible enhanced 7~"'y
ior data. Nowhere is it more ,cn IC
urate hase equilibrium re atJontechniques, where highly deta'~dede :::g::f conltions, The perfbe0rm~n~l~f
'
be known over a WI
, 'ected fluid to
mLSCI .
. fluid The injection
ships musthorls depends upon the ability of the InJ
these met
, 'bTty with the ..,.,vo"
,
, 'b ' m
or be able to generate mLSC1, I I , ts dictated solely by phase eqUlh nu .
fluid must be tailored to reqUiremen
3'
To accurately predict the phase envelope for a muiticomponent hydrocarbon system such as oil or gas is almost impossible. Experimental means must
be used, since imprecise results can be quite dangerous to use in the innumerable planning. desi~, and operational problems. However, it becomes
\'ery necessary to use correlations and predictive methods in many instances
where such studies cannot be readily performed.
A'i a bare minimum. an accurate compositional analysis of the reservoir
fluid is essential. Estimates of the critical point. the cricondentherm. and
cricondenbar can then be used in conjunction with ,,'apor-liquid equilibrium
Critical Point
Many different studies have focused on the problem of characterizing hydrocarbons for predictions of their physical properties. Watson and Nelson
(1933) and Watson et al. (1935) characterized the chemical makeup of petroleum mixtures using the boiling point and specific gravity. They defined
the Watson characterization factor, K. as follows:
and
(2-22)
Tt/T; ""'
(T~Tb
- l)(e6 31<.,
~38)
- OAI8x, + 1.256
(2-19)
For estimating cricondcnbar temperatures, Grieves and Thodos (1963) suggest the following equations:
T piT: - (TbiT b
l )(e4 .l.ht
362)
(2-20)
and
Tp/T;" (T~Tb - 1 )(e633'r51~) - O.l65~
35
+ 1.116
(2-21)
T:
If 51 units are used, with Th in K (Kelvin), the right-hand side of Equation 2-6 should be multiplied by 1.21644 ( - 1.81.3). K defines the relative
paraffinicity of a hydrocarbon fraction. A typical range would be from 10.0
(highly aromatic) to 13.0 (highly paraffinic). Several useful relationships
have been found using the Watson characterization factor ((or example.
Watsonet al.. 1935: Smith and Watson, 1937: Simon and Yarborough, 1963:
Riazi and Daubert. 1980: Whitson. 1983).
Thus, physical property correlations based upon the boiling point and
specific gravity ha'e been used for a long time. and have proven to be very
reliable. DiHerent correlation parameters have been proposed. Most of these
can be expressed using the (ollowing generalized equation:
8-
where
aT!: y
8 - the property
T b - normal or cubic-average boiling point, OR
..,. - specific gravity at 14.7 psia and GOOF
(2-23)
36
If I:r_l Z;/K t < l.O, the system is in the single phase all-vapor region.
-a-
24 278i
3.12281 x 10'
2.41490 X IOu
0.58848
- 2.3125
- 3.86618
T,. R
Pl. psia
p,. psia
-c0.3596
2.3201
42448
If both I:r.l KjZj and I:r.l Zt/K j > 1.0, the system is in the two-phase region.
Both r;r_1 KjZt and I:r.1 z;. K,-t.l.O.
The maximum de\'iations were found to be 10.6 %, 9.3%, and 13.2 ""' , respectively. for these three cases (Whitson, 1983),
Bubble-Point and Dew-Point Curves
The bubble point may be defined as the p,v,T condition at which an all
liquid s}'stem releases the first (infinitesimally small) drop of gas. Signaling
the entry into the two-phase region. Thus, at the bubble point. the total
mixture composition, {zd, is just equal to the liquid composition. {XI}. Since
the sum of the mole fractions equals unity, it is clear that for the gas phase
released at the bubble point, r:r_l YI is equal to l.0, and in all regions where
gas is not present, this sum will be less than 1.0. Thus, at the bubble point:
"
"
"
~),- ~ K,x( - E KIZt '"' 1.0
1.. 1
,.,
,I
l. Given the pressure and temperature, is it possible to specify the number of phaSd for: (a) water, and (b) a mixture of alcohol and water?
2. Name the type of phase diagram required for the following cases:
(a) a single-component fluid being used for heat transfer in a nuclear
reactor.
(b) a hvo-component gas being compressed for storage as liquid.
(c) a multi-component gas to be transported in a pipeline.
(d) design of an oil-gas separator.
3. What is the state of a substance at: (a) its critical point, and (b) above
its critical point?
4. Define fugacity. Show that the fugacity of a substance must be equal in
all phases in which it may exist at equilibrium.
5. Construct a p,T phase diagram for the following mixture:
(2-24)
At the dew point, the appearance of a liquid phase just begins for an allvapor spitem. The system composition. {Zt}, is equal to the ....apor composition. {y,}. Also, for the just released liquid phase. the sum of the component
mole fractions equals unity. Therefore:
" x, - ~
"
~
I
I_I
y,IK, -
"
~ ~I K, -
1.0
37
(2-25)
I_I
Equations 2-24 and 2-25 can thus be used to predict the bubble-point and
dew-point curves, provided K-values are known for all the components as a
function of pressure and temperature. A typical procedure would involve
calculating the quantities Er.1 K1Zj and Ep.1 z,/K, at different pressures and
temperatures. The state of the system can be determined b)' applying the
following rules that are true for vapor-liquid systems:
Component
mole %
Th , OF
C,
C,
Co.
65
20
15
- 258.7
-127.5
96.9
'"
Assume the C 3 .. fraction to be identical to n-C5 The requ ired hydrocarbon equilibrium ratios (K.values) can be taken from Figures
4-25 through 4-51 in Chapter 4.
6. From the phase diagram constructed in problem 5, determine the cricondenbar and cricondentherm temperatures. Compare these with
the ones obtained using Grieves and Thodos' relationships.
38
References
Campbell, J. M., 1984. Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol. 1. Campbell
Petroleum Series, Normar.. Oklahoma, 326pp.
Crieves. R. B. and Thodos, C., 1963. "The Cricondentherm and Cricondenbar Temperatures of Multicomponent Hydrocarbon Mixtures," Soc.
Pet. Eng. /., 3(4, Dec.}, 287-292.
Riazi. M. R. and Daubert, T. E., 1980. "Simplify Property Predictions,"
Hydr. Proc., 59(3, March), 115-116.
Simon, R. and Yarborough. L., 1963. "A Critical Pressure Correlation for
Cas-Solvent-Reservoir Oil Sy~tems," J. Pet. Tech .. 15(5, May). 556-560.
Sm~th, R. L. and Watson. K. ~1., 1937. "Boiling Points and Critical Properties of Hydrocarbon Mixtures," Ind. and Eng. Chem., 29(12, Dec.).
1408-1414.
Stalkup. F. I., 1978. "Carbon Dioxide Miscible F100ding: Past, Present, and
Outlook for the Future," J. Pet. Tech., 30(8, Aug.), 1102-1112.
Stal.kup, F.. 1.,1983. Miscible Displacement. Volume 8, SPE Monograph SeTIes, SocIety of Petroleum Engineers, Richardo:;on, Texas, 204pp.
Watson, K. M. and Nelson, E. F.. 1933. "lmpro\'ed Methods for Approximating Critical and Thermal Properties of Petroleum Fractions." Ind.
and Eng. Chern., 25(8. Aug.), 880-887.
Watson, K. M., Nelson. E. F., and Murphy, C. B.. 1935. "Characterization
of Petroleum Fractions," Ind. and Eng. ClJem., 27(12, Dec.), 1460-1464.
Whitson, C. H., 1983. "Characterizing Hydrocarbon Plus Fractions," Soc.
Pet. Eng. /., 23(4, Aug.}. 683-694.
Introduction
In designing gas production, processing, transport, and handling systems
a complete knowledge of gas properties is crucial. For this reason, much research has been done in the measurement and prediction of hydrocarbon
fluid properties. The area of property prediction continues to attract significant attention from researchers who seek to optimize design and control of
gas and oU systems. The current trend is to develop mathematical equations
for implementation on computers, rather than the traditional engineering
charts and tables, because with computers it is far more efficient to solve
equations than to interpolate in a huge domain of possible parameter values,
whereas the opposite is probably true for humans.
Equations of State
AJI fluids follow physical laws that define their state under gi"en physical
conditions. These laws are mathematically represented as equations. which
are consequently known as equations of state (EOS). These equations essentially correlate p. V, and T for any fluid and can be expressed, on a unit
mole basis, as:
(p,v,T) - 0
For practical purposes, this form is rearranged to yield a desired parameter,
v ~ (p,T). Many different empirical EOS's have been developed over the
years, and I will only mention the most basic and widely used among these.
39
Ideal Cases
The deviation from ideal behavior is greater for heavier gases because of the
larger size of their molecules. Most gases compress more than an ideal gas at
low pressures, whereas the opposite is true at high pressures. From an appli~
cation standpoint, all equations of state for real gases must be regarded as
essentially empirical in nature, since they attempt to correlate this non-ideal
behavior using empirical parameters.
The Corn preiMbi/ity Fador Approach
To correct for non-ideality, the simplest equation of state uses a correction
factor known as the gas co'l1pressibility factor. Z:
(3-1)
41
pV
nZRT
(3-2)
The Z-factor can therefore be considered as being the ratio of the volume
occupied by a real gas to the volume occupied by it under the same pres<>ure
and temperature conditions if it were ideal. This is the most widely used real
gas equation of state. The major limitation is that the gas deviation factor,
Z, is not a constant. Numerous attempts have been made to define the functional dependence of Z on various other parameters that define the state of
the system, and se\'eral correlations are available for the Z-factor as a result
of these studie;. More complex equations of state that do not represent the
deviation through the Zfactor, but through other correlation constants, are
often used to derive quite precise Z~factor values that can be used in Equation 3-2.
(3-3)
where A and B are empirical constants. This equation serve; as a good approximation only for low pressures. It can also be written as:
.. _ (RT
(3-4)
'2
Waals equation, which makes it applicable in developing gencral correlations in terms of reduced variables.
43
(~5)
(3-10)
where a. b, c. a, -y, ~. Bo. and Co are constants for a gi\"cn ~as_ d is the
molar density (lbmole/ft3), and p, T are the absolute pressure and temperature. respectively.
(3-7)
Redlich and K\\'ong (1949) proposed the following equation:
An alternative procedure for obtaining the values for A, B. and R is to use
the fact that the critical isotherm, that is, the curve relating pressure and
volume al the critical temperature. must show an inflexion point:
(3-8)
These conditions are known as the Van der Waals conditions for the critical
point. The first and second partial diHerentials of Equation 3-4 with ~pect
to v would yield the results shown in Equation 3-7 upon substitution of parameter \'aJues relevant to the critical point and use of Equation 3-8.
Van der Waals equation may be written in the reduced form by substituting the values for A. Band R from Equation 3-7 into Equation 3-3:
RT
A
P .. v - B - '}"Q.~(" + B)
(3-9)
PeJlg-Robin!lOn Equation
Another \..idely used equation is the Peng and Robinson (1976) (PR) equation:
RT
A
p- - - \" - B v(v + B) + B(,
(3-11)
B)
(3-12)
where A and B are functions of temperature. Note that the RK and PH equations cannot be written explicitly in the reduced form.
Martin (1979) showed that all cubic equations of state can be represented
in the following general form:
RT
arT)
ofT)
p - -;- - (v + ~)(v + -y) + ... (v + ~)(v + -y)
(3-13)
where cr and {) are functions of temperature, and R and l' are constants.
Coats (1985) presents the following equivalent form of Martin's equation,
with {) .. 0:
ffi,ffi ZB2
(3- 14)
A ..
(3- 15a)
B ,.
q -l
xiB)
(3-15b)
(I -
ojk)(AJAS)~
(3-15c)
A Jk
..
A) - 0., PrJi1~
(3-1Sd)
B, .. Obi Prj' T fJ
(3- 15e)
The Ojk are the binary interaction coefficients, symmetric in j and k with
Ojj - O.
Theoretically, O. and 0b are universal constants, Q<~ and [}g, determined by
making the EOS satisfy Van def Waals' criteria at the critical point (Equation 3-8). The values of m and flg for some commonly used EOS's are as
follows:
RK and SRK,
PR,
In practice, however, O. and Ob are treated as component. and temperaturedependent quantities, O.i(T) and Obo(T):
RK: 0.1 .. miT ,.p"\ and Ob! ..
og
SRK: Oaj" 0<,.11 + (0.48 + 1.574w, - 0.176w~)(1 - TJ'-!i)]2, and Ob'" O!:
PH: 0 .... ~1 + (0.37464 + 1.54226w; - O.26992w1)(1 - TJ'!i)]2, and
0" - !li:
The acentric factor (w), first proposed by Pitzer (1955), is a measure of a
flLLid's deviation from the law of corresponding states (see the section on
compressibility factors). It is defined as:
(3- 16)
45
where p.,. is the vapor pressure of the f1LLid at a temperature of o. 7Te and Pc
is its critical pressure. As expected, w is equal to zero for noble gase;: like
argon, and is close to zero for gases like methane.
In the$e equations, putting m, .. 0 and ffi2 .. 1, yields the RK or SRK
equations. For the PR equation, m, = 1 + ~!i, and m2 .. 1 - 2<15.
Equilibrium is achieved when the fugacities for any component i are
equal in both the liquid and vapor phases. Fugacities can be calculated using the following relationship for the fugacity coefficient, derived using
Equation 2-13 (Coats. 1985):
In
~,
. ,.E, A"x, -
(3-17)
(3-18)
This equation was obtained by assuming that the fluid obeys Raoults' law
and that the logarithm of the reduced vapor pressure of each component i is
47
Table 3'
Physical Constants lor Typical Natural Gas Constituents
Compound
II-C~'1
Equation 3-17 is sol ....ed to determine fugacities in the \'apor and liquid
phases. If the.<\e are equal in both phases for all the components (on an individual basis), com'ergence has been reached. Otherwise, the new Ki values
are determined usin~ the ratio of the fugacity coefficients (see Equation
2-14),
Sewral modifications have been proposed by different investigators to improve the rate of convergence, or to impro\'e the accuracy of prediction in
general or for various special cases. The ~VNR (minimum variable Newton-Raphson) method presented by Fussell and Yanosik (1978) and Fussell
(1979) prO\ides imprO\'ed comergence and is more reliable than the method
of successive substitution previously discussed. Since this is an area of acti\'e
research, the reader can refer to published work in this area for specific
methodologies and developments.
i~1!
(3- 19)
where Pp..., T po: are the pseudocritical pressure and temperature, respectively,
for the mixture, and r! is the mole fraction of component i in the mixture.
These properties are termed "pseudo" because they are used as a correlation
basis rather than as a very precise representation of mixture critical properties.
Equation 2-23 in Chapter 2 can be used to predict the critical properties
of a hydrocarbon fluid from its normal boiling point and gravity. IT the composition oflhe gas, {y;}. is not known , Figure 3-1 may be used to determine
eH,
C:II;.
C.J l~
n_C,H,g
i-C,H ,(
nCJ-I"
II-C,H,o
n-CJi"
n-C,lh,.
n-CwHu
N,
CO,
II;>
0,
II,
H~O
Molecular
Weight
Critical
Pressure
(psia)
16.()43
30,070
44_097
38124
58,124
667.8
707.8
616.3
72.151
72.151
86.178
100.205
114.232
12.8_259
142.2.86
28_013
44,010
34.076
488.6
490.4
436.9
396.S
300.6
332.0
3040
493.0
1070.9
1306.0
737.1
188.2
3203.6
31.999
2_016
18.015
550.7
.529, I
Critical
Temp.
(-R)
Cnt. Comp.
Factor
(2.)
Acentric
Factor
(w)
343_1
549,S
665.7
765.4
734 7
0.289
0_28."
0.281
0.274
0.283
0.0115
0.0908
0.1454
0.1928
0_1756
S45.4
828.8
913,..\
972.5
1023,9
lOiO,-l
111l,8
0,262
0,2510
0.2.273
0_2957
0._
227.3
547,6
672.4
278.6
59.9
1165_1
0,273
0,264
0.263
0.259
0,251
0.247
0.291
0,274
0.266
0.292
0.3(\4
0.230
0.3978
0.4437
0.4902
0.0355
0.2250
0.0049
0.0196
- 0.2234'
0.3210
Eykman Mol
Refraction"
(EMR)
13,984
23.913
34.316
44.2-13
44.741
55.267
55.302
65_5iS
7S.Si5
86.193
96.529
106.859
9.407
15,7SO
19.828
8.49.5
,"'"
,
the critical pressure and temperature from the gas gra\ity. Corrections may
be made for the presence of non-hydrocarbon oomponents: Thomas et .al.
(1970) took data from Figure 3-1 and other sources to obtam the followmg
relationship:
Ppc _ 709.604 - 58.718 "f,
(3-20a)
(3-20b)
where "fl is the gas gravity with respect to air. Thomas et al. recommend the
use of this equation in allowable limits of up to 3% H~, 5% Ni , or a total
impurity (no n-hydrocarbon) content of 7%, beyond which errors in critical
pressure exceed 6%. It should be noted that the gas gravity method of obtaining pseudocritical pressures and temperatures is not very acc:urate. 1 ~he
analysis of the gas is available, it must be used in accordance With EquatIOn
3-19.
..
.9
Find the gas gravity. Also, find the critical pressure and critical temperature for this gas using (I) Kay's mixing rule, (2) Brown et al.'s method, and
(3) Thomas et al.'s equations.
Solution
~omp.
c,
c,
C,
n-C 4
i-C 4
n-e,
i-e.,
Co
C,.
N,
M,
...iL
16.043
0.9300
0.0329
0.0136
0.0037
0.0023
0.0010
0.0012
0.0008
0.0005
0.0140
3O.0iO
44.097
58.124
58.124
72.151
72.151
86.178
128.259
28.013
k
667.8
707.8
616.3
550.7
529.1
488.6
490.4
436.9
332.0
493.0
To
343.1
549.8
665.7
765.4
734.i
845.4
828.8
913.4
1070.4
227.3
M .. E y,M 1 ,. 17.54
"-5
-,
u
0
..
"
v"'~ GUVlfY
"
"'I~' \
"
Figure 3-1. PseudocriticaJ properties of miscellaneous natural gases and condensate flUids. (After Brown at aL, 1948; courtesy of GPSA.)
!"ia
Example 3-1. The analysis of a sweet gas, in mole%, is known to be as follows: N2 .. lAO, CRt .. 93.0, CtHe" 3.29, <4Ha .. 1.36. Il-C.H IO .. 0.37, iC.H 10 " 0.23, n-~HI2" 0.10, i-~I!" 0.12. Cefi14 .. 0.08, and ~HI6+
.. 0.05. Assume the ~ + fraction to exhibit the same properties as n-Cg.
50
Propertie! of Natural
51
Gas~
Z - (p"T,)
(3-21)
T, -
TIT~
~
IO:!
For gas mixtures such as natural gases, the reduced parameters are denoted
as pseudoreduced temperature Tp. ( = TIT pc), and pseudoreduced pressure,
Ppr ( -
ni:':
p/ppc).
Z - (p"T" ()
"
(3-22)
This additional parameter, t, is any term that can characterize the mixture
behavior, particularly the discrepancy resulting from the assumption in
Equation 3-21. Among several alternatives, the two most widely used are
the critical compressibility factor, z." and the acentric factor, w. Z-factor
correlations using z., as a basis have been used for a long time; different
charts are made for different values of z., for manual calculations. The acentric factor. w, has become very popular because it gives good accuracy. Most
equations of state and other computer-generated solutions use the acentric
factor. In addition, the Eykman molecular refraction (EMR) approach by
McLeod and Campbell (1969) is of interest and is described here.
Standing-Katz Compressibility Chart
Figure 3-2 shows the Standing and Katz (1942) correlation for Z as a function of Ppr and T pr for sweet (non-H~ or COt containing) natural gases. The
"
P~fUOO ~EOu(EO
...
applicability of Equation 3-21 is assumed, and Kay's mixing rules are used
for gas mixture properties. This chart is generally reliable for sweet natural
gases with minor amounts of non-hydrocarbons such as N2
Wichert and Aziz (1972) proposed a correction factor, E, to extend the applicability of the Standing-Katz Z-factor chart to sour gases:
52
53
These modified values for the critical pressure (~) and temperature (Tp.,.)
are used to calculate the values of reduced pressure and temperature that
will give a valid Z-factor for a sour gas from the Standing-Katz correlation.
Example 32. For the gas composition given in Example 3-1, find the compressibility factor at 2,000 psia and 200F using the Standing-Katz Z-factor
chart.
Soilltion
From Example 3-1,
~u
Tpc - 356.93 OR
So,
ppr - 2,OOO/664.4i - 3.010
T,. - (200 + 459.67)1356.93 - 1.848
0.905.
Example 33. Find the compressibility factor at 2.500 psia and 650 0 R for a
sour gas with the following composition in mole%: CH 4 = 89.10,
C 2H6 = 2.65, C3HS - 1.90. nC,H IO - 0.30, jC4H ID = 0.20, N2 = 0.65.
CO 2 ,,, 1.00, H 2S - 4.20.
Solution
PER CENT H,S
Camp.
Figure 33. Pseudocriticai correction factor, t, for sour gases. (Atter Wichert and
AzIZ, 1972; courtesy of Hydrocarbon Processing.)
C,
C,
C,
(323)
where A is the sum of the mole fractions of H:zS and COt, and B is the mole
fraction of H 2S, in the gas. Figure 3-3 is a graphical representation by Wichert and Aziz (1972) of Equation 3-23. This method uses the correction factor, f, to correct the pseudocritical temperature (Tp") and pressure (Ppe) determined by Kay's rule, as follows:
T;''' TI'l' -
n-C~
i-C 4
N,
CO,
H,S
..1L
..&.
TN
0.8910
0.0265
0.0190
0.0030
0.0000
0.0065
0.0100
0.0400
667.8
707.8
616.3
550.7
529.1
493.0
1070.9
1306.0
343.1
549.8
665.7
765.4
734.7
227.3
547.6
672.4
(3-24)
Table 3-2
Correl.tlon Equations tor the Standing-Katz Z-tactor Chart
Reduced
Pressure
p, Ringe
Between
Reduced
Tempertlture.
T, Ringe
Between
'OS and 12
1.2 + and 14
1.4+ and 2.0
2.0 + and 3.0
and 1.2
1.2 + and 2.8
12 + and 1.4
14+ and 2.0
2.0+ and 3.0
2.8 + and 5.4 lOS and 1.2
1.2+ and 1.4
1.4 + and 2.0
2.0 + and 3.0
5.4 + and 15.0 1.05 and 3.0
0.2 and 1.2
'05
Tp,
..
6501361.37 - 1.799
Example 3-4. For the gas composition given in Example 3-1, find the comprasibility factor at 2,000 psia and 2OQF using Gopal's method.
p,. - 3.010
Equations
1.6643T, 2.2114) - 0.3647T, + 1.4385
0.5222T, - 0.8511) - 0.0364T, + 1.0490
0.9969
p,1 O.I39JT, - 0.2988) +
~I O.0295T, - 0.0825) + O.OOO9T,' 0.9967
p,( -1.35iOT. + 1.4942) + 4.63IST, - 4.7009
~I O.lilIT, - 0.3232) + O.5869T, + 0.1229
~( O.0984T, - 0.2(53) + 0.062IT, + 0.B580
~I 0.0211T, - 0.(527) + 0.0127T, + 0.9549
p,(-0.3278T, + 0.4752) + 1.8223T, - 1.9036
p,(-0.252JT, + 0.3871) + J.6087T, - 1.6635
p,( - O.0284T, + 0.0625) + 0.4714T, - OJXHl'
p,1 O.OOHT, + 0.0039) + 0.0607T, + 0.7927
p,( 0.711 + 3.66T,)-!*"'
- 1.637-'(0.319 T, + 0.522) + 2.071
~(
p,(
o.ooorr,' . .
Equation
Number
,
I
3'
",.
6
7
'"
Ill'
11
12
13
(3-25)
So/lltion
55
Gtl.fU
Tpr
1.848
z-
(3-26)
.6
Gu Production Engineering
where the reduced density, p" is calculated by trial and error from the fol lowing equation:
!
p, + P.
(1
P. - p, - (14 76 ' T
p,)3
+ (90. 7/T po -
242 . 2.' ~
'po
I
pr
' P"
(3-28)
where the reduced density was defined as:
to be 0.270
by him),
but
It
Zc was assumed
p. > 1.0, very large errors have been reported (Dra~chuk ~d Abou-Kassem , 1975). Thus, these correlations should be used WIth caution. The ~ccu
rac), of the Copal (1977) method in t his region is not apparent f~om hlS ~
::7n~:\~!~~e a~;:b~~~~:.n
(3-27)
Pr ., z.:p,/(ZT.), and
57
This method, deyeloped by McLeod and Campbell (1969), uses a rorrelat ' n between the EMR of a gas or liquid and its properties such as molecular
W gbt density and critical properties. A different mixture com bma tIon
wei ,
,
r
'btl
rule is used, and the method also requi~ the use of a dir erent compres.o;l ity chart.
T he Eykman molecular refraction . E~t R. is defined as foHows:
(3-29)
(3-31 )
(3-32)
is also used for correlation purposes. McLeod and Campbell (1969) found
the following empirical relationship between EMR and M for normal paraffin hydrocarbons:
(3-30)
w here the reduced density is given by Equation 3-30 as before.
By fitting Equation 3-29 from the Starling equation of state to the Standing-Katz correlation using more than 1,500 data points, Dranchuk and
Abou-Kassem (1975) found the values of the eleven coefficients Al through
All to be, 0.3265 , - l.0700, - 0.5339, 0.01569, - 0.05165 , 0.5475,
- 0.7361 , 0.1844, 0 .1056, 0.6134, and 0.7210, respectively.
The Wichert and Aziz correction for sour gases (Equations 3-23 and 3-24)
is applicable to aU these methods using equations of state. It is clear that all
the EOS methods involve a trial and error type of solution scheme. The accuracy of these methods is within 0.5 % , but for the region where T. _ 1.0,
(3-33)
Alternatively, M can be expressed in terms of EMR for normal paraffin hyd rocarbons as follows:
M ,. - 3.2971 + 1.3714 EMR - 0 .00008156 EMR2
(3-34)
58
.~
IJ UPUllm.UI. IlU1'UU.O
,/ . ..c,....c u
(PCU:
;: g ,;::,
2 ' 51 S! i st:::2
~ ~ ~
.rl~ a
.. "
O.ll
....."
" 1.00
==" 0.'"
o.~.
'.M
.. "
0.'0
Figure 34. Eykman molecular refraction (EMR) versus p2, (After McLeod and
Campbell, 1969; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
"
",J>''',
F ... ~'..
f
'.
./
V
r- " - / m,
./
..
','
I
~.
"
IIJonJon
Pil '
o.ou<
I
I
(>0 .....
~""
,.
'.>0
O.~I
..
~# ,.
/'
0 ,
-:;::. /~
1.10
V,;_
/'"" l".-
'.M
' .H
%: ~ ~~ ~ ~
>0
'JI ,II
. w
'j I V 1/;;1 1/
Ij 'l, 1/ VI; VI V
~ .~ /
~ 1/
'i ~ /j % V/
~)
59
IJII
..I ..I
Figure 3-6. EMR versus TJ pc correlation. (After Mcleod and Campbell, 1969;
courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
>0
....V
c_
eo"
,
~"
~
..
>.
rI-~
m,
" V
IY
19",,"_
~"
I O.I't'
~.
..
,.1. u
i-
,,,, -
./
~r
1.0
Ll_
'.
EYI(.MAH NJL[CULAlI REfRACTION (EAA)
Figure 3-5. EMR versus TJp~ 5 correlation. (After McLeod and Campbell, 1969;
courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
versus T./p~.\ plot (Figure 3-5), both the hydrocarbons as well as non-hydrocarbons lie on the same correlation. In the EMR versus T.,Ipc plot (Figure
3-6), two different correlations were found for two categories of components: N2, CD it H2S, and H2 lie on curve I: and all normal hydrocarbon
components lie on the upper curve 2. The two curves intersect at a value
corresponding to C I .
So, for gases containing any non-hydrocarbon components, it is necessary
to divide the mixture into two groups: C h N1, CO 2, H2S, and H2; and hydrocarbon components ahove methane. that is n-C z+. An n-component gas
mixture is thus treated as a pseudobinary mixture in this method. The calculation procedure is as follows (Campbell . 1984):
1. For each of the two groups of components, find the EMR j as follows:
(335)
60
EZDmplt> 35. For the gas composition given in Example 3-3, find the compressibility factor at 2,500 psla and 650 0 R using the EMR method.
XjJ - X!IX!
61
2. Using Figure 3-6 (or the equations indicated in Figure 3-6), find the
value (or (ATc!P,,)1 and (AT c!Pe)2 for the two groups. The total mixture
(AT..tPe)mill is calculated as:
Solution
Comp.
"
0.0005
0.0100
0.0420
0.8910
0.9495
N,
CO,
H,S
3. Determine BTdp~5 from Figure 3-5 (or the equation indicated on Figure 3-5) for the total mixture using the EMRmiJ for the total mixture
calculated as follows:
4. Using the mixture ATe/P, and BTel p~5 values. solve for the critical
pressure, Pc, and critical temperature, Te. In English units, A and B
C,
X, -
0.0265
0.0190
0.0030
0.0020
0.0505
C,
C,
n-C 4
i-C 4
X, -
~
0.00685
0.01053
0.04423
0.93839
0.52475
0.37624
0.05941
0.03960
EMR
9.407
15.750
19.828
13.984
23.913
34.316
44 .243
44.741
So,
o.
o.
o.
o.
(BTJp1') - 14.90
1.0
1.0
3.0
4.0
S.O
Figure 3-7, Compressibility lactor chart lor the EMA-method. (After Mcleod
'.0
62
63
Thus.
(T'-""Pc)mix - 0.522
So,
p~~ - 14.90/0.522,. 28.54 implying that
2.500/814.i6
T p.
650':425.30
3.068
1.528
Figure 3-8. Generalized compressibility factors ZO as a function 01 reduced pressures and temperatures. (After Salter and Campbell, 1963; courtesy of SPE of
AIME.)
J-
-"--',
..
(3-36)
K - Er.1 Yl(T..J~5)1
'
The pseudocritical pressure and temperature from this equation are then
used in Pitzer's (1955) charts, extended by Satter and Campbell (1963), to
determine 7Y and Zl (Figures 3-8 and 3-9). Z is calculated as follows:
(3-37)
--
......
--- -----
'-
.,
----
_._........
Figure 3 9 Generalized compressibility factors Z' as a function of reduced pressures and temperatures. (Alter Satter and Campbell, 1963; courtesy 01 SPE of
AIME.)
This is one of the best available methros for hydrocarbon mixtures and has
proven to be \'ery accurate.
'"
'" !==t==i==t==!=t==!=t==+=Ci"':'::jON{IOXlDE
'0
'"'0
~ 20
!:
S
,
"
,
101-+-:
'0
>
T;"-Tp<- riA
2'
"
0.'
ACENTRIC FACTOR,"
'0
AIME.)
t- -
!:
....-:: V
. / /' V
,/
V ./
t; 20
10
.5
.--
.-- .. '0
'0
>
0'
ACENTRIC FACTOR, ..
0,
(3-39)
where T;" and p;", are the corrected values for pseudocritical temperature
and pressure. rcspecth'ely. and A ,. l.0 for English units, A = 1.8 if metric
units are used. The;e corrected \'alues are used. as in the SBV method, to
determine the pseudoreduced pressure and temperature. and 'l!l and Zl from
Figures 3-8 and 3-9. Finally. Z is determined using Equation 3-37.
Example 3-6. The analysis of a sour gas, in mole%. is known to be as follows: CH 4 = 56.1. CzHe - 20.6, CJHs - 5.3, CO 2 = 15.0, and H 2S - 3.0.
Find the compres.~ibility factor for this gas at 3,000 psia and 3OO"F. Use the
Buxton-Campbell method because the CO 2 content is high.
Solution
..l!...
To
B:i.
T~p,
(T~E')"
Tjp~5
-""-
C,
C,
C,
CO,
0.561
0.206
0.053
343.1
549.8
O.ISO
H,5
0.030
547.6
672.4
667.8
;07.8
616.3
10iO.9
1306.0
0.51361
0.77673
1.08012
0.51108
0.S14i5
0.71667
0.88132
1.03929
0.71490
O.ili46
13.2727
20.6645
26.8145
16.7284
18.0025
0.0115
0.0908
0.1454
0.2250
0.0949
Com~.
665.;
0.06946, and E
YI"'I
So,
K - 16.1914
(3-38)
J-
,,,
0.03571
Cm Protirlction Enginl"ering
66
T,
PI'< *" T.
l'sin~
J-
Supercompressibility Factor
In several applications such as gas flm\ measurement, the factor l/ZO-~
appears very frequently. It is called the supcrcompressibility factor, F'p~.
Equation 3-38,
4.3
So,
442.91\ - 4.3 I
T';':
Pl~'
438.68' R
p~ia
B~ ..
Thus,
Ppr"
(3-4 1)
- (p.ZT)I(pz.,T.)
67
759.671438.68
1.732
z...
0.250
Bg - 0.0283 ZT P ftl/scf
(3-43)
ga_~
(3-44)
Gas Density
Example 3-7. For the sweet gas given in Example 3-1. find: density in
lbmlftl, and formation volume factor, at 2,000 psia and 200F.
Using the gas law. the density of a gas, Pt;, can be calculated as:
Pt; .. Mv .. pMIZRT
(3-40)
Solution
68
.9
At 2,000 psia and 2OOF, from Example 3-2, the compressibility factor
Z - 0.905
2- _.!. [az]
p,.
(3-48)
z ap,. T'"
Compressibility of Gases
az _ az ap,
Compressibility of any substance is a measure of the change in its volume
upon changes in pressure. It can also be considered as a measure of the
change in density with pressure. Gases exhibit high compressibility, which
makes the storage of gas under pressure a common occurrence.
The isothermal compressibility, c, of any substance is defined as:
c -
Using the ideal gas law, (OV loph '" - nRT/If. and the compressibility (cJ
for an ideal gas can be expressed as:
(plnRT)( - nRTip2) - 1 P
(3-46)
Thus. the compressibility of an ideal gas is simply equal to the inverse of the
pressure. With increasing pressure, the compressibility decreases. For a real
gas:
CR'
aPr
ZT p.op,
cg
,.
I
I [az]
PpcPPT - ZPpt- iJpl'" T pi"
az
apr'
I + O.27r,.aZ] az _ 0.27 az
ZZ"fp.oPT opl'" ZTp.oPr
Thus
OZ _ 0.27
(aZ!ap,)
)
'ap,. ZT," \ 1 + (p,IZ)(aZlap,)
0.27!
- (plnZRT)nRT[(lIp)(aZlop) - ZIP']
Z2'f p,op,
is given by:
- lip - (1IZ)(aZfap)
(p,,,IZ') az]
aPr'
1
c, -
oPp.
Substituting for the derivative. oZlop"" in Equation 3-48, the reduced compressibility can be written as follows:
aPr
(3-45)
- (I V) (aVlaplT
c, _ -
oPp.
(347)
(aZfap,)
I + (p,fZ)(aZlap,)
(3-49)
Using the Z-factor equation derived from the BWR equation of state by
Dranchuk ct al. (Equation 3-28), MaHar et al. (1975) evaluated the derivative iJZlop, as follows:
70
10.0
and
O.2~
courtesy of the
Journal of Canadian
Petroleum
Technology.)
Journal of Canadian
Petroleum
Technology.)
10
71
0 .01 Ll..ll.LU.u
0.2
10.0
'0
P.
P.
For hand calculations, Mattar et al. (1975) also presented this correlation in
a graphical form as shown in Figures 3-11 and :J..12.
Ppt - 3.010
T p,
Example 38. Find the compressibility for the sweet gas given in Example
3-1 at 2,000 psia and 200F.
1.848
cp,T pr
0.620
Solution
Thus,
From Example 3-1,
pP., - 664.47 psia
72
73
Viscosity of Gases
!
,
Solution
From Example 3-1,
M - 17.54, and the gravity 1"1 - 0.6055
75
cp
1
~
;
~,
(3-51)
where
#lIp =
Figure 3-15. Viscosity ratio versus pseudoreduced pressure. (After Carr al ai.,
1954; courtesy of SPE of A1ME.)
3.010
T p,
1.848
The viscosity can be corrected to the desired pressure by using Carr et al.s
reduced pressure and temperature correlations of Figures :J..14 and 3-15, or
any of the several other such correlations available. Lohrenz et al. (1964)
found the chart by Baron et a1. (1959) useful since it provides a good range
of reduced pressure and temperature. The differences among these charts
are, however very minor (Lohrenz et al., 1964).
Figure 3-16 shows the pure component viscosities as a function of temperature for some common natural gas constituenl~. Single component viscosities at 1 atmosphere pressure, 14]110 may also be calculated using the following relationship developed by Stiel and Thodos (1961):
0.0128 cp
14]1t! - 34 X 1O -5T ,Il{U./t!t for Tri
The gas has 1.4 % N:/:, for which the correction factor (to be added) from
Figure 3-13 is 0.00013 cpo Therefore, the corrected viscosity at 1 atmosphere,
14], -
14]et - 17.78
where
(3-52.)
< 1.5
> 1.5
(3-52b)
(3-53)
76
77
Exampk 310. Find the viscosity for a gas with composition, in mole%, of
o
C 1 ... 90.5, C 2 - 7.2, and C 3 - 2.3, at 3,000 psia and 540 R.
Solution
Come
M,
JlL
Tn
'M1''
BIL
0.90S
0.072
0.023
16.043
30.070
44.097
667.8
707.8
616.3
343.1
549.8
665.7
4.0054
5.4836
0.0110
0.0092
0.0082
and b.
C,
C,
C,
Lohrenz et a!. (1964) report that this method gives an average error of
4.03% for the gas mixtures tested by them.
r:
M =
YIM! - 17.697
T pc
6.6353
r:
psia
So,
1: I'lpYiMf"5 - 0.04476 cp
Therefore,
1'1,"
0.04476/4.1723 - 0.01073
,,.
I~
200
TEMPERATURE, OF
Figure 3-16. Viscosity of some natural gas constituents allow pressure. (Aller
Carr el at, 1954; courtesy of SPE 01 AIME.)
.,
Thus,
.. - (1.95)(0.01073) - 0.0209 cp
78
Lee ct a1. (1966) provide an analytic expression for viscosity that can be
used for programming purposes:
p.~ -
K exp(Xpk)
y -
2.4 - 0.2X
5.50290
(3-54)
x-
19
and p.~ is in cpo p~ is in gicm1, T is in oR. Equation 354 reproduced experimental data with a maximum error of 8.99% (Lee et aI., 1966). The problem with this method is that it does not correct for impurities such as N 2
CO 2, and H 2S.
(3-55)
Example 311. Find the viscosity for the gas given in Example 310 at
3,000 psia and 54QoR using the Lee et a1. method.
and
Solutio"
(3-56)
T pr
1.478
Z - 0.78
From Equation 3-40, the gas density,
P, - (3,000)(17.697)1(0.78)(10.732)(540) - 11.745Ibmlft'
- (11.745)(1.601846)10-' _ 0.18814 glcm'
r\ow.
K - 10 -'[9.4 + (0.02)(17.697)](540")1
[209 + (19)(17.697) + 540J - 0.011278
c -
C, _ -
T (aplaT)~
(op/ovh
(3-57)
c,-c,-R
(3-58)
Note that the units for <;. and c.. are Btu/(lbmole OR) in Equation 3-58. So R
must be expressed in the same units:
R _ 10.732 (lbt ft")f(in. 2 Ibmole OR) x 144 in. 2/ft! x (11778.2) Btu/(lbf ft)
_ 1.986 Btu/(lbmole OR)
80
81
.ol--t--+-
Thomas et al. (1970) report average errors of 1.01 % and 1.37 % for the
temperature range 0_200 F and 0_600F, respectively, with Equation 3-59.
The effective mixture specific heat at low pressure, ~, can be determined
more precisely using Kay's rulE":
(360)
where the cp; for some common constituents of natural gas can be obtained
from Table 3-3, or the data by Thuloukian et al. (1970) shown in Figure
318.
02
0,4
0.6 0,8
Figure 317. Generalized plot for the heat capacity difference, c p - c.... versus
Ppr and Tpo' for real gases. (After Edmister, 1948; reprinted from Chemical Eng;neers' Handbook, 1973; courtesy of McGraw-Hili Book Co.)
For a real gas, c., and c.. are functions of both pressure as well as tempera.
ture. A real gas equation of state can be used to determine the right side of
Equation 3-57, and thus the difference between c., and c... Knowing either
one of Cp or c.. the other can then be detennined. Figure 3-17 shows a gener-
alized plot for the heat capacity difference, c., - c., versus p, and T,.
Cp
Determination
Ff2
V V
..,
(359)
..
"
..
..
..
/'
,
,
"
/'
,: ,." ,
---
V1
,
A'~
r/
V
J.-
,.,
..
..
"
....
..
..
:~~
, F'
..
_ _ _ _ .- ~
.,- ,- ,- ..
,,"""..._
..
..'Vr)17
Figure 3-1B. Heat capacity of gases at 1 atmosphere, C:' as a function of temperature. (After Touloukian et at, 1970; courtesy of lFl/Plenum.)
Table 3-3
Molal Heat c.pacrty (Ideal-Gas State) , Btuf(lb mOl-oR)
0.,
Chemical
formula
Ga.
wt
CII,
16.043
26.008
28.054
30.070
OF
WF
60*F
100F
1SO-F
200*F
823
8.42
10,22
10.02
12.17
IUl.5
10.71
10.72
12.U5
8.9,5
"I<
11 41
13.78
II ,SS
12,09
14.63
15.7.5
18.17
16.80
19.52
17.85
20,89
250*F
300F
9.64
11.90
12.76
15.49
18.88
22.25
25.73
24.Q1
25.73
29.39
10.01
12.22
13,41
16.34
42.081
44.097
9.68
9.33
11.44
13.63
15,65
14.69
16.88
IU6
10.33
10,16
12.32
14,90
17,13
56.108
56.IOS
56.108
58. 124
58. 124
17.96
16.54
111.84
20.40
20.80
19.59
18.04
2023
22.15
22.38
H).91
111.34
20.'j(]
22.51
2272
21 18
1!).5-t
21.61
22.74.
21.04
23.!)S
25,77
2.4.08
25,81
24,26
22.53
24.37
27.59
'1:7,SS
72.151
72.151
24.94
25.64
27.17
27.61
27.61
28.02
29.12
29.71
31,60
31,116
33,87
33.99
29.23
36.03
36.08
c.H.
c.H"
78.114
86.178
100.205
16.41
30,)7
18.41
32.78
34.96
38.00
20.46
35.37
,1.01
2245
37,93
44.00
24.16
40,45
46.94
26.34
12.94
49JII
28.15
45.36
52.61
Nlll
17.031
8.52
8.52
18.78
33.30
38.61
8.52
6.95
8.00
6.95
8.01
6.97
6.99
7.00
'O:J
8.52
6.97
8.07
8.53
6."'
7.98
1i.52
6.00
8.53
28.964
6.95
6.95
6.86
8.09
6.96
6.95
703
6.96
6.01
UTi
6"
6.94
6.99
8,12
712
8.111
8.27
6.96
'00
6.97
7,01
8,17
7,17
6.98
6,97
fj,46
7.01
9.81
8.53
7.03
8.23
723
7.00
6.98
855
703
Methane
Ethyne (AMylene)
Ethene (Eth)lene)
Ethane
C~H~
Propene (Propylene)
C;H.
I'ropo~
C~I!
I-Butene (Butylene)
rlf-2-Bulene
fro"s.2-Bulene
iw-Butane
A-Butane
L,o-Pentane
A-Pentane
C,II,
C,II.
C,H.
C,lI lo
Benzene
nlieul'ie
"-Heptane
Ammonia
Air ..
Water
Ol')'gen
Nitrogen
lI ydrogen
Il ydrogen sulfide
Carbon monoxide
Carbon diol'ide
C, II.
C,I I,
C,HI~
C~HII
..........
~
~
C,1I 1t
G,1I 11
H,o
18.015
31.999
28.013
2.016
34.076
28.010
44.010
0,
N,
II,
11,5
CO
CO,
6.78
8.00
695
8.38
6.H7
8.11
6.96
8.76
8.70
II I;;
2300
6.97
6.95
8.36
699
956
9.29
19.89
23.56
'1:7,16
25.47
27.07
3 1 II
30.90
"
."
'"
"'.
~.
"
38.14
38.13
10.05
J, R \\est.
C~m.
.
-/;;'''OJ
(O!:
1i-:l
0.
i3
o
-
"N.-'"
~ o""c;~
~~ It>Q.. :::.._.
n ~
n
.... .... 0
~~Sg
_.3
-.
:I
<r.I :l
a
(]>
10>
0. III
_.
-if.J' "8
o:ll~~
<p
::tI
'< .-
g.
~~i -:l
iJQ~c~g-
3w~!i"
3'~.c
e..(O~cg-'
til &; 3 g ::I.
c:lr;;c.~
-~ if Ii. '< ~
:::r'c",g'=;
(i' jI!1 -;::
?r
5'
::rf5..~ft:r
r;;'
0'" (!)
(\>
oZ_ 3
- ._a
:;;g~..r
:l_"'o.~
--:
-<~a.CTIIl
,.... ;I> '<
....
a~i=f3
2;-58;E. ~
~
111 III
.c:l .....
co. ....
e..
c
-.
o :I
1Il"C _~
:l
0'<..:::
...
no'
- c
1;;'
~ n
III
e:t;.",~
.... III
11
n::T,<
c 2 0-
n
~ III
- It'ro
n
......
E.[-l~
10>
::r 3
S -:l g :;-
p ".
- l\.
0 ..,
...
"
c- 3 6Q' 5'
C:IIlCo.
_.
.... til
....
~
-<;.;l~
;:I
< c
it
...
-0
~=.lf_.~
- ... "'"""o.
::I&;"()::Ic:
gO' I
!:;'..r
0'
c _. ..n. ...
;::: ::J
is..
<is -0 r;'
r~ti .:-l~ ~~ ~~
(i'
~~;, 03~
. "'.8 0
.".
~ 0 [
o ~
5
-
"T ::I
-. 0'
~
.......
."
."
w-"<0 <0
~I~
.,--_.
o~
g!ll~
->w
0-
~o-
9..m9.
"o.~
n3~
ob
po.
!t'0N~
~~
o
.I
:ejijii~
... . "0
:I:W
, (11 (/I
_.
=0
!!'
.. ~
~iiia.
~~~
,,::'\:~
~
~:"
0
~~,,=.~
,-,,,,,\:
,
!
~.-3
~
"
... ~ 8
-' :~"'.'Rk!
2,,,~
0:~~
Qii03
g-
-~
c
!,CD~
, ()"
0_
..0
g,
"
3~o
(i'-
_~~".,
.~
",.
",3
,0
O~
;;
0
-<;
:~I
,
*"
-.
~~
.'"
I I
~!!t
,"
0."
ll
,Jl-".Jf...
S
""
..
u
...
'I>.J
,,"~~"
,\'\,,'''1\
~~
,,:\ \
1// /I ~,;
I 1
{
5
1:'
i
"
~
1:
(c,
-~)
85
- 6.5
(80.33~F)
Therefore,
Solution
Therefore,
M - 17.69i
PI" ., 4.481
T p,
""
1.478
,
2.
0;:.
Comp.
JL
Btu/~lbm
C,
0.905
0.072
0.023
16.043
30.070
44.097
0.530
0.425
0.425
C,
C,
0;:.
oF)
Btu/(lbmole oF)
8.503
12.780
18.741
!he CPI values in Btu/(lbm oF), obtained from Figure 3-18, are converted
IOto Btu/(lbmole oF) by multiplying by the molecular weight, Mh in IbmJ
lbmole. Thus,
cp -
References
Baron, }. D., Roof. J. C., and Wells. F. W . 1959. "Viscosity of Nitrogen.
Methane. Ethane, and Propane at Elevated Temperature and Pressure,"
/. Chern. Eng. Data, 4(3, July), 283-288.
Benedict. M . Webb, C. B., and Rubin, L. C .. 1940. "An Empirical Equation for Thermod}'namic Properties of Light Hydrocarbons and Their
Mixtures," }. Chem. Phys., 8(4, Apr.), 334-345.
Bro~Ol. C. C , Katz. D. L., Oberfell, C. B., and Alden. R. C .. 1948. NaWral Gawline and \'olatile Hydrocarbons. NCAA. Tulsa. OK.
Buxton. T S. and Campbell. J M., 1967. "Compressibility Factors for Lean
Natural Cas-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures at High Pressure," So('. Pet. Eng.
87
os
Ste\\-:~,
Th~mas,
Gas
L. K.,
22(7~r~~~;~
Introduction
Only rarely does a reservoir yield almost pure natural gas. Typically, a
produced hydrocarbon stream is a complex mixture of several hydrocarbons. intimately mixed with water, in the liquid and gaseous states. Often,
solids and other contaminants are also present. The produced stream may be
unstable, with components undergoing rapid phase transitions as the stream
is produced from a several hundred feet deep reservoir with a high temperature and pressure to surface conditions. It is important to remove any solids
and contaminants, and to separate the produced stream into water, oil, and
gas, which are handled and transported separately. Cas and liquid separation operations involve the separation and stabilization of these phases into
saleable producU. Generally, intermediate hydrocarbons in the liquid state
fetch a higher price; therefore, it is desirable to maximize liquid recovery.
Field processing of natural gas includes:
1. Gas and liquid separation operations to remove the free liquidscrude oil, hydrocarbon condensate, and water, and the entrained solids.
2. Recovery of condensable hydrocarbon vapors. Stage separation, or
low temperature separation techniques are used.
3. Further cleaning of the gas and oil streams after separation.
4. Gas dehydration processing to remove from the gas condensable water
vapor that may lead to the formation of hydrates under certain conditions (see Chapter 5).
5. Removal of contaminants or otherwise undesirable components, such
as hydrogen sulfide and other corrosive sulfur compounds, and carbon
dioxide (discussed in Chapter 6).
This chapter describes gas liquid separation and gas cleaning techniques.
89
90
Separation Equipment
9'
the liquid level, safety relief valves to prevent blowup in case the gas or
liquid outlets arc plugged, and gas and liquid discharge ("dump'')
"alves.
__________________
T~nx-~~o~f=
SC~p=a~'~at~o~~~___________________
A vertical separator can handle relativel), large liquid slugs without carryover into the gas outlet. It thus provides better surge control, and is often
used on low to intermediate gas-oil ratio (COR) wells and wherever else
large liquid slugs are expected. Vertical vessels can handle more sand. A false
cone bottom can be easily fitted to handle sand production. Liquid level
control is not as critical in a vertical separator. The tendency of the liquid to
revaporize is also minimized, because less surface area is available to the liquid for evaporation. It occupies less floor space, a particularly important
advantage for operations on an offshore platform where floor area is at a
premium.
92
-_
.._----,-------,--,------
--
ST""'GAIIO ACCUSOIIIf.1
._._--_
......
,-,------... ...........--..... _._._--.------,------.,----,,--'--._-
93
... _ _ " -
""
............
~,
.......
----
0I"ll0N""'- "CCUI04IIU
-~
DiMulvantagn
Vertical \'~ are more expensi\'e to fabricate, and also more expensive
to transport to location. A vertical separator for the same capacity is usually
larger than a horizontal separator. since the upwards flowing gas in the ver.
tical separator opposes the falling droplets of liquid.
Horizontal Separators
These separators may be of a single-tube (Figure 42) or a double-tube
(Figure 4-3) dt5ign. In the single-tube horizontal separator, the wellstream
upon entering through the inlet, strikes an angle baf1e and then the separator shell, resulting in an efficient primary separation similar to the vertical
,-_._-'--..-,---'--,---'-..---_-. ,-,---_
.. _---_ . ._---_-..._,,_O<......... __ .. ,___.....
STAN DUD ACCUSOIIIES
~,
....
'0. ... _
-----__ -
Of'flONAI. ACC(.A(NUQ
-~
.....
separator. The liquid drains into the liquid accumulation ~ion, via horizontaJ baf1es as shown in Figure 4-2. These baffles act as Sites for further
release of any dissolved gas. Cas flows horizontally in a horizontaJ separator. It strikes baffles placed at an angle of 45 , thereby releasing entrained
liquid by impingement. A mist extractor is usually provided near the gas
out1et.
In the double-tube type. the upper tube acts as the separator section,
while the lower tube merely functions as a liquid accumulation section,
Thus the double-tube separator is similar to a single-tube separator, but
with ~ greater liquid capacity. The liquid generated in .the primary separation section near the inlet is immediately drained out mto the lower tube.
The wet gas flows through the baffles in the upper separator tube at hig~er
velocities. AdditionaJ liquid generated is drained into the lower section
through the liquid drains provided aJong the length of the separator.
94
95
INL[f
OIVERT(R
""""
" .....
'M
I NlU
Liquid level control is critical for horizontal separators, and the surge
space is rather limited. They are much harder to clean. and are therefore not
advisable to use where the well produces a lot of sand. They occupy a lot of
space. The space requirements. however. can be minimized by stacking several of these on top of each other for stage separation operations.
Spherical Separators
G"~k
p ...",
2~G~"~W~';'"~===I(~~~V.'''
F'fe ....,. 0'011'0
O.. -"",.IiJlngPlpe
The spherical separator is designed to make optimum use of all the known
means of gas and liquid separation such as gravity, low velocity. centrifugal
force, and surface contact (Craft et a!.. 1962). An inlet flow diverter spreads
the entering wellstream tangentially against the separator wall. The liquid
is split into two streams that come together after going halfway around the
circular vessel wall and then fall into the liquid accumulation section. Liquid droplets from the gas are removed mostly by the velocity reduction imposed upon the gas inside the vessel. A mist extractor is used for the final
removal of smaller liquid droplets in the gas (see Figure 4-4).
Adlxmtagf!ll
FluidtuU"..,I~IOf
Spherical separators are very inexpensive, cheaper than either the vertical
or the horizontal separators. They are \'ery compact, and offer better cleanout and bottom drain features than even the vertical type. Spherical separators are applicable to well streams with low to intermediate GOR's.
Disadmlltagn
Adcolltaga
.H?rizo?tal separators have a much greater gas-liquid interface area, perImttmg .hlgher gas velocities. They can, therefore, handle large gas volumes
eco~omlcally and efficiently. They are cheaper to fabricate and ship than
vertical separators. They are also easier and cheaper to install and service.
~orizo~tal separators minimize turbulence and foaming. For a given capacIty, ?onzontal separators are smaller and cheaper than vertical separators.
~oTl.zontal separators are almost always used for high GOR wells, for foammg well streams, and for Uquid-Iiquid separation (SeW, 1984).
Separation Principles
The several different techniques applied for separation processing can be
broadly classified into two categories: mechanical separation and chemical
separation techniques based upon thermodynamic vapor-liquid equilibrium
principles. Mechanical separation includes several techniques that will be
discussed later in the section on gas cleaning. In separators, the mechanical
96
separation methods that are applied are of three types: centrifugal action,
gra\"ity settling, and impingement.
97
Centrifuge Separation
2. The force F., due to angular acceleration, given by:
Consider a centrifuge of radius R2 , height h, and inner shaft radius Rj, as
shown in Figure 4-5. Feed enters at a volumetric rate q. As the centrifuge
rotates at an angular speed w, the heavier liquid droplets are thrown outward to the centrifujOte walls as shown in Figure 4-5. The residence time t for
the fluid in the centrifuge is given by:
t ... centrifuge volume/volumetric flow rate of
nuid
- .(H! - Hf)h!q
(4-1)
GAS
liquid film
F,
1
J
h
.,
v2 _ 4~P1W2R
.2~
3Cd P..
Therefore,
FEED
(4-2)
Separating the variables,
al rOI. q
Solving for t:
In the analysis that follows, it is assumed for simplicity that the liquid droplets are spherical, with a uniform diameter d p The area A projected by a
droplet is therefore equal to (T/4)~. As shown in Figure 4-5, there are two
forces acting on any droplet at a radius R:
(4-3)
98
dp
(4-5)
'w
(4-4)
Equation 4-4 gives the size of the smallest droplet that can be removed b\
the centrifuge. Thus, to decrease the droplet size d p that can be removed, w~
have three options: decrease q, which is not quite feasible; increase the
height. h. of the centrifuge; or increase the rotational speed, w, of the centrifuge. To achieve good separation in a centrifuge, it is therefore essential to
have as large a centrifuge column as possible, and to operate the centrifuge
at as high a speed as possible.
In practice. centrifuge separation involves using several relatively small,
standard-size cyclones in parallel. Centrifuges (or cyclones) perform best
when the gas flows at a constant rate and pressure for which the equipment
has been designed. At lower rates, separation is poorer, whereas higher rates
lead to an excessive pressure drop through the centrifuge or cyclone. Properly operated, centrifuge separation can usually handle liquid droplets
down to a size of about 2 microns.
FEED
;>
01 role
I.
f'"
L
~
I
Cravity Settling
Consider a liquid droplet of diameter d" suspended in a gas stream flowing at a rate q. The forces on the droplet are:
1. Force Fit due to
gravit)~
99
(4-7)
The velocity v at which the droplet falls in the vertical direction is given by:
v - dh/dt
given by:
Upon integration.
v _ hit assuming a constant \'
100
Thus, to allow smaller droplets to settJe, we must maximize the height hand
length L.
Gravity settling can effectively remove liquid droplets of size greater than
about 80 microns. For removing smaller particles, the required chamber size
becomes too large for any practical application.
Impingement
In the impingement process, gas with entrained liquid particles strikes a
surface such as a baffle plate, or wire mesh. The gas flows around this flow
obstruction. but the momentum of the liquid droplet tends to mOve it
straight ahead and impinge and collect on the surface. In practice, the flow
direction is altered several times to achieve better gas-liquid separation.
The design parameters for an effective impingement surface are the distance across the flow path necessary to stop the liquid droplet, since this determines the size of the impingement surface needed to remove droplets up
to a given size: and the pressure drop resulting from the flow of gas through
the impingement medium. The impingement surface size can be determined
using laws governing the low of particles suspended in a fluid, such as the
terms derived in Equations 4-2 and 4-5 for the particle velocity in a centrifuge and a gravity settling chamber, respectively. The pressure drop caused
by the impingement media is also of concern, because a greater pressure
drop is synonymous, in engineering terms, to higher compression costs for
the gas.
Impingement techniques can handle liquid particles of size greater than
about 5 microns.
101
actual flowing volume, and the allowable velocity through the separator.
With increasing temperature, the separator capacity usually decreases, due
to the effect of temperature on the flowing volume and gas and liquid densities.
In actual oil-field practice, economics is the foremost concern. The idea is
to maximize the income from a given wellstream. The type of separator chosen, the operating conditions, and the product mix (gas versus oil), all are
subject to an economic analysis. In addition, the product sales specifications
must be considered. For example. it is usually desirable to produce more liquid because it sells at a higher price in most cases; however, doing so may
strip the gas of its intermediate components to an extent that it may not meet
pipeline specifications for the energy (or Btu) content per unit volume.
Controlling the Operating Conditions
The two parameters that can be controlled are the pressure and temperature. For pressure, back-pressure valves are used. Limitations in separator
operating pressure are imposed. by its obvious relationship to the wellhead
pressure and the transmission line pressure. The wellhead pressure, in turn,
relates to the flowing characteristics of the well, while the transmission line
pressure requirements are usually fixed by its design. One of the goals, ~
sides vapor liquid separation considerations, is to minimize gas compression
expenses.
Temperature control is usually available to a certain extent. The wellstream flowing temperature is generally higher than the usual separator operating temperatures, and the wellstream therefore, has to be cooled to the
desired temperature. The most widely used cooling method is the simultaneous pressure and temperature reduction by expansion of the wellstream
through a choke (Joule-Thomson effect), although other cooling methods
such as heat exchangers, cooling towers, and refrigeration, are also used. In
the final analysis, it is really the economics that determines whether the
wellstream should be cooled, the extent to which it should be cooled, and
the cooling method applicable.
Separator Design
The design aspects encountered by a petroleum engineer only involve
choosing the correct separator size for a given field installation. Separator
sizing is essentially quoted in terms of the gas capacity, and the liquid capacity of the separator. Other parameters, such as pressure drop through the
separator, are specified for a given design by the manufacturer and are beyond the scope of the present discussion.
102
103
Cal Capacity
The Souders-Brown relationship (Equation 4-6) has been traditionally
used for calculating the gas capacity of gas-liquid separators:
where vll
'"
Note that the gas velocity v. is based upon total separator area , and it is
therefore more appropriate to refer to it as the superficial gas velocity. The
gas capacity at standard conditions (14.7 psia and 60F) , qg,." gener~lly reported in units of MMscfd (million standard cubic feet per day), is thus
given by:
<lgsc ""
K - separation coefficient
The separation coefficient, K, is an empirical constant given as follows
(Craft et a1., 1962; Sivalls, 1977):
Separator type
Range of K
Vertical
0.06 to 0.35
Horizontal
0.40 to 0.50
Spherical
Equation 4-9 or 4-10 can be used to calculate the separator diameter required to handle a given gas rate, or to calculate the gas rate that a separator
of a given size can handle. The area of the mist extractor required, Am. can
be obtained as follows:
(4-11)
where v", is the gas velocity through the mist extractor, determined using
Equation 4-6 with K _ 0.35 for mist extractor (wire mesh type).
Liquid Capacity
The liquid capacity of a separator depends upon the volume of the separator available to the liquid, and the retention time of the liquid within the
separator (Sivalls, 1977):
W - 1440V LIt
(4-12)
The gas capacity of spherical separators ill based upon the capacity of the mist extractor.
(4-10)
Besides calculating the diameter of the separator required for a given gas
capacity, the Souders-Brown relationship can also be used for other designs
2.40D'Kp(PI- pJ'.'
Z(T + 460)p~S
VL
""
VL
105
6 ft and standard horizontal separators of diameter less than 26 in. are available and have been used successfully.
High-pressure separators are generally used for high-pressure, high gasliquid ratio (gas and gas condensate) wells. In this case, the gas capacity of
the separator is usually the limiting factor. Low-pressure separators, used
generally for low gas-liquid ratio at low pressures, are subject to the opposite
constraint-they require a high liquid capacity. The separator chosen must
satisfy both the gas as well as liquid capacities. Also, the liquid discharge (or
dump) valve should be designed for the pressure drop available and the liquid flow rate (Sivalls. 1977).
Note that as the gas-liquid ratio (C LR) increases, the retention time t decreases. The volume of the separator occupied by gas, V c, is given by:
1 min.
2 to 5 min.
5 to 10 min. at > lOOF
Vc - V - VI.. - V - Wt
10 to 15
15 to 20
20 to 25
25 to 30
min.
min.
min.
min.
at
at
at
at
goOF
BOoF
70F
60F
vc
Vc =
cut -
W,CLRt
Therefore:
W,CLRt,. V - Wt
On rearranging:
V
~ cW~(=Go-'LR~+~I)
Thus, for a fixed separator volume V and liquid capacity W, as CLR increases, retention time t decreases.
E:ram,lJe 4-1. A separator, to be operated at 1,000 psi a, is required to handle a wellstream with gas flow rate 7 MMscfd at a GLR - 40 bbllMMscf.
Determine the separator size required, for: (1) a vertical separator, (2) a horizontal single-tube separator, and (3) spherical separator. Assume a liquid
(oil + water) density of 52 Ibm/ft3, ideal gas with gravity ., 0.80, an operating temperature equal to 110 F', a retention time t - 3 min., and 112 full of
liquid conditions.
106
Solution
D - [0.466065/0.35?' - 1.15 ft
IbmlCtl
PJ"
(7)(1)(570)(3.789''')
K(2.40)(IOOO)(52 - 3.789)"
- 0.466065 K
For a retention time t of 3 min., the liquid settling volume required for each
v, -
D - [0.466065/0. 167? ,
The liquid capacity,
O.0466IY(D/2)O!l - 0.583
Therefore, D .. [(2'>~)(0.583)10.0466]1
pacity requirements.
2.40Kp(p,
107
VL.t<
~ 1.67 ft (~
3_.5 ..
20 in.)
0 .. [0.466065/0.382]03 .. 1.10 ft ( .. 13.20 in.). Thus, the minimum separator diameter of 26 in. ( ,., 2.17 (t) should be used.
The liquid capacity, VL .. 0.1399!)2(Ll2) .. 0.583
The,efore, L - (2)(0.583)/[(0.1399)(2.17~1 _ 1.77 ft. The LID ,,_
tio .. 1.77/2.17 - 0.816, which does not satisfy design criteria. For a
minimum LID ratio .. 3, separator length required .. 3 X 2.17 .. 6.5
ft.
lOS
109
..
,
",
"
..,
,
-~.,~
~:
.,
,
",
correction has to be made for the extent of liquid (one-quarter fuji, onethird full, or one-halI full) in the liquid section as shown in Figure; 4-10 to
4-12.
The actual liquid settling volume, VL for standard separators can be determined from their specifications given in Tables 4-1-4-11. Figures 4-15
and 4-16 are the sizing charts for the liquid capacity of horizontal singletube separators, based upon a liquid retention time of I min. Corrections for
retention times other than 1 min . are linear. and are shown in these charts.
Such charts are useful because they take into account the worlcing pressure.
Example 42. Repeat Example 4-1, using actual manufacturers' field test
data, and assuming II.. full of liquid conditions.
1-~'
"
.,~~
.,."
"
,
,.
1C1O
,.,..,
_Il00100
lOCI
,/100
....
WI
"
Solution
110
..
:;--I VlA:""
.
-..
m
,
..
,
:;::"iI
,
.' . .
,
,
,
Oklahoma.)
...
II ....
:"'-""1
lil ...
"1 ...
' IjAiI
ott'. ~t
"
"
C",
. 1iI
,"
.~
'j ,-
" "
'"
... ~
,,
XI U 1IO
---,.""-
tal high-pressure
separators. (After
Sivalls, 1977; courtesy of C. R. Sivatts
and the University of
Oklahoma.)
i
,I
ill
~.
;::; :,i"!
,~: ;,
/;
40 10 .. "'....,'00'''',.
"
t'o
Ill:
i~
~
>7
;~
~'-
~
IfAII
:.: ~P'
~
/,
---.... _-
"
homa.)
I
J
;;;;r::::
"
,
J!
capacity of spherical
"
;.;
separators. (After
11l
II,
, ,
.
,
,
,
p ---
"
,
.,
~~
,,~
,'1---,
"
,
..
/'
"
---.-
10 . . . . . . . . ,go
'"
'IO 100
:roo
IJ
112
113
--'
19n; courtesy of C.
R. Sivails and the
University of Oklahoma.)
;j;
i:
1-.I
,
" i
'j
, I
,
,
high-pressure separators.
(After
1"
.'
,~
.~
.~
!
I
~f~ !
</ ,
,,~
'j
,L-f;-H.-;!;;--'!;--.k-~----,h-b-h-!W
*"'
,
I.
100 . . _
"""---
;,
izontal single-tube
high-pressure separators
(After
11 ....
,'0
"""
--,._-Table 4-1
Specifications 01 Standard Vertical Low-pressure Separators"
roo>.
J
.... T,'-
,_wi"
~,
.>.....
"
.,.
>,
'
.......
......
',If.!.
~I.l
:::1
::q
---
I-I
Working
Pressure,
p.'
24'
x 5'
24" X i1l2'
30" x 10'
36" x S'
36" X 7112'
36" x 10'
'25
'25
'25
'25
'25
48" x 10'
4S" xiS'
60" x 10'
60" )( IS'
60" x 20'
After S" .11 urn.
12'
'25
'25
'25
'25
'25
Inlet and
GIS Outlet
Conn .
011
Outlet
2" Thd
2" Thd
3" Thd
4" Thd
4" Thd
4" Thd
2" Thd
2" Thd
6" F1g
6" F1g
6" F1g
6" F1g
6" F1g
Conn.
3" Thd
2" Thd
3" Thd
4' Thd
4" Thd
4" Thd
4" Thd
4" Thd
4" Thd
Standard Valves
011 or
011 and WIIter
,>
'"'"
'"
'"'"
'"
,"
,"
2"
3"
GIS
Shipping
Weight,
I.
"'"
2"
,>
IlSO
2"
2"
2000
2000
'"
,"'"
,"
2350
2"
3"
3"
2700
3400
,,00
'200
6400
7600
Table 4 3
specifications of Standard Vertical High Pressure Separators '
Table 4"2
Sen llng Volumes of Standard Vertical Low"pressure Separators "
(125 psi WP)
Size,
Dia x Ht
Z4"~5'
0.65
24-x7 1f1
30" x 10'
110
l.01
2.116
36" "
un
1.82
3.75
;j'
36" X ,112'
36" x 10'
48" x 10'
48- x 15'
60- x 10'
60- xiS'
00" x 20
115
Qu Production Engineering
114
'63
".
2.4)
304
5.6i
5.48
10.06
14.44
16.OB
12,93
18.64
7.&6
9.23
12.65
15.51
Mt~,
Si<ilh. 1977
,- Thtal ... ttling 'vlume b usually split ~"cn bet" ... n oil and
".tt.
ChOOSing the next available size of 20 in. x 10 ft from Figure 4-15, the
liquid capacity is (980)(0,33) - 323.4 bbllday, which is sufficient. The
same result could alternatively be obtained from Table 4-8, where the
smallest horizontal separator size with a VI. greater than 0.583 is 20
in. x 10 ft for a 1/4 full of liquid condition.
Hence, use a 20 in. x 10 ft high-pressure horizontal separator.
3, From Figure 4-14, a 30 in, diameter spherical separator is required.
Liquid settling volume, VL from Table 4-11 is only 0.30 bbl, whereas
0.583 bbl is required. From Table 4-11, the smallest spherical separator with a VI. greater than 0.583 is of diameter 42 in.
Hence, use a 42 in. diameter high-pressure spherical separator.
Working
Pressure,
psi"
Inlet and
Gas Outlet
Connection
Standard
Liquid
Vel ve
16- x 5
16- x 7111'
16- x 10'
1000
2- Thd
2' Thd
~. Thd
20- x 5'
2O-x7 112'
20- x 10'
24"x5'
24- x 71/z'
24- x 10'
3O"xS'
1000
3 F1,
3- FIg
3- FIg
3- FIg
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
Siza,
Dis x HI
30')(
1000
3- FIg
3- FIg
1000
711~'
30' x 10'
36' x i112'
36' x 10
36" x 15'
42- x 7112'
42- x 10'
42" x IS'
4S- X i112'
4S" x 10'
48" xiS'
54' X 71/2'
54" x 10'
54-x 15'
00- x 7112'
00- x 10'
50" xiS'
00" x 20'
4' FIg
4 - JollZ
4" FIg
1000
4" FIg
4" FIg
4" FIg
1000
1000
1000
1000
66"
6'
6"
6"
6"
FIg
FlI;(
FIg
FIg
FIg
FIg
6" FIg
6- FIg
6" FIg
6" FIg
6" FlI;(
6' FIg
6' ~1g
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
""
"
"
""
2'
2'
2'
""
"
2'
Shipping
Weight,
I.
1.100
1.200
1,500
1.1lOO
1.000
',200
2,500
2.850
3.300
3,200
3.650
4,200
5.400
6.400
8.700
i,700
9.100
12.000
10,400
12.400
16,400
12.300
14,900
20.400
li.5OO
00,500
26,500
32,500
This III not always true. The prftSUre csn be controlled, but the storage tank temperaturf' is
subject largel)' to the preo.ailing atmospheric temperaturf'. and It is too expe~,'e to hn-t or
0001 the contents of the tank to OO"F. Modern digital metering devices can easll)' correct for
tempera ture or pres!iure.
116
. .. -
- .... "
...
,...
........,
--
1'0("
.~
TWO
STAGE
S'P"RATION
'='
We"
-00.,
.......
..",.-..
differential liberation is approximated quite closely by using a few separation stages (two, three, or four). The latter process, where the pressure is
reduced in very large steps. is termed "flash liberation." Flash vaporization
also differs from differential vaporization in another respect: in differential
vaporization, the \'apor is removed as it is formed , but in flash vaporization,
the liquid and vapor are kept in intimate contact until equilibrium is
achieved . For this reason, flash vaporization is also termed "equilibrium vaporization" or '-nash equilibrium vaporization," whereas differential vaporization is called "diHerentialliberation."
Table 44
Settling Volumes of Standard Vertical High-pressure Separators'
(230 to 2,000 psi wP)
THREE
STAGE
SEPARATION
Size,
Die x HI
....
,.
Uoac _ .....
."
-,,-- ._.
l- ..
~.-
n_.,
'"
fOUR- STAGE
SU'ARATIOH
~
ALTERNATIVE
ARRAM""!NT
"on
_r_""
."
FOR THRfE-STAGE
Readers who have a background in phase behavior will immediately recthat liquid recovery is enhanced on using a greater number of equihbnum stages for separation. This same principle is employed in designing
columns 'With mu1tiple equilibrium trays for separation purposes (Chapter
5). The ideal separation process is one in which the pressure is reduced infinitesimally at each stage. requiring an infinite number of stages. Such a process, termed "differentiailiberation," would maximize the IJquid recovery
and yield a more stable stock tank liquid. In practice, this is not feasibl e and
~gn~
117
16"x5'
IS" x 7 1/2'
IS" x 10 '
20" x S'
20' x 7 1/!'
20' x 10'
24 'x5'
24' X 71/8'
24 ' x 10 '
30' x 5'
30" x 71/2'
30" x 10 '
36" x 71/1'
36" x 10'
36' xiS'
42" x il!l'
42" x 10 '
42 ' xiS'
48" x 71/2'
48'x 10'
48" x 15 '
54' x illt'
54' x 10 '
54" x IS '
50' )( 711t'
50" x 10'
60" x 15'
60" x 20'
,
"
2.02
2.47
3.02
4.13
3.53
4.29
5.80
4.81
5.80
7,79
633
;.60
10.12
8.08
9.63
12,73
15.31
0.44
0.72
0 ....
0.71
1.15
1.48
1.05
1.68
2,15
l.7S
2.78
3.54
4.13
52'
i.45
5.SO
i.32
10.36
7.79
9.i8
13.76
10,12
12.65
17.70
12.73
15.83
22.03
27.20
Arm Si IIs, 1m
St.nd..d ... orking p""""'_ ".il.bI" .., 230. 1iOO. IIXlO. 1200. 1440. 15OO nd 2000 psi.
8 ....,.;1 on lIXlO psi WP Rp'T~tO"
Tot.l ~tlinl ""lume b u.u.Uy ,plit ,....,0 "","wCCT! oil and .... t~r,
118
119
Table 4-6
Size,
"
:>
1!
~~
o=~
c
e.
. . . . . . . . ..,M"':...
...
........................
lh Fun
,,, Futl
'/4 Full
24' x 5'
1.55
24' x 71lt'
24' x 10 '
'.22
'.89
0.89
12S
I.Si
0.59
0.86
I 12
0 ..
1.36
1.77
2.59
3.79
4.71
6.85
7.47
Ole )( Length
31)")(5'
2.48
1.43
30" X 11/1'
354
4.59
6.71
9.76
'Q.I
3{)'x 10 '
. .. . . . .. .. . .
........................... ..,MM!,.
is
36' x 10'
36" x iS'
48" x 10'
12.24
17.72
19.50
28.06
36.63
48" x IS"
60" x 10'
6O'x IS'
60' x 20'
2.66
3.88
5.66
7.07
10.26
1l2-l
16.23
21.21
10.82
14.16
., _ c
1:I.!!O
c_-
_ 0
c.
c;;
-e8
--------_ ._ ---
cases.
For the complex mixture of hydrocarbons produced from an oil well , precise stage separation calculations are very difficult and require the use of a
computer. For practical purposes. it is quite satisfactory to use other shortcut methods and correlations that yield acceptable results. The simplest of
these methods assumes an equal pressure ratio between the stages for optimum performance (Campbell, 1984):
r _ (PllpJl
where
(4-13)
r _ pressure ratio
n _ number of stages ( text contilllJed Oil 1)age 123)
120
Table 4-7
Specifications of Standard Horizontal High-pressure Separators'
SIu,
OI.:It Ht
12:l!~' :It
1)
Worttlng
Inlet and
Preu.ure,
GIl. Outlet
Connection
....
,
1000
12lI,- )( 10'
16" x 5
16 " x 7 llt"
16"
:It
10
2O"xS'
20-
1000
1000
2"
2
2"
3-
Thd
Thd
Thd
F1g
3" F1g
7112'
20" x 10
24" x 5"
24' x j llt'
24"xl0
24"x 15
30" x 5'
30" x ill~'
30" x 10 '
30" x 15
36" x 71/2'
36" x 10'
36" xiS'
36" x 2(} '
42' x illt'
42"x 10'
42" xiS'
42" x 20 '
1000
48"x71I2'
1000
48' x 10'
4S" xiS'
48" x 20'
54' x 71.12'
54"x 10'
54" x 15
54" " 2(}'
50" x 71/2'
00' x 10'
60" x IS'
50" x 20'
2- Thd
2' Thd
Z" Thd
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
3" F1g
... F1g
4' F1g
4" Fig
4" Fig
.. " F1g
.. " F1g
.. " Fig
.. " F1g
6" F1g
6" F1g
6" Fig
6" F1g
6" F1g
6" Fig
6" Fig
6" Fig
8" Fig
S" Fig
S" Fig
S" Fig
S' FIg
S" FIg
S' F1g
S' f1g
S' J.1g
S' .1g
S" FIg
S" F1g
Standard
Liquid
Val ve
I'
I'
I'
I.
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
,.
,.
,.
2'
2'
2'
2'
,.,.
,.
,.,.
,.,.
,.
2'
,.,.
,.
2'
2'
Table 4-8
Settling Volumes of Standard Horizontal High-pressure Separators'
(230 to 2,000 psi WP**)
Shlppll"lg
Weight,
I.
1.100
1.200
1.300
1.400
1.i50
2,100
1.800
2.300
2.900
2,200
3.000
3.8110
5,400
3.200
4.3110
5.500
7,800
6,100
7.500
10,200
12.000
8.200
9.900
13.400
16.900
10.900
12.700
17.500
22,100
13,400
16.000
21.200
26.400
16.700
19.900
26,400
32,900
121
Size
Ois :lt Len
12lf," x 5'
12.- :It 7
1231, - x 10'
L,Iz'
16" :It 5
16-:It 7 l l!'
16" x 10
2O" x 5'
20" x 7 112'
20" x 10'
24 x 5
24")( 71!2'
24" x 10'
24" xiS'
30" x 5
3O"x71!2'
30" x 10'
30" x 15'
36" x 7)!2'
36" x 10'
36" x i S'
36" x 20'
42" x 71It'
42" x 10'
42" x IS'
42"x20'
4S" x 71/t'
48" x 10 '
48" x IS
48")( 20'
54" X 7112'
54 " x 10'
54'x 15'
54"x20'
60" x 7112'
60' x 10'
00' x 15'
00"x2O'
lh Full
0.38
055
0,72
0.61
088
113 Full
11. Full
0.22
0.32
0.42
0. 15
0.21
0.28
0.24
0.34
0.3.5
0.50
0.66
0.55
0.79
"'
0.98
I.'"
1811
0.44
IOJ
145
,..
0.83
'.63
1.52
2.21
1.39
1.96
2.52
3.65
2.8i
3.68
5.30
6.92
3."
5.119
7.30
9.51
5.32
6.n
9.67
12.57
6.87
8.7 1
12,40
16.08
860
10.86
15.38
19.90
lIB
3.S1
2.43
3.40
4.3i
6.30
4.99
6.38
9. Ii
11.96
6.93
8.83
12.62
16.4 1
9.28
II 77
16.74
21 il
]2.02
15.17
12.49
27.S1
15.05
18.93
26.68
34.44
a~
I~.
0.38
0.54
O.iO
0.55
0.i8
0.01
1.47
0.91
1.29
1.67
2.42
1.90
2.45
3.54
4.63
2.6 1
3.35
4.83
6.32
3.51
4.49
6.43
'.38
4.49
5.73
S.2O
10.68
5.66
7.17
10.21
13.24
12l!
Table 49
Specifications of Standard Spherical Separators
Diamtlt.r
Wor1ling
Inlet and
Standard
Shipping
P,esaure,
Gas Outlet
Connection
liquid
Weight,
I.
p.'
,.
Valve
".".
'"
".
".
4" Thd
4' Thd
4" Thd
!!SO
, >1,
3" F1g
2"
2
6'
2' Flg
2" f1g
"'1/:
2'
3' F1g
,.,.
,.
54-
"'.
,..
24-
IIX)!)'
30
42'
1000
1300
1700
1100
14lX.
3400
]300
].
1400
]BOO
].
". F1g
".
00
,.3
4 - F1g
6' F1g
2O(X).
2800
3700
,100
Kilt! 3000 p<i.
Table 410
Settling Volumes of Standard
Spherical Low-pressure Separators'
(125 psi WP)
Size,
Settling Volume,
00
001
100
(4-14)
Pi '" p,r"-i-tl
Note that Equations 413 and 414 bear no relationship with the magnitude
of separation (Le, the Iiquid,vapor ratio).
Whinery and Campbell (1958) studied three-stage separation for ~"eral
different t)'pes of wellstreams. Figure 418 from their work shows the rela
tionship between the pressure at the second stage and stock tank liquid recover)'. From an empirical analysis of these results, Whinery and Campbell
(1958) derived simple relationships to calculate the optimum pressure in the
second stage for a threestage separation. They found that two cases can be
specified:
1. For streams with specific gravity> 1.0 (air .. l.0):
p, _ ApI""" + (A - 0.057)10.0233
. ~ ,
O.ii
1.02
Table 411
Settling Volumes of Standard
Spherical High-pressure Separators'
(230 to 3,000 psi WP)"
Size,
Settling Volume,
00
123
~,"
,.
- ~~
"-
..
"'
"--...
~,' ,~"
0.'"
<C',
221)
0.15
0.30
054
133
J7,
(4-15)
DIU"'"
..
,UGE
~_
'---
~USl""l."'"
...
ow
~
z
2
z
~
Tn
I //
I
I
I
"z '
"z
8 '
C~
C,
C,
C~
C,
r:
16.043
30.070
44.09;
58.124
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.10
0.08
0.04
0.03
C,
c,.
Mol. wt., M,
)'1
(C,)
;2.151
86.178
128.259
:z
38.626128.9; - 1. 33
0.43
? 7
019
../ It ,4
I ~~ ItJ. l "
III / ,/
The EqtMd Pr~re Ratio Cmw. Using Equation 413. the pressure ratio
with n - 3 - 1 = 2 is r - (800;)4.7)12 = 7.3;7
From Equation 414 , P2 ,. (14 .7)(7.3772 " 2. I) - 108.44 psia.
:1:1
This example illustrates that the equal pressure ratio assumption is far
from precise. Even the Whinery-Campbell method is only an approximation. Wherever possible, flash calculations using equations of state must be
carried out for determining the amounts of vapor and liquid that will be
reco\'ered, and the composition of these vapor and liquid streams from the
separators.
.,
Mol. fr. ,
MOL" C I + Cz + C)
rr I
I", r. .l 1/ I
J~
I'~ "'Til I
Solution
Comp o
where PI, P2 ... pre!mJl"eS in the first and second stages, respectively (the
third stage is assumed to be the stock tank at standard conditions of 14 ; psia and 6(}0 F)
A - a function of the stock tank pres..~ure and the system composition
125
,.
,.,
,.
126
127
perature .separator, LTX units have another advantage: they are able to dehydrate the gas. frequently to pipeline specifications.
A low.temperature separation unit comiists of a high-pressure separator.
one or mOre Pressure-reducing chokes. and heat e:tchange equipment.
When the high-pressure wellstream is expanded by pressure reduction
through a choke. the temperature is also reduced. This irre\'ersible adiabatic
(no e..~change of heat with surroundings) simuJtaneous pressure and temperature reduction process is called the Joule-Thomson Or throttling effect. The
heat content of the g:as remains the ~ame across the choke. hut it.;; temperature and pressure are reduced,
The choke is mounted directly at the inlet of the high-pressure separator,
so that any hydrates formed downstream of the choke fall into the bottom
settling section of the LTX unit. where they are heated and melted by the
heating coils provided. The wellstream enters the separator at a low temper_
ature and pressure. and a better separation results. A rorrelation by the Cas
Proces.soI'\ Suppliers Association (CPSA) to determine the temperature drop
through the choke for a briven pressure drop is shown in Figure 4-20. E:tampie 4-4 illustrates the procedure for using this correlation.
Examl)/e 4-4. AD. 7 gravity gas, at 150F is expanded through a choke. so
that its pressure i~ reduced by 2,000 psi. What is the temperature drop if the
initial pressure is: (1) 4.000 psia, and (2) 2.500 psia~ (3) What is the final
temperature if the gas is initially at 4.000 psia and 150F and the pressure is
reduced to 200 psia.
Salution
1. From Figure 4-20, for an initial pressure _ 4,000 psia and a pressure
drop - 2.000 psia, the temperature drop _ 380F.
2. From Figure 4-20, for an initial pressure _ 2,500 psia and a pressure
drop - 2,000 psia, the tempel'ature drop _ 86.SoF.
3. From Figure 4-20, for an initial pressure _ 4,000 psia and a pressure
drop - 4,000 - 200 - 3,800 psia, the temperature drop" 1320F.
~
~
J,
.!
!,
,
,
"
..
.. ,,,,,
. . fIP
,,
"
,
.
,#.
".
It
0 '
j!
~i~
..
If
~
o .. e~
'!
hi -.
Example 4-4 iJlustrates that the cooling process is more effective for gases
at high pressures, where a large pressure drop can be provided to the gas in
an LTX unit. As a rule of thumb, at least a 2,500- to 3.000-psi pressure drop
must be available before an LTX unit can be considered for use. Otherwise,
it may not be economical.
I 6 -5
v v ,
'i
i' "
il~
"
'I
'I
t,
"
"
"
I.
~~-!
'...
!(;; oeRli!~51
~l
JS B.
~
!I
."
!
.. . --1
!
~'
,'#.
,,
A choke is essentially an orifice plate, with a specified hole slu, fo r controlling the rate of
flow or reducing the pressu~ of the flowstream.
"
. ..
128
Gas Cleaning
where
P,.
129
The drag coefficient, Cd. and the exponent n in Equation 4-17 are as follows
(Lapple, 1984),
Cas cleaning is important for pipeline transmission systems in order to reduce operational problems. and to maximize their operating efficiency. It is
even more important in other instances, such as for gas .~torage, and for sales
to consumers. Cas cleaning is also neces'iary to prevent solution/catalyst
contamination in downstream processes on the gas, such as dehydration and
sweetening. Some of the cleanup occurs initially at the wellhead by such
means as drips, filters. and syphons. Another phase of cleanup is carried out
in the gas.liquid separators. Further cleaning is generally required before
the gas arrives at a processing plant, and before any processing is begun. A
clean gas transmission averages about 2 Ibm/ MMscf particulate matter in
the gas.
Cas cleaning involves the removal of two types of materials: (1) gross sol
ids and liquids, called "pipeline trash," and (2) minute solids (particulate
matter) and liquids (aerosols). Pipeline trash is also referred to as sludge,
and is essentially anything in the flowing stream that is not gas. Pipeline
trash consists generally of liquids such as heavierend liquid hydrocarbons,
water, chemicals (amines, glycols, methanol) carried o\'er from processing
operations, and solids such as drilling mud, pipeline scale, other dirt picked
up by the gas during production and transport operations, and gas hydrates.
Pipeline trash collects in the sags and low spots in the pipeline, and its removal is absolutely necessary, Particulate matter and aerosols are much
more difficult to remove because of their ultrasmall particle size, They are
carried over by the gas as suspended solids/liquids.
Flow reiQme
Nile
Laminar
Intermediate
Turbulent
0.3-10'
10'- 2(1{}')
<0.3
Law
Cd
Stokes
Intermediate
Newton
24.0
18.5
1.0
0.6
0
0.44
where the Reynolds number, N R~, for the case of particles suspended in a gas
is defined as being equal to d"vpjI;lpK' The equations derived earlier for cen
trifugal separation (Equation 42) and for gravity settling (Equation 45)
can be verified as being applicable to the turbulent flow regime.
The Reynolds number is controlled largely by the particle size, ~, since
other factors vary within a relatively small range for a given application.
Thus, Newton's law would be applicable to larger particles that would
~ a higher Reynolds number. This can be understood in physical terms ..
by visualizing that larger particles fall so rapidly that they create considerable turbulence. For intermediate size particles, some turbulence is gener
ated, and the intermediate law is used. Smaller particles settle much more
slowly, a laminar flow regime is maintained, and Stokes law is used to calcu
late the settling rate.
A!; we proceed to smaller particle sizes, smaller than about 3 microns,
Stokes law is no longer valid. The particles are now so small that they slip
between the gas molecules at a rate greater than that predicted by Stokes
law. The Cunningham correction, K." is used to correct the settling velocity,
vStok"", from Stokes law:
The well known general exp~ion for the terminal velocity, v, of a part!
cle railing through a fluid under the influence of a force that exerts an acceleration a on the particle, is written as:
\. -
4ad n+ l (p
[
-PJ]
3CdI';p~
H2-"1
(4-17)
130
Gas Production
"~nglnt!e,;rlg
-. -.
METHODS
FOR
PARTICLESIZE
For particles smaller than 3 microns, a random motion , known as Brownian mO\t:m~nt , abo bt!g1ru to occur. Its effect is superimpc.l.\ed upon the particle settling velocity. and for particles under 0. 1 micron, Brownian mo,,'ement becomes the dominant phenomenon. Since gas cleaning is never really
pursued to such levels. Brownian motion will not be discussed here.
ANALYSIS
1. The incoming particles bypass the cleaning element and enter the out
flowing clean gas stream. This is the most common problem.
2. The pressure differential becomes too high, leading to rupture or dislodgement of the cleaning element.
3. The cleaning element may become so impregnated that it interrupts
the flow completely.
Proper maintenance is therefore essential for these devices.
Some common gas cleaning methods, besides the gravity settling and cen
trifugal methods discussed earlier, are described below.
.b.~~L.'~i~ ""L.
"'--"""4
E.ECTIOMLIC.IIOSCO"~
4~M~---:.~n>M~
=t
1--..-.'"' . ".-. . .- - -
I - ~~ ~ ,,~,.,.,.~ - -
'1i~"u!ITY
.~
f.-....cu, C""NYU
......
EQUIPMENT
. _-- -
- ....
- --f----
IU .. MU
."._l..
u"c~o
.. rUJ.(.t..,,(U,
.. .... -
nOYM
'UI.UTgRS
"~v"l~S
~.HCTOItI
nTnlN~
I----<
-t."-,,,,lns
......
".1l~
. ,~
_~
{N ....U.
--- ----
--.,OUIO
'OC~fD
~_N
(fI:
"'C,"'CA. _
u.r~I.nNOC'
-.... . .. _--_.
----- -- --
o"".j TO l'U
CC"HII.C"o,10
OF
GAS'CLEANIN G
"'ClIOlcor,_
.".-,~
UIOIIHIO
TYPES
"
~ - It.. -1-...
~. -
ro-
.,
131
l"CI[M;O
, ...'t~1
I ',"CjU'OU'
I
'.'C'it
_ O (. . . .
. . . . . . TOIl1
~"C"""CI.~--I
r--<
~r
..
---.I
Agure 4-21. Gas cleaning methods and their range of application. (Data from C.
E. Lapple, 1984.)
ment methods of two basic types: wire mesh pad and vane-type mist extrac
tors.
A wire-mesh separator consists of a 4- 6 in. thick pad of fine wire (diameter of 0.003-0.011 in.) knitted into a mesh fabric with a high void volume
(97-99%). The pad is mounted in a horizontal position, with the vapor
flowing upwards. Liquid droplets impinge on the wire and collect and c0alesce with other droplets, until their size becomes large enough to drop
downwards through the void spaces. The droplets then cling to the bottom
of the wire-mesh by surface tension forces. Here they coalesce again to a
bigger size, until they become sufficiently large to overcome surface tension
132
=>
Non..
FlO ..
0..
'~
Ira,q'l
'"
,<I
'"
'"
133
and the force resulting from the upward flow of the gas. A flow velocity of
5-10 ftfsee provides maximum operation efficiency (Curry, 1981 ). A higher
rate would flood the pad and lead to re.entrainment of the liquid, whereas a
lower rate may permit the liquid to circumvent the pad and avoid impingement. A mist extractor should not be used where the gas has a high concentration of solids, since this may block the flow of gas and result in high pressure drops across the pad. For liquid droplets, wire-mesh pads are efficient,
can remove droplets down to 4 microns in size, and have a high handling
capacil}'The vane-type design uses an intricate array of metal plates, called vanes,
with liquid collection pockets. The vane-type mist extractor is mounted such
that the gas stream flows horizontally through the vanes. During this flow, a
change in direction is induced several times, resulting in a centrifugal action
that aids the primary impingement separation mechanism in removing the
finer liquid droplets entrained in the gas. The liquid droplets are forced into
the liquid collection pockets, out of the gas flow path. and drain out by
gravity. The pressure drop across a vane-type mist extractor is very small. it
can handle solids in the flowing gas stream. and can remove droplets down
to about 40 microns in size.
Another development of interest is the fiber mist eliminator. This uses a
packed bed of fibers between two concentric screens. Liquid mist collects on
the fiber surface as a film , which is moved horizontally by the gas, and
downwards by gravity, into the liquid collection area. Fiber mist collectors
offer extremely high collection efficiencies up to 99.98%, and can handle
mists smaller than 3 microns (Brink, 1963).
Botlln
Filters
",
'"
'"
'>I
1/'
Flgu,! 4-22. TypeS,OI impingement separators. (After Perry and Green (eds.),
ChemICal Engm86fs Handbook, 1984; courtesy of Mc-Graw Hill Book Co.)
A scrubber is defined as any equipment that uses a liquid to aid the removal of particles from a gas. It is similar to a separator, except that a scrubber is designed to separate only small volumes of gas and liquid, and it may
134
use some fluid such as oil to more effectively remove particles from the gas.
Unlike separators, surge capacity is neither necessary nor provided. A scrubber, although similar to a separator, must never be used for gas-liquid separation in the field, where even a reJatively dry gas well may produce some
liquid surge and lead to severe separation problems. They may, however, be
used as secondary separation devices.
The three types of scrubbers used in gas cleaning operations are: dry
scrubbers, oil-bath scrubbers. and cartridge-type scrubbers. Dry scrubbers
are similar to centrifuges. using centrifugal force to effect the separation of
solids and liquids from gas. Oil-hath scrubbers are extensively used. They
Flash Calcu1ations
Two-phase flash calculation techniques were described in Chapter 2. This
section describes some methods that can be used to accelerate convergence
to the correct resu1t. The nomenclature used here is the same as in Chapter
2. F moles of feed with a composition {z;} split into L moles of liqu.id with a
135
... n {.} and V moles of vapor with a composition {YIl For simplic-~~~
. are carn~
ity, it is assumed in the present discussion that flash calculatiOns
out on the basis of a unit mole of feed (F - 1). Thus,
F_I_L+V
and
Fz; - z; - LxI
+ VYI
13.
137
For CO 2 the K-value can be calculated from methane and ethane K-values as follows (CPSA, 1981):
1Ct.<>, -
(K c,
Kc,)"
The convergence pressure Pk. required for selecting the appropriate K-value
......-
.,--
12.00CI
r:-
-- .-
,'
~
,~
~ ....
1"
.
~'< ..
ll'
-- -- -Q
I I I '1 I
~
"
'""-"-- '"
Figure 4-23. Convergence pressure PIc of binary hydrocarbon mixtures. (From
PRESSURE. PSIA -
138
13.
PRESSURE, PSI... -
PRESSURE, PSI"'-
140
141
1-
PRESSURE, PSI" -
PRESSURE, PSI"Figure 4-28. Equilibrium ratio, K, for propylene for a convergence pressure 01
1,000 psia. (From Engineering Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
142
,.5;
-.
143
"1'"
,
~~
~.
~'"
'"'"
,,'
l~0::
I'..
II
K-'
I.
f-C
,p..,
N.
IS;
""-
It"
1IIc
r',
..
"
."
,
.
.
......
,,
PRESSURE, PSIA-
;:
PRESSURE, PSIA -
,:
,@
.,
144
, ,
,-PSl~ - :
,-
145
~W
,
I - .
Ij I'
1,
~~
llif".,;
~ ::--;'-,l'>'l":---- ~
,
,
'~.'
I;
;:::
_I
f'.,
lb N.
"I,, "
t/
,
,
I"
"t
I"
. It---:
+r-
l!.~i+
III,', '
"
'i l,"
..
hi
PRESSURE, PSI A -
--
Figure 4,- 31, Equilibri~m ratio, K, for Ipentane for a convergence pressure of
1,000 pSla, (From Engm98ring Data Book, 1981 ; courtesy of GPSA.)
,,'
.. -..
i~
_I~~:.
PRESSURE, PS tA -
146
'[
PRESSURE, PSIA -
147
..
PRESSURE, PSIA-
148
149
- 0<, 1 , , ( . "....... ,
... -'-
..
"-S._.... ""'_"--
-.,,,, ,,,,,,,
-~.-
..._........
- ....." 'A_'
.... -_"-_c-""'.
PRESSURE, PSIA -
PRESSURE. PSIA
Figure 436. Equilibrium ralio, K, for hydrogen sulfide for a convergence pressure of 1,000 psia. (From Engineering Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
150
151
152
153
PSI' _
_ I
tmt
..
K '11
I~,
" .
,,,.
II
II
PRESSURE, PSIA _
PRESSURE, PSI"'-
'5<
155
PRESSURE. PSIA-
PRESSURE, PSIA-
156
157
PRESSURE, PSI"Figure 4-44. Equilibrium ratio, K, for n-pentane for a convergence pressure of
3,000 psia. (From Engineering Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
158
159
PRESSURE, PSIA -
PRESSURE, PSI"
160
161
PRESSURE. PSI"
Figure 4-47. Equilibrium ratio, K, for octane for a convergence pressure of
3,000 psia. (From Engin99ring Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
162
163
Figure 4-50. Equilibrium ratio, K, for hydrogen sulfide for a convergence pressure of 3,000 psia. (From Engineering Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
164
165
This method is similar to the simple trial and error scheme just outlined.
The only difference is in assuming a new value at the end of an unconverged
lrial (Lockhart et aI., 1986),
LockhartMcHmry Method
Lockhart and McHenry (1958) proposed a method that reduces the number of trials required for flash-equilibrium calculations for multicomponent
mixtures significantly. In this method, a multicomponent mixture is treated
as a pseudo-binary mixture with a "'light' component, and a "heavy" component. Components with a K value greater than 1.0 are grouped into the
light component, and those with a K value less than 1.0 are grouped into the
heavy component.
Consider I mole of a multicomponent feed with a mole-fraction Zj of the
light components, and zt, of the heavy components. The total number of
components in the mixture is n. with n1 number of light components and nh
heavy components. In this technique, a parameter v is defined as follows:
V - z,/(1 - Kh) - z,,/(K,.- I)
(V'L)" - (VIL),
This procedure is repeated till convergence is reached. After one or two
iterations, it becomes quite obvious whether the system is predominantly
gaseo~ (V < 0.5), or liquid (V > 0.5). For a predominantly gaseous system,
Equatton 2.-16 is used to calculate V, and L is obtained by difference
whereas if the system is predominantly liquid, Equation 2-17 is used and
is obtained by difference. The use of either Equation 2-16 or 2-17 is entirely
analogous; the only difference is in the accuracy of the results.
.Lockhart (1983) has made an important observation regarding the use of
tlus method: the value of the calculated L, as compared with the assumed
L. gives the direction of the correct L. Thus, if at an assumed value of Ltv
of 0.5 the calculated (Ltv)c < 0.5, then the correct UV will be less than (LI
V)c' H the calculated (LlV)~ > 0.5, then the correct LlV will be greater than
(L/V)c' Of course, if the calculated (UV)" '"' 0.5 exactly for an assumed L/V
of 0.5. then convergence has been reached.
where Kh and Ktdenote the K4 values for the heavy and light components.
respectively, in the binary mixture. The K parameter is defined as follows:
V
K -
K* _
Ez,
E(z,/K,)
EZi
_ I for (V) ...uml- 0.5
E[z,/(K, + I)l
(V)~",,", - 0.5 to 1
166
KO -
L,V
(E7;!!:VyJ - 1
-."..
167
4. A 20 ft x 10 ft 1,000 psi
w.P.
(a) Determine the ID of the spherical separator required to accommodate the liquid and gas, assuming a retention time of 5 min.
(b) How much more gas can be flowed through the separator without
worrying about the gas capacity?
7. A 1.25 gravity gas condensate stream at 1,200 psia and 110F is to be
separated into oil and gas using a three-stage separation.
(a) Assuming that the mole % C) + C 2 + C 3 in the gas is 80%, what is
the optimum second-stage pressure?
(b) Choose and design the appropriate separators for each of these
three stages.
8. Describe the applicability of the various gas cleaning methods in natural gas production and processing.
(a) the gas flow rate exceeds the allowable rate through the separator?
(b) the liquid flow rate exceeds the allowable rate through the separator?
(c) mist extractor becomes plugged?
(d) the wellstream produces slugs of liquid (oil and water) into the
separator?
References
Beggs, H. D., 1984. Gas Production OperatiQ1ls. Oil & Gas Consultants International, Inc .. Tulsa, Oklahoma, 287pp.
Brink. J. A., Jr., 1963. "Air Pollution Control with Fibre Mist Eliminators,"
Cdn. J. Chem. Eng., 41(3, June). 134-138.
Campbell. J. M., 1955. "Know Your Separators," O. & Gas J., 53(45, Mar.
14),107-111.
168
Introduction
Water vapor is the most common undesirable impurity found in natural
gas. By virtue of its source. natural gas is almost always associated wit~ water, usually in the range of 400-500 Ib water vapor/MMscf gas. The pmoary
reason for the removal of water from gas is the problem of gas hydrate formation. Liquid water with natural gas may form solid, ice-like hydrates
that plug flowlines and lead to severe operational probl:ms. Oth~r reaso~
for removing water are: (I) liquid water promotes corrOSiOn, .pa~hc~larly In
the presence of H2S and CO 2; (2) slugging flow may result If liqUid water
condenses in the flowlines; and (3) water vapor reduces the heating value of
the gas. For these reasons, pipeline specifications for natural gas restrict the
water content to a vaiue not greater than 6-8 Ibm/MMscf.
Because most gas sweetening processes involve the use of an aqueous sol.ution, dehydration is often done after desulfurization. Nevertheless, part~al
dehydration. or hydrate inhibition. are commonly necessary at the wellstte
itself.
169
170
3. Salt content of the free water in equilibrium with the natural gal> in
the reservoir-water content decreases with increasing ~alt content of
the associated reservoir water.
4. Cas composition - higher gravity gases usually have less water.
The terms dete point and deu.:-point depression are wideh- used in deh\"dratian terminology. Dew point indirectly indicates the water content oc" a
natural gas, and is defined as the temperature at which the gas is saturated
with water vapor at a gin'n p~ure. The difference between the dew-point
temperature of a gas-stream-betore-and--after-dehydration i.Halled: the dewpoint depression Consider a gas saturated with water at 500 psia and
lDO'-F. It~ dew point is 100 F. and its water content i.~ approximately 100
Ibm MMscf gas. The gas is to be transported in a pipeline at 60' F. Under
~ipeline conditions of 500 psia and 60F, the water vapor content of the gas
IS only about 30 Ibm/MMscf. Thus, 70 Ib water per MMscf of gas exist as
free water in the pipeline. If the dew point of the inlet gas to the pipeline i~
reduced to 60 F, no free water will exist in the pipeline at the pipeline flo\-\
condjti~ns. In other words, the dehrdration facility should give a dew point
depressIon of 100 - 60 = 40F. In practice, although a dew point depression of 40 F is just suffiCient, a 50F dew point deprasion may be desirable
for operational safety.
T~le methods a\-aHable for calculating the water content of natural gases
faUlIlto three categories: (1 ) partial pressure approach, valid up to about 60
psia (gases exhibit almost ideal behavior up to 60 psia in most cases): (2)
empirical plots; and (3) equations of state.
Partial Pressure Approach
Assuming ideal gas and ideal mixture beha\-ior. the partial pressure of water in the gas is gi\'-en by p.. - Ph. and also by po.. _ p,X". Thus.
Ph - p..x"
where
(5-1 )
mole fraction of water in the aqueous (liquid water) phase associated with the gas phase under equilibrium conditions
Since water is almost immiscible in the liquid phase with oil K is usuallv
assumed to be equal to unity. Thus, the water mole fraction i~ the gas,
can be calculated as:
y:,
y", - p-Jp
171
(5-2)
This simple approach has limited applicability at the pressure and temperature of interest in most natural gas production, processing and transport
systems.
Empirical Plots
For engineering calcuJations. empirical plots are widely used. ~umerous
Investigations- ha\"e' resulted in several plots. such as- by McCarthy et al.
(1950), McKetta and Wehe (1958). the Gas Processors Suppliers Association
(GPSA), Campbell (l984a), Robinson et al. (1978), and others. Since. the
real danger in design is to underestimate the water content. all correlations
assume the gas to be completely saturated with water, and most correlations
are designed to slightly overestimate the water content. Nitrogen hold~
about 6-9% less water than methane (CampbelL 1984a). Therefore. nitrogen is frequently included as a hydrocarbon, providing a small safety factor.
McKetta and Wehe COfTf'intiofi for Sweet Case,
The McKetta and Wehe correlation (1958), shown in Figure 5-1, includes
correction factors for gas gravity and formation water salinity. It gives acceptable results for sweet gases.
Robifl1lOn et aI. COfTf'lotwn for Sour Case.
The Robinson et aI. (1978) correlation for sour gases. shown in Figures
5-2 and 5-3, is based upon the SRK (Soave-Redlich-Kwong) equation of
state. The hydrocarbon portion of the gas is assumed to be pure methane.
Robinson et at. found that CO 2 carries orny about 75 % as much water as
H.,s under the same conditions. To reduce the number of \ariables and
th~reby simplify the graphical representation of the correlation, Robinson et
aI. assumed that this condition was true throughout. Therefore, to use this
correlation, one has to multiply the % CO 2 in the gas by 0.75, and add it to
the % H 2S in the gas to get the effective HzS content.
Campbell's Correintion for Sweet afld Sour Cases
172
CIlS- Water
173
_,....,of_ ...
__ H .... H
,,
I
_.
'll"- ,..,
aa; ~..
i
~" -
...
,1
..
I,
-"-i
s
e,
-..
... ....,......
Wilt" e...''''' .1
o
o
_.
_
----_---_
------'..........-
o
o
...
Figure 51. The McKetta-Wehe correlation for waler content of natural gases,
with corrections tor waler salinity and gas gravity, (After McKatta and Wehe,
1958; reprinted from Engineering Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
100"1. IKo
'0".4 CM..
lO1. M~~04
3D"/. ~,s. lD"Xo CM..
It"/. M~.
0 4O"fo-.s.."'-010
I.
Figure 5-2. Robinson at at correlation tor. water content of sour gases In ~he
300-2,001) psia pressure range. (After Robinson at aI., 1978; courtesy of 0;1 &
Gas Journal.)
174
175
To correct for large acid gas (H2.S and CO 2 ) contents, Campbell (l984a)
proposes a weighted 8\'erage water content, \V, for the gas as follows:
(5-3)
where
respecth-ely
Wottr content"
natural gos mixturel
Exam"le 51. Find the water content of a 0.75 gravity gas at 1,500 psia
and 120F.
o l00"t.o-
O ~1,I.6I'1tx.
I.
T..,.,...",.. -f.
Figure 53. Robinson at al. correlation for water content of sour gases in the
3,000-6,000 pSla pressure range, and at 10,000 psia. (After Robinson at aI.,
1978; courtesy of Off & Gas Joumal.)
Solution
From the McKctta and Wehe (:orreiation (Figure 5-1), W = 781b H 201
MMscl gas.
Correcting for the gas gravity, the water content, W - (0.99)(78) 77.2 Ib H 20/MMscf gas.
Using Campbell's correlation (Figure 5-4), W - 77 Ib H 2 0fMMscf gas.
Thus, the two methods gi\'e very close resu1ts for most practical purposes.
176
177
Solutim)
1.
\'H{:'"
0.89
YHzS - 0.085
,.
67 Ib H20~1Mscf CO 2
+ (0.025)(67) + (0.085)(150)
"00
1 1000
!
"
; "'"
.l
! "
;- "
30
Figure 54. Campbell's correlation lor waler content of sweet gases. (After
Campbell, 1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
E%ampl~ 5-2. Find the water content of a gas at 1,000 psia and lOOF
using (1) Campbelrs methcxl and (2) Robinson et a1. method. The gas composition is as follows: CH 4 - 80.0%, C 2H 6 - 5.0%, C3HS - 1.5%, fIC~HIO - 0.5%, CO 2 - 2.5%, Nt - 2.0%, and H2S - 8.5%.
'00
200
1000
.........., pd.
~ooo
3000
178
G~
Productiorl Enginring
'0000
y. _ I,ll _ (1.11.)(1. I)
.. lill
~ '000
In practice, the fugacity f used is for the gas stream u;ithoul water vapor
in it. Thus, Equation 5-4 is modified in different ways to account for the
discrepancy. In general. the fugacity coefficients for water at its vapor pressure (t',) and at the system pressure and temperature (Y ..-), and for the gas at
the system conditions (y) are calculated using any equation of state (see
Chapter 3 for further details). The mole fraction of water in the gas (in the
vapor phase), y", at equilibrium conditions can then be calculated as:
sao
,"
8
,
"
::
(5-\)
-i
179
(5-5)
100
where
"
>0,
lOOO
Figure 5-6. Water content 01 H~ in saturated natural gas mixtures. Note: Solid
curved Imes ar.e lor pure H2 S only. (After Campbell, 1984a; courtesy of Campbell
Petroleum Series.)
IV - 0.175 bbl'MMrl
- (0.175 bbl!MMrl)(62.4 Ibflt')(5.6146 1t'lbbl)
= 61.3 Ib H2 01 MMscf gas
Equations of State
Equati~n of state met~ods are rigorous, but difficult and expensive to im.
rlement smce they reqUire the use of a computer. Referring to the vapor.
One such method has been de\-eloped by Sharma and Campbell (1984)
for predicting the water content of sweet as well as sour gases based upon
the EMR mixture combination rules. It has proved to be accurate and reliable (Campbell, 1984a). In this method, first the EMR critical pressure,
critical temperature. and Z factor are determined using the Mcleod and
Campbell method discussed in Chapter 3. Thereafter, the pnx:edure is as
follows:
1. Find the value of the parameter k from Figure 5-7.
Alternatively, k can be calculated using the following equation:
k - (fJI.)(plp.)"""
(5-6)
1'"
181
'I..............
(s- 7)
2. Find the water fugacity coefficient, if",. from the generalized fugacity
coefficient chart shown in Figure 5-8. Note that since i'", represents
the pure component fugacity for water, the criticaJ pre'iSure and temperature for water only are applicable.
3. Using Figure 5-8 and the critical pressure and temperature for the gas
determined from the E~1R method, find the fugacity coefficient "t for
the gas mhture (without water as a comiXlnent) at :oy:.tem p~ure p
and temperature T.
10
0., . . ._
0.0)
0.01
0.00'''.
.,.
0.001
.'
Figure 5-8. Generalized fugacity coefficient chart. (Alter Edmister and Lee,
1984, from data by A. F. Curl, Jr., and K. S. Pitzer, 1958, Ind. and Engr. Chem.,
Feb. 2.)
O.ooos
4. Calculate the mole fraction of water in the gas (in the vapor phase),
Yw, as follows:
0.0001
200
...
lOOO
''''
"0
Figure 5-7. Constant k as a lunction of pressure and temperature. (After Campbell, 1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
(5-8)
182
Ga& Production
n~ineerlng
Example 5-3. Repeat Example 5-2 using the Sharma and Campbell
method.
183
From Figure 5-8, 't ... - (f.'p)", - 0.535 on extrapolation of the T, lines to
T," 0.5.
Solution
Comp.
y,
y,.
EMR
0.8602
0.0269
0.0914
0.0215
13.984
15.750
19.828
N~
0.800
0.025
0.085
0.020
\'1 -
0.930
C,
C,
0.050
0.015
23.913
34.316
n-C 4
0.005
0.7143
0.2143
0.0714
Y, -
0.070
C,
CO,
H,S
9.40i
For the gas (without water), "t - 0.S15 from Figure 5-S for a Pp. - 1.195
andT p,-1.249
Using Equation 5-8. the mole fraction of water is equal to:
44.243
EO
EMR~
So, (T"p,)
~ (0.93)(0.51)
+ (0.07)(0.88) - 0.5359
~s
(Tr1p~
+ (0.07)(27.59) 15.388
5) .. 15.5
184
Hydrate Formulas
:G
Two types of crystalline structures have been pro~ for gas hydrates.
Smaller molecules, such as methane, ethane, and hydrogen suJfide, form a
body-centered cubic lattice. called Structure I. Structure II is a diamond lattice, formed by larger molecules, such as propane and isobutane. Cas mixtures (orm both Structure I and II type hydrates.
The number of water molecules associated with each molecule of the gaseous component included in the hydrate is known as the hydrate nllmber.
Since different number of guest molecules can enter the water lattice and
stabilize it into a hydrate. no specific hydrate number can be given for tt
particular hydrate. The limiting hydrate number. a theoretical quantity determined using the size of the gas molecules and the size of the voids in the
water lattice. serves as a useful parameter, although hydrate structures are
stable at less than 100% occupancy of the voids. For molecules in Structure
I. the limiting hydrate number is 5.75 for the smallest gases (CII I ). and
7.667 for medium sized gases (CZH6). For the largest molecuJes associated
with Structure II, the limiting hydrate number is 17 (CPSA, 1981). Calloway et al. (1970) report experimental values for methane in the range of 5.8
to B.3, and for ethane from 7.9 to 8.5. Thus, hydrate molecules can typically be represented as:
Methane:
Ethane:
Propane:
lsobutane:
CH 4 BH2 0
C,H,. BH,O
C,H,. 17H,O
Nitrogen:
Carbon dioxide:
Hydrogen sulfide:
N2 . BH.O
CO,.6H,O
H 2S. BHzO
,
I
KYOR0CI0R90H
V~POR PftESSORE
CURVE---...........
~
"
HYQRUE
'"
HYO:.l.n
LIQlIlD
HYOIIQC4RSQ
I
I
IF _ _ -
- -r HYDIU.T(
llQlIlD
NTtl-ROCloIIe
""... TER
185
WUER
__
-
IHI'~~S
I.
I
w... t R
,,
HYQfl~T[
CliRVE
I
I
I
,
I,
,
HYDIIOtJ,lIeOH
V... POR
L.- W~lEII
HlDIIOCAR80N
VAPOR
'"
,
I
FREEZING
POINl ClIIIV(
"
lZ"F
2. Above the vapor pressure cun'e HFCI. the hydrocarbon exists in the
liquid state.
3. Towards the left of the line EBFC, water exists in the solid form as ice.
On the right of EBFC. water will be in the liquid state. In practice.
the region towards the left of the line EBFC wiJI hard1y ever be encountered. except perhaps in extremely cold areas.
Note that in Figure 5-9. the hydrate cur ....e becomes ....ertical at the point
where it intersects the hydrocarbon ,apor pressure curve. This intersection,
C, therefore represents the maximum hydrate forming temperature.
Conditions Promoting Hydrate formation
For a gas to be a hydrate former, it must satisfy two criteria: (I) it should
be of the covalent bond type, with molecules smaller than 8 A0 units; and
(2) the gas, when in the liquid state, must be immiscible with watcr. The gas
hrdrate that is formed will be stable if the hydrate is water resistant and no
Van der Waals' forces arise between the hydrate molecules. If these conditions are met stable hvdrate formation is possible under certain conditions
governed by 'the hydr~te phase equilibrium behavior. In natural gas systems, the gases mentioned earlier as being hydrate formers, satisfy these cri-
186
187
teria. The primary conditions necessary for a natural gas to form stable hydrates can be summarized as follows:
1. Natural gas at or below the dew point with liquid water present. ro..'o
hydrate formation is possible if "Cree" water is not present.
2. Low temperatures. at or belO\\ the hydrate formation temperature for
a gh'en pressure and gas com}X)Sition.
3. Hi~h operating pressures, that may raise the hydrate formation temperature to the operatin~ temperature.
Secondar~
2000
10
7.0
1000
1981),
I High ,e\ocities, or agitation. or pressure pulsations.
2. Presence of a small "seed" crystal of hydrate.
3. Presence of H 2S and CO 2 aids hydrate formation because both these
acid gases are more soluble in water than the hydrocarbons.
20
JOOO
-:;;
5._
~OO
3.0
2.0
7110
;300
1.0
o. ,
0.5
"
0.3
30
0.2
20
O. !
ID!,-__~__""'__""'__""'__:::-__~"
~
Tf"iPtnture,
ro
00
90
Figure 5-10, Hydrate forming conditions lor natural gas components. (After
Campbell, 1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
As a first approximation. the data presented in the Cas Proce;,SOf<> Suppliers Association (cPSA) charts shown in Figures 5-11 through 5-16 can be
used. These charts do not account for the presence of H 2S and CO 2,
Hydrate formation can be divided into two categories (Ikoku, 1984): (1)
hydrate formation due to a decrease in temperature (or increase in pressure)
with no sudden expansion (or compression), such as in flow strings and surface lines: and (2) hydrate formation due to sudden expansion, Stich as in
flow-provers, orifices, chokes, and back-pressure regulators (sometimes bot.
tom-hole chokes, BHe. are used to avoid sudden expansion, and consequently, avoid hydrate formation). For hydrate formation of type I, Figure
5-11 can be used for predicting the approximate pressure-temperature con-
ditions for hvdratc formation. Figures 5-12 to 5-16 are used for estimating
hydrate fon~ation conditions for situations of type 2. In particwar, Figures
5-12 to 5-16 are used for determininK the permissible expansion. ,vithout hydrate formation, of a gas with a given gravity.
Example 5-4. A 0.685 gravity gas i.~ at 500 psia and l(x)F. To what value
can the temperature be reduced without hydrate formation?
Solution
From Figure 5-11, hydrates will form at or below a temperature of 54E
188
Erampk 55. How far can the pressure be lowered without expecting hydrate formation for a 0.685 gravity gas if it is initially at (a) 1,500 psia and
100' F, and (b) 1,000 psia and 100F.
INITIAL
TfM1fUTUU. OF
1/
4000
,
~
1//1/ '/ /
~V:b'/
2000
~/.f
Q. r!l
f1
~ 1000
'"
'~me.
Solution
(a) From Figure 5-12 for a 0.6 gravity gas. the intersection of the 1.500
psia initial pressure line with the 100F irtitial temperature CUT\-',
gives a final pressure of 490 psia. Similarly. from Figure 5-13 for
a 0.7 gru\'ity gas, the final pressure is equal to 800 f6ia. By interpolation, the 0.685 gravity gas can be expanded without hydrate forma.
tion to a pressure - 490 + (800 - 490)(0.685 - 0.6)/(0.7 - 0.6)
753.5 psia.
,
]
The lOO"F initial temperature curve does not intersect the 1,000 psia
initial pressure line for a 0.6 gravity as well as a 0.7 gravity gas.
6000
4 000
/
/
t
<
150
ff
.,
////
Katz et aL ,\(ethod
00"
Y>
JOO
",l7// t?'
40
rP' 0/'
ee
4
""'f---/r-:-'+--+++++1+tt---t-t- ~
co
1--....
~
< zoe 1-,(
r.~
00
Te"'P"',ahJ,.,
]I)
~-=-,.,
00
The Katz et a1. (1959) method is based upon the principle that the gases
entrapped in a natural gas hydrate resemble solid solutions, because on release during the decomposition of the hydrates, they increase in density. It
uses vapor-solid equilibrium ratios, K,~, first proposed by Carson and Katz
(1942),
Figure 5-11. Pressure-temperature curves for approximate prediction of hydrate formation for natural gases. (From Engineering Data Book, 1981 ; courtesy
of GPSA.)
K .. - yfx.
(5-9)
'90
~ NlTLAl
I
f II.
Efro'o'UAtUtf
j ; ,/,
./
~
!
;;i
';'l'/
..... j
,,/
Z/
?7
V"
,_."
i~-
""-
From this deinition of K,,, it is clear that K" is equal to (XI for gases that are
non-hydrate formers. Thus. for hydrocarbons heavier than butane, K" is
CD. The original method assumes that nitrogen is a non-hydrate former. and
that n-butane, if present in mole fractions less than 5%, has the same K,
value as ethane. Theoretically. this is incorrect, but from an applications
standpoint, e\-'cn using a K,~ equal to 00 for both nitrogen and n-butane
gives acceptable results (Campbell, 1984a).
K" values for components in a gas can be found from Figures 5-17
through 522. Hydrates will form when the foUowing equation is satisfied:
(y K, ...:) - 1.0
V/ / v,/
Er~ I
/1/
,//,V
!
i
--II
:;0:
'/
~///
'/
,,
'9'
r.'
.:.
.-.........,-
1!oOO 2ODO
3OilO
This method accounts for H2S and CO 2 and has proved to be very reliable up to about 1,000 psia. A gas with an H ~S content greater tha!l 20%
can be considered to behave like pure HzS regarding hydrate forming characteristics. To account for gases that contain large amounts of nitrogen,
Heinze (1971) gave the following relationship, valid up to a pressure of
about 5,800 psia:
E" (y,K~)
T
,' ,-~I:cc=
h" - 0.445
(5-10)
00
(5-11)
'92
--
INITIAl
TEMf'flAMf
"
H!\-1
-~
.,
.,,
."
,,
,,
Y.%
I---
Ii:'/
n-C~
H,S
N,
1500
8(X)
101
IlCX)
f.:"
l~
11'1.,/
2000 JIXD
'.001_.-
At 55F
-.iL
K'~i
y;lK':>I
lI/K,,,,
0.800
0.050
0.DJ5
0.005
0.025
0.065
0.020
1.69
1.23
0.24
0.4734
0.0407
0.0625
0.0
0.0
0.3038
0.0
0.8801
1.61
0.79
0.106
0.4969
0.0633
0.1415
0.0
0.0094
0.4048
0.0
1>;'- V
0.28
,,'
,,
to',.,
At 60F
CO,
IJ
-l-'
Examplr 5-6. The gas given in Example 5-2 is at 500 psia. At what temperature will hydrates form?
Solution
C,
C,
C,
~.,
' ,
, ,
Hf
Coml2'
V
/
,
,
:::--:
!::
~
I
-\iii
,
I
193
2.65
0.21
~
l.J 159
Trekell and Campbell (1966) provide corrections to the Katz et a1. method
to extend its applicability to higher pressures and account for the negative
effect of the presence of non-hydrate forming molecules that are too large to
fit into the voids in the water lattice. The Trekell-Campbell method uses
(text continued on page 197)
19<
GIld
Dehydration Processing
195
Figure 517. Vapor-solid equilibrium constants for methane_ (After Carson and
Katz, 1942; reprinted from Engineering Data Book, 1981 ; courtesy of GPSA.)
,-_....
Figure 5-18. Vapor-solid equilibrium constants for ethane. (After Carson and
Katz, 1942; reprinted from Engineering Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
Figure 5-19. Vapor-SOlid equilibrium constants lor propane. (After Carson and
Katz, 1942; reprinted from Engineering Data Book, 1981 ; courtesy of GPSA.)
...
'97
"
08
"o
t#+
,0,0/rc
OJ
./
",}
02
l".l
,O~
,0
'I>
,0-
0'
oce
008
00-
,01
"
,.,.
,.,.
A"~.. : . .
"
"
TEMPERATURE of
,
, ,
,
, , , , ,,
, , ,
,, , , ,, , , , ,
,
"
,.'
,0
.0
8P7,091\
, ,
;::::
::::- v. ; /
,
"
,00
oJ
"
, , , ,
, , , ,
,,
' ,
, ,
,
'
,
, , ' ,,
~
'"
80
~
-'L1:co
'3 0
"
Figure 5-20. vapor-solid equilibrium constants for iso-butane. (From EngineerIng Data Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
J0
iI
10
80
Tempera"". , Of
Figure 5-22. Vapor-solid equilibrium constants for H2S. (From Engineering Data
Book, 1981; courtesy of GPSA.)
./ol,lbetu.
.,
",
methane as the reference gas. The additive effect of other hydrate forming
gases, Cz, ell n-C., iC~, and H~, at different pressures is determined from
Figures 5-23 to 528. CO i is ignored. Non-hydrate formers are grouped together into the pentanes plus (C 3 +) group, and their hydrate depression effect is determined from Figures 5-29 and 5-30 as a function of the mole%
pentanes plus, and the mole % pentanes plus on the basis of the gas fractions
from 4 to C~. This latter parameter can be written as:
I I
YC3t
(100 %)
l-Yc\- Yc 3+
, , ,
I~
60
where YCI' YC3+ - mole fractions of methane and pentanes plus, re;pectively. in the gas.
Figures 5-23 to 5-28 indicate the hydrate forming temperature for methane at various pressures. To find the hydrate forming temperature at any
pressure, the appropriate chart is used to read off the temperature displacement for the gas components as a function of their mole% in the gas. These
temperature displacements are added to the methane-hydrate-forming temperature. U any pentanes plus are present, their effect (negative) is also
added. The sum then gives the hydrate forming temperature at the pressure
of interest. These calculations may be repeated for several pressures to obtain the hydrate curve for the gas.
(tnt continued
OIl
page 204)
19.
199
,
KYDltATE i'UOICrtOti CKAl.T VOl 6.9 I'!P. {lOOO pd_]
Figure 5-23. Trekell-Campbell temperature displacement chart for hydrate formers al 1,000 pSia. (After Trakell and Campbell, 1966; reprinted Irom Campbell,
1964a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
:K)
II
12
l)
p.tO!
Figure 5. 24 . Trekell-Campbelltemperature displacement chari for hydrate formers at 2,000 psia. (After Trekell and Campbell, 1966; reprinted from Campbell,
1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
200
201
'0
HYDRATE I'UDlCTlOJ( CHAJ.T rOIl 20.1 M" [lOOO poh]
Figure 5~2S. Trekell-Campbetltemperature displacement chart for hydrate formers at 3,000 psia. (After Trekell and Campbell, 1966; reprinted from Campbell,
1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
,01.
Figure 5-26. Trekell-Campbelltemperature displacement chart for hydrate formers at 4,000 psia. (After Trekell and Campbell, 1966; reprinted from Campbell,
1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
202
TDtNU.nru DlSP1.o\C!HZIIT.o. T
2,
203
"c
o.
o.
Figure 5-27. Tr~kell-Campbell temperature displacement chari for hydrate formars 815,000 pS18. (After Trekell and Campbell, 1966; reprinted from Campbell,
1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
roa
41.4",_ [6000
p"al
Figure 5-28 . Trekell-Campbelltemperalure displacement ?hart for hydrate formers al 6,000 psia. (After Treke!! and Campbell. 1966; reprinted from Campbell,
1984a; courtesy of Campbell Petro/eum Series.)
204
205
,,
of 1.000-6,000 psia.
)',~.(1 00.J
Exampk 5-7. For the gas with composition given below, nnd the hydrate
formation temperature corresponding to a pressure of 6,000 psia.
I-)"L-)'C~'
Soilltion
Comp.
-1L
C,
C,
C,
n_C.
0.810
0.050
0.025
0.Ql5
0.010
0.015
0.025
0.050
1.000
iC~
C"
CO,
H,S
.c:1T. of
75.60
0.75
4.1
0.25
1.9
-1.17
0.0
0.0
81.43
In this table, the aT values for CI. C 2, C 3, n-C. and i-C~ are obtained from
Figure 5-28. Note that H~ has a negligible effect on the hydrate fo rmation
temperature at high pressures and is therefore not reported in Figure 5-28.
The value of ()'e,.)(IOO%) / (1 - Ye, - Ye,,) - (0.015)(100) /(1 _
0.810 - 0.015) - 8.57
In Figure 5-30, interpolation is made between the 8.0 and 9.5 lines to get
aT - - 1.17 corresponding to C 5 .. - 1.5%. Thus, the hydrate forming
temperature corresponding to a 6,000 psia pressure is 81.43, or B1.4F.
.,
'l--~
,
,,
Table 5-1
For gases alxwe 6,000 psia, the Trekell-CampbeJl approach is not quite
valid. For the 6,000-10,000 psia pressure range, McLeod and Campbell
(1961) propose the following relationship:
(5-12)
where Th - hydrate forming temperature, DR
The KJ values are as shown in Table 5-1. The mole fractions of the components, Yr. are normaJized to the C 1 to C~ content. All other components in
the gas are ignored. The method, therefore, has limited applicability.
Formation '
K. VIIlues
Pressure
MP,
41.4
0000
".3
7000
55.2
0000
62_1
9000
!O 000
00.0
C,
Psi.
"933
"096
19246
19367
19489
""
C,
20806
20 848
20 932
"094
21 105
0,
28
28
28
29
29
38'
700
784
182
200
'-e,
'" 696
n-C.
17 340
30 913
17 358
'" 935
17868
17868
31 109
30 935
17 491
206
207
(~),OC
I'DIP'U.\'IIIJ.! DUP'UoCEHEH'I
0.)
Solutio"
YC5{lOClSj
Compo
C,
C,
C,
n-C 4
i-C 4
C,.
CO,
H,S
---'0.810
0.050
0.025
0.015
0.010
0.015
0.025
0.050
-v,
0.8901
0.0549
0.0275
0.0165
0.0110
"
1 - YCl - YC5.
K,
"
18,933
20,806
28,382
17.340
30,696
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
iS I.'
'.0
'.0
E
Using Equation 5-12.
1.0
Several complex computer solution methods have been developed for predicting hydrate (orming conditions. Most equation of state methods are
based upon the Van der Waals and Platteeuw (1959) statistical thermody_
namic equation for the chemical potential of water in the h}'drate lattice.
The different methods essentially use different intermolecular potential
functions. Van der Waals and Platteeuw (1959) used the Lennard-Jones 12-6
potential. Nagata and Kobayashi (1966) used the Kihara potential that they
showed to be better than the Lennard-Jones model. Parrish and Prausnitz
(1972) expanded the concept of fitting hydrate parameters to develop a generalized method for predicting hydrate dissociation pressures for gas mixtures, using the Van der Waals and Platteeuw (1959) equation and the Kihara spherical core model. Ng and Robinson (1976) have added. another
adjustable parameter to the Parrish and Prausnitz (1972) algorithm to improve prediction of the dissociation pressures for multicomponent gases.
Holder and Hand (1982) presented a modified form of the Parrish and
Prausnitz (1972) model.
'.0
1.0
0.1
0.'
o.~
t.O
I.S
1.0
.,
208
Gt Prodlll:t/on Engineering
absorption dehydration using a liquid dessicant. adsorption dehydration using a solid dessicant, and ~imultaneous dehydration and gas-liquid separation by expansion dehydration.
At the wellsite. two techniques are applicable: (1) heating the gas stream
so that it becomes undersaturated, and maintaining flowlines and equipment at temperatures above the hydrate point; and (2) in cases where liquid
water is present and the flowlines and equipment cannot be maintained
above hydrate temperatures. inhibiting hydrate formation by injecting ad.
dith'es that depress both hydrate and freezing temperatures. This latter
technique is discussed in the following section. Note that in practice. hydrates are a problem only when allowed to accumulate and grow to a size
that restricts or stops the flow. Otherwise, they are of no consequence.
209
manifold to maintain equal pressure across the chemical and to regulate its
entry into the flowing gas stream. This resulted in a generally sporadic injection and poor inhibitor dispersion, leading to freeze..offs (hydrates formation) during the operations.
To counter these problems, newer systems that feed the additive at a uniform rate into the gas stream. such as the pneumatically powered chemical
injection pumps, have been designed. Continuous injection is also desirable
from the standpoint of field personnel who can then operate on a regular
basis. Further. precise chemical requirements can be predicted and bulk
purchases made at possibly lower costs.
The injection pump is usually of the positive-displacement type, so that it
pumps a constant amount of chemical into the gas stream, regardless of the
pressure of the gas against which it must inject the chemical. Since positive
displacement pumps do not sense any buildup of discharge pressure, a rupture disc is put at the discharge end of the pump. Any brass or copper components in the pump should be avoided, since these metals are subject to
severe physical breakdown in the presence of sour gases. The pump injects
chemical downward into the running end of a vertically installed tee of a
size about one inch. The tee functions as a sort of mixing valve. Metering
devices are installed to permit chemical injection at a proportional-ta-flow
rate, eliminating frequent manual adjustment. As a precautionary measure
in field operations, all valves and accumulator systems where free water
may accumulate are precharged with methanol to prevent hydrate formation.
Prediction of Inhibitor Requirements
The weight percent inhibitor concentration in the aqueous phase, w, reo
quired to lower the gas hydrate freezing point by dOF. is given by Hammerschmidt's equation:
w _ ",(
~;::M!-,-)(l:;coo:;t-)
K+dM
(5-13)
d _ =;;:,-;-v.::K-,;"
100M - wM
(5-14)
210
Typically, Equation 5-13 would predict injection requirements of 2-3 gallons of methanol per MMscf of gas. In practice, only about 1 to 1.25 gallons
per M\1scf may be required in most cases. Thus, Equation 5-13 is designed
to overpredict chemical requirements so as to yield "safe" numbers. Consequently, the process of inhibition is really quite economical if the minimum
re<luired amount of chemical is injected.. This is usually determined in field
operations by reducing chemical amounts to a point where hydrate fo rmation (freeze-off) begins to occur, and then keeping chemical injection just
s1illhtly above this rate. \.inst predictive techniques arE' no bt-tter than a rule
of thumb; it is advisable to correctly evaluate chemical requirements by
field-testing.
Absorption Dehydration
Absorption dehydration involves the use of a liquid dessicant to remove
water vapor from the ga.~. Although many liquids possess the ability to ab.o:;orb water from gas, the liquid that is most desirable to use for commercial
dehydration purposes should possess the following properties:
211
Table 5-2A
Physical and Chemical Properties of Glycols"
Molecular weight
Specific grll,it}' lit 68~F
Spceific weight. Ib.:gal
Boiling point at 760 mm IIg, F
Fn=.ing point. Of
Surface tension at 77" F.
dvnes/cm
Hea't of ,.porizalion at JOO mm Hg,
Btwlb
Ethylen.
Glycol
Diethylene
Glycol
Trlethylene
Glycol
62,07
I 1155
9_292
387.i
91
106.12
1.1184
9.316
474,4
IR 0
150.17
1.12.55
9.375
47.0
44,8
45_2
3&1
23'
174
"'24'
"
Table 5-28
Variation of TEG Properties with Temperature"
Temp.,
OF
Sp Gr
Viscosity
50
75
100
125
150
175
I 134
88
56
200
225
250
300
1123
I III
I 101
1.091
LOBO
L068
23
15.5
6.1
6.1
<.0
1,0157
3.1
103<
L'
L5
1.022
Sp Helt,
Btullb -F
0,48:s
6.'"
0.52
0S35
0"
0.57
0585
0.00
0.635
0.65
Thenul
Conductivity,
Btu/(hr Itl - Flit)
0_14
0.138
0.132
0.130
0.125
0.121
0.118
0.113
full y used for dehydrating sweet as well as sour natural gases to effect a
dew-point depression of 40 to 140F. for operating conditions ranging from
25-2,500 psig and 40_160F (Ikoku. 1984).
214
1. Methanol, absorbed by the glycol along with water from the gas
stream, increases the heat requirements in the regeneration system.
2. High methanol injection rate;, and carryover of slugs of liquid methanol can cause flooding in the absorber and regeneration system.
3. Aqueous methanol is corrosive to carbon steel, leading to corrosion in
the reboiler and still.
4. A methanol recovery unit is required at the water \'apor outlet, because methanol cannot be vcnted directly to the atmosphere due to en
vironmentaJ hazards.
Any dirt or impurities can contaminate the glycol solution severely. Overheating the glycol can lead to solution decomposition, with both low as well
as high boiling products. The reaction products form a sludge that collects
on the heating surfaces. reducing process eHiciency and in some cases, causing complete flow stoppage. This can be avoided by installing a filter at the
downstream end of the glycol pump.
Glycol becomes quite corrosive with prolonged exposure to oxygen
(GPSA. 1981). For this reason, a dry gas blanket is sometimes provided on
the glycol surge tank. Presence of oxygen in the gas stream, however, mav
require special precautions. Corrosion may also be a problem in the presen~
of acid gases. A low pH accelerates decomposition of glycol. Generally, pH
is controlled in the range 6.0-7.5, measured at a 5050 dilution with dis.
tilled water, to avoid glycol decomposition (GPSA, 1981 ).
Carryover of liquid hydrocarbons can result in solution foaming. Foam
inhibitors are normally used to avoid such a situation. Removal of all liquids
from the gas is necessary before sending it to the contactor. because these
liquids may, over long periods of time, leave crystalline deposits in the con.
tactor. To prel-'ent condensing of any hydrocarbons in the contactor, the inlet
dry glycol must be maintained at a temperature slightly greater than that of
the gas stream (Sivalls, 1976). Liquid hydrocarbons carried over into the
stripping still cause severe damage. They may lead to vapor flooding in the
reboiler and still due to the increased vapor load. Consequently, glycol will
be carried out of the stiJI along with the gas and water vapor. Heavier-end
hydrocarbons will cause coking in the still and reboiler. and may also hinder
glycol reconcentration.
H~ghly concentrated glycol is very viscous at low temperatures, helow approximately SOF. A heater may be required, especially in cold climatic conditions where the nowlines may solidify completely. Finally, to ensure good
gas-glycol contact, all absorber trays must be completely filled with glycol
at all times. Sudden liquid surges should be avoided to minimize solution
carry-over losses.
215
sure in the contactor (psia): gas inlet temperature rF): and outlet water
content required in the gas (Ibm, MMscf). In addition, two criteria must be
selected for the design:
(5- 15)
where W I. W _ water contents, Ib waterlMMscf gas. for the inlet and outlet gas respectively.
A conversion factor of 24 is used in Equation 5-15 to convert the gas rate q
from MMscfd to MMscf/hr.
I"let Scrubber
The inlet scrubber is generally chosen based upon the operating pressure
and gas capacity. The data shown in Tables 5-3 and 5-4, and Figure 5-32,
may be used for this purpose. Cenerally, a two-phase scrubber with a 7.5 ft
shell height is used.
212
--~
L.
_
.. ..,
'
--
Figure 5-31. Flow diagram for a glycol dehydration plant. (Afler Sivalls, 1976;
courtesy of C. R. Sivalis and the University of Oklahoma.)
may lead to (oaming. flooding, poor efficiency, higher glycol losses, and
maintenance problems in the glycol-gas contactor (also called absorber). A
mist eliminator is also provided at the scrubber outlet to ensure good gas
cleaning. The clean gas is then sent upward through the absorber, countercurrent to the flow of glycol. The absorber consists of several trays that act
as equilibrium separation stages where water vapor from the gas is absorbed
by the glycol. Glycol usually absorbs about 1 sci gas/gal at 1,000 psig absorber pressure (CPSA, 1981). Absorption is more in the presence of aromatic hydrocarbons.
Dry gas from the top of the absorber is sent through a mist eliminator (to
remove any entrained glycol droplets) to a gas-glycol heat exchanger (shown
as glycol cooler in Figure 5-31) where the gas cools the hot regenerated gly_
col before it enters the contactor. After this heat exchange, the dry gas leaves
the dehydration unit. The cooled glycol enters the absorber from the top.
The wet glycol from the bottom of the glycol-gas contactor is first sent to
a high-pressure filter to remove any solids that may have been acquired by it
from the gas stream. The energy of this high-pressure glycol is then used to
drive the glycol pump, which pumps the dry regenerated glycol to the contactor. This results in a considerable energy savings for the process. From the
pump. the wet glycol flows to a low-pressure flash separator where any dis.
soh'ed or entrained gas is removed. A three-phase flash separator rna}' be
required if the wet glycol also contains an appreciable amount of liquid hydrocarbons absorbed from the gas stream in the contactor. The separated
Pr~og
213
gas is used either as fuel gas for the reboiler, or is vented to the atmosphere.
Clycol from the bottom of the flash separator is sent to heat exchanger coils
in the glycol surge tank to preheat it by heat exchange with the hot, dry
regenerated glycol from the glycol regenerator.
The preheated wet glycol is then sent to the stripping still, which is a
tower packed with ceramic saddle.type (or other types) packing, mounted
on top of a reboiler. The glycol flows downwards through the packing (that
acts as equilibrium separation stages for glycol-water separation) into the
reboiler Water vapor liberated from the glycol in the reboiler passes upwards through the packing, providing heat and picking up some water from
the wet glycol flowing downwards. The water vapor leaves the unit from
the top of the still column through an atmospheric reflux condenser that
provides a partial reflux for the column (Sivalls. 1976).
In the reboiler, glycol is heated to approximately 350-400F to reconcentrate it to 99.5% or more. In order to obtain glycol of such a high concentration, it is usually necessary to add some stripping gas to the reboiler (Sivalls,
1976). Using a valve and a pressure regulator, a small amount of gas from
the fuel gas system is injected into the bottom of the reboiler through a
spreader system. This gas aids the removal of water from the glycol by three
mechanisms (Sivalls. 1976): (1) it "rolls" the glycol in the reboiler to allow
any pockets of water vapor, entrained in the glycol due to the high viscosity
of the glycol, to escape; (2) it lowers the partial pressure of the water vapor
in the reboiler and still column, thereby allowing more water to vaporize
from the glycol: and (3) it provides a sweeping action (a combination of absorption of water, and creation of a pressure drop for the water vapor to
flow) to drive the water vapor out of the reboiler and stripping still system.
The reconcentrated glycol is sent to the shell side of the heat exchanger,
which also serves as a surge tank. Here the regenerated glycol is cooled by
heat exchange with the wet glycol stream, and is accumulated for feed to the
glycol pump through a strainer. From the pump, it passes through the shell
side of the glycol-gas heat exchanger (glycol cooler), into the top of the absorber.
Total glycol losses. excluding spillage, range from 0.05 gallMMscf for
high-pressure low-temperature gases. to as much as 0.30 gallMMscf for lowpressure high-temperature gas streams (CPSA, 1981). These losses comprise
mechanical carryover from the contactor, and vaporization losses from the
contactor and regenerator.
Glycol Plant Operational Problems
Methanol, injected at the wellhead for bydrate inhibition. can lead to several operational problems in glycol dehydration plants:
218
...
"
p
./
"7
/'
:;:;;
V
/' .....- I---
i ,
--
V ~
/'
.r~
~~
"~
'p
'V,
V-
~~
:2
-- e-
.- ~
V
/'
10
~ :;;
I V
,.-00
I---
----- --
. r~
. ...1
~.!
f0-
.J
- -
~,
,1- DO
,.-00
,:r o~
'V VV
'V
V
V
V
. ~
--
1.....- :--
...
.~
~~
~~
.~
219
,~
,~
Figure 532, Gas capacity of vertical inlet-gas scrubbers, based upon a 0.7.
gravity gas al1000F (After Sivalls, 1976; courtesy of C. A. Sivalls and the Univer-
sity of Oklahoma)
Figure 5-33. Gas capacity of Irayed glycol-gas conlaclors, based upon a .0.7gravity gas at 100 F. (Atter Sivatls. 1976; courtesy of C. A. Sivalls and the Umversity of Oklahoma.)
q - q,(C,)(CJ
where
..,
0- 00
.....-
--
V ..... V_
~r;:V
..
,,-00
~
1.-0 0
, -00
11,.-()!I
'=
10'0.- ()!I
,~
0".................. ...,
Figure 5-34. Gas capacity 01 packed glycol-gas contactors, based upon a 0.7gravity gas at 100F. (After Sivalls, 1976; courtesy of C. A. Sivalls and the University of Oklahoma.)
220
Table 5-5
Temper.ture Correction Factor,
Ct,
Glycol-Gas Contactor.
"
Opeqtlng temperature
e,
OF
Tnlyed
40
50
00
70
110
90
Pock. .
1.07
106
105
1M
0.93
0."
1.02
".,.;
0.9,
1.01
0.99
100
100
100
110
0.'"
0.98
1.01
1.02
120
,
"
I
!
,I
Table 5-6
Gas Specific Gravity Correction Factor, g tor Gas Capacity of Trayed and
Packed Glycol-Gas Contactors
Gas specific
C,
gravity
Trayed
Packed
0.55
1.14
113
0.00
065
0.70
0.75
0110
0.85
0110
lOB
lOB
104
100
I().!
0.97
0.93
0.00
0.88
I,
-~-
"-
I'--. '.,
{, ,
,
---
f'..
i'- t-......
~ i'""- "- t--
'"
221
t::::
w,
..
u',
,o
I I I
100
0.97
0."
0.91
"r---,---,----,---,----,
0.88
BOTTOM OF COLUMN
required, can be determined using Figure 5-35. This figure assumes that the
depth of packing in feet for a packed-type column is equal to the actual
number of trays for a tray-type column. This is only true when I-in. metal
pall rings are used as the packing material in the packed-type contactor.
Corrections for other packing types can be made fairly easily (see, for exam.
pIe, C hemical Engineers' Handbook , 1984), A minimum height of packing
equal to 4 ft should be used.
A more accurate procedure for calculating the number of trays (or the
depth of packing) required is to use the McCabe-Thiele diagrams, widely
used in designing equilibrium separation process equipment. The procedure
for constructing this diagram , shown in Figure 5-36, is as foll ows:
(tert co Fltinlied on page 226)
."
3
~
"
"
~oz
ffi
;
10
. ..
"
..
"
222
Production Engineering
G(U
GUJ- Wotn
223
Table 5-7
Specifications for Tray-Type Glycol-Gas Contactor.Nominal
Nomina'
Go.
Nominal
WP
Size
CliPKity,
DO
MMsc'd '
""
12 ....
IS
IS'
2.4
'J :1.
"
"'.
'"
30'
147
19.7
00'
26.3
32 .
40,6
12 1', "
".
lB'
20'
'"
.,.
30'
36'
'"
".
600
00'
]2114"
".
IS'
20'
24'
31)'
36'
".
2.0
32
'.3
5.3
'.3
13,1
]9.2
2i.4
35'
44.05
05,':;.2
""
"
55
.5
143
'12
48'
29.'
39.'
00'
49.3
6U
....
" After
9'
36'
".
,.500
4.0
61
S,,'.JI~.
Ga.
Nominal
Gal Inlet
and Outlet
s",
,.
Glycol Inlet
Glycol
Shipping
WP
and Outlet
Cooler
Weight.
Ib
P~'
00
1000
12.1., .
16"
lB'
s",
,"
s",
,.,
Z' x 4'
2 - x 4'
"'900"
3' x 5'
3' x 5'
3' x 5'
IAOO
,.
I'
Jl. 2'
x 6'
'.000
2,mO
". x 6'
3,2(X)
11;2"
4' )( 6'
4.400
6'
6'
2'
2'
6' )( S'
6')( S'
6'
2'
2'
6.300
7,700
2'
9,000
l'
3'
,,.>, '
,.
6"
2"
2"
3"
3"
3"
3"
2'
3'
3'
3'
,.,.
3'
,.,.
3'
B'
6'
6'
,.
,.
3'
3'
3'
3'
,.,.
6'
O
6'
".
." .
112"
,1,'. "
'
] i/2'
11.:2"
2'
,.
2'
1'2"
','
,,",".
'
I'
Pli!"
1112
2'
,.,.
1976
'"
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
S"
4'
4"
05"
S"
S"
05"
"" x 6"
4' x 6"
6")(S6" x S"
6" x S"
2")( 4"
2" x 43" x 05"
3" x S"
3" x S
3" x 05"
4"x64"x66 x S"
6 x S"
6" x S"
"'.
1.100
1.000
1.200
1.500
1,700
2.900
3.900
6.000
7.700
10.000
12.000
105,300
1.100
1.300
1.600
1.800
3,000
4,000
0,300
8,400
11 ,300
13,"00
16,500
S ize
24'
31)'
36'
".
".
54'
00'
'200
123i~"
".
lB'
20'
,.'
""..
30'
36'
....
,..
00'
121,.-
Cliptlcity,
MMscfd"
36'
Size
",.
27.5
37.1
49.6
62.0
6'
6'
6'
,.
j7,S
3.0
4.i
60
i,8
12,0
2'
3'
3'
3'
3'
,.
20'
29.8
"O
41A
'"SSO
68'
91.1
31)'
Size
3'
3'
3'
3'
00'
20'
SIz.e
5.S
7.3
11,3
18.4
.,.
".
,..
...
CooIN
4.3
3.1
4.9
6.5
8.3
13.3
22.3
32.S
44.3
58.3
74.0
".
lB'
Glycol Inlet
end Outlet
,.,.
_.,-
6'
6'
,.
2'
3'
3'
3'
3'
,.,.
6'
6'
6'
j(I'
Glycol
G Inlet
and Outlet
,"
".
,."
,.,.
2)(4'
2' x 4'
1.:100
3' x S'
3')(-'>'
3' x 5'
3' x S"
2.100
, 000
11 2'
4'x6'
II l'
2'
.j'
,.,.
1/2 "
3,'4 "
3';4 "
,,..
,.
1112"
lilt"
,.
,.,.
I,Z-
','
,,."
'
"
Ji12"
,.,.
1112
"
Shipping
Weight,
Ib
x 6'
6' x S'
6' x S"
6" x S"
2" x 4"
2" x 4'
3" x 5"
3" x 5"
3" x 05"
3" x 05"
4" x 6"
4" x 6"
6xS6"xS6" x S2")( 4
2" x 4
3- x S3" x 05"
3"x5"
3)(05"
4-)(6"
4" x 6"
6'xS"
6' x S"
6" x S"
I./lOO
4.200
5.500
8.500
11.800
16,200
20,200
26,300
'.500
1,900
2,300
3,000
'.900
6,400
10,000
13,JOO
IS,400
23,500
29,000
',000
2,200
2,000
3,500
5,000
7,500
11.700
14.400
"'.000
25,000
32.000
224
225
Table 58
Table 5-9 Continued
51,.
Stlndard
Shell
00
Height"
12 4
10"
lB'
13
13
13
'"
13
24 30'
13
""
,,"
13
13'
1.'3'
Add to
Height
Glycol Cooler
Height'
For Add.
Tray, el .
9
9
,.."
00"
G..
10
2"
13
2'
I.
,.
25
36
53
,
,.,
9'
9
9
9
9'
9
13
42'
Nominal
Standerd
13
,.9'
2
2
2'
13'
9'
2'
15
22
16
2.'
36
5.0
8.2
11.8
16.8
20.9
26.6
32.6
73
00
liZ
137
1000
.!~ndltd
WP
pslg
250
500
Size
00
IOJ..
12~4 '
W
Shipping
Weight,
2' x 4'
2' x 4'
51lO
2'
112'
2'
12'
"
2'
1i2'
2'
2'
3"
1; .. '
3-
11.'
3" x :5'
3" x 5'
""""
""
,..
2.6
I."
3A
4 .
,';.:5
I (}l, ..
12"'.. '
1.5
1().1i.
12:1/1'
l4"
l6'
IS'
Glycol
Cooler
Size
11
25
3A
22
44
5.5
i.S
1.7
2A
"
3.8
4.8
3'
22"
2'
2'
3'
3'
3"
2'
2'
1liz'
I,~"
1,2'
liz'
li.'
li.'
I"
1/2'
1/2'
2'
lit'
2'
li2'
3'
li.'
Size
Size
,."
"'"
]C).l<
00
81
,..
3.3
,0
5.2
66
8.2
11.8
2.5
3.6
23
,..
1200
}(}1,'
,..
1231,'
41
5A
6.9
85
12.3
2.6
3.7
45
l().ll
,..
12"'"
10
00"
,,"
,."
,,"
600
Capllclty,
MMscfd'
MM.cfd"
20"
1440
Glycol Inlet
and Outlet
Size
00
,,"
,,"
20"
,."
Nominal
Gas Inlet
and Outlet
Size
Glycol Inlet
and Outlet
,,"
Table 59
Specifications for Packed Column Glycol-Gas Contactors'
G..
Gal. Inlet
and Outlet
,,"
{mlf!ray ro,awctor.
Nominal
c.pecfty,
12Ji.'
For
Size
x
x
4'
4'
3' x 5'
x
x
x
x
3- x
3" x
3" x
2'
2'
2"
2'
'"
4'
4'
,.
1lOO
650
1lOO
75"
900
.5.55'
2" x 4"
2' x 4'
1000
151lO
251lO
3' x .5"
650
750
1lOO
950
lloo
5.9
,,"
7.5
9.3
12.7
20"
24"
,","
3"
3"
3"
2"
2"
2"
2"
3"
3"
3"
2"
2'
,"
2"
3"
3"
3"
>,'
3'
3'
2'
2'
2'
2'
l'
1/2'
I'Z'
,,"
x S'
x S'
x 4'
x 4'
x 4'
x 4'
3' x S'
3' x 5'
3' x 5'
>,"
1"
112 "
2'
2'
2'
2"
3'
3'
3'
2'
x 4'
x 4'
x 4'
x 4'
x 5"
x 5'
x 5'
x 4'
liz"
2'
x 4"
1,'2'
2' x 4"
2' x 4"
112 "
li2 "
11~"
li2"
.,"
>,'
:li."
112"
>,"
3' x 5'
3' x 5"
3' x 5"
,,"
I"
Shipping
Weight,
,.
liOO
2iOO
900
1000
1100
1300
1800
2300
3500
1200
1300
1500
1700
2200
2800
4000
1300
141lO
1600
1000
251lO
3100
4500
Mm S;"a1Is. 1976
" Cas t'apK1t} ~ on IOO"F, 0-', <P IU and r:ontactor "'orLng p ........ rr.
900
11 00
11lOO
1lOO
700
~'
2' x '"
2' x '"
,,"
3'
3"
2"
2"
Glycol
Cooler
Size
Table 5-10
Specifications for Packed Column Glycol-Gas Contactors'
Size,
00
IQJ,I. '
123f, '
l4"
l6"
,,"
00"
""
Standard
Shell
Height
Standard
Glycol Cooler
Helghl
Standard
Contacting
Element"
Glycol
Charge,
g"
0'
7'
7'
I' x 4 '
" x 4'
I ' x 4'
9'
9'
9'
9'
0'
,.
7'
7'
-, "
7'
7'
rings of:AU
I ' x 4'
8
10
I' x 4 '
I' x 4'
12
14
" x 4'
"
lis~
in 1lt.bl,,_
22.
/'/
~
"
(5-16)
where C Roch , C, ...... "" concentrations of rich and It!an TEG, respecti\'ely. expressed as a fraction
PLntn - density of lean TEC solution in Ibm/gal
L... - glycol to water circulation rate in gal TEGllb
water
2. On the McCabe-Thiele diagram, the top of the column is indicated by
the water content of the outlet gas from the contactor, and the concentration of lean TEG. Similarly, the bottom of the column is repre.
sented by the water content of the inlet gas to the oontactor, and the
rich TEG concentration. Draw the operating line as the strai!(ht line
connecting the top and bottom of the contactor column.
3. The equilibrium line is drawn using data shown in Figure 5-37, and
any of correlations for the water content of gas as a function of pressure and temperature. This line represents the water content of the gas
that would exist in equilibrium with the various TEe concentrations.
4. Starting from the point representing the bottom of the column, the
theoretical number of trayx required are stepped off by triangulation,
as shown in Figure 5-36, till the top of the column is reached.
S. Use the tray efficiency factor (or packing factors) to calculate the actual number of trays (or depth of packing) required:
Actual number of trays - Theoretical number of trays/tray efficiency
Cenerall)'. a tray efficiency equal to 25% for bubble-cap trays, and
33.3% for valve trays is used, and the figure for the actual number of trays is
rounded off to the next higher integer value. For the packed-type contactor,
a minimum of 4 ft height of packing must be used.
Reboiler
The glycol circulation rate in gallons per hour, L, in the plant is given by:
L - L. W,(ql24)
(5-17)
...~
,
i
I
!
:/'
%/' :/'
/./' V./' ./'
/'
/
/./
V/'" V
/.
......
,o~
~
...
~
-yP
~
~
./
./
/'
~.
,~
~,~
/'
/'
.,~
",\
./
/'
./'
/'
./'
/'
/'
"
-"
_M
,/
<"
....;:/
-~
-~
>I!..dY<"
-~
_c
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
V-
-~
-~
227
,~
n.
,~
,
"
.
.
he heat required in the reboiler (also c~l.led
An approximate calculatIOn of t
be
d
iog the following empmcal
reboiler heat load). Q in Btu/hr, can
rna e us
relationship:
Q - 2,OOOL
(5-18)
228
where
OJ -
Lpc(T, - T, )
(5-20)
Q. - 970.3(q2.J)(\V - IV")
(5-21)
Qr ..
0.25
(5-22)
Qh ..
where
Q.. , assuming a
25% reflux
(5-23)
Stril"nng Still
The diameter (or cross-sectional area) of the packed stripping still for use
with the glycol reooncentrator can be estimated from Figure 5-38 as a function of the glycol to water circulation rate (gal TEGllb water) and the glycol
circulation rate (gal/hr). The size of a strippingstiU is governed by the vapor
and liquid loading conditions at its bottom. The vapor load comprises water
vapor and stripping gas flowing upwards through the still, whereas the liquid load consists of rich glycol and the reflux flowing downwards. Figure
5-38 includes stripping gas requirements, generally in the range of 2 to 10
ft'/gal TEC circulated.
[f a tray-type design is used, one theoretical tra)' is usually sufficient for
most cases (Siva11s, 1976). For a packed-type design, a minimum of 4 ft
packing height is provided, consisting general I)' of l.S-in. ceramic saddletype packing. This height should be increased with increasing glycol recon-
--
....,. ............
I_""QOC:'''''''~'''''
... ,~,-
,-,-
llill
.--
r_
If the size of the reboiler and stripping still is known. the heat loss, Qt.. can
be more accurately estimated using Equation 5-24:
229
....l'
, "
,.,1 ; ......<>
~.?
0'
Q, - O.24A,(T, - T J
where
(5-24)
A - Q17,00Q
(5-25)
where 7,000 Btu/hr-ft2 - estimated design heat flux for direct-fired reboilers
This calculation of A enables determination of the o\"erall size of the reboiler.
'-1-
",,
,,
- 'ol/'"
G.............., .........
I US -
Figure 5-38. Stripping still size for glyCOl dehydrators. (After Sivalls, 1976; courtesy of C. R. Sivalls and the University of Oklahoma.)
230
231
T.ble 5-12
Specifications for St.ndard High-Pressure Glycol Pumps'
The size of the circu1ating pump required can be determined using the
glycol circulation rate, L, and the maximum contactor operating pressure.
Table 5-11
Specifications for Glycol Reconcentratora
R.boller Glycol
Cripaclty, capacity,
Btu/ hr
Reboller
gph"
7.5,000
7.5,000
125,000
125,000
20
IS')(3',6"
6'i/8")( 4'.6"
18")(3',6"
18")(3',6"
6'Vs" x 4',6"
IS" x 5'
18")(5'
IS" x 5'
&~.l6
24")(5'
IS" x S'
2.4' x 5'
24")(S'
24" x 7'
24")( 10'
30" x 10'
36" x 10'
36" x IS'
42" x IS'
48" x 16'
24")(5'
24")(7'
24')( 10'
30" )( 10'
36' )( 10'
36" )( 10'
36" x 10'
36" x 10'
4S"
4S"
4S"
48"
4S"
48"
4S"
4S"
4S'
4!1'
4S"
4S"
4S"
Stripping
Stili Size,
Ole. x HI.
35
40
70
00
100
I'"
210
250
3"
<56
456
456
175,000
175,000
250,000
350,000
400,000
500,000
150,000
850,000
1,000,000
Heet Exchanger
Size,
Surge rank
Ole . x Len. Size, 01 . x Len.
LIt"
l/2"
liS"
lit"
lll"
.,"
III"
:l/~
"
.,"
I"
I"
I"
I"
12.9
12.9
23.3
233
31.1
311
44.6
".8
84.8
82.1
102.6
102.6
102.6
Glycol
Pump
Model
17 15PV
4015PV
4015PV
901srV
9015PV
21015PV
21015PV
2101SPV
45015PV
450lsrV
45015PY
45015PV
45015PV
X 4',
6"
lilt"
I!J.
Jilt'
2"
2"
'"'"
'"
10 12
,.
"
14
20
"
,.
" ...
""
24
2.
3. 32
3436
3840
14 IS
20
26 2B 30
3436 38 '0
1715 PV 8 10
11 IS
IS 20 22
343B 38 '0
.rol S PY
28 28 30
27 31.5 36 40,5 45 49.5 54 48,5 63 67.5 72 76,5 SI &5.S 90
9015 PY
66 79 92 lOS 118 131 144 157 171 184 197 210
21015 PY
166 200 233 266 300 333 366 .00 433 466
45015 PV
""
""
2'.
2',
6'1'8")( 2',
6SI~')( 2'.
R.tle. Condenser
6'{$")(
~~.)(
O
O'
O'
O
~lItmpt
10 run pump/> al
'I~
Gas Consumption
8'11~")( 2',0"
8:118')( 2'.0"
~8")(2',O"
x 2',6"
1()li~")( 2 ,6"
1211,")( 2'.6"
14')(3',0"
1"" x 3', 0"
16'x3',0"
1{).1,~
I"
I"
I"
I"
I"
Number
75
75
105
lOS
100
100
2tiO
375
2,100
2,100
2,200
2,250
3,200
3,200
3,700
1175
<,000
<,500
8,500
7,000
7,500
"25
10,000
m
880
990
Pump Model
315PV
17JSPV and 815SC
40 ISPV and 2015SC
90ISPV and SOISSC
210ISPV and 1001SSC
4501SPV and 200 ISSC
l/4 "
lit'
I"
12lw.")(
!J3i~"
1;2 "
Iii"
1i~ "
I"
1 -2Ji~")( 9JI~'
1'2'
lit"
3,', "
I"
(L12"
.,"
I"
I"
11'2"
12li.")( 931~'
I"
2.211," )( !J3i~'
I"
Il!2 " 421,," )( 9Jr4"
8-2.J.'~' x 9li4-
'"
1;2
1.'4 "
1"
11'2"
1-3" x IS"
1-3")( IS
1-3" x 18"
1-3" x 36"
4-3" x 18"
4-3" X 36"
The glycol flash separator, used downstream of the pump, should be designed for a liquid retention time of at least 5 min . T he size can be calculated as follows:
V
'OK
LtJ60
(5"26)
232
Ga .. Production Engineering
233
and gas gravity are both equal to 1.0. Therefore, the contactor can handle a
gas rate up to 9:l MMscfd and is suitable for use.
Use a tray-type contactor with bubble-cap trays, and assume the followin~
additional criteria:
From Figure 5-35, the actual number of trays required for a 3.5 gal TEGI
lb H 2 0 glycol to water circulation rate and 72 F dew-point depression = 4.5.
Thus, approximately 5 trays are required.
For a more precise determination, construct the McCabe-Thiele diagram.
From Table 5-2, specific gravity of lean glycol at 100F"" l.111, implying a glycol density - (1.111)(8.34) - 9.266 Ibm/gal
Using Equation 5-16. CRI ~h '" (0.995)(9.266) / (9.266 + 113.5) 0.965'" 96.5%.
Thus. the operating line points are:
Solutio"
100 - 28 _ 72F
(20 1
% TEG
99.6
99.0
98.0
97.0
96.0
95.0
OF
Ib H,OMMrl
-10
12
30
40
47
51
1.1
3.2
6.3
9.0
11.7
13.3
From Table 5-3, a 36-in. 0.0. vertical scrubber is required for a 1,400psig working pressure. The same result is obtained using Figure 5-32 (with
suitable extrapolation). So, use a 36-in. x 7.5-ft vertical two-phase scrubber, with a 1,440 psig working pressure.
Ccmku;lor Size
23.
235
of Requirements
,peed.
Glycol flash sep.: 2O-in. 0.0., two-phase lash separator.
Reboiler: 289,OOO-Btu i hr heat load requirements.
Stripping still: 8.2-in . l.o.
Qh ..
20,000 ,. 2.0 x
l()"
Btuihr
Stripping Still
. Using F~gure 5-38, the minimum internal diameter required for the
stiJi - 8.2 10., based upon a 177.92 galihr glycol circulation rate, and 3.5
gal TEeIb H 20 glycol to water circulation rate.
Glycol Pum"
Fro~ Table 5-12, pump model number 210IS PV, with 28 strokes/min
pumping speed, is required for a glycol circulation rate of 177.92 gal/hr.
Glycol Flash SeIX1mtor
Usi~g Equ.ation 5-26, the settling volume of the flash separator required
assummg a Itquid retention time of 5 min, i~;
,
v-
Adsorption Dehydration
Adsorption (or solid bed) dehydration is the process where a solid desiccant is used for the removal of water vapor from a gas stream. The solid
desiccants commonly used for gas dehydration are those that can be regenerated and, consequently, used over several adsorption-desorption cycles. Some solid desiccants can dehydrate gas down to 1 ppm or less; these
desiccants are wide1y used on feed streams for cryogertic processing (CPSA,
1981).
The mechanisms of adsorption on a surface are of tv.'o types: physical,
and chemical. The latter process, involving a chemical reaction, is termed
"chemisorption." Chemical adsorbents find very limited application in gas
processing. Adsorbents that allow physical adsorption hold the adsorbate on
their surface by surface forces. For physical adsorbents used in gas dehydration, the following properties are desirable (Campbell, 1984b):
1. Large surface area for high capacity. Commercial adsorbents have a
surface area of 500-800 m2/gm ( - 2.4 x loe to 3.9 x loa ft 2/lbm) .
2. Good "activity" for the components to be removed, and good activity
retention with timeluse. Commercial adsorbents can remove practi-
em Production
236
3.
4.
5.
6.
7
Engineering
cally all the water from a natural gas to values as low as 1 ppm (parts
per million).
High mass transfer rate, i.e., a high rate of removal.
Easy, economic regeneration.
Small resistance to gas flow. so that the pressure drop through the dehydration system is smalJ.
High mechanical strength to resist crushing and dust formation. The
adsorbent also must retain enough strength when "wet:'
Cheap. non-corrosive, non-toxic, chemically inert, high bulk density.
and small volume changes upon adsorption and desorption of water.
Types of Adsorbents
Some materials that satisfy these criteria, in the order of increasing cost.
are: bauxite ore, consisting primarily of alumina (Alz03_xHZO); alumina:
silica gels and silica-alumina gels: and molecular sieves. Activated carbon, a
Widely used adsorbent, posses.'>eS no capacity for water adsorption and is
therefore not used for dehydration purposes, though it may be used for the
removal of certain impurities. Bauxite also is not used much because it contains iron and is thus unsuitable for sour gases.
Alumina
A hydrated form of aluminium oxide (A1 20 J ). alumina is the least expensive adsorbent. It is activated by driving off some of the water associated
with it in its hydrated form (A1 z0 J .3H 20 ) by heating. It produces an excellent dew point depression to dew point values as low as - lOOF. but requires much more heat for regeneration. Also, it is alkaline and cannot be
used in the presence of acid gases, or acidic chemicals used sometimes for
well treating. The tendency to adsorb heavy hydrocarbons is high, and it is
difficuJt to remove these during regeneration. It has good resistance to liquids, but little resistance to disintegration due to mechanical agitation b,the lowing gas.
.
237
boos, but release them relatively more easily during regeneration. Since they
are acidic, they can handle sour gases, but not alkaline materials such as
caustic or ammonia. Although there is no reaction with HzS, sulfur can deposit and block their surface. Therefore, gels are useful if the H 2S content is
less than 5-6 % .
Molecular Siet.-ell
These are a cr~-qallint' form of alkali metal (calcium or sodium) aluminosilicates, very similar to natural clays. They are highly porous, with a very
narrow range of pore sizes, and very high surface area. Manufactured by
ion-exchange, molecular simes are the most expensive adsorbents. They
possess highly localized polar charges on their surface that act as extremely
effective adsorption sites for polar compounds such as water and hydrogen
sulfide (see also Chapter 6). Molecular sieves are alkaline and subject to attack by acids. Special acid-resistant sieves are available for very sour gaS$.
Since the pore size range is narrow. molecular sieves exhibit selectivity towards adsorbates on the basis of their molecular size, and tend not to adsorb
bigger molecules such as the heavy hydrocarbons. Nevertheless, sieves are
subject to contamination by carryover of liquids such as oil and glycol. The
regeneration temperature is very high. They can produce a water content as
low as 1 ppm. Molecular sieves offer a means of simultaneous dehydration
and desulfurization and are therefore the best choice for sour gaS$.
238
239
~::Spected in the inlet gas stream, special design modifications are required.
The Regeneration Cycle
"
Gn -
A typical temperature-time plot for a dry desiccant plant is shown in Figure 5-40. It shows the relationship betw(''en regeneration gas te~perature at
the inlet and outlet. and the ambient ji!;as temperature for a tYPlcal8-hr ye..
generation cycle.
"
UN!! 0 ..
INlit
IUI[N[IIIiI.l ION
rowER 2
(O<Y"'II)
!.
REGENERATION
GAS COOLER
OUTLET G"-S
FILTER
......
To
:;
>-
L1QY",
Figure 5-39. Flow diagram for a two-lower solid-bed dehydration plant. (After
Campbell, 1984b; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
flushing them through the entire bed. Sometimes, only the inlet (top) part of
the tower is recharged with desiccant, in order to minimize desiccant replacement expense. Desiccant bed may also be rearranged, or the gas flow
direction reversed, to obtain additional desiccant life.
The regeneration cycle consists of t"':o parts: heating and cooling. First ,
regeneration gas heated to a temperature of 400_000F, greater than the fi.
nal bed regeneration temperature by about SO--lOOF, is sent to the desiccant
bed. Subsequently, the hot regenerated bed is cooled by letting the regeneration gas bypass, or by completely shutting off, the regeneration gas heater,
This cooling gas is usually sent downward through the bed, so that only the
top of the bed may adsorb any water from this gas, The hot regeneration gas
and cooling gas, after flowing through the bed, are sent to the regeneration
gas cooler to remove any adsorbed water, Thus, the bed acts as a sort of
regenerative heat exchanger.
Oxygen. even in trace amounts, can react with hydrocarbons during the
regeneration cycle, forming water and CO 2 which are adsorbed and lead to,
,,
'.
0"""
"
"
to""
'<
....,......"et'
,'.
"
.'
".. to''''
SU.ItT 0'
'.
...
~.
,_...,...
<
,
[NO O'
etel[
eyell
Trill
IIIOIHI
.f
e,cr. )
Figure 5-40. A typical temperature-lime plot for regeneration gas and dessicant
bed for a solid-bed dehydrator.
Refer to the regeneration-ji!;as outlet temperature curve (curve 2) in Figure
5-40. There are four discrete intervals-A, B. C. and D-in the regeneration C}'cle, with average temperatures of T A, T B. T c. and T D, respectively, as
shown in Figure 5-40. Initially, the hot regeneration gas heats up the tower
and desiccant (from Tl to T2 in Figure 5-40). At about 240F (T 2), water
begins to vaporize. The bed heats up at a slower rate (the curve Flattens).
because a considerable portion of the heat input is used in vaporizing water
from the desiccant, until point T3 is reached where all the water in the desiccant has been desorbed. The average temperature of water desorption, T B.
is often assumed in design to be about 250F (see Figure 5-40). Heating is
continued (from T3 to T~ in Figure 5-40) to drive off any heavier hydroca~.
bons and contaminants. For a cycle time of 4 hours or greater, the bed 15
COnsidered to be properly regenerated when the outlet gas temperature has
reached 350_375F (point T.). The regeneration gas now has a high water
240
(plus hydrcxarbon and contaminant) content. This ends the heating cycle.
and bed cooling is begun. The cooling cycle is Wiuall}' terminated at about
125 ~ F (point T 5) . because any further cooling may cause water to condense
from the wet gas stream and adsorb on the bed.
Although Figure 5-40 is for an S-hr cycle. the relative heating and coolin$!
times shown are t~llical for any cycle above 4 hoo .... (Campbell, 1984b).
Analysis of the Adsorption Process (After Campbell. 1984b)
Figure 5-41a illustrates the movement of an adsorption zone front as a
function of time. In a dry desiccant bed, the adsorbable components are ad.
sorbed at different rates. A short while after the process has begun, a series
of adsorptIOn zones appear. as shown in Figure 5-41b. The distance bet\\'een
sllC<.USivc adsorption zone fronts is indicative of the length of the bed involved in the adc;orption of a given component. Behind the zone, all of the
entering component has been removed from the gas: ahead of the zone. the
concentration of that component is zero (unless some residual adsorbed concentration exists from a previous cycle). Note the adsorption sequence: C L
and C 2 are adsorbed almost instantaneously, followed by the heavier hydrocarbons. and finally by water that constitutes the last zone. Almost all the
hydrocarbons are removed after 30-40 min and dehydration begins. Water
displaces the hydrocarbons on the adsorbent surface if enough time is
allowed. Thus. cycle length is critical. Very short cycle lengths are becoming
increasingly popular. since they can simultaneously control water and hydrocarbon dew points at minimum cost.
Figure 5-41c shows the character of the breakthrough CUf\o'e. The ordinate ClCo is the ratio. at any time. of the mole fraction of a given component in the exit gas to its mole fraction in the entering gas. Thus. C le o is
equal to 0 until the zone front reaches the bed outJet (breakthrough) at time
tb SubsequentJy, C lc., increases until time teo after which no further primary adsorption can occur. In practice. C/c., becomes greater than 1.0 for a
short period of time when one component is replaced by another. The shape
of this C/c., versus t curve is related to the efficiency of separation. Curve 1.
a \'crtical straight line, represents an ideal case where the movement of the
adsorption zone front is essentially "piston-like," whereas curves 2 and 3 are
for a real case where the adsorption zone front spreads through a finite bed
length. Note that the greater the spread, the more difficult it will be to delineate dry gas from partially wet gas when water breakthrough occurs.
Desiccant pellet size has a pronounced effect on the spread (or length) of
the adsorption zone. As shown in Figure 5-4ld, smaller the desiccant size.
better and sharper is the separation obtained. Hence. the smallest size desiccant possible should be used. subject of course, to constraints of higher pres-
1~r1' tU:\--f~~~Of"il
a!([
<l
'"
BED LENGTH
241
h,
(.(
l~r(l?\
<l
'"
c,' ' \ c,
BED LENGTH
\1
'
'"
j,2")'
( 'b)2
TIME
(,'
;,'OIPl
OO~
L L4-20 MESH
2 8- LO MESH
3~-6MESH
3-8 MESH
1IME-
(,(
sure drops that may result from doing so. Usually a 14-mesh (Tyler screen)
size is used.
Design Variables for the Adsorption Process
243
is proportional to desiccant bulk denSity, and the available area for adsorp.-
tion.
6. Regenm'lon requ;,-ements.
7 Allowable pressure drop.
:-':ot all of these \'ariables are independent: some are fixed for any calcula.
tion, and others are \'aried to )ield an optimum design. Cycle time and des.
sicant capacity are the most important variables in designin~ an adsorption
plant.
Cycle Tillie
Varies from less than 1 hr for a rapid cycle unit to greater than 8 hrs. The
cycle time is, of cour<;e, limited by desiccant capacity so as not to exceed
outlet !?:as spedfications. and desiccant bed geometry. Also, the cycle time
must be long enough to permit regeneration and cooling of the tower~ not
currently dehydrating.
(5-27)
where
All desiccants dc~ade in service. their useful life being in the range of I 4
year<>. Degradation is termed normal if there is a loss of surface area only.
During its useful life, a desiccant exhibits rapid normal degradation in the
initial stages, which then becomes more gradual. A more dramatic reduction in desiccant capacity occurs when the small capillary or lattice openinwo
that contain most of the effective surface area for adsorption are blocked.
This latter process, termed abnormal degradation, is caused by materials
such as heavy oils. amines, gl}'cols. and corrosion inhibitors, that cannot be
remO\'ed by regeneration and effect great reductions in capacity in a vcr)"
s.hort time. No liquid water should be allowed in the inlet gas, since this
generally salty water in the inlet gas will evaporate and fill the bed with
salt.
Some properties of common desiccants are (Campbell. 1984b):
Material
Bulk density
Ibm/ft'
Surface area
m2/gm
Design capacity
Ib H,O/ IOO Ib des.
Alumina
Alumina gel
Silica gel
Molecular sieves
SO-55
52-55
45
43-45
210
350
7SO-83O
4-7
7-9
7-9
9-12
650-800
The design capacity must be such that an economic desiccant life is obtained. Assuming a monolayer adsorption, the potential desiccant capacity
Vg -
This is generally expressed in terms of the mass flow \'elocity of the gas,
the product of its ve10city "'. and density:
(5-28)
where
For downward flow of gas, the maximum allowable gas mass flow velocity,
w, is given by:
244
The factor 3,600 converts the mass low rate from Ibm/(sec ft2) to lbmi(hr
(1;2). Substituting g - 32.2 ft/sec2, w becomes:
w - 20.428.22 [Cp",,.!,,]'''
" -- -;::.-.
V
/'
---
>0
1---
SILICA GEL
Also known as the rate of removal of water required per unit bed area.
water loadinll can be calculated as follows:
"
(529)
nat" Loading
245
"
~/ ~-
~LE~~-i~vt:S
- - - f-
--
- r~~ f--"";
..
70
'"
>00
TEMPERATURE DC
[.I'ngth
The zone length depends upon gas composition, flow rate, relative water
saturation, and desiccant loading capability. For silica gel, the zone length.
h~. can be estimated as follows (Simpson and Cummin~, 1964):
"
"
J'-.,'
,
",
'0. ,
.0 .
(531)
~
~O .
xwhere
x. -
o.
J'-.,
,
"
"
'"0
.......
'" ~
1\0
120
110
TDlPE .... TUR 0,.
'"
Figure 5-42. The eHect of (a) relative water saturation and (b) temperature on
the dynamic capacity of dessicants. (After Campbell, 1984b; courtesy of Campbell Petroleum Series.)
From extensive tests, C has been found to vary only in the range 0.40-0.52
for a wide range of applications, and an average C - 0.45 is generally used
for design purposes.
Breakthrough l 'ime
C'x,(h,lh,)
(532)
The breakthrough time for the water zone formed, I:t, in hours, can be
estimated as follows:
(533)
246
where the factor 0.01 takes into account the units for x (Ib H2.0'' 100 Ib d es..'il.
can.
t)
Minimum
B~d
x. -
247
LhJgth
The ~mount of water that can be removed per cycle by the desiccant. \\'
(Ibm). IS gi .. en by
(5.341
Note that (ht)m", is the distance from the inlet to the front of the water 7.one.
So, if ht is less than the total length of the bed. it means that not all of the
bcd, is being used. From an operations perspective, it is desirable to continue
~nhl the water front reaches the end of the bed, since it prolonl'S desiccant
hfe.
E~am"'f' 5JO. Design an adsorber for dehydrating 20 MMscfd of a O.i
graVIty ~as at 1.000 psia and 100F. Assume a two-tower plant using an B-hr
cycle WIth a 15 ft long silica gel bed.
Since the breakthrough time of 10.63 hr is greater than the cycle time of 8
hr, the water zone will not reach the outlet, and dry gas will be produced.
The design. therefore, has a .~afety factor to account for future desiccant
degradation .
Regeneration and Cooling Calculations (After Campbell. 1984b)
Regeneration calculations are done for eo;tablishing the regeneration gas
rate, heating and cooling time intervals, heater load, and condenser load.
These calculations are simply heat balances for various parts of the regeneration cycle. For each interval, the heat supplied by the gas, E i must be
equal to the heat absorbed, Qj;
(5-35)
Solution
From :igure 51, water content of inlet gas - 61 Ib H1 0. MMsd gas.
Assummg all of the inlet water is removed. the rate of removal of wa.
ter .. (20)(6 1) .. 1,220 Ibm/da\".
Therefore, amount water to be removed per cycle, W .... (1.220)(8.'
24) - 406.67 Ibm/cycle.
The gas compressibility factor, Z .... 0.88.
~ume a gas velocity of 1,800 ft/ hr. Then, from Equation 5-27:
D - (1,499.73)(20)(0.88)(560)1[(1,000)(1,800)) _ 8.2118 ft', implying
D .. 2.87 ft. Choose a bed diameter of 3 ft for safety.
Then, V.c .. (1,800)(8.2118/9) - 1,642.36 ftlhr
From Equation 5-30, water loading q" - (0.053 1)(20)(61)19 _ 7.198
Ibmihr-ft2
From Equation 5-31, zone length is given by;
h, - (297.7)(7. 198)',.1[(1,642.36)''''''(100)' ....) _ 7.094 It
where i represents the interval. In addition. the total cycle time constraint
must also be satisfied:
(5-36)
t.,-t.",+t8+ t C:+ t O
where
QI
The total heat load is the sum of the heat absorbed by desiccant, hydrocarbon, vessel shell, inert balls, hydrocarbon desorption, and water. Thus.
the total heat load, QA. is givcn by;
248
Q. . -
+ mlbclb(T2
T I) +
ffiHCHHC
m .. c..(T2 -
T I)
Til
(S-37)
249
As before, the term for heat absorbed by the vessel shell is multiplied by 0.7
if the ..-,essel is insulated. Energy a..-ailable from the regeneration gas, Ec, is
given by:
(5-42)
Cooling from T4 to Ts (lntert:al D in Fig""' 5-401
The total coolin~ load is the sum of the cooling requirements for desiccant, vessel shell, and inert balls. only. Thus. the total cooling load. Qo. is
given by:
(S-38 )
As before, the term for the vessel shell is multiplied by 0.7 if the vessel is
insulated. Assuming that the cooling gas rate is the same as the regeneration
gas rate, cooling available, E[), is given by:
(S-43)
(S-44)
I/eatj"gjro'" T2 to T3 Untf'rOOl B jll Figure 5-40)
The total heat load is the sum of the heat absorbed bv desiccant water
water desorption, \.:essel shell. and inert balls. Thus. the total heat l~ad, Qs:
is given by:
Q8 - m<!Cd(T 3 - T i ) + m"c..(TJ - T 2) + m... H"
+ m,c.(T 3 - T i ) + m;bc,b(TJ - T~)
(S-39)
where the heat of desorption of water, H", is usually taken to be 1,400 Btu
Ibm for alumina and gels, and 1,800 Btullbm for molecular sieves. As be.
fore, the term for heat absorbed by the vessel shell is multiplied by 0.7 if the
vessel is insulated. Energy available from the regeneration gas, Ea. is given
by:
(S-40)
I-Ieatingfrom 1'3 to T4 (lntert:al C ill Figure 540)
In this final cleanup step, the total heat load is the sum of the heat abo
sorbed by desiccant, vessel shell. and inert ball~, only. Thus, the total heat
load, Qc . is given by:
(S-4I )
In Equation 5--44, the unknown parameters are the regeneration gas rate,
m<i' and the lengths of time intervals, tA, ta. te, and to. a total of 5 unknowns. The number of equations are also 5: four for the heat balances, and
Equation 5--36, which imposes the total cycle time constraint. For a given
cycle time 4, a solution is thus possible.
Nonnally, however, the maximum heat load occurs in the interval B, and
the minimum regeneration gas rate m" is chosen on this basis. The minimum regeneration gas flow rate and water adsorption capacity must be
enough to handle the water desorbed from the bed in time tB' Therefore:
(S-4S)
where
Wt
total water removed per cycle from the gas being dehydrated, Ibm
\V TB, W TI - water contents of the regeneration gas at temperatures
T Band T I, respectively, Ibm waterfMMscf gas
M.. _ molecular weight of the regeneration gas (usually the
same as the gas being dehydrated)
_
Generally, the regeneration gas rate is about 10% of the main gas flow
rate. The entering gas must be heated from a temperature Tl to T H, which is
chosen in the range 400-6(X)F. Temperature T4 must be kept as low as possible, and is generally in the range 350_500F, less than TH by 5O~100F
250
(usually 1001'). Tf; and T3 are generally equal to 230F and 260 G F. Values
for specific heats needed in regeneration calculations are as follows:
Component
Alumina
0.06
Silica gel
Molecular sieves
Liquid water
0.22
0.05
1.0
0.12
V~I )h~1l
The heater load consists of heating requirements for the regeneration ,2;a ...
Thus, the heater load, QII in Btu/hr can be written as:
A condenser is used to cool the regeneration gas after it comes out throu,I{h
the adsorber bed. This cooling is done in order to separate the condensable
components picked up by the regeneration gas from the desiccant bed. Cool.
ing loads should be calculated for all the three inten'als, and the conclcnS('r
251
allowed to form at this second stage (choke), and are collected in a low
::perature separator (LTX). In the LTX unit, the gas entrapped in ~e hyd tes is recovered using heating coils to heat the hydrates. These COils are
o;~ used as precoolers for the gas stream: the gas passes throu~ the i~id.e
f the cOils, providing enough heat to melt the hydrates. That IS why It IS
:.oportant to ensure that no hydrates are expected to form a.t this precooli?g
stage for the gas. Also, mist eliminators must never be used In the LTX umt.
since they may be plugged by hydrates.
When hydrate inhibitors are used, the process is similar. except that the
heating/cooling coils are no longer necessary. and are replaced by a gas expansion valve.
1. What are gas hydrates? List the factors that promote hydrate formation.
2. List three methods for preventing hydrate formation at wellsites.
3. Name three different types of solid dcsiccant~ used for natural gas dehydration.
4. A sour gas at 1000 psia has the following analysis: N1 = 8.5%.
H2S - 5.4%, CO 2 - 0.5%. C 1 - 77.6%. C 2 ,.. 5.8%, C 3 = 1.9 %, 11C~ .. 0.1%, i-C... 0.1%. and i-C$ '"" 0.1%. What is the water content of this gas at 120F? Use all the methods applicable and compare
the results.
5. For the sour gas given in Problem 4, determine the hydrate formation
temperature. Use all the methods applicable and compare the results.
6. A TEG dehydration plant is to be designed to dry the follov.-ing gas:
N2 - 1.7%, CO 2 ,,,, 0.3%, C 1 - 65.5%. C~ .. 16.6 %, C 3 = 8.8%, nCo( - 3.0%, i-C. - 1.6 '7~, and f-C s " 0.9%. 1I-C 5 " 0.9 %.
eft" 0.5 %, and C,. - 0.2%. The c,. fraction has a molecular
weight of 140 and specific heat or 70 Btu/Ibm-OF at 300F. Other relevant data arc as follows:
252
Contactor diameter.
Maximum gas rate that can flow in the system.
The actual number of trays needed in the oontactor.
Sensible heat required for the glycol, Btu/hr.
Heat of vaporization required for the water, Btu/hr.
(f) Heat required to va}Xlrize reflux water in the still, Btu/hr.
(g) Reboiler heat load, Btu/hr, assuming heat loss '"' 5000 Btu/hr.
253
Campbell. J. M., 1984b. Cas Conditioning and Processing, Vol. 2. Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, Oklahoma, 398pp.
Carson, D. B. and Katz, D. L., 1942. "Natural Cas Hydrates," 1)-a1lS..
AIME. 146. 150-158.
Chemical Engineers'Uandbook. 1984. R. H. Perry and D. W. Green (eds.),
~1cCraw.Hill Book Co . r\'e\\ York. 6th ed . pp. 13-27 to 13-35.
Edmister, W. C. and Lee. B. I.. 1984. Applied Hydrocarbon Thermodynamics. Vol. I (2nd ed.). Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas.
233pp.
Galloway. T. J.. Ruska. \V. Chappelear. P. S.. and Kobayashi, R., 1970.
"Experimental Measurement of Hydrate Numbers for Methane and
Ethane and Comparison with Theoretical Values: Ind. & Eng. Chern.
Fund., 9(2. May), 237 - 243.
Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1981. Engineering Data Book, 9th ed.
(5th revision), GPSA, Tulsa. Oklahoma.
Guenther, J. D., 1979. "Natural Gas Dehydration,' Paper presented at Seminar on Process Equipment and Systems on Treatment Platforms, Taastrup. Denmark, April 26.
Heinze, E, 1971. "Hydratbildung," Lehrbogen 3.13 von der Bergakademie
Freiberg.
Holder, G. D. and Hand. J. H., 1982. "Multiple-Phase Equilibria in Hy
drates from Methane, Ethane. Propane and Water Mixtures," AIChE J.,
28(3, May), 440-447.
lkoku, C. U., 1984. Natural Cas Prodllction Engineering. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 517pp.
Katz, D. L., Cornell, D., Kobayashi. R .. Poettmann, E H., Vary, J. A.,
Elenbaas, J. R., and Weinaug. C. F., 1959. Handbook oj Natural Cas
Engineering. McGrawHiII Book Co., Inc .. New York, 802pp.
McCarthy, E. L.. Boyd, W. L., and Reid, L. S.. 1950. "The Water Va}Xlr
Content of Essentially Nitrogen-Free Natural Cas Saturated at Various
Conditions of Temperature and Pressure," Trans. AIME, 189, 241- 243.
McKetta, J. J. and Wehe. A. H . 1958. "Use This Chart for Water Content
of Natural Gases," Petr. Refiner, 37(8, Aug.), 153-154.
McLeod, H. 0., Jr. and Campbell, J. M .. 1961. "Natural Cas Hydrates at
Pressures to 10,000 Psia," J. Pet. Tech .. 13(6, June), 590-594.
Nagata, I. and Kobayashi, R, 1966. "Prediction of Dissociation Pressures of
Mixed Cas Hydrates From Data for Hydrates of Pure Cases with Water,"
Ind. & Eng. Chern. Fllnd., 5(4, Nov.), 466-469.
Ng, H. J. and Robinson, D. B., 1976. "The Measurement and Prediction of
Hydrate Formation in Liquid Hydrocarbon-Water Systems,' Ind. & Eng.
Chern. Fund., 15(4, Nov.), 293-298.
254
ess $Ign
Petrol.eum Extension Senice, 1972. Field Handling oj Natural Gas. 3rd ed .,
Urn\". of Thus Press. Austin. Texas. 143pp.
Robinson. O. B. and 1'\g, H. J . 1975. "Improve H\"drate Predictions" Hydraco Proc., 54(12. Dec.). 95-9:;'
.
.
R~~inson, J. N . Wichert. E .. :\foore. R. G .. and Heidemann. R. A.. 19ih
Charts
.
Content of
.
Sharma, and Cam~~Il.' J. M .. 1984. Unpublished. Cited reference on p.
143 10: Gas CondltlOlIIng and PrOCessing. Vol. 1, by J. M. Campbell.
. Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, Oklahoma, 326pp.
Slm~n, E. A. and Cummings. W P., 1964. "A Practical Way to Predict
. SIlica Gel Performance," Chem. Engr. Prog .. 60 (4, Apr.), 57 60.
Slva.U.s. ~. R., 1976. "Glycol Dehydrator Design Manual." Proc. Gas CUll
dltlomng Conf.. Univ. of Oklahoma, 39pp.
Trekell. R. E. and Campbell, 1. M., 1966. "Prediction of the Behavior of
Hydrocarbon Clathrate Solutions." Proc. 151st Meet. of Am. Chern. Soc ..
Petr. Chern. Oiv., Pittsburg, Penn .. March 23-26, p. 61.
Van der Waals. J. H. and Platteeuw, J. C., 1959. "Clathrate Solutions" Advances in ~?~mical Physics, Vol. 2, edited by I. Prigogine. Inte~ience
Pub!., a diVISion of John Wiley & Sons, New York, I-57.
6
Desulfurization Processes
Introduction
With i.ncreasing demands for natural gas, natural gases containing hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) are also being tapped for utilization after purification.
Natural gases containing H 2S are classified as "sour." and those that are
H 2S-free are called "sweet" in processing practice. Produced gases from reservoirs usually contain HzS in concentrations ranging from barely detectable quantities to more than 0.30% (3,000 ppm). Other sulfur derivatives,
besides H 2S, are usually completely insignificant or present only in trace
proportions. Most contracts for the sale of natural gas require less than 4
ppm (parts per million) in the gas. Thus, a sulfur removal process must be
very precise since the initial product contains only a small fractional quantity of suUur that must be reduced several hundred times.
A characteristic feature of all H 2S -bearing natural gases is the presence of
carbon dioxide (C0 2), the concentrations of which are generally in the
range of 1 to 4 %. In gases devoid of HzS. however, such concentrations are
rare. HzS and CO 2 are commonly referred to as "acid gases" because they
form acids or acidic solutions in the presence of water.
Reasons for Removal of HzS and CO 2
Besides emitting a foul odor at low concentrations, H 2S is deadly poisonous and at concentrations above 600 ppm it ca n be fatal in just three to five
minutes. Its toxicity is comparable to cyanide. Thus, it cannot be tolerated
in gas that would be used as domestic fuel. Further, H 2S is corrosive to all
metals normally associated with gas transporting, processing, and handling
systems (although it is less corrosive to stainless steel), and may lead to premature failure of most such systems. On combustion, it forms sulfur dioxide,
255
256
which is also highly toxic and corrosive. HzS and other sulfur compounds
can also cause catalyst poisoning in refinery prOCt'!SSeS.
CO 2 has no heating value and its removal may be required in some instances merely to increase the energy content of the gas per unit volume.
CO. removal may also be required because it forms a complex. C02CO~.
which is quite corrosive in the pre;ence of water. For gas being sent to cryogenic plants, removal of CO z may be necessary to pre\'ent solidification of
the CO~. Both the acid gases, H2S and CO!. promote hydrate (ormation ,
and thfO p~n('f' nf (:0; may not be desired for this reason also. However. if
none of these situations are encountered, there is no need to remove CO
Removal Processes
cesses.
2. Regenerative processes with recovery as HzS. These include the physical absorption processes (water wash, Selexol, F1uor solvent, etc.). the
amine processes (MEA, DEA, DCA, etc.), hot carbonate processes
(Benfield, Catacarb), Alkazid processes, molecular sieves, etc.
3. Regenerative processes with recovery as elemental sulfur. The HolmesStretford process, and the Ciammarco-Vetroooke process fall in this
category. With growing environmental concerns regarding sulfur
emission, these processes have acquired a prominent role in desulfur.
ization operations.
DesulJumation Proca&et/
257
1. The types and concentrations of impurities in the gas, and the degree
of removal desired.
2. Selectivity of acid gas removal required, if any.
3. Temperature and pressure at which the sour gas is available, and at
which the sweet gas is to be delivered.
4. Volume of the gas to be processed, and its hydrocarbon composition.
5. CO2 to H 2S ratio in the gas.
6. Economics of the process.
7. The desirability of sulfur recovery due to environmental problems, or
economics.
Besides CO 2 and HzS, some gases may contain other sulfur derivatives
such as mercaptans and carbonyl sulfide. The presence of such impurities
may eliminate some of the sweetening processes. The concentrations of acid
components are important to consider. Some processes effectively remove
large amounts of acid gas, but not to low enough le"eis. Others remove to
ultra-low values, but cannot handle large amounts of acid components in
the incoming stream economically.
Selectivity of a process implies the degree of removal of one acid gas component relative to another. Some processes remove both H 2S and CO 2 , while
others are designed to selectively remove only HzS. Generally, it is important
to consider the selectivity of a process for H 2S versus CO 2 to ensure desired
extent of removal of these components. For this reason. CO 2 to H 2S ratio in
the gas is also an important parameter.
Operating conditions affect the performance of several sweetening processes. Also, different processes discharge the sweetened gas stream at different pressure and temperature levels relative to the conditions of the incoming stream. Thus, the inlet and outlet conditions desired are significant
Variables to consider. It may be economic in some cases to alter inflow conditions to suit the process, and outflow conditions to meet pipeline requirements.
Some processes are economic for large gas volumes, while others lose their
economic advantage when large volumes of gas are to be treated. Cas com-
260
DemljurlUltioll PrOCes8n
l~
~:'" ,m"""~
na"E
4-
'"
~
<=
tOO"I~
ttEATIN,!,
11,1,1(11
ir
4_WilT
1'"
VALVE
C'"
'?
f<
261
corrosion and fouling problems are generally minimal. These processes offer
fair to good selectivity. The solvent used is generally recovered by flashing
the acid component-rich solvent (called rich solvent) in flash tanks at successively lower pressures. Thus, little or no heat is required for regeneration or
other purposes. But a sulfur recovery unit is required since these pr~ do
not alter the acid components chemically in an)' manner. Some processes in
this category offer simultaneous dehydration. Most solvents currently in use
have a relatively high solubility for heavier hydrocarbons. particularly unsaturated and aromatic components. These components are very detrimental to the performance of most sulfur reco...ery processes and may yield an
unsuitable, contaminated sulfur as the product. So, for sour gases containing heavy hydrocarbons (heptanes plus) or unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons. particular care must be taken during the regeneration step to prevent their entry into the acid gas stream that is to be sent to a sulfur recovery
unit.
Water Wash (Aquasorption) Process
.?
Figure 61. Flowsheet for a molecular sieve desulfurization process. (After Fails
and Harris, 1960; courtesy 01 Oil & Gas Journsl.)
Besides regeneration losses. gas is also lost by the adsorption of hydrocarbon components by the sieve. Unsaturated hydrocarbon components such as
olerin~ and aromatics tend to be strongly adsorbed (Conviser, 1965). Molecwar Sle\-~ are also prone to poisoning by several chemicals such as glycols
and reqUire ~horough ~as cleaning methods prior to the adsorption step. The
process reqUires a cyclic operation, since it is batch-type, with a cycle time
0." the order of 2 hours. Initial capital investments are high, and regenerahon reqUires a lot of heat. For gas streams containing CO 2 carbonyl sulfide
may form as shown in the following reversible reaction:
This process is effective for high pressure gas, with high acid gas content
and high H 2S to CO 2 ratio. According to Maddox (1982), a water wash operation followed by an amine process is 12 to 15% lower in capital investment, and ahout 50 % lower in operating expenses as compared to a Single
amine unit for an equivalent sweetening job. For gases \\:i.th a high HzS to
CO 2 ratio, the saving5 can be as much as 40 % in investment, and 60 to 70 %
in operating costs.
In the water wash sweetening process, sour gas is sent upward through a
contactor, countercurrent to the water (see Figure 6-2). The partially sweetened gas from the top of the to\... er is sent to further treatment units (typically, an amine unit). The rich water solution from the bottom of the tower
is sent to an intermediate pressure flash tank for recovery of dissolved hydrocarbons. A power recover)' turbine is provided for repressurizing the water
before sending it to a low pressure flash tank where all of the acid gas is
removed, and the lean water obtained is recycled.
Froning et al. (1964) presented calculation procedure:; for estimating the
performance of a water wash and provide data required for such calculations. Their results show that HzS is about three times more soluble in water
than CO 2 , thereby showing that the selectivity of the process is quite good.
Selexol Process
This process uses dimethyl ether of polyethylene glycol (DMPEG) as a solvent. Solubilities in Selexol solvent of HzS and CO 2 and other acid gas com-
258
position should also be considered. since some processes are adversely affected by the presence of heavier fractions. while others may strip the gas of
some of its hydrocarbon constituents.
The desirability of reco\"eringsulfur as e1ementaJ sulfur reduces the choice
considerably. Processes with sulfur recovery have become very important in
America. and will become so worldwide in the near future due to environmental problems caused by sulfur emissions. Sulfur is a useful by.product.
~enerally in good demand by the fertilizer and chemicals industry. Thert...
fort'. in <;t>veral in-.tanCf'S. rulfur recovery may be aUracth'e from an economic standpoint also.
Demlfunzation Processes
259
The temperature must be kept at less than 120F. According to Kohl and
Riesenfeld (1985), temperatures above 120F and neutral or acid condition_\
lead to the loss of the water of crystallization of the ferric oxide. The bed
then becomes very diHicult to regenerate. Iron o~de is regenerated by passing oxygen/air over the bed:
The process operates in a batch-type reaction-regeneration cycle. Regeneration of the bed, however, is quite difficult and incurs excessive maintenance and operating costs. Also, sulfur eventually covers most of the surface
of the ferric o~de particles and further regeneration becomes impossible. A
continuous regeneration process has also been developed, where small
amounts of oxygen or air are added along with the sour gas at the inlet. This
262
.'
ponents are directly proportiona1 to the partial pressures of these components. The solubility of H 2S is about 10 times greater than CO 2 and
hydrocarbon solubility is quite small. Heavier hydrocarbons. however, have
greater solubility. and intermediate flashe> are generally required for hydrocarbon remO\:al,
263
De!tIljurizotlon Processes
~
:~;.
-~:;
-->:
---
tlAO IRf'IQ.
-n
..i
I
..1
i~
h
.-l
,lI ~
L .JII""
"--'~j
)
( '''-~"
'"'~
'. '<C.
Figure 6-3. Selexol'" based plant for a low H2S to CO 2 ratio gas. (After Raney,
1976: reprinted from Hydrocarbon Processing.)
Figure 6-2. A typical water wash process. (After Froning at aI., 1964: reprinted
from Hydrocarbon Processing.)
Amine Type
Chem. Formula
MEA
DEA
TEA
DCA
DIPA
MDEA
HOC~ H..NH J
( H O~ H .ltN n
( H OCJH.)~
II(OCtll.l,.\lll t
( HOC~I.),.\l 11
(HOC 2 H.hNCH,
Mol. Wt.
61.08
iOS.14
148.19
lOS. 14
133.19
119.17
Yap. Presa .,
100-F, mm Hg
Ret C.paclty
LOS
0_058
0_0063
100
0.160
0.010
0.0061
58
,I
58
46
51
Dewljurlzotion PrOCf!:SM!Jl
important properties for these six alkanol-amines. Among these, MEA and
DEA processes are the most widely used.
MEA has the highest reactivity, and therefore the highest acid gas removal capacity, and the lowest molecular weight among the amines. Therefore, it offers the highest removal capacity on a unit weight or unit volume
basis, which implies lower solution circulation rates in a sweetening plant.
MEA is chemically stable (minimal solution degradation). The reaction rate
of HtS with MEA is greater than that of CO 2 . The process, however, is con
~idered to be almost non-selective in its removal capacity for HzS and CO~.
because even the slower reacting CO 2 is rapidly and almost completely re
moved. MEA is able to remove acid gases to pipeline specifications, and
even beyond.
MEA, however, suffers from relatively high solution losses primarily due
to two reasons: it has a relatively high vapor pressure that causes greater
vaporization losses. and it reacts irreversibly with carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide. High vaporization losses put a limitation on the operating
temperatures, which must be kept low. whereas the reactions leading to
buildup of solids necessitate efficient filtration schemes.
DEA is quite similar to MEA. except it is not as reactive, so H 2S removal
to pipeline specifications may cause problems in some cases: its reactions
with carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide are slower and lead to different
products, so filtration problems are less: and its vapor pressure is lower.
therefore vaporization losses are less. Thus. DEA can be advantageous to use
in some cases.
TEA has been almost totally replaced by MEA and DEA, primarilv because it has lesser reactivity and problems are encountered in sweetenin'g the
gas to pipeline specifications. DCA has found application in recent vears. It
has the same reactivity as DEA, and a reasonably low \'apor pressu~. DlPA
is also able to treat gas to pipeline specifications, and is used in the Sulfinol
process by Sheil, and the AOlP process. MDEA has received renewed attention because it has a fairly good ~Iectivity for H 2S, so CO 2 can be retained in
the gas: and it offers some energy saving in the regeneration step. MDEA,
however, may not be commercially competitive with other amine processes
(Maddox. 1982).
Solution Concentrations and Reactions
For MEA, an appro:timately 15% concentration (by weight) solution is
generally used. DEA is used in 20-30% or more concentration. DlPA and
MDEA are typically used in 30-50% concentration in aqueous solution,
while DCA is used in the 40-70 % by weight concentration range.
Some plants use a mixture of a glycol and an amine for simultaneous dehydration and desulfurization. Generally. a solution containing 10 to 30'?',
265
The problems encountered arc also quite similar, though in a more severe
form. Some such problems are corrosion, foaming, solution losses. and poor
solution filtering. There are other problems relating to the high vapor pressure of MEA. Solution loading, that is, the amount or level of liquid MEA in
the contactor, is critical. The exothermic reactions in the contactor coupled
with the low boiling point of MEA make solution loading a difficult problem. The presence of sulfur intensifies the corrosion problems by introducing
stress corrosion.
266
DelU1JuriUltion Processes
u_.
.................
.........
..... -
.........
~.
__
...
......
.......- .
_"00'
.........
.......
..-......
~
,.
:1.:;1','1" ......
~-'Il'i-"'-"f '
......-
--..,.1+-+--,
,,~
.,".......... .
. .............
267
absorb approximately 3.5 to 4.5 seC acid gas per gallon of solution. This can
be used to determine the MEA circu1ation rate in a preliminary design .
Besides its performance, the location of the filtering system is critical to
plant operation (Curry, 1981). An efficient filtration will generally reduce
foaming, corrosion , and fouling of mechanical equipment. Remember that
most filtration problems resu1t not from the failure of the filtration system,
but from inefficient gas cleaning. Full-flow filtration is most desirable, although some plants use side-stream filtration where only a part of the stream
is filtered. Iron suUide (FeS) is the most common solid in MEA systems that
requires filtration. Diatomaceous earth (DE) filters are commonly used to
enable removal of particulate matter up to almost I micron. Another commonly used filter is the disposable element type, but it is quite expensive and
used only where severe problems warrant its usage. Usually a secondary filtration system is installed in paraliel to enable crossover and allow time for
cleaning Of removing a used filter.
Figure 64. A comparison of a MEA and DGA system lor treating 100 MMscfd of
natural gas. (After Olngman and Moore, 1968; reprinted from Hydrocarbon Processing.)
A typical process flow scheme is shown in Figure 6-4. There are several
variations, such as the location of the Hltering system , using a packed column instead of bubble-cap or valve-type trays in the contactor and the stripper, etc. A side-stream reclaimer mayor may not be used. The design of heat
exchange and reflux systems var)'.
Sour gas is sent upward through the contactor tower, countercurrent to
the flow of MEA . The rich solution from the bottom of the contactor is sent
to a flash tank where absorbed hydrocarbon gas in solution is vented. A retention time of about 2 minutes is usually sufficient. The flash tank also
serves as a sediment accumulator and provisions must be made for sediment
removal. After passing through a heat exchange with lean solution (which
preheats this rich solution), the rich solution enters the top of the stripper
where it is stripped by steam that is generated by the reboiler. Outcomin~
steam from the top of the stripper is sent to a condensing unit to recover
MEA liquid in a reflux accumulator. The acid gases re1eased at this stage are
flared off. The liquid accumulated in the relux is sent to the regenerative
system. Lean MEA accumu1ated at the bottom of the stripper is continuously recircu1ated through the reboiler.
In the contactor (also called absorber), almost 90% of the acid gases are
removed within the first three trays at the bottom. The reactions being exothermic, this resu1ts in high temperatures in the contactor in this region.
Usually a 20 % (by \\-eight) MEA solution is used in the contactOf, which can
3. Ciammarco-Vetrocoke-for CO2 removal, arsenic trioxide most commonly used; sclenous acid and tellurous acid are also used. For H 2S
removal, alkaline arsenites and arsenates (usually KH 2As0 3 and
KH 2AsO t ) used.
The Ciammarco-Vetrocoke (C-V) process is an important development.
There are several C-V processes for different applications. There is one process for the removal of C02t another for a highly selective H 2S removal and
268
subsequent sulfur recovery, and still another for the removal of both HzS
and CO 2 _
The G-V CO 2 process offers substantial savings in steam consumption for
solution regeneration. The arsenic trioxide inhibits corrosion, and the solution is therefore usually non-corrosive in nature. As for most conventional
carbonate processes, impurities such as carbon disulfide, mercaptans, carlxmyl sulfide, etc., have no detrimental effects on the solution. Jenett (1962)
presented data on the performance of a G- V plant and concluded that it
functioned satisfactorily with minimal problems.
The G-V process for HzS removal produces elemental sulfur of high purity as the by-product. It is a flexible process, and by suitably selecting the
pH of the solution, the arsenite and arsenate content, and the operating conditions, the process can be made to be highly selective for H~ or remO\e
both H~ and CO 2, There are no problems of corrosion, solution degradation, solution foaming, or carryover. The economics of the process are also
quite good (Riesenfeld and Mullowney, 1959). and it can reduce H 2S content
to less than 1 ppm. The process, however, is not able to handle gas streams
with H 2S concentrations greater than 1.5% (jenett, 1962).
Another carbonate process in acth'e use is the Alkazid process. There are
three different alkazid solutions, and consequently. three different processe<i
in this category. Alkazid DIK uses the potassium salt of diethyl glycine or
dimethyl glycine. It is used for the selective removal of H 2S from gases that
contain both H 2S and CO~. Alkazid M uses sodium alanine and is effectivc
in removing both H~ and CO 2 , Alkazid S uses a sodium phenolate mixture
and is applicable to gases containing impurities such as carbon disulfide,
mercaptans, HCN, etc.
Deroljurizotion Processe$
269
..
Sevcra) possible additives have been tested to Increase the solutIOn capacity for hydrogen sulfide and the rate of conversion of .hyd~osulfide .to elemental sulfur. Alkali vanadates proved to be outstandmg In reducmg hydrosulfide to sulfur. with a ~imullaneous ,alence change of vanadium from five
to four. In the presence of ADA. the vanadate solution can be regenerated to
a five valence state. The reduced ADA is easily oxidized by air.
The circulated solution (also called Stretford solution) consists of chemicals in a dilute water solution as follows:
1. Sodium salt of 2,7 ADA. The 2,7 isomer is preferred over 2,6 because
(6-1)
(6-2)
(6-4)
The absorption rate of H~ in solution (Equation 6-1) is favored by high
pH, whereas the conversion to elemental sulfur (Equation 6-2) is adversely
affected by pH values abo"e 9.5. Therefore, the process is best operated
\\.ithin a pH range of 8.5 to 9.5.
270
DestllJurizatiml Processes
..............
-"/._-,., ..
--
- " /...-
,.....
Thiosulfate formation may be due to the fact that NaHS has not reacted
with the vanadate (because of insufficient time in the absorber) and there
fore is carried to the oxidizer to react with oxygen there. If there is air in the
feed gas, some of the undesired material can be formed in the contactor itself. High temperature and pH also favor thiosulfate formation. The di~
solved solids such as thiosulfate are allowed to build up in the solution to
concentrations upwards of 250,0CI0 ppm. It may take a year or longer after
plant startup to reach this level. At these high concentrations, disposal b~
purging in"olvC$ very little of the active chemical, and hence chemical usage
is kept low.
The effluent stream from the Stretford process, containing sodium
thiosulfate and in some cases sodium thiocyanate, must be treated prior to
discharge. Holmes developed four alternative methods to handle effluents
from this process: evaporation or spray drying, biological degradation, oxidative combustion, and reductive incineration. Of these, the reductive incineration process is the most common since it results in a zero effluent discharge, with all the products from the step being recyclable. The reductive
incineration process cracks the bleed liquor containing sodium thiosulfate
into a gas stream containing H2.S and CO 2 and a liquid stream containing
reduced vanadium salts, all of which are recycled.
271
~I'"
"... / 10
UI " .."" ..
Figure 6-5. Flowsheet for HolmesStratford process. (After Vasan, 1978; courtesy of Oil & Gas Journal.)
Figure 6-5 shows the process flow scheme. In the gas absorption section,
gas is first subjected to the inlet scrubber unit to remove any liquids and contaminants that may be detrimental to the process. A venturi-type absorber is
used, instead of the conventional packed bed type, to reduce the size of the
absorption unit and achie\'e a better degree of absorption since it provides a
larger surface area for mass transfer. The outlet scrubber prevents carryover
of any entrained Stretford solution in the gas into the sales gas stream.
The reduced solution from the bottom of the absorber is first piped
through a flash drum in the oxidation section. F1ash vapors may be used as
incinerator fuel , or returned to compressor station and mixed with sweetened gas. Liquid from the flash drum is sent to the oxidation tank where air
from the blowers contacl~ the liquid at the vessel bottom, and sulfur froth is
isolated at the surface. The oxidized Stretford solution goes to the circulation
pump and to the surge tank for recirculation to the absorber.
The sulfur processing section includes a slurry tank and an autoclave for
melting sulfur. Molten sulfur from the bottom of the autoclave is cooled,
flaked. and finally bagged for storage and shipment. The clear Stretford solvent is scnt to the effluent treatment section.
272
DerolfuriUltion Processes
...
I \Vhy must H 2S be removed from natural gas? Give at least three reasons.
2. Why is it necessary to remove CO 2 ? In what cases is CO 2 removal not
necessary?
3. What types of desulfurization processes are available for natural gas?
What factors are important in selecting the applicable process?
4. Compare the iron-sponge and molecular sieve desulfurization processes.
5. In what cases arc the physical absorption processes useful?
6. Why are chemical absorption pr~ the most widely used desulfuriza
tion processes?
7. Compare the alkanol-amine and carbonate processes.
8. Which of the processes described in this chapter hold the most promising
future? Why?
References
Batt, W. T., Vaz, R. N., Rahman, M., Mains, C. H., and Maddox, R. N.,
1980. Cas Conditioning ConJerence, Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
Conviser, S. A., 1965. "Molecular Sieves Used to Remove Mercaptans From
Natural Cas," O. & Cas J., 63 (49, Dec. 6), 130-133.
Curry. R. N., 1981. Fundamentals oj Natural Gas Conditioning. PennWell
Publishing Company, Thlsa, Oldahoma, 118 pp.
Dingman, J. C. and Moore, T. E. 1968. "Compare DCA and MEA
Sweetening Methods," Hydr. Proc., 47 (7, July) , 138-140.
Duckworth, G. L. and Geddes, J. H., 1965. "Natural Gas Desulfurized by
the IronSponge Process," O. & Cas]., 63 (37, Sept. 13),94-96.
Fails, J. C. and Harris. W. D., 1960. "PracticaJ Way to Sweeten NaturaJ
Gas," O. & Cas 1.,58 (28, July 11), 8&-90.
273
Froning, H. R., Jacob); R. H., and Richards. W. L., 1964. "New K-Oata
Show Value of Water Wash," lIydr. Proc. & Petro Ref, 43 (4, Apr.), 125-
Heg.
- ...er, A. M. and Harris, R. A., 1970. "Selexol Solves High HzS/C0 2
problem," Hydr. Pmc., 49 (4, Apr.), 103--104.
Jenett, E., 1962. "Six Case Studies Throw Light on t~e Giammarco-Vetrocoke Process," O. & Cas I .. 60 (l8. Apr. 30), 72--71.
Kohl, A. L. and Riesenfeld, F. C .. 1985. Gas Purijication'4th ed., Culf
Publi.o.hing Co .. Houston, Texas. RtO pp.
Kresse, T. J., Lindsey, E. E .. and Wadleigh, T., 1981. "Stretford Plants
proving Reliable," 0. & Gas J., i9 (2. Jan . 12),80-87.
Maddox, R. N., 1982. Gas Couditioning and Processing - Vol. 4: Cas alld
Liquid Sweelellillg/ 3rd ed., edited by J. M. Campbell, Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, Oklahoma, 370 pp.
Manning, \V. P., 1979. Chemsweet. A New Process for Sweetening LowValue Sour Cas," 0. & Cas /., 77 (42, Oct. 15), 122-124.
Moyes, A. J. and Wilkinson, J. S .. 1974. "Development of the Holmes-Stretford Process," Tile C1Jemicaf Eugineer (Brit.), No. 282 (Feb. ), 84-90.
Nicklin, T. and Hughes, D . 1978. "Removing HzS From Cases and Liquids," Chern. Abst., 88, 9427601.
Nicklin, T., Riesenfeld, F. C .. and VaelJ, R. P., 1973. "The Application of
the Stretford Process to the Purification of Natural Cas," Paper presented
at the 12th World Gas Conference, Nice, France, June 1973.
O. & Cas I., 1981. "New Cas-Sweetening Process Offers Economical Alternative," 79 (35, Aug. 31), 60-62.
Ouwerkerk, C., 1978. "Design for Selective H 2S Absorption," Hydr. Proc.,
57 (4, Ap'.), 89-94.
Rahman, M ., 1982. Ph.D. Thesis. Oklahoma State Univ. (May, 1982), Oldahoma.
Raney, D. R., 1976. "Remove Carbon Dioxide With Selexol," Hydr. Proc.,
55 (4, Ap'. ), 73-75.
Riesenfeld, F. C. and Mullowney, J. F.. 1959. Proc. 38th Ann. NCPA Meet.,
April 22-24.
Rushton , D. W. and Hays, W., 1961. "Selective Adsorption to Remove
H,S;' O. & Gas /. , 59 (38, Sept. 18), 102-103.
Sun, Y-C., 1980. "Packed Beds for Best SulFur Removal," Hydr. Proc., 59
(10, Oct.) , 99-102.
Taylor, D. K., 1956. "How to Desulfurize Natural Gas," O. & Cas}., multiple issues of Vol. 54: Nov. 5, p.I2S: Nov. 19, p.2oo; Dec. 3, p.139; Dec.
la, p.147.
274
type<.
-0
275
276
Thus, on a unit mass basis, the energy balance for a fluid under steady-state
flow conditions can be written as:
dv' g
dU + - + - dz + d(pY) + dQ - dw, - 0
2g, g,
(7- 1)
T<h - - dQ + clio
where I", is the lost work due to irreversibilities such as friction.
F .. mgll<. In metric (Of 51) units, IN .. (1 kg)(9.8 mlsec")Ig.., implying that g.. .. 9.8 kgm:
(t-; secI) .. 1 NN. In British units, 1 Ibf .. (I Ibm)(32.17 h /secf)I g.., Implying that
g.. .. 32.17 Ibm fti/lbf sec-t).
277
(7-2)
(7-3)
All the terms in Equation 7-3 have units of pressure. Equation 7-3 can also
be written as:
6p + p11v' + (glg,)ptu + p61. - 0
2g,
.6p
(7-4)
2g,
where .6p, represents the pressure drop due to friction , and is dependent
upon the prevailing flow conditions.
Types of Single-Phase Flow Regimes and Reynolds Number
Four types of single-phase flow are possible: laminar, critical, transit.ion,
and turbulent (see Figure 7-1). Reynolds applied dimension~1 anal}~IS. to
flow phenomena, and concluded that the flow regime that will prevaillS a
function of the following dimensionless group known as the Reynolds number, NRe:
(7-5)
<1", defined as
278
d" ,..
279
(7-6)
,;
Wetted perimeter - 4a
Thus,
-'0
d"
4(a 2 /4a) - a
r(d.,;
rltz,,)
+ clIO)
.i
'" ~
Th verify the applicability of this approach, consider the case of a pipe with
a circular cross section of diameter d:
(7-7)
For gases, the flow rate is commonly expressed in Mscfd (thousands of standard cubic feet per day). This volumetric rate, q.., (Mscfd), at standard conditions of pressure (p"", psia) and temperature (T"", OR) . can be converted
into mass flow rate, m in Ibm/sec, as follows:
m _ Avp -
(I,OOOq,.)Mp. _ (3.1243
(24)(3,600)z.,RT.
IO-')(q.h,p.
T.
As shown in the Moody friction factor chart (Figure 7-1), flow regime is
related to Reynolds number as follows:
where
~ow
vp - (4)(3.1243 x 1O")q.>,p..,l(T.~d')
- (3.9780 x 1O")q.>,p..,l(f.d')
Substituting for vp in Equation 7-9 for NR~:
Generally, d is used in inches for most gas flow equations. For d in inches,
N Re becomes:
No. _ 7l0.39(p.(p';a)IT.(OR)]q.(Mscfdh.
d(;n.) -<Cp)
14.4
14.65
14.73
15.025
T." oR
520
520
520
520
(60F)
(60F)
(60F)
(60F)
71O.39 2..,1T.
19.672
20.014
20.123
20.526
Thus, for most practical applications, the Reynolds number for a gas is
given by:
rote it, very important
<2,000
2,000-3,000
3,000-4,000 (m 10,000)
>4.000 (0' 10,000)
Friction to flow through a pipe is affected by pipe-wall roughness. However, pipe roughness is not easily or directly measurable. and absolute pipe
roughness t is, therefore, defined as the mean height of protusions in uniformly sized, tightly packed sand grains that give the same pressure gradient
as the given pipe. This roughness may change with pipe use and exposure to
fluids. Initially, the pipe contains mill scale that may be removed by fluids
flowing inside the pipe. The fluids may also increase roughness by erosion or
corrosion, or by precipitating materials that stick to the pipe wall. Thus,
estimating pipe roughness is quite difficult. Usually, absolute roughness is
determined by comparing the observed friction factor to that given in
Moody's chart (Figure 71). If no roughness data are available. a value of
l ,., 0.0006 in. can be used. Some typical values for roughness are shown below (Chemical Engineers' Halldbook, 1984):
(78)
p.., psia
Pipe Roughness
R~
type
z.. -
281
(79)
in.
Type of pipe
i,
0.00006
0.0002
0.0002-0.0003
0.0018
0.0048
0.006
0.0102
0.012-0.12
0.036-0.36
O.OOO5-Q.OOO7
O.(XHSO
0.00175
286
287
pd!. - (fpv'/2g.d) dL
Substituting for frictional losses:
cally expedient. because an analytic description of the variation of temperature along the pipeline length is rather difficult and introduces some complexity. See last section in this chapter for expressions for temperature
profiles in flowing gas systems. The gas compressibility factor, Z, is made
independent of temperature and pressure by using an average compressibility factor, Z... for simplicity. Integrating over the pipe length from 0 to L
and p~ure PI (at L - 0, at the upstream) to PI! (at L "" L, at the downstream end), Equation i-2S becomes:
pM/(ZRT)
(ZTP.)(~)2
0'.
v can directly be writen as this- in terms of q(sc)
(7-28)
pTJC rd
Any consistent set of units can be used in Equation 7-28. In common units,
with q,., in Mscfd, p in psia, T in OR, d in in., Lin ft, and with R "" 10.732
psia ft1f1b mole- OR and g., - 32.17 Ibm ftllbf-sec2, Equation 7-28 becomes:
we obtain:
_ d _ (_f)( pM )(IfX&Z'T'p!,J d
2g.d
~"'d'
ZRT
[10'1(3. 000 x
0'.
- I Z~ dp - 8fMTp!,q!,
I dL
R.-'d'g.lt
144)(32.17)(1112)'
46.9644
)(It)(
(pi - PI)d')
Pi, ")'gZ.. TfL
Thus,
(7-251
(7-29)
where
q,.,
p..,
T.,
PI
_
_
-
PI! d 'Y~ -
T _
Zo.. (7-27)
In practice, both these averages are quite close since temperatures T J and T2
are used as absolute temperatures. Using an average temperature is practi-
f L -
Equation 7-29, attributed to Weymouth, is the general equation for steadystate isothermal flow of gas through a hOrizontaJ pipe. Implications of the
282
From dimensional analysis, it has been deduced that relative roughness, the
ratio of the absolute roughness and inside pipe diameter, tid, rather than
absolute roughness, affects flow through pipes.
283
Friction Factor
For convenience, friction factor f' , defined as the ratio of the shear stress
at the fluid-solid interface and the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit volume. is used in computing the magnitude of the pressure drop due to (ric
tion. For steady-state flow in a uniform circular conduit such as a pipe. this
results in the well known Fanning equation:
"PI - 2f' Lpv'I(g.d)
(710)
(711
f - f(N , ./d)
NR~-o.3Irn
(7-14)
(7-15)
(7.16)
(717)
f - 0.0056 + 0.5N Rf-03! for 3,000 < NRt < 3 x 1()6 (Drew. Koo,
and McAdams)
(7-18)
For rough pipes, Colebrook's equation is the basis for most modern friction
factor charts:
The pressure drop for laminar flow is given by the analytic HagenPoiseuille relationship as follows:
"PI - 32,<vLl(g.d')
(712)
0'.
64 pJdvp - 64/N IW
(719)
For very rough pipes, Colebrook's equation (Equation 7-19) reduces to:
f-U __ 2 log (f/3.7d)
(720)
whereas for smooth pipes, Colebrook's equation reduces to Prandtl's equation (Equation 7-16),
Swamee and Jain (1976) have presented an explicit correlation for friction
factors as follows:
fLpv'I(2g.d) - 32,<vLl(g.d')
r-
(713)
(721)
2,
Nile < lOS, with errors within 1 % when compared with Colebrook's equa-
tion.
In practice, solutions to the equations presented for friction factors are
cumbersome, so a composile friction factor chart is used. as shown in Figure
7-1.
Allowable Working Pressures for Pipes
2(, - elSE
Pmu - c\, - 2(, - e)Y
(7-22)
Ve ""
100
lOO(ZRT)"
(p~1 ZRT)0's "" (28.97P"rJ05
)(TE)d')
I(lO(pR)o,
.. ((28.97'YgZT)05 p.., . 4 .
(qJ
(7-24)
High flow velocities in pipes can cause pipe erosion problems, especially
for ga5e'l that may have a flow velocity exceeding 70 fUsee. The velocity at
which erosion begins to OCCUr is dependent upon the presence of solid particles, their shape, etc., and is, therefore, difficu1t to determine precisely. The
following equation can be used as a simple approach to this problem (Beggs.
1984),
(7-23)
285
Horizontal Flow
Many pipeline equations have been developed from the basic mechanical
energy balance (Equation 7-3):
dp + (pI2g.)dv' + (g/g.)pdz + pdt. _ 0
Assuming horizontal, steady-state, adiabatic, isothermal flow of gas, with
negligible kinetic-energy change, Equation 7-3 becomes:
dp + pdl ... .. 0
2B8
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reasons for
: pressurelflow rate pulsations
or surges, liquids in the pipeline. variations in operating conditions,
variations in withdrawal or supply rates, etc.
Isothermal flow: This assumption is usually met because buried pipelines are used which are not affected much by atmospheric temperature variations. Heat of compression is also dissipated rapidly, usually
within a few miles downstream of the compressor station. For small
temperature changes, the average temperature given by Equation 7-26
or 7-27 is generally satisfactory.
Negligible kinetic energy change: This assumption is justified because
kinetic energy changes are negligible, compared to changes in pressure, for very long pipelines, such as commercial transmission lines.
Constant (average) gas compressibility factor: This is a reasonable approximation, especially if Z.v i~ computed at the average pressure
given by Equation 7-32.
Horizontal pipeline: In practice, flow is never truly horizontal. Equations developed to account for elevation changes will be discussed in
the section on inclined flow.
- (PI + Pt)/2
"" _ 0.0775543
(T_)(Pj
- If.)d')"
p"" "ygZ.,TfLx
A~,==========~======~B
,Figure 7-3. A plot of pressure versus distance in a pipeline carrying gas. (After
Szilas, 1975.)
and,
"" _ 0.0775543
(7-30)
(T<)(
(pi - P!)d' )"
p.., 'YgZ..TfL(l - x)
(7-3 1)
Equating these Equations 7-30 and 7-31 (with the assumption that the difference in Z.v for the two pipe sections is negligible):
~-p~=pi-p~
x
(1 - x)
289
[1'1 -
x(pl - P!)f'
This suggests a pressure profile as shown in Figure 7-3. The mean pressure is
given by:
-~(p,+~)
3
PI + P2
290
P.. _
PI + P2
p,1
follows:
llpl - p;J
-~ (H)
291
f _
(7-32
(7-35)
O.0768INR~-I461
------------------",-~~~~~-----------
q. - (0.0768)"
Therefore, Z., must be computed using Equation 7-32 for average pressurt'.
Several equations for gas flow have been derived from Equation 7-29 as.
suming a friction factor relationship to avoid a trial and error computation.
These equations differ only in the friction factor relationship assumed. As
we have seen earlier, friction factors vary over a wide range with Reynold....
number and pipe roughness. Thus, none of these equations is universally ap.
plicable. In gas field operations, engineers use the equation that best suits
their conditions, or use their own modified versions.
''''''' ~
25.309468
f - O.0321d 1tJ
-,:.,
Z T L
.'...
-y
(}0730.5
I'g
Thus:
d"""
Z T p$''''''(lj'''''"'
(T_)""'''(PI., .,.
'Y
0,07881
(7-36)
!'~
Modifu:d Panhandle
Weymouth proposed the foUowing relationship for friction factor as a
function of pipe diameter d in inches:
----;;;<l
0'.
q.c:
Po ZT..
(Panhandl~
B) EqUlltion
One of the most widely used equations for long transmission lines, the
Panhandle B equation assumes that r is a function of Reynolds number as
follows:
(7-33)
(7-37)
f - O.00359/N~039U
Substituting for f from Equation 73,3 into Equation 729:
q. _ 31.5027
(T_)(W - P!)d"~"
Pte
"Y,Z."T.,l.'
(7-34)
This is known as the Weymouth equation for horizontal flow. It is used most
often for designing gas transmission systems because it generally maximizes
pipe diameter requirements for a given flow rate and pressure drop.
q.,
_109.364 (T_)I,,",(PIP!)""'(lj""
d"'
"
p.,
Z."T.~L
'Y
!'i.
00.,
(7-38)
292
pj~
293
A More Precise Equation for Horizontal Gas Flow: The Clinedinst Equation
um mu um nm
-'"
g-
Rearranging this equation, and using common units, with CJ:oc in Mscfd, p in
psia, T in QR, d in in., Lin ft, and substituting for R ( '"" 10.732 psia-ft1l1b
mole- oR) and g., (= 32.17Ibm-ft/lbf_sec2):
~
~
il
0.
..." ' ..
.,
, -.:.
:c .." E
"I N
1;
~
~
J!
~
.!
"
"
I~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~; ~~~~~
I
:lm~~
"2
,Inm nm m um mn
>
um mu nm um
;;;,
Pipeline Efficiency
~g~1
i!
:g.
,.,
~
jl(
1
-
'I~i~~~
:I~~~~~
:I~~~~~
~I~~~~i
~
~~~~
~ii~
~~~~
~i~
~i~
~~~
~~
~~~~
~!~~~
~I~~~
~!~~
~~~~
~~Ii
!~II~
~~~~~
~~~~~
I d~~~g~
~~~~~ 0~~~~~
~~~~~ a~~~~
ddoo
00000
0000
0000_
- - ___
29-4
Pi~
295
III
1111
l:!2:~~~
.............
.. .....
;g~:2~~
~
~~~iE ---;;~~~~
----0 0000
~1Hlji
00000
!~a1i~
00000
fHHi~~
00000
!!~;~~0
000 0
:=: '$~~~
000
000
~~b
........ 8 ..
~s;;:u
8 ...
..
.... 0
~Z~o
-.,
...
.. 1
....
mn Hm nm
-.~
- ...
0 __
...
,~
ss~
.~
;:!8~;;~
~s
S!';~~I
.s.
... .. 0 ......
!:?!::;:;;';!!l
;:;:.t;;~-
~s~
.~
:;~!~~
IH;;~
BSS8
..... -!!$
BBBSif
...
:1 .....
li!i!
~"~a.
~F='
o~U
~ sa
mH
"':!!!: ::1:;1:
~Ui";::
.. ha ~m~
~~~~~
~~~.~
g~S~9
~~~-~
3S3~~
.-~.~
~~m
i;:;~r!~
BBBS
I:~:!I~"
mn mH
:g;~:"!2~
~:::~
!Hf~H;::
<Sooo!
......... ..........
:3i
::!I~ ~
i;~i!:ll~
~~Sl~i':!
UilB~ SSBSS
gn;;!
aa~a i~~ii
......
~--~li
Bl~
.m.
...
Hm mn Him
~ei~;!
aaa
co ... .,;,.;.
~~~~8
~~~;'!!!:
0"" ........
~i;~."
sa SS 8a~g~ 88888
mn
mn hss. min um
mH ..saSs1 nm "r
ii ~ijil
..... co ..
s~liil~ ~J~~~
2 ...........
c>
iT'
Ul.
---~
SSt:n::s ~~.
!HH~! ~3m~~
i:"!!:::.t~
00"''''''''''
88888
:S!~~!:;
;:!~.,~~ ..,
... .,.
8888S sasss
~
........ s: ..
!H~8;;~
'"'~ mi~
!HHlss siii!!!
.-.~"
88888
~ugpu~
HH
oi~
~~
g~88a
-~
~;!i!:;:!
00000
~~~
-::-:;;;;"
,., ... -
s ~."
ii~ .Us
... -"'_
IS~:!'"
~
88SS
~:5!5
00000
~-~
'-".~~
g8S
a
sss Hm m~~
mH ""i~
mn mn
nm
..
s il mn
mH ... ~~m 'on
@
mu ~~m nm r'.....
ilT-'
!!. SSS8S iT"
li mu nm
............
mn
...
'~
ah
um
U !H2"
n"
:;a ..
IS;o,
SSgg Hm Hm Bass
:!:~~i
00000
"~~.
SSSbS
;;~:;;~
;:~:;;.x
~~
~;;;. ~ro' sssss ~~m . g~
.. ..
....... a,~..
h ss~
o., "'~
;; ilSil sss ~
'SSS
ii iHi s Ii ~~m
~ss
~88
00000
297
aBSS
2"--51
um
i~H
8~66
....... ~""1i!
"'nii
sa B
mn
~nH!!I!~
6<S66
~iHnp
;;!;6~
"<>~ir.
~~ ~
o
ii6~~
Ilji~ piJ"~
6<;66
.... ...: ...li!t:!i~5f
...........
.;;;
o
"i!~"
3S::~2;:1
,.;,..:
::!s:a~~
,..;,..:...:,.;,.;
299
.
..
m
..a: .
/i" ' ~
<
iE ",,
,
.cOB
3~8
oo';:!~i
--
0
n""
~~~
.-~';o03
... ""
ig!i
66000
-,~U::!:S
mH
-
, - ll
" .."
-- ,
"., i
'S
"0
~~.
000
,. ~~
'0
~m
:;;
--g
c
c
"-
~~
Hi
;a:5H~
aas8il
.E
..
>
'.2iae:'!
...........
g:
s: s22222
i: :u:;:
"" ...... g:
~qn:~
300
"'"S'
md
;gg~~
~QQQ:;
~~r;~~ s!;!~a:;
....;;~;;;.
,_ ........
~~~~~
g~~~;; iIliHi!l!
... ,- ..........
"'"'~"
-;-!ig!;!;
<!-o.";;-;:
81:;&00
SI:;SoS
00000
00000
...
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S:;1:;8:;
!l!~U
1:;SSSS OSO:;:;
~~~::;::;
......
~~Sbb
~;
_"1"0
- -,S~SSS
;g
'--i
O:,;S
~---
-:::-;;;;iiE
):;~~.;a
...,
mH
...
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!;I:;::;:;t;
co ..... !S.
:.;;;:t; ... ~ n~ft~i
s~ss
815S::;
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r
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... - ......
on"''''''''St
nO.
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0'-;'
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nm
nm
a:;C;$;>1
!l~:8~
..
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8~;21"!;;
lL!!'!
~,
.,
~~
0 ..
.m.
-"'"I
mu nm ~~.i
...
nm um ~Tf
i ~ '"ri3i i~
- ...- -"ilT
U.
8Sgg
~:;~ i !isii i"'~
Hm
mu
.... !
n--..
iili h
!S! .. n. mu i"'
j~~i mH nm nm m.~ 'T
H!U
ss
mH mn ..nm.... mn
gggg
""!Ii
U'"
is! hi! il mH hm nm
mH um um ji~ i... U
.soh hhii Hm nm Hm ;ill
-'T~ !jji~
mn "~i r"r
ll. I nm i~li h~
H"~ mH
.... w-i~i nm um on
r'"
.. .. "' ..
jli~~ mn m. nm Hm ihH .'-
mil n-
h. mn mu nm nm
~~;;:t
~S:8""
....... $::iI
S0
,- 0
......
00
l:i:;b!:;S
!-O.~;.';::!~
..,.,,,,,,,,
:::~;~i
bbbSS
l51:;l5bb
~iE~a
bObSS
:g ... ", ..
....
d~!!!
~m~
. . .. -r:
~
~i~l"!~
gg8
;1r.~;:ft
~1=li!;:::~
... '"
'"'-"'I'"
"_0:20-
s ........ ~
000
~!;:"!~
~s
~!E~;;
gS888
;;-
.....
~iii~I'"
Z-:g--:
~-
"'18"' .....
;;;;;~:;::
U 888&g
00000
8"'- ....
-:!~!1~
81515153
~~
8g8g8
~rHHH~
88888
!St:R:!!:
.1~:::~;:
~~g~:
-~-~-
..
"'-~-n
..
.~;
- ..... 8 ..
......
.,. ..
----~i;!~:,!
~ :38:
=s:
!::~~~~
-rr
.. .. ..
.. mu ~~~~i mn
~im Hm mn
i~~"~ um u-" mu
.....
';SJ;;So
~..,
--
"'~I ~i~!i
~~~!>
S81:;bo
::!;,;g~F:
-~B'i
:,;
SS
";3""
~i
... _- i
'"
sfiP.HH
Sl:;SSS ~:;oS~ U~.~
~~~;
.um
301
3 ~:2 ~pl;
~~!:!!:!!!
.~
...
!!!!!!!:!!:!
-8"'1-
~~
~ird~;e
!:!!:!!:!!:!!:!
i:~
liPol8
!!!:!!:!!:!!:
85::e2~
::':::'::.0:::.0::':
Liquid content
gallMMscf
Type of gas
in the flowline
0.1
7.2
600
Dry gas
Casing-head gas
Gas and condensate
(Taction)
0.92
0.77
0.60
For high liquid conten~, ~uch as the pre\;ous case shown above for gas with
condensate, h\:o-phase flow conditions exist. Pipeline efficiency can no
longer represent the complex flow behavior, and different equations that account for two-phase flow must be used (see Chapter 8).
Transmission Factor
Equation 729 can be written as:
- pI)d')"(l)'f .'
(T.)(M
Poe
q. - 5.6353821 -
)'gZ.,T.,L
_
0
3()4
jo
o (p,lZ)dp, j '05
387R
+ 460)/387 - 1.447
23.
88
23
j'OJ:!(p,/Z)dp, _ 22.88
-= 23.11
Thus,
q",
(P;Z)dp, - 22.
By interpolation:
305
q",
f'
(4,000' - 0)(10.02)1"
(0.7)(0.74)(560)(40 x 5,280) J
A second trial is not required because the friction (actor plot in Figure 7-1
shows an almost constant ( in the turbulent region applicable here.
This example shows the differences in results that may sometimes occur
from using different flow relationships. Most of the difference results from
the friction factor values used in the two equations. From Equation 7-33.
we can calculate that the Weymouth equation used an f = 0.01484, whereas
an f = 0.024 was used in the Clinedinst equation.
(7.969634)(663)(520/14.73) [
fS
J'
Prjf'
(10.02)'
(0.7)(560)(40 x 5,280)1 J
dp + Pg dz + fpv dL _ 0
g,
2g,d
(7-40)
Consider the flow scheme shown in Figure 7-4. 8 is the angle of drift from
the vertical, L is the total length of the pipe, and z is the vertical elevation
difference between the inlet (point 1) and outlet (point 2). Land z are related as foUows:
306
I,' 1 + (6.7393
GROUND SURFACE
(ZT/p) dp
X
- 0.01875,",
lO-'fLq!,Z'T')/(zp'd')
307
(7-42)
9
Figure 7-4. Gas flow In an
inclined sectlon_
1
L - zlcos 6, implying that dL "" mlcos 8
dL - (Liz) dz
Using this relationship between Land z, Equation 7-40 can be written as:
Substituting for gas density and velocity (as described earlier for horizontal
flow):
(_r
_ dp _ [28.97"",][.ll +
)(!:)(I&&z'1Y..)L
ZRT
g. 2g.d z P'ltr'd' j
this (pie)^2 consumed here to change the factor
as 0.81057 ( = 16/(2 x (pie)square)
(ZIp) dp
I, 1 + (6.7393 x 10 'fLC&Z'T')I(zp'd')
0',
where the units are: p _ psia: q,. .. ~hcfd; d .. in.; T = oR; and L. z - Ct.
Equation 7-42 is the general equation for vertic,al flow calculatio~. The
left integral cannot be evaluated easily because Z IS a compl~ fun~on of p
nd T and the temperature variation with depth z is not easJiy defmed. The
:ario~ simplifying assumptions made in the evaluation of this integral form
the basis for the different methods that give results of var}ing degrees of ac
curacy.
.
.
Some methods for vertical flow assume an average temperature, m which
case Equation 742 becomes:
(ZTlp) dp
28.97 I'
I'I (gig.) + (0.81057fLq!,Z'1Y..)/(zP'ltg.d')
- - R- I"'lz
(7-4 1)
_ O.01875')'gz
TO'
(7-43)
In the left integral of Equations 7-42 and 7.43, the value of the constant is
6.7393 x 10 - 4 Some authors use a standard pressure, Poco equal to 14.65
psia, in which case this constant becomes equal to 6.6663 X 10- 4 . Still others use Pte - 14.65 psia and diameter din ft. In this latter case, the constant
becomes equal to 2.679 x 10 ,11.
Static Bottom-Hole Pressure (SBHP)
For production and reservoir engineering calculations. the shutin (or
static) bottom. hole pressure, p.... , is frequently required. In many cases, it
may be difficult or expensive to obtain p..... by gauge measurements. Tech.
niques have, therefore, been developed to calculate SBHP from wellhead
pressure measurements.
For a shut-in well, the flow rate (q or CJ.tc) is equal to zero, and Equation
7-42 simplifies to:
I....
.... (ZT/p) dp - 0.01875,",
(7-44)
..
308
1 + BZ!/~
(6.6663
where B -
ZT"
jp.. (dp/p) -
"'.
0.0187s-,,z
(7-49)
T."
X
1O-4)~11.
(7-50)
zd~
Vpon integration.
In p _ 0.01875>",
p..h
309
Z.,T1y
0'.
"'"" (ZI
\
(7-45)
p,r.-...
P .. h &-2
(7-46)
(7-47)
BHT'
k
.
.
-ere e
n~ nown, It can be estimated from the fact that the temperature
gradient IS usually of the order of 0.015 F/ft For a static column of
~~
.
~M
an m Ie a .. erage temperature is satisfactory to use. For caJculating Z
the
"alaverage press
llfelSrequired (.Inaddition to average temperature). Thus".a
'ben "ndd er~r type of,solution is necessary. A good initial estimate of 1>.. can
rna e using Equation 7-48:
'S
. 15
(7-48)
......
PI"
)d
PI"
..
_ 0.01875>,.
T
(7-5 1)
Sukkar and Cornell (1955) evaluated the left integral in Equation 7-49 by
numerical integration. They reported re.u1ts in tabular form for reduced
pressure Pp. in the range of 1.0 to 12, reduced temperature T p, of 1.5, 1.6,
and 1.7, and B in the range of 0 (for static) to 20 (flowing). Messer et al.
(1974) presented an extension of the Sukkar-Cornell method, showing its applicability to deep, sour gas wells, and presented the values of the integral in
Equation 7-49 for T p, up to 3, PI" up to 30, and B up to 70. These values are
shown in Tables 7-2(a-m). The case B co 0, shown in Table 7-2a is applicable to SBHP determination .
For computer programming pur~, Messer et al. (1974) have also proposed the following equation to Fit the tabu1ar data:
... (Zl17.)dPp.
-E+ Fpp. +Clnppr
\ 0.21 + BZ2..2
I~
(7-52)
Tl, -
Tl. -
Sukkar'CornelJ Method
also uses an average temperature, but accounts for the varia. This method
.
t~on of Z W1~ pressure. SukJcar and Cornell (1955) converted the basic equation (Equatton 7-43) into the pseudoreduced form :
F - (0.02246 - 0.000438)
+ (0.21463 - 0.002748)
200
2.'"
300
J.'"
400
4'"
'.00
,.'"
600
6'"
7.00
7'"
800
8.'"
900
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.'
1.7
1.8
1.'
2.0
2.2
0.00l0
00010
0.00l0
0.00l0
o 0010
00010
00010
0./i387
1.3774
l,fIOJ8
L7149
1.7995
0.8582
1.4440
1.7373
L9116
00010
0.00l0
08824
1,5129
18565
0.9017
1.5654
1.9422
2.2U23
2,3996
2,5583
0.9079
1,5781
L9f109
2.2273
2,4.'107
2,59J7
2.7325
2,11515
2.9569
3.0523
3.1400
3.2215
3.2980
3.37OJ
34393
3.5052
35665
3.6297
3,68R9
3.7465
3.8026
38573
3.9108
3%34
40150
0.9082
1.5823
1.9693
2.2397
2.1255
2.2101
2.2882
2,3622
2,4330
2.5013
2.5677
2.6329
2.6971
2.7602
0.8I!97
1.5334
1.8911
2 J3)1
2,3138
24570
2.5162
2.6793
2.7715
2 8558
2,9341
HXl79
3.0781
3,1452
3.2100
3.2727
3,3338
3.3934
3.4516
0.8966
LS514
1.9192
21709
IS7~
0.S719
1.4836
1.11078
2.0157
2.1631
2.2778
2.3746
2,4603
2.5390
2.6128
2.6833
2.7512
28171
28814
2,5442
3.0058
0.00l0
0.9108
1.58119
1.9798
2 25](,
24641
2,6354
2.1798
2.9050
3,0158
3, 1I511
3.2014
3.2924
1947.1
2.0178
2 0689
2.1547
2.2214
2.2872
23522
2.4165
2,4S02
2.5432
2f1OS7
2,t)676
2,7289
2.7896
2,8499
2.0298
28223
2.8336
2.9441
3.0039
3,0630
3.1215
31794
3 ......
12.50
1300
3,02f!O
3.0867
] 14~2
3.3506
3.1260
3.1847
3.2427
3.2999
3.3565
34126
3.4681
3.5231
34068
3.~777
~n
2~ml
3 Jh27
, (,11'1
95"
10.00
1050
1100
11.50
12.00
1:"1
/4 00
100
15.00
15.SO
16.00
16.50
17,00
17,50
18.00
18SO
19.00
19.50
2000
"'"
2_
2.9690
3,2612
3.3 189
3.]763
3,4335
3,4906
3.5474
3.6041
3.6606
3.7170
3.7732
3.8293
3.8853
3.9411
3.9969
24.50
4.0525
4.1080
4.1634
4.2187
4,2739
4.3291
4.384\
44391
"00
44940
"'"
4,5488
2100
21.50
22.00
22.50
23.00
23.50
2400
2600
46036
26.50
27.00
27.50
4.6583
4.7 129
4.7675
4 822{)
48764
4.9308
4.9851
5,0394
21100
211'"
29.00
29'"
30.00
32J69
J.29W
3.5 1Rl
3.5735
3.6285
3.6832
3.7376
3.79 19
3.8459
3.8996
3.9532
4.0066
4.0599
4.1129
4.1658
4.2186
4.2712
4.3237
4,3760
4.4282
4.4803
4.5323
4.5M2
4.6360
4.6877
4.7392
4.7907
4.8421
4.8934
4.9447
4.9958
'.0469
'.0979
5.1488
5.1997
3,6857
3.7391
3,7922
3.8450
3,8974
4.9497
40016
4.0533
4 1048
4.1560
4.207\
4.2579
43086
4.3590
4_
4.4595
4.5095
4.5594
4.6091
46587
47081
4.7575
4.8067
4.8558
4.9()48
4.9536
5.0024
5.0511
,5,1482
5.1966
5.2450
5,2932
2.cX>42
2.2507
US13
2,4898
2.5945
2.6698
2.7484
2.8222
2.8926
2.9603
3.0258
3,0893
3.1612
3.2118
3.2713
3.3296
3.3870
3,4-436
3,4993
3.5543
3._
3.6523
-'-71 ~4
:"I 7.~)\(1
3.8200
3.87 16
3.9228
3.9736
4.0240
4.0740
4.1237
4 1731
4,2221
4.2709
4.3195
4,3678
4.4158
4 4636
45112
4.5586
4.6058
4.6528
4.6996
4.7463
4.7928
4.8391
48853
4.9314
4.9772
5.0230
'.0686
5.1142
5. 1595
, 2048
5.2500
5.2950
5.3400
3 ..5OR7
),5647
36198
3.6741
3,7277
3.7806
3 !02R
.1.S(,-U
3.9354
3.9859
4.0359
4 ....
41346
4.1833
42316
4.2795
0271
4.3744
44214
4.4681
4.5145
4,5606
4,6065
4.6522
4,6976
47428
4.7879
4.8327
4.8773
4,9217
49660
5.0101
5.0541
5.0979
5,1415
5.1850
5,2284
5,2716
5.3147
5.3577
5.4005
23607
2.5125
2.6190
2.7480
2,8449
2,9330
3 0146
HI911
3,1635
3,2324
3."""
3,3623
3,4239
JAII38
3.5m
3,5993
36552
3.7100
3.76-10
3.8171
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0.3102
I 1159
1 1618
\.2072
1.2522
0.3743
0.4369
0.4918
0.5570
0.6144
0.6703
0.1246
0.n76
0.8293
0.8799
0.9295
0.9782
1.0260
1.073 1
I 1J95
1 1653
1.2105
1.2551
12%7
L299~
, '-IU
IQO
I .....
1.3845
14278
1.4708
1.5\35
1,5558
1.5979
1.6397
1.6812
].1225
1.7635
1.80n
1.8449
1.8RS3
1.9255
1.9655
2.0054
2.04SO
2.0845
21239
2.1631
2.2021
2.24]0
2.2798
2.3184
2.3569
2.3953
2.4336
2.4718
2.5098
2.5478
2.5856
2.6234
2.66 10
1.3862
1.4290
1.47 14
LS134
LS55 1
1.5964
1.6374
1.6181
I.7II!6
1.75117
1 7986
\.8382
1.8176
1.9168
1.9557
1.9944
2.0330
2.0713
2 1095
2. 1415
21853
2.2229
2.2~
2.2978
2.3550
2.3120
2.4089
2.4457
2.4824
2.5189
2.5553
2.59 16
2.6278
0.0317
0.0113
omos
0.1220
0.1!104
0.1790
U.2431
0.JU74
0.3717
0.4349
0.4966
0.5566
0.6149
0.6715
0.7256
0.7802
0.11324
0.8835
0.9334
0.9824
1.0J()4
\.0776
O.121l
0.2413
0.3055
0.3699
0.4335
0.4956
0.5561
0.6 149
0.6720
0.7216
0.7817
0.8344
0.8858
0.9360
0 .9852
1.0334
0.0316
0.0703
0.1202
0.1777
0.2397
0.3O~8
II1JJ(16
0.)683
0.4320
0.4945
0.5554
0.6147
0.6724
0.7284
0.7829
0.8360
0.8878
0.9382
0.9876
1.0359
1.003
I 1239
I 1696
1.1271
1.1298
1.1128
1 2 147
1.2592
1.2118
1.2622
1 1755
1.2205
I "lCl.' 1
I lI)OCl
1.3694
1.4319
1.4739
1.5155
1.5567
1.5976
1.6381
1,67113
\.71111
1.7577
\.7970
1.8360
1.8741
1 9132
I 95 15
1.9895
2.0273
2.0649
21024
2. 1346
2.1766
2.2135
2.2502
2.2867
2.3230
2.3592
2.3953
2.4312
2.4670
2.5026
2.5382
2.5736
2.6088
2.3067
2.3418
2.3767
2.4115
2. 4460
2. 4805
2.5148
2.5489
2.5829
0.2)74
(J.)UI2
0.3657
0.4298
0.4928
0.5543
0.6143
0.6726
0.7293
0.7M4
0.11391
0.8914
0.9423
0.9920
1.0407
0.9432
1.0883
0.9932
1.0420
1.01:197
I 1349
1.1364
I 1807
1 1822
1.2270
11711
.l nl
1..114.1
1.3938
1.4356
1.4769
l.S 117
1.5580
1.5979
1.6373
1.6764
1.7150
1.7533
1.7912
1.8288
1.866 1
2.2005
2.2.361
2.2715
01111')
Om8
.l!1lW
1.391 8
1.4339
1.4756
1.5168
1.5575
1.5978
1.6378
1.6773
1.7166
1.7554
21~
"(1.0313
O.()OO.l
0.(.)70
Il.OJII
0.0692
0.1 ]/10
1l.174';
0.2357
0.2<)94
0.3679
0.4281
0.4914
0.5534
0.6138
0.6721
0.7299
0.7854
0.8395
0.8920
1.2048
~ I .t
1.7940
1.903 1
1.9397
1.9761
2.0122
2.0481
2.007
2. I 191
2. ]542
2.1891
2.2238
2.2583
2.2927
2.3268
2.3607
2.3944
2.4280
2.4614
2.4947
2.5278
2.5607
1.3977
1.4390
1.4797
l.S 198
LS594
1.5984
\.6370
1.6750
17127
1.7499
1.7866
1.82.10
1.851X1
18947
I. 9300
1.9650
1.9997
2.0341
VJMI
21019
2.1355
2.1687
2.2017
2.2345
2.2671
2.2994
2.3315
2.3634
2.3951
2.4266
2.4579
2.4890
2.5200
2.6
2.4
1.2256
1.2698
".'
1.8322
1.8702
1.9079
1.9453
1.9824
2.0193
2.0560
2.0924
2 ]286
2.2
1.3984
1.4395
1.4798
1.51%
1.5587
1.5973
1,6354
1.6730
1.7100
1.7466
1.711211
1.8186
1.8540
1.8R89
1.9236
1.9H8
1.99\7
2.0253
2.0586
2.0916
2.1242
2 ]561
2.1~
2.2207
2.2523
2.21B7
2.3 149
2.3458
2.3765
2.4070
2.4373
2,4674
2.4974
(IIWJQ
0()(K)9
U.U~1O
0""",
0.1172
Om3
U.2342
0.29711
0.3622
0.4265
0.4900
0.5522
06129
0.672 1
0.7296
0.7855
0.8398
08926
0.9440
0.994 1
1.0430
I 090Jl
I 1375
I 1832
1.2281
1.2720
I .1/~2
1
1~7~
1.399\
\ .4400
141102
1.5197
U5f11
1.5911
1.6350
1.6123
1.7091
1.7455
1.711]4
1.8169
1115 19
2.8
0.0000
00069
0.03!)9
0.""'"
1l.lln7
o 1124
0.2331
0."'"
0.36JJIJ
0.4252
0.4888
0.55 12
0.6121
0.67]5
0.7291
0.7852
0.8397
0.8927
0.9442
3.0
00000
0_
0.0308
0.1J682
0.1161
0.1716
0.2320
0.2952
0.3596
0.4240
0.4877
0.5503
0.6113
0.6708
0.7286
0.7848
0.8394
08925
0.9441
0._
0_
1.0434
I.om
l.OOIJ
1.0914
1.1311 1
11839
\.2281
1.2725
1.3156
11380
I 1837
12285
12724
I.JHS
.~7.~
l.l.UX
1.39'11
I 4401
1.3m
I 4400
1. 4802
1.4800
LS I97
1.5585
1.5968
1.6346
1.5194
1.6718
1.7085
17441
1.71105
].8158
L5582
1.5964
1.6)4\
1.67 12
\.7018
1.7439
1.1196
1.8148
1.8496
,_ 119m
1 9549
191:184
2.0217
2.OS46
2.1:172
2.1196
2. 15 16
2.1834
2.2149
2.2461
2.2171
2.30711
2.3384
2.3687
2.39g7
2.4286
2.45g3
2.4878
\ .85(111
1.8853
1.9195
1.9532
1.9867
20148
2.0525
20850
2] 17]
2.1490
2.1806
2.2119
2.2430
2.2738
2.3044
2.3347
2.3648
2.3947
1.4244
2.4538
2.4831
1.9 180
1.9517
1.9850
2.0179
2.0506
2.0829
2.1149
2.1466
2.1780
2.2092
2.2401
2.2707
2.3011
2.3313
2.3612
2.3909
2.4205
2.4.t97
2.4788
Table 72 (e)
Extended Sukkar-Cornell Integra' for Bottomhole Pressure Calculation
P,
1.2
1.3
0,20
00000
00000
200
2'"
300
0.0058
0.0294
0.0740
0, 1295
0, 1832
0,23SO
00000
00056
00000
0.'"
1.00
3.'"
02860
0.0055
0,0262
0,0610
0.1071
0.1614
0.2172
0.2725
0.3264
0.]790
0,4305
0.4809
0.5305
0,5794
O,62n
0.6755
0,7221
0.7695
0.8 159
0.8620
0,0055
0,0255
0,0587
0.1030
0.1547
0,2099
0.2657
0,]208
0.3747
0,4273
0,4787
0.5291
0.5786
0.6274
0,6754
0.7228
0.7696
0.8 160
0.8618
0.9073
0.9523
0,9969
\.0412
1,0851
1 12Rl1
11721
I.'"
4.00
4.'"
5.00
5.'"
6.00
6.'"
700
7.'"
800
8.'"
'00
,.'"
10.00
10,SO
I LOCI
11 ,50
12,00
12.SO
noo
r
0.]365
0.3865
0.4360
0.4852
0.5341
0.5827
0,6]10
0,679 1
0.7269
0.n45
0,8219
0.8690
0.9159
0.9626
1.0091
1.0554
I 1016
1 1476
1 Iq15
~l
/4.00
14.50
15.00
15.50
16.00
16,SO
17 ,00
17.50
1800
18.SO
19.00
19,5O
2000
20,SO
21.00
21.SO
22.00
22,50
23.00
2J.SO
24.00
24.SO
".00
,,'"
26.00
26.'"
27.00
27.SO
2800
28.'"
2900
29.SO
lO.OO
1,~9
1.3304
1.3759
1,4212
,4665
LSJl6
1.5567
1.6017
1.6467
1.6916
1.7364
1.1811
1.8258
1.8705
1.91 50
1.9596
2,OOU
2.0485
2.om
2.1372
2.1815
2.2258
2.2700
2.3 142
2.]584
2.4025
2.4466
2.4907
2.5347
2.5787
2.6227
0.0272
0.0649
0.1156
0.1712
0.2264
0.2801
0.3]26
0.3841
0.4346
0.4843
0.5335
0.5821
0.6304
0.6782
0.7257
O.ms
0.8 196
0.8661
0.9123
0.9582
1.0089
1.0494
1.0946
11397
llR4h
0.9077
0.95JO
0.9981
1.0429
1.0874
11317
17~~
"
'n
1.2739
J.3183
1,3625
1.4067
1.4507
1.4945
1.5383
1.283]
IJ(l68
<5820
1.6256
1.669 1
1.7125
1.1558
1.mo
1.8421
1.8852
1.9282
1.97 11
2.0140
2.0568
2.0995
2.1422
2.1849
2.2274
2.2700
2.3124
2.3549
2.3973
2.4396
2.4819
2.5742
2.5664
2.6666
2.6085
2.7106
2.6507
1.3501
1.3933
\.4363
1.4792
1.5219
1.5645
1 6069
1.6493
\.6915
1.7336
1,7757
1.8176
1.8594
1.9012
1,9429
\.9844
2,0259
2,0674
2.1087
2.1500
2, 1912
2,2324
2.2135
2.3145
2.3555
2.3964
2.4373
2.4781
2.5 189
2.5596
2.6003
1.4
I '." I
1.2579
1.3005
1.3428
1.3~9
1.4267
14684
<50"
1.6
1.7
1.B
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.B
3.0
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
00000
0.0000
00000
00000
00000
00000
00000
0,0054
O.()2.IO
0,0572
0.0054
0,0246
0,0561
0.0976
0.1465
0.1999
0.2553
0.3111
0.0053
0,0243
0.0561
0.0958
0.1438
0,1964
0.2514
0.307]
0,3629
0,4177
0,4714
0,5241
0,5756
0.6261
0,6755
0,7240
0.n16
0.8184
0.0053
0.0241
0,0545
0,0945
0,1417
0.]937
0.2484
0,3041
0,]599
0,005]
0,0240
0,0541
0,0937
0,1404
0,1920
0,2463
0,3020
0,3578
0,4132
0.4678
0.5213
0.5738
0.6252
0.6754
0.7247
0.n29
0.s:!02
0.0053
0.0239
0.0537
0.0930
0.1393
0,0052
0,0237
0,0532
0,0918
0,1376
01SN2
0,24]9
0,2972
0,3531
0.4088
0.4639
0.5182
0.5714
06236
0.6746
0.7251
On40
0,8218
0,86lS7
0,9147
0,9599
l.oon
1,0479
I.()IX)!!
IIDI
0,0052
0.0052
0.0235
0,0525
0.0905
0,1354
0,1853
0,2384
0.29]4
0.3492
0.4050
0.4604
0.5151
0.0052
0.0234
0.0522
0,0052
0,0233
0,0520
0,0895
0,1339
]8.12
0.2359
Q,2906
0.).162
0.4021
0.45n
0,5125
0,5665
0,6194
0,67 12
0.72 19
0.n14
0.8198
0,8672
0,9135
0.9589
1.0034
l.ono
1.5
0.0998
0.1498
O.2O-W
0.2597
0.3154
0,3703
0.4240
0,4765
0,5279
0,5783
0,6276
0,6761
0,7238
o.nos
0.8m
0.863\
0.J664
0.9531
0.9975
1.0414
1.0849
1 12112
I I7IH
0.4208
0,4740
0,5261
0,5n1
0,6270
0.6760
0,7241
0,n14
0,8179
0.8638
0.9091
0.9538
0.9980
1.0418
1.0851
I 12110
17Ut>
1 )116
~ I:
\.2558
1.2541
1.2962
1.3375
1.3784
1.4191
1.4595
1.4997
1.5397
1.5194
\.6190
1.6583
1.6975
0.9083
1.2977
1.3394
1.3808
1.4220
1.4629
1.5512
1,5924
1.6]34
\.6742
1.1149
1,7555
1.7959
1.8362
1,8763
1.9164
1.9563
1,9982
2,0359
2,0756
2 1151
2 1s.lit
2.1939
1.5036
1.5441
1.5844
1.6245
1.6644
1.7042
1.7438
US32
1.8225
1,8616
1.9006
1.9395
1,9782
2,0168
2.0553
2.0937
21319
2.1701
2.~2
2.2002
2.2724
2.3115
2.3S05
2.3895
2.4284
2.4672
2.5060
2.2461
2.2840
2.3218
2.3595
2.3971
2.4146
2.4720
2,5447
2._
1.7364
1.7752
1.8139
1.8523
1.8906
1.9288
1.9668
2.00n
2.(,.t25
2,0801
2,1!76
2.1550
2.1923
2.2295
2.2665
2.3035
2.3404
2.3772
2.4119
2.4504
2.4870
0.1~
0.2445
03000
I '7H-I
11714
I 72.'
0.3559
0,4114
0,4662
0,5201
0,5729
0.6246
0.6752
0.7247
0,n32
0,8207
0,8673
0.9131
0.9580
1.0023
1.0459
1,06!!1I
II.H2
17.111
'I.'
I ~I1H
Inn
12q:>
0.8644
0.9098
0.9545
0.9987
l.om
1.085S
1 12112
I
1.2537
1.2948
1,3355
1.3759
1.41SO
1.4558
1,4953
1.53045
1.5735
1.6 123
1,6508
1.6891
1.7271
1.7650
UI027
1.11401
1.8774
1.9146
1.9516
19684
2()2.1O
2.0615
20919
2,1341
2.1702
2.2062
2.2420
2,2778
2.3 134
2.3409
2,3843
2,4195
2.4547
O,USI
0,4594
0,5226
0.5747
0.6257
0.6756
0.7245
O.n25
0.8 195
0.8658
0.9113
0.9561
1.!XXl2
104]8
1.0S68
1 1294
0.B666
0.9123
0.9571
1.1))14
1,0450
l.OH79
I 13U4
1.2542 1.2547
1. 2949 1.2952
1.3353 J.J352
1.3754 1.3749
1.4151 1.4142
1.4544 1.453\
\ ,4935 \.4916
1,5323 1,5298
1.5108 1.5678
10090 1,6054
1.6470 I,().n?
It)g.17 1,6797
1.7222 1.7165
L7595 L7530
1,7965 1.789]
1,8334 1,8254
I.S7OU 1.8612
1.9065 1.8968
1.9428 1.9322
1.9789 1,9674
2.0149 2,0025
2.0507 2.0373
20863 2,0719
21218 21064
2.1671 2.1408
2.1923 2.1749
2.2274 2.2089
2.2823 2,2428
2.2971 2.2765
2.31!8 2.3100
2.J66' 2.3435
24008 2.3768
2.4352 2.4100
2.2549
1.2952
1.3349
1.3743
1.4132
1.4517
1.4898
1.5275
1.5649
1,6020
1,63M
\.6752
1.7114
1.7473
1.7829
1.8183
1.8534
1.8882
1,9229
1,9573
1.9916
2.0256
2,0594
2.0980
2.1265
2,1598
2.1929
2.2258
2.2586
2.2912
2,32 17
2.3560
2.3882
"
\.2559
\.2957
1.3349
1.3736
L411 8
1.4496
')()2)6
t),0528
')09 11
11.1364
0,11i67
(j,2401
U.2952
O.35!O
0.4068
0.4622
1).5]67
0.5703
()6228
11,6741
11,7244
IIn35
11,8216
0.6216
0.6732
0,7237
O,n3(l
0,8212
11,8687
08684
\J,9148
0.9601
1.0045
1.0481
0.9146
0.9599
1.0043
1,0479
1 ''''~
LlH
r 174~
I Il!!!
0.5689
10908
0.0900
0, 1346
0,1842
0,2371
0,2919
0.]476
0.4034
0.4589
0.5137
0.5676
0,6205
0,6722
0,7227
0.m2
0.8205
0.8678
0,9141
0.9595
L{)039
1.0475
1,0903
1 1,123
1 ,.,ltI
10698
J iJI8
"
i 1"4:'
I : \-1'1
~IJI
:1.1(1
,,56-1
\ .2549
U541
11S3<,
1.2463
1.3331
1.37 13
1.4090
1.4462
1.4829
\,5191
1.5549
1, 5902
1.5252
\.6597
1.6938
1.7276
1.761!
1.7942
I.R270
1.8595
1.8916
1,9235
1.9551
1.9K65
2.0176
2.0484
2.0790
2.1094
2.1395
2. 1695
2.1992
2.22117
2.2540
2.2871
2.3 161
\.2':135
1.)322
\.2921\
1.2949
1.3339
U723
].4101
1.4475
\.4869
1.4~
I 5238
1.5603
1.5%4
16121
1.6675
1.1025
1.7372
1,7716
18056
1.8394
1.8730
1.9062
I. 9392
1.9719
2()().l4
2.0367
2.(1687
2.1OUS
2.1321
2.1636
2,1968
2.2258
2.2566
2.2873
2.3\78
2,]481
1.52Q8
1. 5588
1.592'
l.tl275
1.6623
1.6967
1.7308
1,7645
1.7979
1.8310
1.8638
1.8963
1.9286
1,9605
1.9922
2,02]7
2.0549
2.0858
2.1166
2.147 1
21774
2.2075
2.2375
2,2677
2,2967
2.326 1
1.:\7~
14080
14451
1.4KI7
UI7S
1.5584
UK\?
1 6235
I.M79
1.6919
1.7256
1,7589
L7918
I.R24S
1.8568
1.AA89
1.9206
1.9521
1.9H32
20 142
2,0449
2.0753
2.1055
2.1355
2,16S2
2,I94H
2,2241
2.2662
2.2822
2.3109
I 17.11
\3315
1.3695
1.4071
\44-11
\,4S06
1.5166
1.5522
1.5973
I 6220
1.6563
1.6902
1.7238
1,7570
1,7898
1.!:!22l
I.R545
1._
1.91110
2.919]
1,91;04
2.0112
2.0417
2,072(}
2.1020
2.\318
2.1614
2.1908
2.2220
2.2480
2.m7
2.3063
P,
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
O<ml
00044
O<ml
0.0044
ow
O<ml
O.<ml
OSO
100
ISO
200
2.SO
'.00
'SO
'.00
'.SO
5.00
5.SO
6.00
6.SO
7.00
7SO
800
'.SO
'.00
'SO
O.OO-H
0,0045
0,0219
0,0529
0,0961
0.1 453
0,1952
0,2444
0.2930
0.340!!
0.3879
04345
10.00
10,SO
ILOO
\I.SO
12.00
12.SO
0,02]7
0,0611
01106
0.1598
0.2079
0.2554
0.3025
0.3492
0.3957
0.44111
0.4878
0.53]5
0.5790
0,6241
0 .....
0.7143
0.7591
0.8036
0.8480
0.8922
0.9362
0.9801
0_
0.526]
0.57H1
0,6169
0,66 18
0.7063
0,7506
0._
08384
0.8520
0.9254
09686
om
1.0676
11111
1 0117
1.0545
I 0973
\' \11
\ \',.j,,,
,'1)\
1.0239
1.1979
1.2412
14.5()
1500 1.2844
15.SO 1,3275
16,00 1.3705
16.50 1.4135
17,00 1.4564
17.50 1.4992
18,00 1.5420
18.SO 1.5847
19 .00 1,6274
19.5O 16700
20.00 1.7126
".SO 1.7551
21.00 \.7975
21,SO 1.8400
22.00 1,8824
22.SO 1.9247
2300 1.9670
23.SO 2.00B
24.00 2.0516
24.50 2.0938
25.00 2. 1360
25.SO 2.176 1
26,00 2.2202
26.50 2.2623
27.00 2 . _
27,SO 2.3'61
2800 2.3885
28,SO 2.4305
,.00 2.4724
,.SO 2.5144
30.00 2,5563
J4.oo
~
~
I HIl3
J.2146
1.2668
1.3089
1,3509
1.]928
1.4346
1.4763
L5180
1,5595
16010
1.6424
\.6837
I.72SO
1.7662
1 8073
,......
1.8895
1.9J04
1.9714
20122
2.0531
2.0938
2, 1346
2.1753
2.2\59
2.2566
2.297 1
2.3377
2.3782
2.4186
2.459\
2.4995
0,0211
0.0496
0.0!!1!8
0.1352
0,1846
0.2346
0.2840
0,3]25
0,3803
0.4274
0,4739
0,5198
0,5653
0,6104
O,65SO
0,6993
0.7433
0,7870
0.8303
0.8735
0.9163
0.9590
1.0014
1.0437
1 n~~7
",
I 1693
1.2109
1,2523
1.2936
1.3347
1.3757
1.4166
1.4574
\.4981
1.5387
1.5792
1 6196
1.6597
1.7001
\ ,7403
1.7803
1.8203
1.8603
1,9001
1.9399
1.9797
2.0 193
2.0590
2.0985
21380
2.1775
2.2169
2.2562
2.2955
2.3348
2.3740
2.4132
2.4523
oOW5
0,0477
0 .....
0,1287
0,1769
0,2267
0,2766
0.]260
0.3745
04223
04694
0.5158
0.5616
06069
0,6516
0.6960
1.'
1.7
1 .
O<ml
00000
00000
0,0043
0,0201
0._
0,0818
0,124\
0,1711
0,2202
0,2702
0.]200
0.369]
041711
0.4656
0.5126
0.55119
06045
0,6-495
0,0043
0,0]98
o,oon
0,0]96
00446
0,07113
0.1186
o 1637
0,2117
0,2613
0.3112
0.3610
0,4103
0.4589
o0,7380
""'"
0.7399
07834
0.8266
0,8695
0.9120
0.9542
0.9961
10HI!
I 079:'
0._
1 1.\
1\1>\
0,7814
0.8245
0.8671
0.9514
0.9930
1 1n43
1 117~~
O,04~4
0.0198
0.1211
0.1670
0.2 156
0,2654
0.]154
0.3650
0,4139
0.4622
0,5097
0,5564
0,6024
06477
0,6924
0.7365
0.7800
0.8231
0.8657
0.9078
0.9-496
0.9910
LO.m
1.072<1
!l:..l
I Ins
I 1934
1.2368 1,2331
' 2766 1.2725
L31 16
1.3161
1,3555
L3505
I.3H92
1.3947
14336 1 4218
14M1
14724
1.5042
L5111
1,5422
1.5496
1.5879 1,5800
1.6176
] 6261
1. 6551
16641
1.7020 1.6924
\.7296
1.7398
1.7667
\.m5
U\036
I 81SO
1,1!404
\.8524
I lf171
1.R898
1.9270 1.9 136
\.9477
1.9SO]
1.9858 1.%41
1.9S64
2.0239 2,0011
2,()618 2.0380 2.0226
2.0998 2,0749 2.0588
2.1376 2.1116 20948
2.1754 2.1403 21307
2,1848 2.1666
2.213\
2,2507 2.2213 2,2024
2.288] 2.2578 2.2..180
2.2736
2.3258 2.2lJ41
2.3632 2,3]()4 2,3091
2._ 2.3666 2._
1 1614
L2021
1,2427
1.2X30
1,3232
1,)632
1.4031
1.4428
I 4823
1.5217
1,5610
, 6002
1.6392
\.6781
1.7169
1.7556
1,7942
1 8327
1.8711
,-
1 1566
, '968
0.5068
0.5539
0,6003
0.6459
0.6908
0,7351
0,77Sf!
0.8219
0.8645
0,9056
0,9483
0.9896
UnO-l
lU7m
1111
11509
\.1904
L2296
1.2685
1,3071
1.3455
1.3836
1.4215
\.4591
14')65
1.53311
1.57U11
1,6076
1.6443
1.6808
1.7171
1.7532
1.7892
1.8251
,8608
1.8964
1.9318
1.9671
2.l1023
20373
2.0723
2.107 1
2. 1418
2.1764
2.2110
2,2454
2.2797
21119
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.'
00000
O<JOOO
O.lnlO
00000
0.<.1042
0.0\94
0,0441
0.0771
0.11K{!
0.1612
0.2087
0.2579
0.3078
0.3578
0,4073
0,4563
Q.5(M5
0,5520
0,5987
0.6447
0,6899
0.7344
0.7783
0.8215
0.8641
0.9063
0.9679
0.9891
OJX)42
0,0]93
0,0.08
0.0164
0,1156
o 1596
0,2067
0,2557
0,3055
0.3555
0,4052
0,4543
0.5028
0.5506
05975
0,6437
0.6892
0.7]38
om8
0.82 12
n.8639
0.9061
0,9477
0.(1042
0,0]92
0,0.05
0,0758
0,1146
(J,1581
0,0042
0,0191
(I,ono
0.0749
o 1131
0,1561
0,2024
O,251J8
0._
04498
049R8
0.547\
05946
06415
0.6874
0.7325
07769
08205
0.8635
0.9058
0.9-475
0.900
I ()2-l()
O,IJOO)
O.IK)42
O.IJlS9
0,0'21
0.0742
0.1171
(J 1547
0.20m
0.24K8
0.291\2
0.3481
0,3<J80
0,4477
0.4969
0.5454
1)5932
11,6401
1),68112
0.7315
11,7760
I),B198
1J.8628
1J.9052
0.9468
11.9879
1,()283
I (1M')
].0298
I 07111
I llul
1.1496
1.1889
1.2278
1.2663
10295
101'>'1)\
I If;
1 U292
I 1)(,91
I 11189
I 1489
I 1879
1.2265
\.2647
1 1481
11868
1.2252
1,2631
1. 3026
1.3402
1.3775
1.4\45
14512
14876
1.52311
1.5597
\5954
1.7U94
1.7450
1.7011
1,1359
\.770S
],AA56
0.8636
0,9058
0,9475
0._
1.3426
1.3803
1.4178
1.45SO
1.4920
1. 5287
1.5653
1.6016
1.6377
1.6736
1.92{)4
1.9550
1,9895
2.0239
2.058]
2.0923
2. \263
2.160 1
2.19]9
2.2276
2.2611
2.2946
08208
0.9889
1.-
1.7804
\.8156
18507
O,~9
0,2537
0.30]6
0.3536
04031
04525
0.5012
0.5492
115966
0,6428
0.6884
(),733]
(I,77N
I._
1.6308
\ ,8049
1.8392
\.8733
I 'J072
1.9409
1.9745
2.0079
2,0412
20744
2.\074
2.1403
2.1730
2.2056
2,2331
2.2705
(),3004
Ol~O3
I til
3.0
O<JOOO
O<JOOO
00000
O,O(i4;:
0.0189
0,0424
0,0737
0,1111
o 1534
0,1991
0,2470
0,2962
0.3461
0,3961
0,4450
0,4951
0,5437
0:'917
O,6J88
0.6850
0.7.'\04
0.7750
0.8 189
0.8619
0.9043
0,9459
0,0042
0.0198
0,0422
0,0733
0.1104
0.1524
0. 1978
0.2455
0.2946
0.3444
0.39-43
0.4441
0.4935
0.5422
0.5902
0,6374
0,6837
0.7292
0,7739
0.8178
0.0042
0.0187
O.OUO
0.0729
0.1098
0.1515
0.1967
0.2442
0,2932
0,3429
0.3929
04428
0.4922
0.5409
0.5690
0.6362
0.6826
0.7282
0,7830
0,8169
0.8609
08600
0.9024
1,(I(~1
] .0273
I (1(,70
0.9033
0.9449
0.9854
] .0262
I06W
IfI)-
I Tit.:
I 1472 1.\459
\.1840
1.1855
1,2234 1.22 \7
\.2588
1,2008
1.2978 1.2954
1.3007
\.33 16
1.3343
1.3379
\ ,3674
\.3705
1.3748
1.4028
1.4062
\4114
1..4377
14476 1.4617
1.4728
\.4767
1.4835
U065
I ~1 14
\ ,5192
\54l)4
1.5458
1.5546
\.5739
1.5799
1.5997
1.6246 16137 1,6071
1.6400
\.6472
1.6592
, 6IIQ.I
\.6726
1.6936
1.7049
1,7 134
\.7278
1,7460 1.7370
1.7617
17(~7
1.7785
1.7955
1,8107
I.IIIKl2
I 8290
1.11115
1.8427
11\623
I.M25
1,8744
1.8955
\.11933
1.9060
1.9285
1.9238
1.9373
1. 9613
\ ,9'i-l2
19939
1.9843
\.9994
2,0264
V1l42
2.0S!!7 2.0301
20909 20607 2.0440
2.0735
2,1229 2.0911
2.10211
2.1548 21213
2.1H65 2. 1913 2,1320
2.1812 2.111 J(J
2.2181
2.2496 2,2110 2. 11191'1
,-
2 .
2.'
0_
'0,(1
0._
0,9850
1.0253
1.0650
I III_HI
I 14)5 1 1415
1.1441
I 1615 \.\004
\.1827
1.218lJ 1.2177
1,2202
1.2558 1.2546
\,2572
1.2922 ,2909
1.29)7
1.3281 1.3268
\.3298
\.3637 1,3623
L3653
1.3987 1.3973
\.4005
14.\34 \.43\8
1.4353
1.4677
14(197
1,5015 \.4998
\.5036
1.5351 1.5332
1.S373
1,5706 1.5692 1S663
].6011
1.5990
1.6035
1.63]6 1.6614
1.5362
1.6658 1.6635
1.5M5
1.6977 1.6953
1.700~
1.7322 1,7243 1.7267
1.7606 1.7579
1.7637
1,7916 1.7889
1.7949
1.8258 1.8224 L8195
\ .8530 1.8499
1.8565
1,!lg7()
l.fUl33 1.8801
1.9133 \.9100
] 9172
1.9431 1.9397
1.9728 1,9692
\.9769
2.(X)65 20022 19964
2,0359 2.0314 2.0275
2,0650 H)60) 2,0563
2.0940 2.0891 2.0849
2,1228 2.1178 2.1134
2.1462 2.1417
2.\514
2. 17')8 2.1744 2. 1698
,""'"
,"
Table 72 (g)
Extended Sukkar...comell Integral tor Bottomhole Pressure Calculation
1.1
I."
200
2,.
300
3.50
4.00
4.50
'.00
,."
.00
'.50
700
7."
8.00
850
9.00
9.50
1000
10.50
lUll)
11.50
12.00
1150
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.'
3.0
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
00000
00000
00000
0.0000
0.0000
00000
0.0036
0.0166
0.0382
0.0676
0,1033
0,1436
0.1869
0.2318
0.2n3
0.3229
O,(lIns
0,0162
0,0371
0,0652
0.0993
o 1381
0.1801
0.2242
0,2693
0.3149
0.3605
0.4059
0.4508
0,4952
0.5391
0.5824
0.6252
0.6674
0.7091
0.7503
0.7910
0,1013
0,11711
0.9106
U'HII7
0,0035
0,0162
O,036!l
0,0035
0,0169
0,0361
0,0632
0.0963
01366
0.1782
0.2219
0.2669
0.3124
0.3580
0 ...t035
0.4486
0.4932
0.5372
0.5808
0.6237
0.6660
0.7078
0,7491
0.71199
O,R302
(J,87()('
U YO')5
U II-'X~
0,0035
0.0161
0,0365
0.0640
0,0974
0,1353
0.1765
0.2199
0,2647
0,3101
03551:1
0,4013
0,4465
0,4913
0,5355
0.5792
0,6223
0.6647
0.7066
0.7480
0.71!S8
O,82Y2
0!i690
U.90114
U.9-'74
0,0035
0,0159
0,0351:1
0,0626
0.()951
01321
o 1725
0.2152
0,0035
0,0157
0,0355
0,0618
0,0937
0,0035
0,0157
0,0353
0,0615
0.0931
0,1292
0.1687
0.2108
0.2545
0.2993
0.3525
0.3981
0.405
0,4&14
0.5329
0.5767
o 62()()
0.6627
0.7048
0,7463
0.71173
O,II2n
O,I!676
o 9()7U
0.6612
0,7034
0.7451
(),7!S61
0,11265
0."""
() ()I]57
0,0035
0,0158
0,03.56
0,0621
0,0943
0,1309
0,1710
0,2135
0,2675
0.3025
0,3480
0,3937
0.4392
0.4843
0.5291
0.5712
0.61bR
0.6597
0,7020
0,74]6
() 7847
0.8251
086:'iO
0,90n
U '1J~1I
n" -'Jo
" W~X4
II
(J,i)SW
n \//1.1:'
1I'11oI:.'S
0.'1-'.11
lI'Jlln
U97W
0.7411
0.71122
0,11227
0.11626
0.9019
09-'06
II.Y7117
, leM
1.02.11
, .11.'
11:.'11(,
1 1l1'!1
1.11171>
! IJJN
1.0618
1.0992
1 1362
I 1729
1.2092
1.2453
1.2610
1.3164
1.3515
1 J864
1.4211
1.4554
1.4896
1.5235
155n
1.5906
1.6239
1.6570
1.6899
1.7226
1.7551
1.787<1
1.8196
1,8516
1.8835
1.9152
1,9468
1,9782
2,0095
2.0407
2.0717
2.1026
2.1334
1.0596
1~79
1.il966
1 09-17
I 1332
116<J.i
1.2052
1.2<W7
1.2757
1.3105
1,3449
1.3789
1.4127
1.4462
1.4794
1.512.1
1.5449
1.5773
1.6095
1.6414
1.6731
1 1311
1 1670
1.2026
1.2377
1.272'1.3067
I 056~
10930
1 1293
I 165\
1,2005
1.2354
\.2700
1.3042
1.3380
I 3714
1.4U45
1.4373
1,'-698
1.5019
\.5338
1.5654
15967
162n
1.6585
1.0547
1.0914
I 1276
I 1633
I 19K7
1.2:'15
1.2(>110
\ U5.lS
11110\
I 121>3
1 I"2U
I 1972
I.HW
1.2665
1.3005
1.3.\41
I 3674
1.4003
I 4329
1.4652
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1.0261
1.0618
1.0973
1.1325
1.1674
1,2020
0.9869
1.0226
1.0500
1.0931
1.1278
1.1622
0.9848
12364
1.2300
1.2634
\.2966
1,3294
1.3620
1.3944
1,4265
1,4583
1,4900
1,5214
1.5525
1,5835
1.6143
1.6448
1.6752
1,1054
1.7354
1.7652
1.7949
1.8244
1.8537
I.M29
1.9119
I.1.9696
0.0000 0000l
0.0030 00030
0.0139 0.0139
0.0317 0.0315
0.0559 00554
0.11055 0.0847
0,119.1 01182
0.1567 0,1550
0.1962 0, [942
0.2372 0,2350
0.2790 0.2766
0.3211
0.3187
0.3634 0,3610
04{l55 0,4032
0,4473 0,4451
OA~
04867
0.5300 0.5280
0.5707 0S688
0.6109 0.6091
0.6507 0.6490
0.6901
06S85
0.7291
0.7275
0,7677 0.7661
0.8059 0,8043
08438 0.3422
0.8813 0.8797
0918.'1 091611
11
2.2
S1
II "'~1~
1.2705
1.3044
1.3380
1.3714
1.4046
1.4376
1.4704
1.5030
1.5355
1.5677
1.5998
1.6317
1,6634
1.6950
1.7264
1.7577
1.7888
1.8198
1.8506
UI814
1.9119
1.9424
19726
2.0030
2.033 1
1.1962
1.9982
1.0205
1.0557
1.0905
1.1247
1.1590
1.1928
1.2262
1.2592
1.2970
1.3245
3166
,3885
,4201
,45 15
,4826
,5134
5440
5744
6()'16
6345
6642
.6937
,723 1
I. 7522
1.7812
1.8100
1.8386
1.8670
1.8953
1.9234
1.9513
1.9791
"""
P,
0.20 00000
O.SO 00029
1.00 O.OLSO
I.SO 0.0403
2.00 0.0776
2.SO 0,1170
300 0.1565
3SO 0.1958
4.00 0.2351
4SO 0.2743
'00 0.3133
'.SO 0.3523
6.00 0.3912
6.SO 0.'1300
7.00 0.4687
7.SO 0.0573
800 0,$458
8.SO 0.5843
9.00 0.6227
9SO 0.6609
1.2
1.3
0.0000
0.0000
O,(JO?..8
0.0139
0.0341
0,0028
0.0133
0.0318
0,0582
0.0912
0.1281
0.1668
0,2062
0,2457
0.2851
0.3244
0.3634
04023
0.44\0
0.4795
0.5179
0.5560
0.5940
0,6319
0.0640
1000
10.50
11,00
11,SO
12,00
0.6991
0.7372
0.n53
0,8132
0.8511
0.1005
0.1393
0.1787
0,2182
0,2576
0.2969
0.3360
0.3750
0.4138
0.4525
0.4910
0.5294
0.5677
0.6059
0,6439
0.6818
0.7196
0.7573
0.m9
0.8324
IBO
(),AA~
0_
D,no
n Q~t.X
0907:'
0.7071
0,nt6
0.7819
0.8190
0,851'01
tUN'1
I'~I
II ,lid'
01--1.1'\
L)?'N
10022
1.0398
1.0774
1 1149
r 1525
1 1"'.19
]2274
1.2648
1.3021
1.3395
1.3768
1,4140
1,4513
1,4885
1.5257
15629
1.6001
1.6372
1.6743
1.7114
1.74K5
1.7855
1.8226
1.8596
1.8966
1.9336
1.9705
2.0075
2.0444
2.0!!\3
2.1182
2.1551
2,1920
0.9816
0,0188
1.0558
1.0928
1.1297
0,9667
1.0034
10400
1.0765
I 1129
1 1492
I 1855
1.2217
1,2579
14.00
15.00
15 ..~
J/)I~l
16.50
17,00
17.50
18.00
18.50
19.00
19.5O
20.00
20.SO
21.00
21,50
22,(k)
22.SO
23.00
23SO
,"00
24.50
23.00
23 SO
26.00
26.50
27.00
27,SO
28.00
28.SO
29.00
2950
3000
14 SO
II""
1.2034
1.2402
].2769
1.3136
1.3502
0.6696
12940
1.5327
1.S691
].330)
],)659
1.4019
1,4)77
1.4735
1.5093
1.5450
\.6417
1.6780
1.7143
1.7505
1.7867
1.8229
1.8591
1.8952
1.9313
1.9674
2.0034
2.0194
2.0755
2.1114
2.1474
1.6163
16519
1.6874
1,7229
1.7584
1.7938
1.8292
1.8645
1.8999
1.9352
1.9704
2.0057
2,0409
2,0761
2,1112
13868
1,4233
1.4598
1.4963
I._ I."""
'"
1.5
1.6
1.7
1 .
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0027
0.0129
0.OJ05
0.0551
0.0027
0.0127
0.0296
0,0530
0.0821
0.1156
0.1520
0.1901
0,2292
0.2686
0.3081
0.3476
0,386!1
0.4258
0.4646
0.5031
0,5413
0.5793
0.6 171
0.0027
0.0125
0,0517
0.0798
0.1122
0.1477
0.1853
0.2240
0.2633
0.3028
0.3423
0,3816
0,42{)8
0.4597
0.4983
0.5367
0.5747
0.612S
0.0027
0,0123
0,0284
0.0505
0.0779
0.1095
0.1442
0.1812
0.2]95
0.2586
0.2980
0,3376
0.3170
0.4163
0.4553
0,4941
0.5325
0.5707
0._
0.6500
0,6873
0,7243
0.76] I
0.7977
OSJJI
IlInm
00858
0.1208
0.]584
0.]973
0.2367
0.2762
0.3156
0.3549
0,3939
0.4328
0.47]4
0 ..5097
0,$479
0.5859
0.6237
0.6612
0.6987
0.7359
0.7729
n~66
0,6919
0.7290
0.7659
0.8026
(),8J91
n ~~n~
II
"
n 'JI
0.8098
'I' '.
0,9559
0,9921
1.02112
1.0641
I 1000
\ 1357
I.J 713
1.2068
12422
1.2776
1.3128
13480
1.3831
1.4181
1.4530
1.4879
1.5227
1.5574
1.5920
1.6266
I.MI2
1,6957
1,7301
1.7645
1,7988
l.8m
1.8673
1.9015
1.9356
1,9697
2.0038
2.0378
2.0717
~7'i~
0.0290
1.'
2.0
2.2
0.0000
0.0000
0,0027
00122
0.0279
0,0493
0,0756
0.106]
0.1398
0.1758
0,2JJS
0.2521
0.2913
0.3308
0.3703
0,4097
0,449(}
0.4879
0.5266
0,5650
0.6030
0.0000
00026
00000
0.0026
0.0 120
0.0273
0,6461
0.6833
97203
0.7571
0,7936
0,8299
0,0027
0.0122
0.0281
0.0497
0.0765
0,2074
0.1416
0.1780
0.2159
0.2548
0,2941
0.3336
0.3731
0.4124
0,4516
0.4905
0.5290
0.5673
0.6052
0.6429
0.6802
0.7172
0,7539
0,7903
O.IQM
n.so~'1
II IIO~J
0._
II )1111.'
II '~IL'
II
0.9477
098.15
1.0193
1.0548
].0903
J 12S5
I 1607
1.1958
1.2307
1.2655
] .30)2
] ,3349
1.3694
1.4038
1.4381
1.4723
0,9421
0.9778
0.9373
0.9727
1.0079
1.0429
1.0777
1.1123
1 14611
I 1811
1.2152
1.2492
1.2831
] ,3168
] .3504
1.3838
1.4171
1.4503
1.4834
1.5 164
1.5492
1,5820
I.nt46
1.6472
1.6797
1.7120
1.7443
1.7765
1.81186
1.1H06
1.8726
1.9044
1.9302
0.9335
0,9588
1.0037
1,0)85
1.0731
1.1075
I 1417
1.1757
1.2095
1.2432
1.2767
] .3101
1.3433
1,3763
1.4093
1.4421
1.4747
1,5072
1.5396
1.5719
16041
1.6362
1.6582
1.7000
1.7318
1.7634
\.79.50
1.8265
1.8579
1.8892
1.9204
1.9516
1.9826
I."'"
1S4<J6
1.5746
I1,6423
"""
1.6761
1,7098
1,7434
1,7770
1,8105
1,8439
1.8773
1,9107
1.9439
1.977J
2,0103
2,0434
I ,OJ))
].0486
J .0837
1.1187
I 1536
11884
1.2230
1.2574
1.2918
1.3261
1.3602
1.3942
1~281
I 4620
J 4957
1.5293
1.5629
1.5963
1.1'0297
1.6630
1.6962
1.7293
1.7624
1,7954
1,11283
1,1\612
1.11940
1.9267
1.9594
1.9920
2.0246
19680
1 \l996
~'Il'il
0.0121
0.0276
0.0488
0.0749
0.1050
0. 13&3
0.1740
0.2113
0,2498
0.2889
0.3283
0.3678
0.4073
0,4466
0.4856
0.5244
0.5628
0.6009
0"",
0.0738
0.1034
0.1362
0,1714
0.2084
0.2465
0.2854
0.3247
0.3642
0.4037
0.4431
0,4819
0,52{)8
0.5593
0.5975
0,6353
06728
2.6
2 .
0.0000
0.0000
0.0026
0,0119
0.0271
O.04n
0.0730
0,1023
0,1348
0.1696
0.2063
0.2442
0,2829
0.3221
0.3616
0.4011
0,44{)5
0,4797
0.5]87
0.5573
0,5955
0.6334
067\0
0,7081
0,7448
0.7812
0.0026
0,0119
0.0270
0.0473
0.0724
0.1013
0,1335
0.1681
0.2045
0.2422
0,2808
0.3199
0.3594
0.3989
0,4383
0.4776
0.5166
0.5553
0.5936
0,6315
0.0000
00026
2.'
0.6780
0.7150
0,7517
0.7882
n,!Q43
0.6386
0,6760
0.7130
0.7498
0.7862
Q,K!2J
0,7466
0,78JO
0,819n
IUIl7I
!1iWIZ
n H'iSO
US.~4
II
"
/I,
HINIJrI
06407
,'Il~
0.9310 09287
0.9661
0.9636
1.0009 0.9982
1.0328
\.0355
1.0698
1.0667
1.1039 1.1005
\.1378 1.1341
1.1714
I 11'075
1.2049
12006
1,2336
1.2382
1,2663
1.2713
J .3042
1.2988
1,3311
1.3369
1.3695
1.3633
1.4019 1.3952
1.4J.t 1 1.4270
1.4662
1.4586
1.4982
1.4900
1.5300 1.5213
1.5617
1.5525
1.5834
1.5932
] ,6246
1.6143
1.6559
1.6-*.50
1.6871
1.6755
1.7181
1.7059
1.7491
1.7362
1.7799 1.7664
1.8106 1.7965
1.8412 1.8264
1.8717 1.8562
1.9021
1.K859
1.9325 1.9155
1.9450
1.9627
07099
S~:>7
'K"I,~'
06690
0.7052
0.7429
0,7792
1),11152
II
H~17
'I!'SiO
J.O
0.0000
0.0026
00118
0.0267
0.0118
0.0268
0.0471 0.0468
0,0718 0.0714
0.1005 O.om
0.1324 0.lJI5
0.1667 0,1656
0,2029 0.2017
0.2405 0.2391
0.2790 0,2175
0.3181 0.3166
0.3575 0.3560
0.3970 0.3955
0,4365 0,4350
0.4758 0.4743
0.5148 0.5133
0.5535 0.5521
0.5918 0.5904
0.6298
0.6284
0.6660
0.6673
0,7045
0.7412
0.m5
0.8]34
01490
0,7031
0.7398
0.7762
0,8121
0,8-176
(l ,~.~~I
{) 1<827
09250
0.9596
0,9939
1.0279
1.0516
\ .0949
I 121!O
"806
I._
Table 72 (j)
Extended Sukkar-Cornell Integral for 9oHomhole Pressure Calc'" II....
P,
1.1
0.20
0."
1.00
I."
200
00000
0.0026
0.0134
0.0362
0,0707
0.1016
o 1449
0.1821
0,2193
0.2565
0.2936
0.3306
0.3676
0.40-'5
0.4414
0.4782
0,5150
0.5517
0.5883
0.6248
0,6613
0.6978
0,7342
0.7705
0.8068
1.3
1.4
0.0000
0.0025
0.0124
0.0305
0.0576
0.0912
0.1273
0,1643
0.2015
0.2388
0.2760
0.3131
0.3501
0.3871
0.42]9
00000
0.0025
0.0119
0.0000
0.0024
0,0115
0.0272
0,0494
12 ,50
I' Ull
o &.no
0.4973
0.5]39
0.5704
0.6067
0.6430
0.6792
0,7153
0.7514
0.7874
OR2]]
o R"7<l2
1))1<;'11
0.0522
0.0823
0.1163
0,1523
0.1892
0.2264
0,2637
0.3009
0.3380
0.3750
0.4118
0_
0,4852
0.5216
0,5580
0.5942
0.6301
06664
07023
0,7381
0.TI]8
a 8Il94
II S4--l'J
\ '\ \II
\I 'HS]
U,I('I.\'1
(\I!I'.\l-\
2."
3.00
3."
4.00
4."
5.00
5."
'.00
,,.
7.00
7."
8.00
8,.
900
9."
10,00
10,50
11.00
1I,SO
12 .00
14.00
0,9514
0.9875
15.00 1.0235
15.SO 1.0595
16.00 1.0955
16.50 1.J315
17.00 1.1674
17.50 1.2032
18.00 1.2391
18.50 1.2749
19.00 1.3107
19.5O 1.3465
20.00 \.3823
20.SO 1.4180
21.00 \.4538
21.SO 1,4895
22.00 1,5251
22." 1.5608
23.00 1.5965
23." 1.6]21
24.00 1.66TI
24.50 1.70]3
25.00 1.7389
25.50 1.7745
26.00 1.8100
26.SO 1.8456
27.00 1.8811
27.50 1.9166
28.00 1.9521
28." 1.9876
29.00 2.0231
29.50 2.0586
30.00 2.0941
14.50
1.2
0.0284
o 46()7
0.9306
0.9663
1.0019
1.0374
1.0729
1.1084
1.1438
1.1791
1.2145
1.2497
1.2850
1.3202
1.3554
1.31X15
1.4256
1.4607
1.4958
1.5308
1.5658
1.6008
1.6357
1.6706
1.7055
1.7404
1.7752
1.8101
1.8449
1.8797
1.9144
1.9492
1.9839
2.0186
2.0533
0.9157
0.9510
0.9863
1.0214
1.0565
1.0915
1.1265
1.1614
1.1962
1.2310
1.2658
1.3005
1.3351
1.3697
1.4043
1.4388
1.4733
1.5077
1.542]
1.5765
1.6108
1.6451
1.6794
1.7136
1.7478
1.7820
1.8162
1.850]
1.8844
1.9184
1.9525
).9865
2.0205
!l
1.5
0."'"
0.4029
0,4397
0.4763
0.5128
0.5492
0.5853
0,6214
0.6573
0,6930
0.7286
0,764]
0, 7994
n K\47
0.0000
0.0024
0,0113
0.0264
0.0475
0.0738
o 1043
0.1378
0.1732
0,2096
0.2466
0.2838
0,3211
0.3583
0.3954
0.4323
0._
0.5055
0.5419
0.5780
0,6140
0.6498
0.6854
0.7209
0,7562
0,7914
IUC:I, I
lJ ,1>')\
t kl>I.1
0.on2
0.109]
0.1441
0.IS03
0.2172
0.2544
0.2917
0.3289
0.9048
09396
0.9744
1.0091
1.0437
1.0782
1.1126
1.1469
1.1811
1,2153
1.2494
1.2834
1.3173
1,3512
1,38SO
14187
\.4524
1.4860
1.5196
1.5531
1.5866
1,6200
1.6534
1.6867
].7200
1.7532
1.7864
L8195
1.8526
1.8857
1.9187
1.9517
1.9847
0.8961
0.9307
0.9652
0.9995
1.0338
1.0679
1.1019
I 1358
1.1696
1.20]3
1.2370
1.2705
1.3039
1,]373
1.]706
1.4038
1.4369
1.4699
1.5029
1.5358
1.5687
1,6015
1,6342
)
""
1.6995
1.7320
1.7645
1.7969
1,8293
1,8617
1.8940
1.9262
1.9584
1.6
1.7
0.0000
0.0024
0,0111
0.0258
0.0462
0.0716
0.1012
0.1338
0.1685
0.2045
0.2412
0.2783
0.3158
0.3528
0.3900
0,4270
0.4638
00000
0.0024
0.0110
0.0254
0,0452
0.0699
00986
0.1304
0.1645
0.2001
0.2366
0.27]5
0.3107
0.3480
0.3852
0.422]
0.4592
0,4959
0.5]23
0.5686
D."""
05368
0.5730
06090
06447
0,6803
0.7157
07509
0.7MO
OIQm
f) k~'
0.8902
0.9246
0.9589
0.9931
1.0271
1.0609
1.0947
1.1283
1.1619
1.1953
1,2286
1.2618
1.2949
1.3279
1.3608
1.3937
1.4264
1,4591
1.4916
1.5242
1.5566
1,5890
1.6212
1.6535
1.6856
1.7177
1.7498
1.7817
1,8136
1.8455
1,8773
1.9091
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1.5494
1.5761
1.6027
1.6291
1.6553
1.6815
1.7075
1.7333
Table 72 (I)
Extended Sukkar-Cornell Integral for Bo"om-ho~ Pre.sure c.lculatlon
P,
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
00000
0.0019
0.0093
0.0232
0.0443
0,0115
0.1014
0.1325
0.1642
0.1962
0.2283
0.2606
0.2928
0.3251
0.3574
0.3896
0,4219
0,4541
0.4863
0.5185
0.5507
0,5828
0.6149
0.""
0,67W
0.7110
0,7429
00000
0,0019
0.0069
0.0215
0.0399
0,0631
0.0913
0.1211
0.1521
0.1837
0.2157
0.2479
0.2801
OJ124
0.""
0.3769
O,409J
0,4413
0.4735
0.5056
0,5377
05698
0.6018
0.6337
0,6656
0.697S
\) ,01)
0.0000
0.IX)l9
0,0101
O,02TI
0.0559
0.0870
0.1189
0.1509
0.1831
0.2153
0.2475
0,2798
OJ120
0.3443
0.3766
0.4066
0.4411
0,4734
0.5056
0.5378
0.5701
0,6023
0.6344
0.6666
0.6987
0,7309
11 76:\11
11 72'n
0.0000
0,0018
0.0067
00206
0,0316
0,0594
0.0851
0.\135
o 1435
0.1745
0.2062
0.2382
0.2703
0.3026
0.3348
0,)671
0.3m
0.4316
0,4637
0,4958
0,5279
0,5599
0.5718
0,6237
0,6555
0,6872
Q,7 IH'J
\3.<;0
tl '7'1<"\
n7'7-l1)
() 761 \
tl15H~
0.8068
0.8387
0.8705
0.9024
0.9342
0.7929
0,8246
0.8562
0.8879
0.9195
0.9510
0.9826
1.0141
1.0455
1.0769
I 1083
1.1397
1.1711
J.2o:!4
\.2337
1.2650
1.2962
1.3274
1.3586
1.3898
1.4210
1.4521
1.4832
1.5143
1.5454
1.5765
1.6075
1.6385
1.6695
1.7005
1.7315
1.7625
1.7934
0,7820
0.8i3S
0.8449
0.8763
0.9076
0.9389
0.9701
1.0012
1,0]23
1.0634
1.0944
1.1253
1 1562
1.1811
1,2179
1,2481
1.2795
1.3102
1.3409
1,3715
1.4021
1.4327
1,4632
1.4937
1.5242
1.5547
1.5851
1.6155
1.6459
1.6762
1.7065
1.7168
1.7671
0.20
O.SO
1.00
I.SO
2.00
2.SO
3.00
3.SO
4.00
4.SO
5.00
5.SO
6.00
6.SO
7.00
7.SO
8.00
8.SO
9.00
'.SO
10.00
IO.SO
11,00
II,SO
12.00
12 .50
14.00 0.8272
14.50 0,8592
15.00 0.8913
15.50 0.9233
16.00 0.9554
16.50 0.9874
17.00 1.0194
\1.50 1,0514
18.00 1.0834
18 ..50 1.1153
19.00 I 147)
19 ..50 1.1792
20.00 1.2112
2O.SO 1.2431
21.00 1.27.50
21.50 1.3069
22.00 1.3388
22.50 1.3707
23.00 1.4026
23.50 1.4344
24,00 1.4663
24.50 1.4982
25.00 1.5300
25.SO 1.5619
26.00 1.5937
26,50 1.6255
27.00 1.6574
27,SO 1.6892
28.00 1.7210
28.50 1.7528
29.00 1.7846
29.SO 1,8164
30.00 1.8482
O. ""'"
0.9977
1.0295
1.0612
1,(1929
1.1246
1.1562
1.1879
1.2195
1.2511
1.2827
1,3143
13458
1.3774
1.4089
1.1.4719
1.0534
1.5349
1.5664
1.5978
1.6292
1.6607
1.692\
1.7235
1.7549
1.7863
1.8177
1.5
0.0000 00000
0,oot8 00018
0.0065 00084
0.0200 0.0195
0,0361
0,0351
0.0566 0,0549
0.0808 0,0781
0.1079 0.1043
0.1369 0.1326
0,1672 0.1624
0,1984 0. 1931
0.2301
0.2245
0.2620 0.2563
0.2942 0._
0.3264 0.3206
0.3587 0.3529
0.3910 0,3&51
0.4232 0.4174
0.4554 0.4496
0,4875 0.4817
0.5195 0.5137
05515 0.5457
0.5833 0.5775
0,6151
0,6093
0"" {l6409
()67}15 06725
II 7w I
II 7(1.10
o 1~15 (1 ns~
0.0000
0.0018
00063
0.0192
0,0343
0.0535
0.0160
0.1014
0.1291
0,1583
0.1887
0.2198
0.2515
0.2834
0.3156
0.3478
0,3801
0.4123
0,4445
0.4767
0,5087
0,5407
05725
0,6042
0,6359
0,6674
0,7730
0,8043
0.8355
0,8667
0.8978
0.9288
0,9598
0,9907
1.0215
1.0523
1.0830
1.1137
1 1443
I 1748
1.2053
1.2357
1.2661
0.7613
0.7924
0,8233
0,8542
0.8850
0.9156
0.9462
0.9767
1.(mO
1.0373
1.0675
1.0976
I 1277
I 1576
I 1875
1.217)
1.2470
1.2166
1.3062
1.3357
1.3652
1.39.15
\.4238
1.453\
1.4823
1.5114
1.5405
1.5695
1.5985
1.6274
1.6563
1.6851
1.7139
12964
1.3267
1.3569
U871
1.4173
1,4474
1.4774
1,5075
1,5374
1,5674
1.5973
1.6272
1.6570
1.6868
1.7166
1.7463
0.7667
0.7979
0,8291
0.8601
0.8911
0.9219
0.9527
0.9835
1.0J41
1.0447
1.0752
I 1056
"360
1 1663
"965
1,2267
1.2568
1.2869
1.3169
1.3469
1.3768
1.\.4364
\.4662
1.4959
1.5255
1.5552
1.5847
1.6143
1.6438
1.6732
1.7026
1.7320
0.0000
0.0018
0.0062
0,0189
0.0338
0.0524
0.0745
0.0993
0.1263
0.1551
0.1850
0.2158
0.2472
0.2791
OJJl I
0.3433
0.3756
0.4079
0.4401
0.4722
0,5043
0.5363
0.5581
0.51)98
0,6314
1)11629
0.0000 00000
0.0018 0.0018
0'<X)81
0.0081
0.0188 0,0186
0.0334 0,0331
0.0518 0.0512
0.0734 0.0726
0.0979 0.0966
0,1245 0,1229
0.1529 0.1510
0.1826 0.1804
0.2132 0.2108
0.2444 0.2419
0,2761
0,2735
0.3081
0,3054
0.3403 0,3375
0.3725 0.3697
0,4048 0.402Q
0,5370 0,4343
0,4692 0,4665
0.5013 0,4985
0.5333 0.5305
0,5651
0,5624
0,5988 0.5942
0.6284 0,6257
0,f>S99 0,6571
2.2
2.4
00000
00018
00060
0.0184
0.0326
0.0504
0,0714
0.0950
0.1209
0.1485
0.1775
0,2075
02383
0.2697
0.3015
0.3336
0,3651
0,3976
0.4297
0,4619
0,4940
0,5260
0.5579
0,5896
0,62J2
n 6526
I),MH
00000
0,0018
00060
0.0183
00323
0.0499
0.0705
0.0989
0, I 194
01466
0.1783
0.2051
0.2357
0.2670
0,2986
0,1306
0.3628
0.3951
0,4273
04596
0,4917
0,5237
0,5556
0.Sln3
0,6189
0 6503
f) (''1('
f) ,6'N J
() (fi 12
U~
f) 7~W
O.n'
II.
"
1171'Jf>
0.1505
0.71m
0.8120
0.8425
0.8728
0.9030
0.9331
0.9630
0,9928
1.0224
1.0519
1.0812
1.1104
1 1395
1.1685
1.1974
1.2261
1.2547
1.2832
1.3116
1.3399
1.3681
\,3962
1.4242
1.4521
1.4799
1,5076
1.5353
1.5628
1.5903
1.6176
1.6449
1.6722
0.7457
0.7764
0.8069
0.8371
0.8612
0.8971
0.9269
0.7566
0.7876
0.8184
0.8492
0.8798
0.9103
0.9408
0.9711
1.0013
1.0313
1.0613
1.0912
1 1210
1 1507
1 1803
1.2099
1.2393
1.2667
1.2979
1.3271
1.3563
1.3833
\.4143
1.4432
1.4721
1.5008
1.5295
1.5582
\.5868
1.6153
1.6438
1.6722
1.7005
0.7534
0,7843
0.8151
0.8451
0.8762
0.9065
0.9368
0.9668
0.9968
1,0267
1.0564
10860
I 1155
1.1419
1 1741
1.2033
1.2324
1.2614
l.2902
1.3190
1.3477
1.3763
1.4048
1.4332
1..1616
1.4898
1.5180
1.5461
1,5742
1.6021
1.6300
1.6579
1.6856
'q'l
0.9~64
0.9!!58
1.0150
1.1).140
1.0728
I 1015
1 1301
I 1584
I 1867
12147
12.127
1,2705
1,2981
1.3256
l.J530
1.)803
1.4014
1.4344
1,4613
1.4R81
1,5148
1.5413
1.5678
1,5941
1.6204
1.6465
')M I ~
"
'I.'~
~
~
~
2.6
2.S
0.0000 0.0000
0.0017 0.0011
0.0060 0,0079
0.0181
0,0181
0,0321
0,0319
0.0494 0.0490
0.0698 0.0692
0.0928 0,0920
0,1181
0.1170
0,1451
0.1438
0.1736 0.1721
0.2032 0,2016
0.2337 0.2320
0,2648 0.2630
0._
0.2946
0.3284 0.3265
0.3605 0.3586
03928 0.3909
0.4251
0,4231
0,457) 0.4554
0,4894 04875
0,5215 0.5196
0.5534 0.5515
0,5851
0.5832
0,6166 0,6148
U,MIIO
0,6461
(t oM (t,(,77J
" 71ft I /I 7(1.12
3.0
0.0000
0.0017
0.0079
00180
0.0311
0.0487
O.OW
0.0913
0.1161
0.1428
0.1709
0.2003
0.2306
0.2616
0.2932
0.3251
0.35n
03894
0.4211
0.4539
0.4861
0.5181
0.5500
0,5818
0.6133
0,6446
0,6758
0,7()67
,,4<6
P,
020
OSO
100
I.SO
200
2.SO
)00
).SO
4.00
4.SO
'00
'.SO
600
6SO
7.00
7.SO
.00
8SO
9.00
9.SO
10.00
10.50
11 .00
II.SO
12.00
IBO
13 nn
\) su
/4.00
/4 ..<;(1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.'
1.5
0.0000
0.0000
00000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0017
0.0000
0.0000
0.0016
o00I<l
0.0199
0.03&5
0.0016
0,0016
0,0074
00000
0.0000
0.0016
OJID3
O.01n
0.0312
0.0490
0.0703
0,0943
0.1202
0.1475
0.1756
0.2045
0.2337
0.2632
0.0000
00015
00071
0.0165
0,0296
0.0462
O.(XlIS
0,0070
0,0163
0,0291
00453
0.0015
0,0070
0.0161
0,0288
0.0015
0,0070
0,0160
0,0285
0,0443
00660
0.08S4
0._
0.11864
0.1129
0,1391
0.1664
0.1946
0.2233
0,2525
06()t}4
0.1104
0,1360
0.1629
0.1907
0.2192
0.2482
0,2775
0.3071
0.3368
0,3667
0.3965
0.4264
0.4563
0,4861
0.5159
0.5456
0.5752
0,,047
0.3337
0,36)5
0.3934
0.4233
0.4531
0.4830
0.5127
0.5424
0.5721
0.6016
0.~987
0 . 650~
0.0015
0.0072
0.0168
0.0303
0.0475
0.0679
0,0910
0.1162
0.1429
0.1706
0.1991
0.2281
0.2574
0.2870
0.3167
0.3465
0.3764
0.4063
0,4362
0.4660
0.4958
0.5256
0.5553
0.5850
0.6146
00442
O.hJ.~1j
1l(,.~~2
Hf.:!I'('
/l (,i_
o (,:" ,1~
o fl.']]
I l l>hH.l
I ! (,t'.~I,
n (, '>4 1--1
II ('5'<;
,,~~
0.7093
0.7388
0.7682
0.7976
0.8269
0,8662
1.0S86
1.Il1<08
I 1175
I 1463
1 1751
1.2039
1.2326
1.2613
1.2899
1.3185
1.3471
1.3757
1.4042
1.4327
1.461l
1.4895
1.5179
1,5463
1,5747
1,6030
1.6313
1.1095
1.1381
1.1667
1.1953
1.2238
1.2522
1,2807
1.309Il
1.3374
1.3657
1.3940
1.4222
1.4504
1.4786
1.5067
1.5341:1
1,5629
1.5909
1.61 89
06977
0.7270
0.7562
0.7854
0.8145
0.8435
0.8724
0.9013
0.9.'100
0.95118
0.91174
1.0160
10445
1.07.10
1.1014
I 1297
1 15SO
1 1862
1,2144
1,2425
1,2706
1.2986
1.3265
06929
0.7222
0,7513
0,7804
0.9 146
0.9437
0.9728
10018
1.0308
1.0597
0.7031
0.7325
0.7619
0.7911
0.8203
0,8495
0,8786
0.9076
0.9366
0.9656
0.9945
1.0233
1.0521
0.6897
0.7189
0.7479
0.n69
0.S058
0.8345
0.8632
0,8918
0.9203
0.9486
0.9769
1,0051
1.0332
Ul612
1.0892
1 1170
1 1448
I 1724
1.2000
1.2276
1,2550
1.2824
1.3097
1.3369
1.3641
1.3912
1.4182
0.6867
0.7158
0.7448
0.7737
0.8025
0.8311
0.11597
0.R881
0.9164
0.9446
0.9727
I.()OO7
1.0286
1.0564
1.11841
I 1116
I 1391
I 1665
I 1938
1.2210
1.2482
1.2752
1.3022
1.3290
1.3M8
1.3625
1.4092
0l1li87
0.024(1
o,om
oom
00625
0,1063
0,1356
0.1651
0.1947
0,2243
0.2540
0.2838
0.3135
0.3433
0.3732
0,4030
0.4328
0.4627
0,4926
0.5225
0.5523
0.5822
0.6121
0.6420
0.6718
1l.7n17
0.0894
0.1175
0.1464
0. 1756
0.2050
0.2347
0.2644
0.2941
0.3239
0.3538
0.4135
0.4434
0.4733
0.5031
0.5330
0.5629
0.5927
0.6226
0.6524
O.6X22
11. 'It.
n .711\
{/7615
079/3
0,8112
0,8510
0.7419
0.7717
0.S014
0.8312
/5.00
15.50
/6.00 08809
/6.50 0.9107
17.00 0 _
17.50 0._
18.00 1,()(]()2
18.SO 1.0300
19,00 1,0599
19.5O 1.0897
20.00 1.1195
20.50 1.1493
21.00 I 1791
21.50 L2089
22.00 1.2387
22.SO 1.2685
23.00 1.2982
23.SO 1.3280
24.00 1,3578
24.50 1,)876
25.00 I 4173
25.SO 1.4471
26.00 1.4769
26.50 1.5066
27.00 1.5364
27.50 1.5661
28.00 1.5959
28.SO 1.6256
29.00 1. 6554
29.SO 1.68SJ
3000 1.7148
After M......
,~
0.3836
0.8609
0.8907
0,9204
0.9501
0.9798
1.0095
1.0392
1.0689
1.0985
1.1282
1.1578
1.1874
1.2170
1.2466
1,2762
1.3058
1.3354
1.3650
1.3946
1.4241
1.4537
1.4832
1.5127
1.5423
1.5718
1.6013
1.6308
1.6603
1.6898
a!.
(197~);
0.0077
0.0185
0.0345
0,0554
00799
0.1066
0,1346
0.1634
0.1926
0,2221
0.2517
0.28 15
0,31lJ
0.3411
0,3710
oom
()M9~
0.0325
0.0515
0.0742
0,0994
0, 1264
0.1545
0,1833
0,2125
0.2420
0.2716
03014
0.3312
0,3611
0.3909
04208
0,4507
0.4805
0.5 104
0.5402
0.5700
0.5997
0.6294
JU,Wl
<I t.'N \
41 1>1<)(7
o.nl!!!
0,7183
0.7479
0,m4
0.8069
0.8363
0,8658
0.895 1
0.9245
0.9538
0.9831
1,0123
0.4009
0.4307
0._
0,4905
0.5203
0.5502
0.5800
0,6098
06396
0,7585
0.7MI
0.8178
0,8474
0.8170
09066
0.9362
09657
0.9953
1 0248
1.0543
1.0837
I 1132
I 1426
1 1721
1.2015
1.2309
1 2602
12896
1.3190
1.3483
1.3716
1.4069
1.4362
14655
1.4948
1,5240
1.5533
1.5825
1.6117
1.6410
1.6702
I.om
1.0707
I Il999
1 1290
1 15tU
1 l!m
1.21(>2
1.2452
1.2742
1.3031
1,3321
1.3610
13899
1.4187
1.4476
1.4764
1.5052
1.5340
1.5627
1.5915
1.6m
1.6489
0.2929
0.3226
0,3525
0.3824
0,4 122
0.4421
0.4720
0.5018
0.5316
0.5613
0.5910
0.6207
0.8854
02820
0.3116
03414
0.3713
0,4011
0,4310
04609
0,4907
0.5204
0.5502
0.5798
1.3~~4
1.31123
1.4[01
1.4379
1.4656
1.4933
1.5209
1.54/15
1.5761
1.6036
0.809~
0.8.363
0.867 1
0,8958
0.9245
0.9530
0.98 15
10099
1.0383
1.0665
UJ947
1 1229
1 1509
1 1789
12069
1.2347
1,2625
1.2903
1.3180
1.3456
1.3732
1.4007
1.4282
0."""
0.0637
0.0851
0.1087
0.[340
0.1606
0.1881
0.2164
0.2453
0.2745
0 ....
011629
0.0840
0,1073
0,1322
0.1585
0.11159
0,2140
0.2427
02718
0.3013
0.3309
0,3607
0.3905
0,4204
0.4503
0,41\01
0.5099
0.5396
0,5692
1.45~6
1.44~2
1.43~7
1.4829
1.5 102
1.5375
1.5547
1.5919
14721
1.4989
1,5257
1,5524
1,5791
14622
1.4!1R6
1.51SO
1.5412
1.5675
~
~
2.2
2.'
O.!XKXl
0,0015
00000
0.0015
00069
0.0069
00158
0.0281
00435
0.0618
0,0157
00278
0,0431
0,0611
0.0815
0.1040
0.1282
0.1538
O. [805
0.2081
0.2363
0.2652
0,2944
0,3239
0.3536
0.3834
04133
0.4432
0.4730
0.5028
0.5325
0.5621
0.5916
0.1029
01268
0.1522
O. [787
0.2061
0.2343
0.2630
02922
0.3217
0.3514
0.3812
0.4110
04409
0.4708
0.5005
0.5J03
0.5599
0,5893
0,3198
0.3495
0.3793
0.4092
0.4390
0.4689
0,4987
0.5284
0.5580
0 ,5875
0.~S60
II f.2lfl
O('IIH
II f.IOX
0.(,(54
"
f)'W N
/l1>-llli'
1If>.jt 'i
001<25
0.1054
0.1299
o 1558
0.1827
0.2106
0,2390
0,2680
02973
0.3262
0.3560
0.3858
0.4157
0.4456
0.4754
0.5052
05349
05645
O.W40
0.611\8
0.7\08
0,7397
0.7684
0.7969
0.8254
0.8537
0,8818
o 909f!
0.9317
0.96~4
0.99:\0
1.02Jl4
\.0n8
1.0749
I 1020
1 1289
I 15~1I
I 11125
12fl1X1
1 2,155
1.2619
1,28111
1.3142
1.)403
1.3662
1.392U
141711
14414
146'10
1 ~9~4
I 511,111
I 54'iO
2.6
2.8
3.0
0.0000
0.0000
00000
0.0015
00015
O.OOIS
00068
00068
0.0068
00156
00276
0.0426
00155
0.0274
0,0423
0,0599
0,01.'>4
0.0273
0.0420
0.""'"
0.0806
0,6793
n.7062
0.7370
0,7656
0.7941
0.8224
0.85U5
0,8765
0.6170
0.7059
0,7346
0,7632
0,7916
0.8198
0.8479
0.......
09036
0.9311
0.951\6
0.98511
1.0129
I.OW!!
LOM6
10933
I 1198
I 1461
I 1723
I 1984
12243
1,2501
1,27511
1 .'\\JI3
1,]267
1.3520
1.3772
1.402]
14272
1.4520
I 47611
L.5()J4
1.5259
0.9340
0%15
0.9&\9
1,0181
1,{)432
J.()701
IO%S
1 1235
1 I~no
1 1763
1.2{126
1.2287
1,2546
1,2805
1,31162
J.3318
1.3573
1.3827
1.4079
1.4331
1.4581
1.4831
1.5079
15327
'un~8
0-0198
01018
0.1256
O.ISOB
0,1772
0.2045
0.2326
0.2613
0.29(1.1
0."'"
0.1)792
0,1010
0.1246
0,1497
0.1760
0.2032
0.2313
0.2599
0,2890
0,)184
0.3481
0.3779
0.,""
0.4376
04675
0,4972
0.5270
05566
1l.67~1
11.67'.0
0.70~'1
0.1n2~
0,7326
0.7612
0,7898
0.8178
0.1\4511
011737
() 9()14
0.9289
0 .9563
0.73\\
0.7597
0.7AAO
0,8162
0.8442
O.fl721
0.11997
0,9272
09545
0.9!U7
I'{KlS7
0,98~5
1.0105
1,0374
10641
10907
I 1171
1 14.14
I 1(1)5
I 1955
122]4
1.2471
1 2727
129111
1.\n~5
1,0622
l.fm!l7
1 1151
1 1413
I 1674
1 193)
1.2191
1,2447
1.2702
1.29~
J.)23~
U2Q9
I 34117
I.H3R
L39117
142:\<\
1.44113
1.4729
1.4974
15218
1,3460
1,3710
1.3759
1.4206
1,4452
1,4698
1,4942
1,5165
336
337
p,.
G - (0.17584 - 0.002628)
+ (1.08235 - 0.01474B) T"
- (0.SI075 - 0.00771B)
(753)
(7-54)
This method is simple and quite accurate: Equations 7-53 and 7-54 give
errors of less than 2% in the parameter ranges associated with them. No
trial and error is involved, which simplifies the calculation procedure conSiderably. For these reasons, the Sukkar-Cornell method is widely used.
E%ampk 72. Determine the SBHP in a gas well, given the following:
Depth, z - 5,000 ft; gas gravity, 'YK - 0.70; wellhead temperature.
T ... II - BOoF; bottom-hole temperature, T ....... 160F; wellhead pressure.
p...b - 400 psia.
Use (8) average temperature and Z-factor method, and (b) Sukkar-Cornell method.
(Z/p,)dp, - 10392
0.'
1'''"
I. . . (Z/p,)dp, 0.2
Thus,
1. . . (Z/P,)dp, 0.'
T,~ ~ (160
(Z/p,)dp, _ (0.0IS75)!7)(5.ooo)
0.2
1.0392
+ 0.11315 - 1.15235
+ 460)/387 - 1.602
Solution
From Table 7-2a:
T" - (SO + 160)/2 - 120"F _ 58O"R
0.6
387 R
10.'(Z/p,)dp, -
1.049
07
1 (Z/p,)dp, -
First trial:
By interpolation,
p,~ - 0.6
pm-
0.'
1.210
+ (1.15235 - 1.049)(0.7 -
338
COl
Product/orl Engineering
339
I"""' 1,000 -TZp d p = -21 [(P, - Po)(1, + 10) + (p, - p,)(I, + I ,) + ."
Cullender-Smith Method
~or
mto account the umts used by Cullender and Smith, Equation j42 is rear-
ranged as follows:
I""
(PITZ)'(TZ. p) dp
.... (pITZ)'I(I,OOO) + (6.7393 x lO")(4)(fl4)<&L1(I,OOOzd')
where In _ 1,OOO(TZ/p)II' Greater accuracy in SBHP calculation can be obtained using more steps, requiring the use of a computer. For manual calculations, a tv.'o-step procedure is generally used, where only the value of pressure at the midpoint. Pnu is considered:
p.,
- (1,000)(0.01875"
p"t,'
0',
P.'
(P/TZ)dp
1p., "2'.69"5"7C:x;-U1O""'("'f1"4)~q;,~'L~/'i!:m~
( ')-'+-(P=/TZ=)'"/l;-,000= -
Substituting for the integral from Equation 7-00 into Equation 7-56:
18.75
>.'
(7-55)
Equation 7-61 can be separated into two parts, one for each half of the flow
string. For the upper half:
(7-56)
and, for the lower half:
where
,d'
p/(TZ)
F' + (P/TZ)'/l,OOO
(7-63)
(7-57)
(7-62)
(7-58)
p...;
(7-64)
(7-59)
The left integral in Equation 7-56 can be evaluated by numerical integration techniques. This is tedious, and acceptable accuracy can generally be
obtained using trapezoidal or Simpson's rule. For the static case, the inte..
gral in Equation 7-56 can be written as:
For y - f(I), y, - f(1J:
Trapezoidal rule:
fIx) cb
&
(h/2}(yn + 2)', + 2n + ... + 2y. _I + yJ
Sim pson's rule (more accurate than the trapewidal rule): J~ f(l) cb ,. (h/3)(yo + 4)",
+ .2YI + 4YJ + .. + 2Yo_1 + 4yo_' + yJ, forevt"ll n.
340
7. Using the value of p...... and the bottom-hole temperature T ... ., calcu_
late I.... using Equation 7-59.
8. Recalculate p..... from Equation 7-63.
9. If this recalculated value is not within 1 psi (or any other small pressure tolerance) of the p., calculated earlier. repeat steps 7 and 8 until
this condition is met.
10. Use Equation 7-64 (Simpson's rule) to obtain a more accurate valuE'
('Of the bottom-hole presstrn' P".,
p., _ 425.61
341
z.... = 0.95
Solution
or, p.... ,. 450.55 psia
For the upper half:
Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure (FBHP)
Equation 7-42 describes the relationship between the pressure measured
at the surface (or wellhead), P"h, and the pressure Pwf at a depth z for a
flowing well:
I., - (1,000)(540)(0.93)/(400) -
1,255.5
z... - 0.96
_ 0.01875
I, 1 + (6.7393 x (ZT/p)dp
1O-<fLql.Z'T')/(zp'd')
Yi'-
I....
p,.,
p dp
pi + 6.7393 x 10-~fL(~.,T.,,)!/(zdS)
_ 0.01875-,0"
Z.,T. v
(765)
342
343
Pip~
Solution
10'
In
c:
+ ~'" 0.0375Oy,z
C- .,.. p;.h
Z., T.,
~ =
0',
120.4PF
First trial:
par
C'(e' - I) +
..p;.
p" ~ 2,206.06/672 -
Substituting (or C:
...
.....
6.7393
3.283
10 'fL(q.,ZT,,)'(e' - I)
+ ---''-----''-'--=~=="-'''-----'.L
zd'
U~ng
0',
1O-'y.zT"fL(e' - I)q!,
>d'
(7-66)
This method, applicable for wells up to 8,000 (t deep, should not be used if
the change in kinetic energy is significant (young, 1967).
P<r -
(2,000)'.,0 '''''
2,196.4 psia
Second trial:
345
p....f .. 2,196.0 psia, which is quite close to the earlier result of 2,196.4 psia.
Thus, P... r - 2,196.0 psia.
Sukkar-Comell Method
This method uses an average temperature, but accounts for the pressuredependence of the Z-factor. Equation 7-49 stated earlier in the section on
SBHP
I""
P,.t
used,
1 1-1.6886
02
1....1 - I'
0.2
0.2
I - (0.01875)(0.6)(3,500)1582.5
JP"""I
- 1.7562
0.2
Interpolation using Tables 7-2a and 7-2b yields Pr", - 3.208
p.., - (3.208)(672) - 2,155.8 ps;a.
CuUender-Smith Method
(ZIp")dp,, 0.01875-y,z
1 + BZ:Z/~r ..
T."
For a given rate (corrected to 14.65 psia and 520F), B is calculated using
Equation 7.so:
The Cullender and Smith (1956) method uses Equation 7-56 as stated earlier in the section on static bottom-hole pressure:
_ 18.75 z
I'"' F2 + (PITZ)dp
(P/TZ)!/l,OOO
"rr
Pwto
B .. 6.6663 x
1O-4n.q~;n,
zd'p1.
Thhles 7-2b through 7-2m, or Equations 7-53 and 7-54, are used in evaluat-
ing the value of the integral. The Sukkar-Comell method is preferred because in addition to being simple, consistent, and accurate, it does not require any trial and error.
pl(1'Z)
F' + (PITZ)'Il,ooo
As for the static case, a two-step procedure is generally used, where only the
value of pressure at the midpoint. pm! is considered:
(7-67)
3<6
347
Equation 7fJ7 can be separated into two parts, one for each half of the flow
string:
(pm( - Pwh) (I...r + I. h) - 37.5 yrJ2 for the upper half
(p... r - PmlHI",r
(7-68)
(7-00)
And finally. Simpson's rule is used to obtain a more accurate value of bot
tom-hole pressure p..,r:
(7-70)
Calculation of F involves the use of the Moody friction factor f, which can
be found using the friction factor chart (Figure 7-1). The calculation can .
however, be simplified using Nikuradse's friction factor equation for full~
turbulent flow, based upon an absolute roughness of 600 ~in., to givt'
(ERCB, 1975),
F
.. F.<tc..
(7-71 1
and
Although gas wells are generally produced through tubing, some wells
may be produced through the casingtubing annulus. For this latter case,
the tubing flow equations developed earlier must be modified to reflect the
proper flow conduit diameter. The equivalent diameter relationship of
Equation 7-6 cannot be used because the diameter exponent is 5 in the flow
equations derived.
From Equation 7-11, the pressure loss due to friction is given by:
(7-721
(7-731
"I'< - fLpv'I(2g"d)
1 0337 X 1O - 4q,..
F ... F_n
for d > 4.277 in.
.,..,__ .. .
d2 5o!l2
+ 1.111 x lO-ql.J(dp)
I'"... (lJO.01875-yJ(pITZ)
1" + (pITZ)'ll,ooo
For the case of annular flow, where the outside diameter of the tubing is ~o
and the inside diameter or the casing is~, velocity is related to diameter as
follows:
KifLpq!,
I'< - 2g,,(d1. -
d1o)'(do - d,.)
d,.)
348
Thus, for the case of annular flow, d5 in the vertical flow equations must be
repl,.,..j by,
+ <1,,)'
INLET
-....---'-0.;.
SECTION
I
(7-74)
34.
---.
OUTLET
1. Departure of the actual temperature-depth relationship from that assumed in the method of calculation.
2. Variations in gas gravity with depth, assumed constant in the calculation methods. For condensate systems, the change in com{XISition \\ith
depth is even more significant.
3. Inaccuracies in determination of the Z-factor from the available correlabOns. For pseudoreduced pressu~ greater than 15, no correlation
charts are even available. Equation-of-state methods can be used.laboratory measurements are strongly recommended for greater reliability and accuracy.
4. Imprecise friction factor.
5. Presence of unknown amounts of liquids in the well bore. lWo-phase
flow relationships are necessary if liquid amount is significant.
6. Inaccuracies in flow rate, specific gravity, and pra<>ure measurements.
Static Correction
To account for the difference in elevation between the inlet and outlet,
.:\oz, the simplest approach is to modify the outlet pressure for the pressure
exerted by a static gas column of height equal to .:\oz. As described earlier in
the section on static bottom-hole pressure. different techniques are available
for evaluating the pra<>ure exerted by a static gas column. Since the static
correction method is itself an approximation, the average temperature and
Z-factor method is quite satisfactory to use. Let PI be the inlet pressure, and
po the outlet pressure. Then, the outlet pressure po must be corrected as follows (Equation 7-46):
p~ - e"'2 po
Note that .:\oz is positive if the outlet is higher than the inlet (uphill flow),
and negative if the inlet is higher than the outlet (downhill flow). Thus, s is
positive for uphill flow, negative for downhill flow.
The flowline shown in Figure 7-5 is equivalent to a horizontal line with
an upstream pressure equal to Ph and a downstream pra<>ure equal to e"'~o'
This correction can be incorporated into any horizontal flow correlation to
give the flow through such a flowline. For example, the Weymouth equation for this situation can be written as:
q., - 31.5027
[T.][(P1- e'l)d''f'
1>..
'Y;.z..~ T nL
(/-75)
Similar expressions can be written for the Panhandle A and B equations, and
the Clinedinst equation. This approach, though imprecise, frequently gives
an adequate approximation.
350
351
Flow Correction
. A mo.re rigorous ~rrection for the flow profile accounts for inclined flow
~n t~e dIfferent sections of the pipe. Equation 7-66 gives the relationship fOr
mcllned flow, assuming aa average temperature and Z.factor:
Rearranging this equation, and replacing the pressures with the inlet and
outlet pressures P, and Po:
<& _
(pI - e'",}"J'
2.5272 x 10 -5')'~Z.\T.JL(e' - 1)
+~
I{e'u-l)I
'"
~[)'
s. '*
(778)
Thus,
'k - [
e'p~}"J'
(T ,1520)
][ (p1 (2.5272 x 1O')"(p,JI4.73} >,Z.,T"fL(e' - I}
General Method
j'
0',
q. - 5.634814
[TP..,.][Me'p'}d'j'
'YItZ., T.,L.,
'k -
5.63538 [TPo.:.][(1''YgZ.,T.,fI.."
1- e'pO}d'j'
(7.76)
1.,. _ (0' - I) L
s
(777)
Solution
Equation 7-77 gives the expression for the effective length for a single section
o~ ~ f1o~line. For the general case of non-uniform slope where the profile is
d~\']ded mto a number of sections n of nearly uniform slope (as shown in
FIgure 7-5), the effective length is calculated as follows:
352
First trial :
353
L.
Z.y .. 0.787
0',
PH - 2,550.6 psia
Second trial:
ps;.
"" 0.782
- 38,585.154 ft
S, -
(3,000' - e"''''''2,2OO')(7')
1"
(0.6)(0.782)(545)(0.025)(38,585.154) J
(0.0375)(0.6)(2,000 - 7,000)/[(0.778)(545)1 -
- 0.26532
L. -
0.15520
- 38,504.546 ft
0.26532
354
(or bottom-hole) chokes are frequently used to reduce the wellhead flowing
pressure, and prevent freeze-offs (hydrate formation) in the surface flow
lines and controls.
The velocity of a fluid flowing through a restriction (orifice, nozzle. or
choke) is expressed as follows:
_ (5.63538)(520/14.73) [
'I.<
355
1"
d1
,.
r"
p _
v -
1,185.8601
0',
[3,000' - e' "'"'",f'
d2, g_
Pit P2 -
C. [2g(p,
(7-60)
- p,)l pf'
(7-81)
Thus, the gas flow rate, q.. - 112.04 MMscfd, and the pressure at station B,
In several instances in a gas production system, the gas must pass through
relatively short restrictions. Chokes. consisting of a metal plate with a small
hole to allow flow. are the most common restriction devices used to effect a
pressure drop or reduce the rate of flow. They are capable of causing very
la~ge pressure drops: a gas can enter a choke at 5,000 psia and exit at 2,000
1958),
Vi-Cd [
where
{p )'>-11')1"J
k (
~\~k-l
l-~
(7-82)
PI -
(28.97pI'YJ'(RT I),
(1'2)"-"')J'
(7-83)
35.
The gas velocity Vi is related to the volumetric gas flow rate at standard conditions, q." as before:
Equation 7-86 is the general equation for flow through chokes. In common
units, it can be written as:
<J,c -
q. - v,(rd1h14)
(::)(~)
p,V! - p,Vl
357
1 ~l
k
974.61Cd PIrla. ('fITI
PI
PI
(7-87)
where <be'" gas flow rate, Mscfd (measured at 14 .73 psia and 520 0 R)
dm = choke diameter, in.
PI = pressure at the upstream side of the choke, psia
P2 - pressure at the downstream side of the choke, psia
TI _ inlet (or upstream) temperature, oR
The flow through chokes (and flow restrictions in general) may be of two
types: subcritical and critical.
Subcritical Flow
implying that
(7-85)
Substituting for T2 from Equation 7-85, and for
Equation 7-84:
VI
Flow is called subcritical when the velocity of the gas through the restriction is below the speed of sound in the gas. In the subcritical flow regime,
Equations 7-86 and 7-87 apply, and the flow rate depends upon both the
upstream as well as the downstream pressure. Subsurface chokes are usually
designed to allow subcritical flow.
Critical Flow
0',
0',
0',
q.,
_ [ r(Rg,J''T. ]
(1
[tv.)'
\p. " - (v.)'" ""])'"
p,
(7-86)
Flow is called critical when the velocity of the gas through the restriction
is equal to the speed of sound (about 1,100 fusee for air) in the gas. The
maximum speed at which a pressure effect or disturbance can propagate
through a gas cannot exceed the velocity of sound in the gas. Thus, once the
speed of sound is attained, further increase in the pressure differential will
not increase the pressure at the throat of the choke. Therefore, the flow rate
cannot exceed the c ritical flow rate achieved when the ratio of the downstream pressure P2 to the upstream pressure PI reaches a critical value, however much this ratio is decreased . Unlike subcritical flow, the flow rate in
critical flow depends only upon the upstream pressure, because the pressure
disturbances traveling at the speed of sound imply that a pressure disturbance at the downstream end will have no effect on the upstream pressure
andlor flow rate. Surface chokes are usually designed to provide critical
flow.
The choke flow relationships represented by Equations 7-86 and 7-87 are
valid only in the subcritical flow regime, up to critical flow when the maximum flow velocity (equal to the speed of sound) is attained. If the pressure
358
ratio at which critical flow occurs is represented by (PZ/pl)~' then from elementary calculus (differentiate Equation 7-87 with respect to 1>2, and set the
resultant expression equal to zero) it can be shown that:
(7-881
F10w is subcritical for <Pi/PI)
> (PZ/pl)c,
U the operating pressure ratio is less than the critical pressure ratio, the pressure ratio in Equation 7-86 or Equation 7-87 must be replaced by the critical
pressure ratio, because the maximum flow rate through the choke is that
which corresp:lOds to critical flow. The critical pressure ratio {pz/pt)c is O.4g
for monoatomic gases, 0.53 for diatomic gases, and slightly higher for more
complex gases.
Note that the analysis here assumes a perfect gas, with an adiabatic gas
exponent k. No corrections have been made for deviation of gas from ideal
behavior. It has been found that these relationships give very good results in
field application, and a more complex analysis is generally quite unnece<isary_
The value of k is also, fortunately, relatively insensitive to temperature
variations as well as to the gas molecular weight for gaseous hydrocarbons.
Therefore, k is usually assumed to be constant. k :r; 1.293 for a 0.63 gravity
gas. Generally, the value of k used is in the range of 1.25 to 1.31, implying
from the relationship represented by Equation 7-88, that the flow is critical
when the pressure ratio is in the range 0.5549 (for k - 1.25) to 0.5439 (for
k - 1.31). As a rule of thumb, flow is assumed critical when the pressure
ratio is less than or equal to 0.55, which implies a k equal to 1.275 approximately. Substituting Cl>2/p.)" - 0.55, and k ... 1.275 in Equation 7-87, we
can get the well known choke design equation for critical flow:
GO.f
Through Pipes
359
Solution
Using Equation 7-88:
q., _ (974.61)(0.88)(750)(28164)'
1
)(1.275) (0.8" '" _ 0.8"'" "')
[( (0.65)(560) 0.275
r'j
- 2,471.03 Mscfd
q., - (974.61)(0.86)(750)(28164)'
1
)(1.275) (0.55>1 '" _ 0.55"" , "')
[((0.65)(560) 0.275
r'j
- 2,955.32 Mscfd
(7-89)
where q.. - flow rate through the choke, Mscfd
dm - choke size, in.
p. - upstream pressure, psia
T. _ upstream temperature, DR
1', - gas gravity (air ... 1)
Cd - coefficient of discharge, generally assumed to be 0.86
Examplf! 7-7. Find the flow rate, referred to standard conditions of 14.73
psia and 520 oR, of a 0.65 gravity gas through a 28f64-in.-diameter choke for
a downstream pressure Pt equal to: (a) 600 psia, and (b) 300 psia. The upstream pressure PI ... 750 psia, temperature Tl .. lOOF. and k ... 1.275.
[(0.65)(560)],,'
- 2,955.33 Mscfd
300
(C 1C s)/(C2(C 2 + C a))]CfzIC3
(C 1 + C 2 LJ C 2!Ca
PI-P2
C, - --L-
[ZVICpU'dL
V2 - VI
+--L
VI
+ (1 -
1+ ZV2-L ZVIQ
ZVI)CpVI'dV
T
+ ghlL -hd..
m- .
(7-9 1)
where
Zv '"
Subscripts 1 and 2 indicate the inlet and outlet ends of the pipe, respectively
(except in the numbering of the constants C), and subscripts L and V represent liquid and vapor (gas), respectively.
In deriving Equation 7-90, Papay (1970) assumed that pressure, flow
rate, and phase-transitions are linear functions of distance from the inlet
end of the pipeline. This equation, therefore, is very accurate for short line
segments. For the case where phase changes can be neglected (single-phase
flow), Equation 7-90 can be simplified to:
(7-90)
where
KLCpv
C1
,.. ZVICpL
C2
Ca
,..
+ (1 -
KL
(7-92)
ZVI)CpV
kim
", (ZV2 -
361
ZVI)(CpL - Cpv)/L
The ~ble adiab~ticsimultaneow; pres:sure and temperature reduction process that accomparues the expanswn of a flowing gas by pressure reduction is called Joule-Thomson or
throttling effect.
where K - - -
(7-93)
mc,v
In Equation 7-92, the first two terms represent the heat exchange with the
surroundings, the third term represents the Joule-Thomson effect, the fourth
term accounts for the elevation changes, and the fifth term accounts for the
362
363
change in velocity head. The last two terms are small and may be neglected
for most practical purposes. If the pressure drop is small, then the temperature drop due to expansion is also small, and the third term may also be neglected. Neglecting these terms. Equation 7-92 simplifies to the following
familiar form:
(7.!J.l)
Equation 7-95 assumes that the temperature of the fluid and surroundings is equal at the point of entry, and that the heat loss is independent of
time. The parameter K is quite difficult to estimate. An analysis based upon
measured temperature profiles in actual gas wells is recommended, similar
to an empirical equation developed by Shiu and Beggs (1980) for flowin~ oil
wells.
References
ANSI, 1976. Code Jor Pressure Piping, Petroleum Refinery Piping, ANSI
B31.3, Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs., United Engineering Center, New York,
NY.
Beggs, H. D., 1984. Gas Production Operations. OCCl Publications, Oil &
Cas Consultants International, Inc., Thlsa, Oklahoma, 287 pp.
Binder, R. C., 1958. Advanced Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 1. Prentice-Ha~l, Inc.,
New Jersey, 296 pp.
Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 1984. Edited by R. H. Perry and D. W.
Creen, McCraw-Hili Book Company, New York, 6th ed.
Cullender, M. H. and Smith, R. v., 1956. "Practical Solution of Cas-F1ow
Equations for Wells and Pipelines with Large Temperature Cradients,"
7Tan.f., AIME, 207, 281-287.
364
ERCS, 1975. Theory and Practice of the Testing of Cos Wells, 3rd ed. Energy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. .
Ikoku, C. U., 1984. Natural Gas Production Engineering. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 517 pp.
Katz, O. L.. Cornell, D., Kobayashi, R., Poettmann, F. H., Var)" J. A.,
Elenbaas, J. R., and Weinaug, C. F., 1959. Handbook of Natural Gas
Engineering. McCraw-HUI Book Co., Inc., New York, 802 pp.
Lesem, L. B., Greytock, F., Marotta, F., and McKetta, J. J.. Jr., 1957. "A
Method of Calculating the Distribution of Temperature in F10wing Cas
Wells," 'Irons., AlME. 210,169-176.
Messer, P. H .. Raghavan, R., and Ramey, H. J., Jr., 1974. "Calculation of
Bottom-Hole Pressures for Deep, Hot, Sour Cas Wells," J. Pet. Tech.,
26(1, Jan.), 85-92.
Moody, L. F., 1944. "Friction Factors for Pipe F1ow," Trans. Am. Soc.
Meck Eng., 66(Nov.), 671-684.
Nisle, R. G. and Poettmann, F. H., 1955. "Calculation of the F10w and Storage of Natural Gas in Pipe," Petrol. Engr., 27(1):014: 27(2):C36:
27(3),037.
Papa)", J., 1970. "Steady Temperature Distributions in Producing Wells and
Pipelines," Koola; e8 Foldgaz, 11. Cited reference in: Production alld
1rallsport of Oil and Gas, by A. P. Szilas, 1975. Developments in Petroleum Science, 3, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, p. 563.
Ramey, H. J., Jr., 1962. "Wellbore Heat Transmission,' J. Pet. Tech., 14(4,
Apr.),427-435.
Shiu, K. C. and Sew, H. D., 1980. "Predicting Temperatures in Flowing
Oil Wells," 7rans., ASME; J. Energy Resour. Tech., 102(1, March), 2-11.
Sukkar, Y. K. and Cornell, D., 1955. "Direct Calculation of Bottom-Hole
Pressures in Natural Cas Wells," 'Irons., A/ME, 204, 43-48.
Swamee, P. K. and Jain, A. K" 1976. "Explicit Equations for Pipe-F1o,",
Problems," J. Hydraulics Div. ASCE, 102(HY5, May), 657-664.
Szilas, A. P., 1975. Production and Transport of Oil and Cas (Developments
in Petroleum Science, 3), Elsevier Scientific Pub!. Co., Amsterdam, 630
pp.
Young, K. L., 1967. "Effect of Assumptions Used to Calculate Bottom-Hole
Pressure in Gas Wells. J. Pet. Tech., 19(4, Apr.), 547-550.
-------
Introduction
As stated earlier. rarely do gas wells produce "dry" gas. Some liquid (oil
and water) is almost always associated with it. For small amounts of liquid
production, the flow may be considered single phase and the relationships
for gas presented in Chapter 7 can be used with minor modifications to }ield
close estimates. When a large amount of liquid is associated with the gas,
however, true multi phase gas-liquid flow prevails and such simplifications
are no longer valid.
Although the existence of multiphase flow, defined as the simultaneous
flow of free gases and liquids. has been known for a long time, its complex
behavior has not vet been fully understood. The gas and liquid may exist as
a homogeneous ~ixture. or as independent phases in other complex flow
patterns such as slug, mist, emulsion, or bubble flow. The pressure drop for
multiphase flow conditions is usually greater than for single-phase flow
and, in some cases, the flow may be quite unsteady.
Early attempts to use modified single-phase flow relationships for
multiphase flow resulted in highly overdesigned or underdesigned flowlines.
An overdesigned line is not only expensive, but for two-phase flow conditions, it may result in unstable operations, with liquid slugging and pressure
fluctuations. Generally, liquid and gas are transported through different
flowlines at the surface, and such ca.lculations may not always be necessary.
Multiphase flow correlations are more important for wells with a significant
liquid production, or for prediction of conditions for liquid loading of gas
wells that are currently producing "dry" gas. This chapter outlines methods
for handling multiphase flow in the context of gas engineering. For a detailed treatment of multi phase flow per se, readers may refer to the literature, notably Brown and Beggs (1977), and Dew and Brill (1973).
365
366
Eumple
For Pseudo Rtdu~ed Tanp of 1.195, Pseudo
Reduud P'tlWfe o. 2.00 and G"-O.I Ral'o of
RedUCed P'tlwr. 01 2 00 end G"-Oil Ratio of
~ 000 SCF ISl8 Z F"::lor ',om 0 .... Ph_ Z
F~lor Coo,e!lIi~ tI O.SolS, Coo'Kled bel OW 10 0.732
F10w streams with a CLR (gas-liquid ratio) greater than 10,000 scf/stb
may be assumed to be single-phase gas, This is commonly the case for retrograde and wet gas reservoirs, where the oil and gas produced at the surface
actually exist as gas within the reservoir. The small Liquid content of the gas
can be accounted for by modifying the properties that are affected by the
presence of liquid. These include molecular weight, gas gravity. and gas
compressibility factor (Z-factor) .
Molecular weight of the flow stream consisting of gas as well as liquid can
be calculated from the mixture composition, similar to calculations shown
in Chapter 3 for a "dry" gas mixture. The gas specific gravity (air,. 1 basis)
for the total flow stream, )''''' can be obtained by dividing the molecular
weight of the flow stream by the molecular weight of air, resulting in the
following expression (Craft and Hawkins. 1959):
10
!
!
0.9
~l"
Aecu,..::y
I~;~I
.S,
-,L~, .. ,!o
"
C-
""
~~
--
--
f--
.......
141.5
(8-3)
The gas compressibility factor (Z-factor) obtained from Figure 3--2 (Chap-ter 3) using critical pressure and temperature estimates for the total f10\\
stream (using ")'w), can be corrected for the existence of two phases using Figure B-1. If this two-phase Z-factor is essentially the same as the single-phase
Z-factor, the mixtu re exists as a single gaseous phase.
Using these modified properties, calculations can be carried out with the
relationships presented for gas in Chapter 7.
i
!
Ii
"'" L--':'
OB
,.~
Liquid specific gravity, frequently specified in terms of APf, can be converted to specific gravity 'Yo (water - 1 basis) as follows:
API + 131.5
0.9
.~
--'
(8-2)
:::::::
~~ ~
~ ~~,s ,
o
'<
i ' .......
K'"
.,
.5""
ISO " F 10
,
2SO"F. If Uncorftcltd."d eo ..
F"::lo'l O,Ue, by no MOle Thin T.n". 0 1M lollY
At
')'0 -
367
- + 2"
r-: 1'-~
1\1\ ~ r---- r---,
1\ ,'. "' .,"
'~~iT'
1\
J
0.1
0.6
"
1
N
05
Figure 8-1. Gas deviation factor correction for two-phase natural gas systems.
(After Elfrink et aI. , 1949: redrafted by Ikoku, 1984; courtesy of SPE.)
Multiphase fl ow
For flow conditions that cannot be approximated as single-phase gas, it is
necessary to use more complex procedures. Multiphase flow has been stU?ied in detail by numerous investigators and several correlations are available. These correlations account for the flow geometry (vertical, inclined,
368
369
horizontal), flo" pattern (slug, mist, bubble. plug, etc.), fluid properties
(formation volume factor for oil and water, gas in solution in oU as well as
water, surface tension, density and viscosity of the multiphase mixture), and
other parameters related to flow (Reynolds number, friction factor, holdup.
etc.). They are. however. quite complex. requiring the use of computers.
Appendix B at the back of the book gives computer programs for two such
methods.
For our purposes. it is satisfactory to consider a fairly good and practically
expedient technique that uses pressure traverse curves. Pressure travcl"S(
curves are plots of pressure versus flow distance for a pipe of a gh-en diameter for selected oil and gas properties at various gas/liquid ratios and flo\\.
rates. Some of the most commonly used pressure traverse curves, prepared
usin~ the I.:orrelations of Hagedorn and Brown (1965), are shown In Figure
8-2(a-v). Such cun'es can easily be generated for any other set of fluid properties. pipe diameters. or flow rates using the available correlations for
multi phase flow.
Pressure traverse curves are simple to understand and use. fast, and fairly
accurate. Since no single correlation is best over all ranges, it is better to
construct a pressure traverse curve using the best applicable method for the
range that we are interested in. To generate better traverse curves, a combination of several correlations and/or experimental data can be useful.
Pressure Traverse Curves for Horizontal Gas-Liquid Flow
370
371
Ii
ii
~ II
r aJ
d.
.",
N
~ ~ jJ
i~ go:;
!j; ~ , - 0_"1
-
,~
i
0
,!
ill
III
III
III
-,
Ii
Ii
i I'If
" !;!I
.p>
u:'"
I~ ~i~ ,
.. ,--I
,;
I-
.- ~
00, ,
!
I !
,'}
"I
III
II,
_ _ ..... lII<tl
372
ell.t
373
ProductiOIl Engineering
~~.p'"
,
"
'"
s'1
.\
1~--~-4---+-
,Lf---+------+--Vh4L-x<
.i--+---Y
.l!
, !'
ill
r---,---,----r---~--,_--_,--~~'~7~T'~__, ,.
,!
'"
.\
I r--+---1I---+----;r::0--/t7L-~
~?-+----1
1'r--+--+---Yh"--71-7"'z
. ~n.=tn.=to
_ _ ...... 00<1'1
375
II
fI---l-+-+-Dt4Lj.L----bL~~~
1,1---+--+-.,.1hL--I,L---i,,4
I.,~--~--l___+~~~~~~~
i,I---+--+--AL,L.,/L-,.f,.
-_............
- _ ..... 00Q'1
376
.-to., ,
~V 1/
~ ~ V l(V
,-t: ~ V V V V
t0V
;f:
:af// v:
V
I~ ~
,... h
~
-
VV:~,
....
VV~2
./
'
,.
",;
377
'1
0-
::t
,
f
i:1"
,
F"'"
. - . .
.... _
.. 1U00tJ'
.li
. .
'I'
III
. . .
.... -
..... DIU'!
,.It['
ill
378
379
.!
"
.'i,>---l---I-----A+-,.<+--++-----.L--~~
I
.1{
' I'
.~Etr.
-_ .. ntD..
III
"'."..,
"
.!
l ~~--~--+-~~~~~~~/~~
I, ~__+___-J,:H---,l'_+J~-I-----+-___1
.;,
_ _ ..... twol1
380
Examph- 8'. A \\'cU is producing 1,500 stb/d of oil with aGIO -; 800 sci'
stb at a flowing wellhead pressure of 700 psig. Determine the separator pres---
381
Solution
For directional wells with df"viations from the vertical less than 15-20.
the true vertical depth can be used to ascertain the pressure trawrse. This
approximation, howe\'er. is im'alid for deviations exceeding 20 0 , becall5C a
directional well has a greater length than a yertical well for the same depth.
resulting in a greater frictional head ios.... Also. holdup. defined lU the volume fraction of the flow conduit occupied by liquid. differs and rna, be
greater for inclined than for vertical low.
.
For pressure tra,-er.,e curves. an approximate ansv.er can be obtained using the vertical and horizontal flow curves as follows:
Psev
400 psig.
The vertical pressure traverse curves, shown in Figures 8-2g-v, are used in
a manner similar to the curves for horizontal flow:
1. Select the applicable curve for the given tubing size. flow rate, and
gas/liquid ratio.
2. On the pres..~ure axis. locate the known pressure, go vertically down to
the applicable gas/liquid ratio curve. and read off the depth on the
depth axis.
3. Correct this depth by: adding the well depth to the depth determined
in Step 2, if the known pressure was the surface pressure: or subtracting the well depth from the depth in Step 2, if the known pressure was
the bottom-hole pressure.
4. The unknown pressure is the pressure corresponding to the corrected
depth determined in Step 3.
Erampl~ 82. For a bottom-hole flowing pressure of 2,000 psig, a well is
producing 1,000 stb/d of oil with aGIO - 300 sef/stb. Given that the tubing
size is 2.5 in. and the well is 8,000 ft deep, find the flowing wellhead pressure P.. h.
Solution
P",f
I. Determine the pressure loss using only the true vertical depth and the
applicable vertical flow correlation .
2. Assume a value for the inlet or outlet pressure, whichever is unknown,
and calculate the average of the inlet and outlet pressures.
3. Determine the frictional pressure drop due to the extra length of the
tubing (i.e., total tubing length minus true "ertical depth of tubing)
using the applicable horizontal flow correlation, and the average pressure estimated in step (2).
4. Calculate the total pressure loss for the d(!\.iated well. This is equal to
the sum of the m'O pressure losses obtained in steps (1) and (3), From
this new total pressure loss, find the new estimate of the inlet or outlet
pressure, whichever is unknown.
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 till the unknown pressure (inlet or outlet)
from steps (2) and (4) agree within a specified tolerance.
382
(8-4)
where HF ,., ele\ation component of the total static pTe"Sure drop, fraction.
and V'I[ is given by:
\.
'11;
where
31lg., q,(ZT) ..
(520)p.,d2
\-'1[
(lg =
Therefore. the pressure Ios..<; due to friction in the extra 2,000 ft of pipe,
dp! 625 - 525 - 100 psig.
Thus, P.. f
pw/ -
T =
P., .,
Z~, -d ...
1,200 psig.
1,200 psig.
383
(8-5)
Bakcr (1960) showed that for v>~ > SO, the applicable relationship is:
0.00967
Hf'''''
o~
L O,5
">, ,
(8-6)
(8-7)
Example 84. A 4in. 10, 2.000 ft long flowline passes over 5 hills having
the following vertical heights: 130 ft. 40 ft, 210 ft. 80 ft, and 185 ft. Gh'en
ql = 2.000 stbld (95% water). G,L .. 1,000 scffstb, I'll = 0.7 (air" I),
),,,, = 1.02. ),,, - 40" API, average pres.'iure P., - 300 psig, and average temperature T _ 120"F, find the pressure loss due to the hills.
Solution
For 'YK ... 0.7, at P., - 300 pslg, and T~. - 120"F. the average gas compra<;
ibility factor Z.. from Figure 3-2 - 0.96.
384
>,
(520)(300)(16)
choke ("choke the well back',). Because hydrate problems have made it impossible to install a surface choke, a bottom-hole choke must be designed. It
i<; proposed that the choke be installed at a depth of 4,000 ft, i.e., 1.000 ft
above the bottom of the tubing. For a 1,000 stb/d oil rate, the oottom-hole
!:H ,. 130
+ 40 + 210 + 80 + 185
, .. ~ (141.5)/(131.5
Therefo,e, "
+ 40)
385
~ (0.95)(1.02)
qui red,
(b) the flowing
pressure, assuming that the flow
through the choke is critical (Pu "" 2Pd)'
645 ft.
Solution
0.8251
+ (0.05)(0.8251)
~ 1.01
Using Figure 8-2p, the pressure at 1,000 ft above the bottom of tubing is
equal to 1.175 psig.
(1.01
x 62.4)(0.1781)(645)/144
50.28 p'i.
(a) Using Equation 8-9,
(8-8)
where
89 =
(b) Using Figure 8-2p for Pd ,. 588 psig, the wellhead flowing pressure,
P ...h "" 100 psig.
3S6
casing pressure starts to build up, but because enough casing pressure cannot be achieved, liquid loading may completely -kill" the well.
Liquid loading occurs in gas wells that have liquid proouction (however
small the amount may be). but do not provide enough energy for the continuous removal of these liquids. As stated earlier. Iiqu.id loading can be recognized by fluctuations in gas flow rate and casing pressure for high-pressure
wells, or by flow stoppage and casing pressure buildup for low-pressure
wells. Pressure surveys and flow computations are very helpful in determin.h
nfl; '"
Turner et at. (1969) conceptuali7.oo two physical models for the removal
of liquid droplets from gas wells: liquid film movement along the pipe
walls, and entrairunent of liquid droplets in the gas stream. According to the
wall film model, the well is unJoaded by providing a gas flow rate suficient
to cause the movement of liquids up along the walls of the casing andlor
tubing pipe. The droplet model assumes that liquid is removed as entrained
droplets in the flowing gas stream. In a real system, both these models probably exist, with a continuous exchange of liquid between the gas stream and
the wall film. From an analysis of both these models, Turner et al. (1969)
found the droplet mooel to be superior because, among other reasons, it
agrees with observed data. The liquid film model does not represent the controlling liquid transport mechanism; the liquid film moving down along the
pipe walls eventually breaks into droplets that are re-entrained in the gas
stream, and the droplet model is applicable. The more complex wall film
mooel can, therefore, be ignored here.
According to the droplet model. the minimum gas flow rate to unJoad a
gas well is one that enables the largest liquid droplets that can exist in the
gas stream to move upwards. As discussed in Chapter 4 (Equation 4-17), the
terminal velocity V t (fusee) of a particle of diameter ~ (ft) and density Pp
(lbmfft3) falling under gravitational acceleration g in a gas of density PI
(lbm/ft3) is given by:
p~r'
(8-10)
There are tv.'o sources of liquids in a gas well: water and hydrocarbon
condensate from condensation of the hydrocarbon gas. and water from the
producing reservoir. If the gas velocity is not high enough to transport these
liquids to the surface, they accumulate at the bottom of the well The back
pressure on the formation due to the hydrostatic head of this liqu.id column
further reduces the flo", rate and the velocity of the produced gas. This process continues until the well dies, or produces onJy intermittently.
There are essentially two approaches in solving this problem: prevent liquid accumulation, or remove the liquid as it is produced. A brief description
follows of some available methods.
. - [4gd,(PP 3CdPtt:
"t
387
\' = .... _
4gdp(pp 3CdP,
pJ
.5
Substituting Cd '" 0.44 for Newtonian flow, and replacing the particle density Pp by the liquid density Ph we get:
v, ~ [4
d,(PI -
1.32p~
p~l"
(B-ll)
Thus, the larger the drop, greater is the gas flow velocity required to remove
it. The diameter of the drop, however, cannot be determined directly.
'furner et al. (1969) used correlations for the Weber number to determine
the maximum drop diameter that can exist under given flow conditions. The
Weber number, Nw~, is a dimensionless number expressing the ratio of the
velocity forces that try to disintegrate the drop, and the surface tension
forces that tend to keep it together:
N
_
C
vjp,/g, = v2sP.dp
aldp
(8-12)
ag.;,
The maximum drop diameter, d",... can now be specified using the fact that
the drop will disintegrate if the Weber number exceeds a critical value of 20
to 30:
(8-13)
Substituting for dmu from Equation 8-13 into Equation 8-11, the required
minimum gas velocity is given by:
- PJr'
v. - [(4)(30)ogg.,(PI
L32pjYi
o..._~
\" _ 17.514
,.
- P~"
P, -
0"( PI
1980). Some of the methods that have been successfuJly used in field operations are briefly reviewed here.
20A -
p~1 2
produced through the tubing-casing annulus. It is desirable to have the tub(8- 14)
V \
v ....,.. -
(8-15)
(8- 16)
'~~en ~th water ~nd condensate are present, the water equation, which
a hIgher required gas \'elocity VI' should be used.
The gas '-elocit) VI in ft/sec can be converted to field units of MMscfd as
gJ\'CS
follows:
_ 3.06Apv,
'"
ZT
w here Cia ..
A ..
p T Z -
In this method. liquids are produced through the tubing, whereas gas is
00_'~'(~p~,~-~P~!L.
,,,
389
(8-17)
ture
Nu~erous methods have been proposed for the liquid unloading or dewatermg, of gas wells (Hutlas and Granberrv
1972,L'b
d ' Henry,
;,
I son an
ing set as close to the bottom perforation as possible, and preferably below it
(Hutla!\ and Granberry. 1972). so as to provide a liquid cushion to prevent
gas interference problems in the downhole pump. If a liquid divcrter is provided in the subsu rface tubing string to allow only liqUids to enter the tubing, no liquid cushion is required and gas interference problems are
minimized .
One advantage of pumping units over other t}1)CS of liquid removal techniques is that they do not depend on gas velocity for lift-the energy for
Hquid lift is provided by the pump itself. Beam pumping units are quite inexpensive and economical for shallow wells, but become very expensive for
deeper and more highly pressured wells (Hutlas and Granberry, 1972).
Their applicability is best for low gas rates. with a liquid production of
greater than about IO bbliday. Beam pumping units cannot be adjusted to
handle very low rates and problems may. therefore, arise if they are used for
low liquid-rate wells.
Plunger Lift
This method has proved to be very successful in unloading liquids from
gas wells (Libson and Henry, 1980). It uses a steel plunger. equipped with a
valve, in the tubing string (see Figure 8-3). The plunger acts as an interface
between the gas stored in the annulus and the liquid accumulated above the
plunger in the tubing, virtually eliminating gas slippage and liquid fallback.
Both gas and liquid are allowed to flow into the tubing through a valve..
type opening at the tubing bottom. When the plunger is at the bottom of the
tubing, this valve is shut off , and all production goes into the casing. The
casing pressure builds up, until it is sufficient to transport the plunger and
allliqujd and gas abo"e it in the tubing to the surface. A motor valve. operated either by a clock or by well fl ow rate monitoring, may be used on the
flowline to control the cyclic rate of the plunger (Libson and Henry, 1980).
If a clock is used, the optimum time cycle has to be determined by trial-anderror.
Following plunger arrival at the surface, a bumper opens the valve in the
plunger, and the well is allowed to flow for a period of time. This time period may be preset by a clock, or surface flow controllers may be used to
aUo w the well to flow until the gas velocity drops to some critical value.
Flow controllers are more desirable. because they permit the well to flo\\
390
1oI0TOA VAlVE
'~'~O~':.'f'~j~~~~~~~~l~1
CASING PRESSURE
-1._-"1
TlM CLOCK
391
....
..
AS AFTEAflOW TO
HIGH PRESSURE GAS FOR
NEltT CYCLE
LEGEND
-
LIQUID
..
C",SIHC-TUBING ANNULUS
STORACE O"'S
PRODUCEO TU81"10 CAS
.....
CYCLE UP TUBING
LIft
CASING
-:..
::--!;-, .,"'" II
Injection of surfactants and foaming agents into the tubing-casing annulus has produced successful results in several wells (Libson and Henry,
1980). Figure 8-4 shows a schematic diagram of a surfactant injection system. Surfactant (or soap) is injected using a chemical pump and a time
clock. Water is continuously unloaded in a foamed slug state through reduction in surface tension. This method has proved less successful for unloading
condensate (oil), perhaps because the surface tension reduction dynamics
were not suitable in the cases tested.
peR~S
SPRING
.. . .".UO U'A~'""'O"_ _
J L~
, .... -
STOP
Figure 8-3 . Plunger lift operations. (After Ubson and Henry, 1980; courtesy of
SPE.)
for an optimum time period before shut-in. Wells having sufficient deliverability to maintain rates above this critical rate for short periods are ideal
candidates for flow controllers.
em Lift
The gas lift system also uses a liquid flow diverter in the tubing string.
with liquid production through the tubing and gas production through the
annulus. This system, however, uses a gas-lift valve (usually one, sometimes
more than one if liquid production is quite high) mounted on the tubing at a
calculated depth, and actuated (opened or closed) by anyone of the several
available techniques. Liquid accumulates in the tubing, until the gas-lift
valve opens to lift the liquid slug to the surface.
C .... 0 . . . . . ~ IIUA'U
Figure 8-4. Gas well soap injection system. (After Ubson and Henry. 1980;
courtesy of SPE.)
392
References
8eg&';. H. O. and Brill, J. P., 1973. "'A Study of Two-Phase Flow in Inclined
Pipes," }. Pet. Tech., 25(5, May), 607~617.
Brown, K. E. and BeW. H. D., 1977. The Techrwlogy of Artificial Lift
Methods, Vol. 1. PennWell Publ. Co., Tulsa. Oklahoma, 487pp.
____________~j-fA~O;.~75~~~~g~a~S~~ff~IO~"~.;:ng~at~O~.~25~~1~~~I.cr~d~ili:,~O~Ugh~~a~2~.5~-,~.n~.f;ID~t~Ub:.:-________~~~B~.~c!.~a~n~d~~~~M~.~~1~95:9~.~~
pressure of 200 psig is desired for this.
ft gas well.
bottom-hole pressure is 1.100 psig. Use the approximate method for
two-phase systems to answer the following:
I . C an t he gas f 1ow under these conditions? If yes, do not anS\\ler any
393
J~~~~~~~~llc
________
437pp.
Eaton,
A., Andrews, D. E., Knowles. C. E., Silberberg, I. H., and
Brown, K. E., 1967. "The Prediction of Flow Patterns, Liquid Holdup
and Pressure Losses Occurring During Continuous Two-Phase F10w in
Horizontal Pipelines," Trans., AIME, 240. 815-828.
Elfrink, E. B., Sandberg, C. R., and Pollard, T. A., 1949. "A New Compressibility Correlation for Natural Gases and its Application to Estimates
of Gas-in-Place," 7rans., AIME, 186, 219-223.
Flanigan, 0., 1958. "Effect of Uphill Flow on Pressure Drop in Design of
lWo-Phase Gathering Systems," O. & Gas f., 56(Mar_ 10), 132- 141.
Gilbert, W. E., 1954. "F1owing and Gas-Lift Well Performance," Drilling
and Production Practice, API, 126-157.
Hagedorn, A. R. and Brown, K. E., 1965. "Experimental Study of Pressure
Gradients Occurring During Continuous Two-Phase F10w in Small-Diameter Vertical Conduits," J. Pet. Tech., 17(4, Apr.), 475-484.
Halliburton Energy Institute, 1976. Thbing Size Selection. Halliburton Services, Duncan, Oklahoma, 57pp.
Hutlas, E. J. and Granberry, W. R., 1972. "A Practical Approach to Removing Cas Well Liquids," J. Pet. Tech., 24(8, Aug.), 916-922.
Ikoku, C. U., 1984. Natural Gas Production Engineering. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 517pp.
Kumar, S., Guppy, K. H., and Chilingar, G. V., 1986. "Design of F10wing
Well Systems," In: Slirface Operatiom in Petroleum Production, Vol. 1,
Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co., Amsterdam, 279-326.
Libson, T. N. and Henry, J. R., 1980. "Case Histories: Identification of and
Remedial Action for Liquid Loading in Gas Wells-Intermediate Shelf
Gas Play," J. Pet. Tech., 32(4, Apr.), 685-693.
Thrner, R. G., Hubbard, M. G., and Dukler, A. E., 1969. "Analysis and
Prediction of Minimum F10w Rate for the Continuous Removal of Liq
uids From Gas Wells," J. Pet. Tech., 21(11, Nov.), 1475-1482.
Gao! Compres.Jion
395
son.
Gas Compression
Introduction
element, and
convert the \'elocity head into pressure, partly in
the rotating element
partly in stationary blades or diffusers. Ejectors
increase the gas velocity by entraining it in a high-velocity jet of the same or
another gas, and convert this kinetic energy into pressure in a long venturitype flow chamber.
Figure 9-1 shows a breakdown of principal compressor types, and Table
9-1 describes their approximate parameters. Among these. the ones currently used in the gas industry arc discussed in the following sections.
CO"PR[SSORS
IIEC"
--
"
Types of Compressors
Sl.IO'N"-YAN(
The two major types of compressors are positive displacement or intermittent flow, and continuous jlotL'. Positive-displacement units are those in
which successive volumes of gas are confined within some type of enclosure
(compression chamber) and elevated to a higher pressure, T his pressure elevation or compression can be achieved in two ways-by reducing the gas
394
lI01... O-"'5TON
C(NT
.. H,eAl- LOI(
A."L - hoOW
Figure 91. PrinCipal compressor types. (From Compressed Air and Gss Data,
1982; courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
300
Go.!' Compre&8ion
Approximate
ComprHSOr TYIM
Paramete~
Reciprocating
Vane-type Rotary
Helicallobe Rotary
Centrifugal D)'JIamle
Asilli-flow D)-namk
~rom C:omp~
Table 9-1
tor Common Compressor Types
Appro)!. Mulmum
Pr...ure, pallil
1(1(),OOO
400
""
5.:500
:500
397
Approa:. Maximum
Power, BHP
> 12,000
""
6.000
> 3.5,000
> 100,000
'~
l~
""'- ,;!,,------'--
~S~[
'~~
. '~~ 0=-
EXPANSION
DISCHARGE
Figure 9-2. The variouS steps in a reciprocating compressor cycle. (From Compressed Air and Gas Data, 1982: courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
39B
399
Gas Compression
tively low horsepower. They are easy to install, operate and maintain, and
are used primarily in distribution systems where the pressure differential between suction and discharge is quite small. The four types of rotary compressors, indicated in Figure 9-1, are described as follows.
(\~
in a
DlSCHARGf
AS ROTOR TURN~, GAS IS TRAPIN POCkETS FORMED 8Y VANES
Figure 9-4. The operating cycle of a rotary two-impeller straight-lobe compressor. (From Compressed Ai, and Gas Data, 1982; courtesy ollngersollRand Co.)
Also known as rotary blower, the rotary two-impeller straight-lobe compressor consists of two identical rotors (or impellers) mounted symmetrically
in a casing (Figure 9-4). The rotors usually have a cross section similar to the
numeral eight. The two rotors intermesh, and rotate in opp05ite directions.
One of the rotors is driven directly, while the other is driven and kept in
phase by means of phasing/timing gears. The rotors do not directly compress
the gas or reduce its volume and there is no internal compression; they
merely transmit the gas from the inlet to the discharge. Compression occurs
by backflow into the casing from the discharge line at the time the discharge
port is uncovered. It is a simple device. with no contact between the rotors
or between rotors and casing. The operation is shown in Figure 9-4, with
the light shading indicating gas at inlet pressure, and the dark shading indicating gas at discharge pressure.
Rotary blowers can typically handle gas at 15,000 cfm, with a maximum
discharge pressure of 20 psig or less per compression stage.
LiquidPiston Compressors
Figure 93. The steps involved in compression lor a rotary sliding-vane comt~.)sor. (From Compressed Air and Gas Data, 1982; courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand
'00
IlelicaJ-LoJH or SpiraILobe
Cas Compression
COlnptTSlJOra
.01
impeller. The velocity thus generated is converted into pressure partly in the
impeller itself, and partly in stationary diffusers following the impeller.
Centrifugal compressors have low maintenance costs because they have
fewer moving parts-only the shaft and impeller rotate. Delivery is continuous, without cyclic variations. The discharge pressure from a single stage is
about 100 psig, but the flow capacity is very high, up to about 100,000 cfm.
They adapt easily to multistage operations, enabling greater compression.
Multistage centrifugal compressor units with two or more impellers in series,
each with its own radial diffuser. are often built as a single unit. as shown in
Figure 9-6.
VOLUTE
/OIFFUSER
hVOI..UTE'I
OIHUSE~
VOLUTE
f-__-:____L-__:'O:'L':":T,;O'
I
STR[Afroj
LINE
SPACER
II
_~-IMP[LL[R---:f--fl-_
RADIAL _ _\---"~
DIFFUSER
/ ' - '" ,
:::::::::::::::::::
VOLUl
OLLECTOR
Ce1ltrifogal ComprTlflOrl
In centrifugal compressors, gas flow is radial, and the energy transfer is
e~fected predominantly by changing the centrifugal forces acting on the gas.
F~gure 9-5 shows a single-stage centrifugal compressor. The impeller has radIal or backward leaning vanes usually between two shrouds. The mechanical action of the rapidly rotating impeUer vanes force the gas through the
Axial-Flow
Com~rll
In axial-flow compressors, gas flow is parallel to the compressor shaft (axial), because unlike centrifugal compressors, there is no vortex action. Energy is transferred by means of a number of stages of blades. Each stage consists of two rows of blades-one row (mounted on the rotor) rotating, and
the next row (mounted on the casing or stator) stationary. Both the rotor and
stator contribute almost equally to the pr~ure rise generated by the axialflow compressor. It is a high-speed. large-capacity machine with characteristics quite different from the centrifugal type of compressor. A multistage
axial-flow dynamic compressor is shown in Figure 9-7.
402
Gas Comprurion
403
Ejectors generally give a relatively small compression ratio. But they have
no moving parts. so that maintenance and wear is minimum. Although they
can handle liquid carryover without physical damage, they should not be
exposed to a steady flow of liquid.
'"
.\tixed-FfoU' CompreSllOrs
These have gas flow that is in between axial and centrifugal, and combine some characteristics of both the centrifugal and axial types. Because of
the long length required for each stage, mixed-flow compressors are generally not used as multistage units.
---- SHAM
Figure 9--8. Pressure and velocity variations within a steam Jet ejector handhng
air. (From Compressed Air and Gas Data, 1982; courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
Ejectors
Compressor Selection
An ejector consists of a relatively high-pressure motive steam or gas nozzle
discharging a high-velocity jet across a suction chamber into a venturishaped diffuser (Figure 9-8). The gas to be compressed is entrained by the jet
in the suction chamber, resulting in a high velocity mixture at the pressure of
the steam or gas emanating from the nozzle. The diffuser provides the compression by converting the velocity of the mixture into pressure. The drop in
velocity and rise in pressure along the diffuser length is shown in Figure 9-8.
Temperature changes are similar to pressure changes, and follow the pressure curve quitecloseJy. The gas is separated from steam in condensers (coolers) that also seT\'e to reduce the gas temperature.
Ejectors are generally used to compress from pressures below atmospheric
(vacuum) to near atmospheric discharge pressures, such as for pumping
waste gases and vapors out of a system. A similar design, known as a thermal compressor, is used for compressing gas from atmospheric to above atmospheric pressures. Thermal compfeW)fS are used where available energy
in gas or ~team, instead of being wasted, may be used for compression.
Several factors must be considered in selecting a compressor for a particular application. A multistage compression system may use different compressor types for its stages in order to optimize performance or enable more desirable operating features. Some major considerations in selecting
compressors are described in this section. The discussion is limited to the two
principal types of compressors used most commonly for handling natural
gas: reciprocaU'lg, and centrifugal dynamic compressors. In some cases, the
analysis can be quite complex and these general guidelines may not be suffi.
cient. It is best in such cases to discuss the particular situation with the compressor manufacturers themsel\'es.
em Characteristica
Cas characteristics such as the ratio of specific heats, compressibility, or
moisture content, do not affect the choice of compressor type. Cas composi-
CD.J Compression
404
405
Rat~
For higher
f10y,
cracking of the lubricating oils. None of the compressors has any signifiadvantage in this respect; intercoolers are required to be used between
can es to overcome high_temperature problems. Were
h
lb"
st
u ncahng-Ol'1
a~ng and contamination problems are particularly severe, special par~~y_lubricated or nonlubricated reciprocating compressors may be more
suitable than the centrifugal compressors.
'" t
atively lower flow rates, the reciprocating compressor can be used for all the
stages.
F1ow-rate variation is another factor. Reciprocating compressors can handle enormous flow-rate variations with little loss in efficiency. Centrifugal
compressors, howe\'er, do not perform efficiently below 50-90% of their
rated capacity. In general, reciprocating compressors are more flexible in
handling various t)'I>es and sizes of gas f10wstreams than centrifugal compressors.
Cumprnriol1 Ratioll Ulltl Operatil1g PrntUrn
ered.
In centrifugal compresson, if the suction pressure is raised, the discharge
pressure ~iJl increase, frequently beyond the design point, and horsepower
will also increase. I the suction pressure is lowered, the centrifugal compressor will not compress to the desired discharge pressure.
Opemtil1g TffllpnTJtUtn (centrigugal less affected by temparature)
Centrifugal compressors are less affected by high or low temperature extremes than reciprocating compressors in which temperature limitations are
imposed by the lubricants. However, the maximum discharge temperature
must generall), be kept within some limit to avoid operating problems such
The value of lost production usually exceeds the actual cost of repairs, and
continuity of operation or availability becomes an important ~actor. ~y
namic compressors can operate uninterrupted for a longer perIod of bme
and their malfunctioning (stoppage) is more predictable than reciprocating
compressors. However, the average yearly availability of both compressor
types is very high and quite similar.
Capital C03'~
It is difficult to compare the cost of centrifugal compressors versus rec.iprocating compressors. For the same \'olume, pressure, and other compressIOn
factors, gas specific gravity influences the cost of the centrifugal compressor
but not the reciprocating compressor. Often, the cost of the driver is used. as
a cost criterion. As stated earlier, if the power source is conducive to turbme
operations, then the centrifugal compressor will be cheaper.
Operating
CQIIU
Ca$ Comprarion
The operating cost, consisting mainly of the cost of power, throughout the
service life of a compr~r far exceeds the capital costs and is therefore a
more important consideration. The reciprocating compressor is inherentl}
more efficient than the centrifugal compressor, except at very low compression ratios. Very large volumes, low compression ratios, and low discharge
pressures favor the centrifugal compressor from an operating cost viewpoint.
Maintenance
'07
(9-2)
where k is the isentropic exponent, which is equal to the ratio of the specific
heat at constant pressure (Cp) and the specific heat at constant volume (c.)
for the gas (as discussed in Chapter 7 also):
(9-3)
COfIU
It is generally accepted that for the same gas that is clean, non-corrosive,
and under the same terminal pressure conditions, maintenance is less on the
centrifugal compressor than the reciprocating compressor. For more difficult
compression problems, maintenance requirements for both compressor types
increase, and become more nearly equal, though the centrifugal compressor
will frequently require a little less maintenance.
(ah)
aT, - Iff)
(au)
_(ah)
_R
aT,
aT
p
Compression Processes
Gas compression processes can be thermodrnamically characterized into
three types: isothermal compression, isentropic or adiabatic re\ersible compression, and polytropic compression.
- c, - R - I(T)
implying that for ideal gases,
c, -
c, - R -
C, - 1.986
(9-4)
Isothermal Compression
Isothermal compression occurs when the temperature is kept constant
during the compression process. The pressure-volume behavior of the gas is
given by:
(9-1)
where
V I, V 2
Isentropic Compression
C, -
The compression process is adiabatic reversible or isentropic (constant entropy) if the gas behaves as an ideal gas, no heat is added to or removed
from the gas during compression, and the process is frictionless. The pres
sure-volume behavior of a gas under isentropic compression or expansion is
given by:
c. _ - T (.p/aT),
(ap/aVh
The more complex the molecular structure, the higher the Cp is for the gas.
Using Equation 9-4, c.. can be eliminated, and k can be expressed for ideal
gases as:
...
k -~-
c.
c,. -
c,.
I. 986
Ga! Compre:Rion
(9-5)
and
_k__
k- 1
1.986
,,"
~
~
,,
~
~
Polytropic Compression
For "real" gases under actual conditions (with friction and heat transfer),
the compression process is polytropic, where the poi)tropic exponent n applies instead of the adiabatic exponent k:
(9-7)
Characteristics of Compression Processes
Isothermal compression is difficult to achieve, because it is not possible
commercially to remove the heat of compression as rapidly as it is generated. Adiabatic compression is also not possible in practice because it is difficult to prevent heat exchange during the compression-expansion C)'CIes.
Most positive-displacement comp~rs, however, approach adiabatic behavior, and are designed using the adiabatic compression/expansion process.
Other compressors are designed using the polytropic cycle, which includes
the effect of non-ideal gas under non-ideal conditions. and makes no assumptions regarding the compression Procf'S'i. The adiabatic process is reversible, while the other two types are irreversible.
Figure 9-9 shows the theoretical zero-clearance work (or horsepower)
necessary to compress a gas between any two pressure limits for various
compression processes. For a given process, the area under its pressure-volume curve indicates its theoretical work requirements. The isothermal compression process gives the minimum theoretical compression work requirements (area ADEF). whereas the adiabatic compression process gives the
m~um theoretical compression work requirements (area ABEF). A polytropiC compression process for reciprocating compressors with water*cooled
cylinders generally exhibits theoretical compression work requirements that
are in between the upper and lower limits of the adiabatic and isothermal
compression processes, respectively (area ACEF). On the other hand, a poly_
tropic ~mpression process for uncooled dynamic compressors typically has
theoretical compression work requirements that exceed even the adiabatic
process (area AC'EF).
,,
M:-POLYTfIM'IC
.-~ ~~.I~
'\ \:~
" ' AO-lSOTH(AM'L
(9-6)
--
c .--c
\~ .~,
i,
W
... '"
relationships for
,arious gas compressIon
pro
TKEOA(TlCU
I
,NO Cl(l,AAMC[
,:"'>,
~~
,,
,
G
'09
g.e.r:sol.l:Baod Co )
,-,
VOLUME
(9-81
410
Ga.~
GO! Compres.rlon
Productwn Enl':ineering
Although the exponent n actually changes during compression, an effective or average value. determined experimentally for a given gas and compressor type. is generally used. The value of n may be lower or higher than
k: n is usually less than k for positive-displacement and internally-cooled dynamic compressors, whereas the opposite is true for uncooled dynamic unit~
due to internal gas friction.
411
~I
Tl
(9-9)
where Ph p~ =
TJ. T2 =
r _
n ...
In compression terminology, PI and P2 are the compressor inlet and discharge pressures, respectively, and r is called the compression ratio. Equation 9-9 relates the intake pressure and temperature and the discharge pressure and temperature for a compre.w>r using the pol}tropic compression
cycle, or the isentropic compression cycle if n is replaced by k:
(9- 10)
(9- 11)
"lip - (n
so
u
100
tOO
_00 toO
~ ,."
<
"
"
,.,-," ...
..
::':~'::::-':'
.,,~.,
-:-::.;:.:::::....
.... 4 _ .......
:000
1000
- -
~
"
~ "
'.
./
: I
I; I
V-
,,
, ,
Z
1
,
INLET YO\..UfIj[ -
,,
0
IIZO
100)010000
THOUSOlNOS ~ cr ...
NO.te that '1p relates the quantities (k - 1)/k and (n - 1)/ n, which are reqUired more often than k or n.
Exampk 9.1. A gas is being compressed from 100 psia and 150F to 2,500
psia. Determine its compression parameters (k, Z, 'YJ at the suction end.
The gas has the following composition (expressed as mole fraction):
C,
C,
C,
i-C 4
n-C 4
i-Cs
y,
M,
0.9216
0.0488
0.0185
0.0039
0.0055
0.0017
16.043
30.070
44.097
58.124
58.124
72.151
'"
667.8
707.8
616.3
529.1
550.7
490.4
To
c"
343.1
549.8
665.7
734.7
765.4
828.8
8.95
13.78
19.52
25.77
25.81
31.66
M .. Ey,M; .. 17.737lbm/lbmole
Therefore, 1'1 - MI28.97 .. 17.737/28.97
0.612
363.831 oR
Solution
Camp.
1.
2.
3.
4.
(9-14)
Th~
(9-12)
p,
(9-13)
k- 1
CI
k(~k
(9-15)
(28.97h~
k (53.345)T, ((k
r
k-l
)'11:
w-~_
Ii k _
1)
(9-16)
w _
where PI '"
V,,..
M ""
Z ~ ""
TI ""
)'~ ""
where
JPtp, Vdp
w - Cl k 1'1 p lkdp
ZIRT,
PI V, '" ~ .. (28.9i h K
Analytic ",pproach
w -
415
Gas Compressioll
414
I).k _ p\k-I)'k]
.. k -1 PI(C/pl)Ik[(Pt/PI)lk-llk - IJ
Converting pressure p from units of Ibf/fi2 to lbf/in.!, and substituting for Ci
PI from Equation 9-2, we get:
1 ft+lbf _ 1 ft-Ibf/min
Ibm
Ibm/ min
416
Cas Compression
1 ftlbf _ (28.97)(IO'h,p.(II33.000) hp
Ibm
(1440)(10.732)T. MMocflday
_ (O.0568056h,v..
Toe
hp
Mr-.lscfd
Equation 9-16 can now be written in terms of the ideal horsepower per
(9-21)
where
IHP
M~""fd
(r1k-llk _
1)
k- 1
(9-17)
where PI<' (psia) and T sc (OR) aTC the standard conditions of pressure and
temperature, respectively, at which the standard cubic feet is defined. Thus,
Mollia Cha,.ts
Mol1ier charts for a gas are plots of enthalpy versus entropy as a function
of pressure and temperature. Mollier charts for natural gases with specific
gravities in the range of 0.6 to 1.0 are shown in Figures 9-12 through 9-17.
To<
(TI1- If k _
1)
k- 1
(9.18)
where Zl, ~ - gas compressibility factors at the suction and discharge, respectively
Tl - inlet temperature, oR
i,
Ii
"i ,..
>
Temperature can be eliminated in Equation 9-19 if the gas flow rate is measured at suction temperature Tl (OR):
IHP _ 3.0303 Q.IP.(ZI + z,) _k_ (rHI" _ I)
2Z 1
k- 1
<
(9-20)
where q.l is the gas flow rate in MMscfd measured at any arbitrary pressure
p. psia and suction temperature Tl oR. A similar analytic expression can be
deri\'ed for the polytropic compression process also.
41'
cOJ
Compression
419
'."
!,
,
i
i,
<
!
;,
'."
,;
i, ,
>
"
1>OU"Id-_
10
12
1* <Io9rM
!, '."
'."
II
;l
[tt,. . .".
8tu
."'0'".
This method is a fairly good technique for solving comp~ion problems for
compressors that exhibit isentropic (ideal) compression, such as the reciprocating compressors, provided a Mollier chart is available for the gas being
compressed.
On a Mollier chart, an isothermal compression PI"()CeSS can be traced by
following the constant temperature lines, whereas an isentropic compression
process can be traced simply as a verticalJine parallel to the ordinate. Inter
cooling, a constantpressure (isobaric) process, is represented by following
the constant pressure lines. Thus, an ideal compression process can be represented on a Mollier diagram, and the state of the gas (pressure, temperature,
enthalpy, entropy) at the beginning or end of a compression process can be
determined directly. Figures 9-18 and 9-19 show such a procedure for a sin
g1e-stage and two-stage reciprocating compressor, respectively. In Figure
9-18, inlet gas is compressed isentropically from the inlet conditions repre
sented by point 1 to the outlet conditions represented by point 2. Point 1 is
determined by the given pressure and temperature conditions at the suction
end. whereas point 2 is known from the desired compression ratio (or dis
charge pressure). Figure 9-19 shows a two-stage compression process with an
intercooler between the two stages and an aftercooler. The dotted line 1-2
420
COJ
indicates isentropic compression in the first stage. The gas is then cooled in
the intercooler at constant pressure, as shown by line 2-3. Line 3-4 shows the
second isentropic compression stage, and line 45 shows the isobaric cooling
in the aftercooler.
Neglecting heat transfer from the gas to the compression equipment and
surroundings. lost work due to friction. and kinetic energy changes, the energy balance can be expressed as:
! ,..
...
,
,I
(9-22)
where
421
Cornpre3rion
-.
E~""",,_ 8,~
" ,
-.0><1-"""" po.dtW..
9-19 for example, the net change in enthalpy (h z - h i) is known, and the
work done in the first stage of compression can be computed using Equation
Figure 9-16. Enthalpy-entropy diagram lor 1.O-gravity natural gas. (After Brown,
1945; courtesy of SPE 01 AIM E.)
9-22. Similarly, the work done in the second compression stage can be calculated using the enthalpy change (h.. - hJ). Intercooling requirements (heat
removed in the intercooler) are given by the difference in enthalpy beN'een
f,
I
~
I'z
-I _ ,
-2
("''''''Y. "" -
111-- _
10
12
14
""""
ENTROPY
422
Gas Compression
'23
1 hp
778.2 ft-lbffmin ng(hz - hlH Btu/day
IHP ,. 33,000 ft-Ibf/ min
Btu/m in
1440 min/day
(i)
1.6376 x 10 - ~ n,:(h z - hi )
t
(9-24)
INTERSTAG[ COOLER/INTtRCOOLER
AI'"TERCOOL [R
PRESSURE, PSIA
[NTROPY, Bhll'lbmol F _ _
(9-23)
where P - compression power required. BtuJday
ng - number of moles of gas being compressed
t - time for compression, days
oc.
(9-25)
Cal Compression
The compression efficiency fie includes effects due to thermodynamic deviations from the theoretical compression process (such as gas turbulence and
heating of the incoming gas), and fluid friction and leakage 1U'iSeS. For reciprocating compressors, it may also include a factor known as volumetric efficiency, to be discussed later. Compression efficiency does not include mechanicallU'iSeS. Besides some factors related to the compressor itseU that may
affect the compression process, compression efficiency is significantly affected by the operating conditions, such as suction pressure, compression ratio, and compressor ~~ and loading. The degree to which these factors
affect compression efficiency, however, is different for different compressor
types.
Mechanical efficiency, defined as the ratio of the compression power required within the compression chamber to the actual horsepower supplied
to it, includes frictional JU'iSeS in compressor packings and bearings, piston
ringo;, and other moving parts:
BHP
'm
(9-26)
The mechanical efficiency. flm' is related to the compressor type, its design
details, and the mechanical condition of the unit; the operating parameten;
of the compression process do not affect it significantly.
The BHP can be directly computed from IHP using an overall efficiency
factor, fI:
BHP~ IHP
(9-27)
425
where rop< r, ..
n,. ..
Pd ..
P...
If intercoolers are provided between the stages, reduce the theoretical intake
prac;ure of each stage by about 3% to allow for interstage pressure drop.
This is equivalent to dividing the theoretical r from Equation 9-28 by
(O.97)'~.
where the overall efficiency, fI, is equal to the product of the compression
and mechanical eficiencies:
Exam,m 9-2. For the problem given in Example9-1, what is the compression ratio and how many reciprocating compressor stages are required if: (a)
intercooUng is not provided, and (b) intercooling is provided.
In most modern compressors, 'Ie is in the range of 83% to 93% and '1m
ranges from 88% to95% (Ikoku, 1984). Thus, the overall compression efficiency 'I ( - 'le'l",) ranges from 73 % to 88 % for most modern compressors.
Solution
426
CD", Compression
427
'.----!
Copt
...
Repeating the procedure, for n. ,., 2. r - 5.077, which is less than 6. hence
acceptable.
Horsepower Requirements
!--<'CfU.l
PISTON
_ __ _ YOlUIU
(9-30)
g",
The actual volumetric efficiency includes factors for other effects such as
incomplete filling of the cylinder, leakage. and friction (A), and lubrication
(Lu),
"lfv-l-A-Lu-Cl
where
(9-29)
r .. compression ratio
k .. isentropic exponent for the compression process
CI .. clearance, fraction
Clearance is defined as the ratio of clearance ....olume to the piston displacement (see Figure 9-20):
c.p.an
OtSPl .. t[~("T
(z~2," - 1 )
(9-31)
A _ factor for incomplete filling of the cylinder, leakage, friction, etc.; it is usually between 0.03 and 0.06
Lu _ compressor lubrication factor, generally 0.05 for non-lubricated compressors and zero otherwise
Z" ~ _ gas compressibility factors at the suction and discharge, respectively
From Equations 9-29 and 9-31, it is obvious that the volumetric efficiency 1).
increases with decreasing compression ratio, r, increasing isentropic expO-
428
G<u Compression
nent, k (for r > 1), and decreasing clearance. CI. These parameters can be
varied to alter the volumetric efficiency and, consequently, the flow capacity of a reciprocating compressor. Sometimes clearance is added to reduce
the capacity for fixed operating pressure conditions, or to prevent overloading the driver under variable operating pressure conditions by reducing the
capacity as compression ratio changes.
Figure 9-21 shows the effect of clearance on the volumetric efficiency of
reciprocating compressors. The effect of compression ratio (all other factors
429
RATIO-4
CLEARANCE
60
,l'~
y.
..." "",-<'
K '" I'~~
,'.'....,
r~l":-
141.
.~~
\~~
"-
o
114
64 6'1. V
16." 'IE
881""'[
114 100
121 107
eo
60
40
20
Figure 9-21 . Effect of clearance on the volumetric efficiency at constant compression ratio for reciprocating compressors. (From Compressed Air and Gas
Data, 1982; courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
60
N:
'~12~2<
~K.ll ",~
~ 40 r ~
'"
"'"w t--~~
'":t 20
..
1-:-'
,,
1l~
100
80
"
~,
62,\V[
n.,\
V[
14''\V[
60
PERCENT PISTON
40
20
OISPLACEMENT
Figure 9-23. Effect of specific heat ratio k on the volumetric effICiency for a
given reciprocating compressor cylinder. (From Compressed Air and Gas Data,
1982; courtesy of IngersollRand Co.)
430
Cas Compression
IY I"
1/ I"
r/ I"
66
f/
6'
62
I. V/
to- V
0;: il
60
/1 V
"
17
I}
V; ~
IJ'l 1/ V
z
"
,
,
,
I~
:.
V/
,,'RVI
.,
90
86
V
V
VI/
~ 84
8Z
/
VI /. / /
~ 78
/ / V/ I/.: ' / '/ /'
, 76
;j ~ '/ '/ / /
7
/ !/
Ih j0 'i V /' / Y
u
7
,
/, /, i'l::: 'i V V
/'
~~ 70
i-j/ /.
/'
~ 68 /. ~
~
, ,
'/ /
1/
/'
i/ Y
,,
'//
/'
/'
/'
V V
V
..
CURVE B
'f/
I!J
V /' /' ,z
/ /
/' '/ V V- /' V
/
'i ~ / V V /' y
V V- / ' . /
'i V
'/. v. /' V V- / '
!/ 1/
,4
=t=l-~ H-- 1/ ,6
/
'/
V ~, 5
/
,
~ '36
:?
I~'
'J.
-t
i:'oo
,.
"
i"KJO
:!;
'6
I
I
i!' "
"
"
'",.
w"'"
~
I ,
I
I
'5~<>'
in
t/
'6
",080
431
~ ~ V / /'
V '/ L
6 4~
66
, , ,, , , , , , , , ; , , , , ,
'
z;/ '/ V
60
58
IL: /'
COMPRESSION R.6.TlQ
56293 031
32333435363738394041424344 4 5
COt.4PRESSIQN
RATIO
.32
Gal Compre.ulon
"
"
V'
V
Vi
'"0
"
,/
,
/
./
110
108
rooo
, .8
,/
,~
i
'4
88
/ ' 60
1. Suction pressure of 14.4 psia and actual intake temperature is assumed. The correction factor for intake pressure is generally included
in the calculation of BHP (as in Equation 9-32 or 9-33), or obtained
from Figure 9-27.
./
./
,\
,'0
./
./
./
/"
./
./
100TAlIl ,IIt:S_-jOS,.
"
r"'<
,,
,
,~
1.4
IS
If
17
,I
,~
20
:1.1
--
, r-...
t.)
z "
al'IOI'II{SSIOJ<
"
~UIO
-,, -
" "
'0 "
.. . .
Figure 9-27. Suction pressure correctIon factors for compression power requirements for reciprocating compressors. (From Compressed Ai, and Gas Data,
1982; courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
>
CURVE C
2. Gas specific gravity of 1.0 is assumed. Correction factors for gas gravities other than 1.0 are shown in Figure 9-28 .
3. Cas compressibility factor of 1.0 is assumed. Corrections for gas compressibility are frequently included in the calculation of BHP (see
Equation 9-33).
4. A mechanical efficiency of 95% and a compression efficiency of
83.5% is assumed. BHP value:; should be corrected if this is not the
case.
5. The gas volume to be handled in each stage should be corrected to the
actual intake temperature and moisture content at intake to that stage.
6. Allow interstage pressure drop if intercoolers are used. As discussed before, reduce the theoretical intake pressure of each stage by about 3%,
./
./
01184950 51
.. ,
" "
..'" "
./
4 ~ 4 647
",
1\
8' . /
4
'\.
"
tUI'lV( 0
1\ 1;-'
./
86
", ,
/'
/'
./
" ,,
" ,
,
"
/'
./
./
,.
/ ' '0
/'
./
./
,/
./
84
./
./
/'
./
./
./
./
./
./
./
./
,/
./
./
, / ./
/
/
./
./
./
/ ' 50
,45
./
/
,
7 7 40
/
./ /
./ ./
./
'0
./ ./
./
.6
/ V /
./ , / ./
7 7
'V
'V
./
,/
rected for overall efficiency. These figures are applicable for designing each
compression stage individually and require the following considerations:
70
'33
525354555657585960
RAllO
COMP~ESSION
..
Gos Compression
"
.." \
,
I",
'",--
I'"
,~
t~
IZ
" ,"'0-
>
.....
I(
~ci
II
:;: ...
""
I~
100
'0
"
~tOM
09
where Zl and ~ are the gas compressibility factors at the suction and discharge of the compressor. respectiyely. ;o..'ote that this procedure should be
applied for one compression stage at a time.
0-
---y~
. " ';?: ~
" ~
,.
..
~
CURVE [
, "- I'---- ~
C-
0>
SPECIfiC GRAIIHf
""'-
0'
Note that Equation 9-32 includes the correction factor for intake pressure
and if Figure 9-2i is used for correcting the BHP for intake pressure, the
factor p..-' 14.4 should be omitted. The BHP from Equation 9-32 is corrected
for gas compressibility as follows:
(9-33)
~ ~
~~
The stroke length and/or compressor speed arc selected based upon the
following relationship for the flow capacity of reciprocating compressors:
(9-34)
,/
"
"
"
" "
,o
II
13
COMPRESSIO .. RAT,O
Figure 928. Gas specific gravity correction factors for compression power reqUirements lor reciprocating compressors. (From Compressed Air and Gas Dat8,
1982; courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
(0.97)1 _.
For a given gas flow rate of Clot MMscfd at standard conditions of pressure p,.
(psia) and temperature T ... (OR), the required BHP can be computed as follows:
(9-32)
where
435
436
Gas Compres;rion
437
Solution
n. - 2 stages.
Point
Process
Entering gas
3
4
Enthalpy, h
(Btu
p (psia), T(F)
Ibmole)
q", -
B80
3,310
725
5.300
-200
Solution
From Example 9-3, "Y~ - 0.612, r - 5.077, k -. 1.2565, PI ""' 100 psia,
" - 0.80.
Applying the appropriate correction factors, the BHP required for 5 MMcfd
gas measured at suction conditions of 100 pSia and 150F is given by:
=0
98.2 hp.
44'
Gas CompressiOIl
:=
1.0.
BHP - (1.01)(9.181.3) + 30
447
9.303 hp.
Example 9-6. For the data given in Example 9-5. design a centrifugal
compressor using the empirical chart method.
Solutioll
SoIutioll
r .. 500 150 .. 3.333, \1,.. (28.97hll = (28.97)(0.60) '" 17.382 Ibm lb.
molt'
1. Horsepower.
From Example 9-5. r ... 3.333. M "" 17.382Ibmllbmole, k = 1. 296, and intake volume ... 6.944.4 cfrn al 150 psia and 80F.
From Figure 9-32, for Cjl ... 6.944.4 cfm and r ,. 3.333, the basic
BHP ~ 900 hp.
From Figure 9-31, for r - 3.333 and k - 1.296, K""JT ,.. 0.967.
From Equation 9-43,
BHP _ (900)(150)(0.967)(28.97)
- 15,005.2 hp
(14.5)(17.382)
2. Number of stages.
PI
PIM _
Z,RT,
p
Using Equation 9-38, with the assumption that HPL m
HPLt. - I % of CHP,
3. Compressor speed.
_
30 hp, and
From Figure 9-29, for an intake volume of 6,944.4 drn. the compressor
speed S - 8,800 rpm .
438
Co ComprC8Sioll
where
f..
43.
_ (5)(100)(98.2)(0.95)(0.835)
(14.4)(0.80)
- 2,704.8 hp
Thus, the ideal compra<>ion horsepower, IHP, for a gas mass flow rate of m
Ibm/min is given by:
The parameters for the second stage are the same. Therefore. second sta,a:l"
brake horsepower reqUired is also equal to 2.704.8 hp.
where
(r" "" _ I)
(9-37)
IHP "" ideal compression horsepower required, hp
m ... mass flow rate of the gas, Ibmfmin
33,000 - factor to convert power requirement from ft-lbf/min to hp
GHP-
mhp
33,000 '1p
(938)
Mollier Charts
where, as before:
IHP - theoretical horsepower required for compression, hp
q,., - gas flow rate, MMscfd, measured at pressure p",. psia and temperature T . OR
ZJ. Zt - gas compressibility factors at the compressor suction and discharge, respectively
TL - gas inlet (suction) temperature. OR
n - pol)1ropic exponent
r - compression ratio
For centrifugal compressors, the theoretical work required for compression
is represented by the polytropic head hp, similar to the theoretical work requirement w for reciprocating compressors (see Equation 9-16):
hp _ (144)RTL(Zj + Z2) _n_ (rn - II
2Z j M
_ 1545TL(ZL
+ Z,)
2Z j M
n _
1)
Mollier charts, if available for the gas, can also be used for determining
the compression parameters. The procedure outlined earlier for reciprocating compressors is used. with the assumption of isentropic compression. The
polytropic head hp is then calculated as:
(9-39)
where hp - pol}1rOpic head. ftlbflbm
6h - enthalpy change for isentropic compression determined from
the Mollier diagram. Btullbmole
'lp - polytropic efficiency
11k - isentropic efficiency
M - gas molecular wei~ht, lbmllbmole
n - 1
_n_ (rn-I)
n- 1
n _
I)
(9-36)
The factor 778.2 ft-lbf/Btu in Equation 9-39 gives the desired units conn'.'rsion. Subsequently, the gas horsepower CHP can be determined using Equation 9-38.
440
Gas Compression
441
(9-40)
..
n, - --"'--
9.500
(941 )
where 9.500 ftlbf%m is a common limit assigned to each centrifugal compression stage.
Equation 9-41 assumes that all impellers are running at optimum design
speeds, and that each deve10ps a polytropic head of 9,500 rt-lhfilbm. Although the latter is true for most industrial units, machines with greater
polytropic head per stage can and have been designed.
Compressor Speed
Empirical Charts
Centrifugal compressor performance is highly dependent upon speed.
The capacity varies directly as the speed, S, the head deve10ped varies as the
square of the speed, and the required horsepower varies as the cube of the
,peed,
448
Gta Compreuion
ciprocating compressor, because of the speed and compactness .of the rotary
that provides relatively little time or surface area for gas coohng.
where
S, .. total rpm
4.
5.
6.
7.
. .
monoatomlc Ideal gases
For a reciprocating compressor, is volumetric efficiency the same as
compression efficiency? Why? Also, why is polytropic efficiency primarily a function of the intake volume?
Discuss the basis and applicability of Equation 9-39 for determining
the polytropic head of a centrifugal compressor from Mollier charts.
Express the relationship of Figure 9-11 as a correlation equation.
Calculate the isentropic exponent at 100F and 500 psia for a gas with
the following composition (in weight %): C l - 89.1, C 2 - 6.05,
C 3 - l.1l, n.C~ = 0.35, i-C~ ., 0.18, H 2S - 1.55, and CO 2 - 1.66.
Determine the polytropic exponent from: (1) thermodynamic charts
(Chapter 3), and (2) polytropic efficiency, given an intake volume of
10,000 dm.
You have been assigned to a gas field where you notice an old compressor that can be repaired and used in the future. Searching through the
company records you find that the ratio of the inlet temperature (OR)
to outlet temperature rR) was 0.769 when the flow rate was 3,000
Mscfd. The inJet pressure was 1,000 psia and the horsepower was 200
hp.
The total rpm determined from Equation 9 -46 is used in horsepower or capacity calculations, as follows:
BHP - 0.005 VdS,(dp)
449
(9-47)
(a) What is the compression ratio (assume k - 1.28 and )', - 0.6), and
the outlet pressure?
(b) Assume that the compressor is used as the first stage in a two-stage
compression system. The outlet gas from the first stage is cooled to its
initial temperature. If the gas in the second stage is compressed to
7,000 psia, what is the outlet temperature? Use Mollier charts.
(c) Determine the theoretical horsepower for the second stage in part
(b) using Mollier charts.
S. A compressor is to be instaUed for handling gas supply into a transmission line. The compression requirements are as follows:
Cas flow rate" 17.5 MMcfd at intake conditions of 450 psia and
goOF, discharge pressure _ 6,000 psia, and gas gravity 1', - 0.83. Intercooling to lOOF or any reasonably low temperature is desired.
"2
Cas CompressiOlI
ature consistently refers to this n" value correction factor as the "k"
value correction factor.)
2. Appropriate adjustment for a gas molecular weight other than 28.97
(air). As shown by Equation 9--36, the polytropic head is inversely proportional to gas molecular weight M.
3. Correction for gas compressibility factors other than unity. as included
in Equation 9-36.
..f-k,.y,'" /
~o.,
u
, "-
~09
~
::! 09
"-
"-
~ 0 .
- "-- .,..,
k
08
~y;
- .-
.-
0.'
7.~ /v.;:
,-:,~~
: ~T"!:':"":"OT-:::
:~:.::~
CO~PII(SSION
Figure 9-31. k-value correction factors for the brake horsepower requirements
for straight-through flow centrifugal compressors (From Compressed Air and
Gas Data, 1982; courtesy of IngersollRand Co.)
Knowing the polytropic head, hI" the number of stages required for centrifugal compression. Il,., can be calculated as before using Equation 9-41.
Compressor speed can be obtained from Figure 929 as before.
Figure 9-32 shows the brake horsepower BHP '-ersus the intake gas volume measured at 14.5 psia pressure and actual intake temperature. In addition to correction factors applicable to head hI" determination of actual
BliP requires a correction for intake pressure other than 14.5 psia. Thus, the
actual BHP is determined from the basic brake horsepower, (BlIP),;", given
in Figure 9-32 as follows:
I
,
CQtolP"E5SION
~ 'i
!/
o. ,
,
,,
.~
.. ,
0.'
:.
'-0
, ----
t'-
,
~
flOM
"
uO.9
(9-42)
v U
1396
'00
h _ (h pli,,(K,.,,)(28.97)(Z, + Z,)
I'
2ZIM
.J.
/.,/
;: 0.9
Thus. the applicable actual head hp is determined from the basic head (h ,h
given in Figure 930 as follows:
I
,.0
443
R4no
("alp, I
(9-43)
Basic brake horsepower requirements for intercooled centrifugal compressors are shown in Figure 9-33. Appropriate correction factors need to be applied for the polytropic exponent. intake pressure and temperature, intercooling temperature, gas gravity. and gas compressibility factor.
..
444
/ II
'"j
--
VII II.
7(1, r;
"
Ifill
I.
Flgu~e
V-
$I
I,P'
J.
I.,~ /
1/
/ / /
I;
/
./
./
I-l'
I;
I;
V-
------ I'
./
------
l.--
I;
~ ~ '"
I:
./
'j
,
"~
445
'"
rs / ~
Figure 9-34. Temperature rise multiplier for determining the discharge temperature for straightthrough flow centrifugal compressors. (From Compressed Air
and Gas Data, 1982; courtesy of IngersonRand Co.)
TIt(IIJ$A_ 01< aM
c~mpr~~rs for air at 14.1 psla and 95F intake, with perfect Intercoollng (int~~
where Ph V" T J
450
10
References
Introduction
Gas flow measurement constitutes one of the more important auxiliary
operations related to gas production and transport. It is required to enable
the determination of the amount of gas being produced or sold, and also as a
basic parameter for almost all of the design procedures. The produced gas
stream is in a continuous state of flow from the instant it leaves the reservoir
until it is consumed at the delivery end. Therefore. e:tcept for underground
storage or other storages such as LNG (liquified natural gas) storage facilities, gas measurements must be done on a flowing stream of gas. Accuracy
in measurement is obviously of prime importance: an error of only 1 % for a
typical pipeline delivering 300 MMscfd (109.5 Bscf'year) can result in an er
ror of approximately 1.1 Bscf year of gas which. at a typical gas price of
S3.00/Mscf, would amount to a loss of $3.3 million to the buyer or seller.
Cas is most commonly measured in terms of volume because of the simplicity of such a procedure. However, to make this volumetric measurement
more meaningful, base or standard pressure and temperature conditions are
defined that yield measurements in standard cubic feet. This volumetric
rate can be converted to mass flow rate by multiplying with the gas density
at the standard pressure and temperature conditions. Since the gas density
at the specified standard conditions is a constant for the particular gas under
consideration, measurements in standard cubic feet are synonymous to mass
flow rate measurement. However, the number of standard cubic feet measured depends upon the standard pressure and temperature conditions chosen. Table 101 shows some such measurement bases. The most common basis is the ACA and API recommended pressure of 14.73 psia and temperature
of 60F.
451
452
Gas Flow
Table 10-1
Common Ga. Pressure and Temperature Bases for Measurement
Base pressure
psi.
Ba. . temperlltur.
14.65
14.7
AGA. API
14.73
00
00
00
State
14 735
15_025
of
453
measured rate of 100 MMscfd, it is between 99 and 101 MMscfd . An accuracy of 1 % of reading, however, implies that the measured flow rate is
within 9.9 to 10.1 MMscfd (or a measured rate of 10 MMscfd, 49.5 to 50.5
for a measured rate of 50 MMscfd, 99 to 101 MMscfd for a measured rate of
100 MMscfd , etc. Thus, the percent o( reading results in a better overall perfonnance because the error is proportional to the magnitude of the rate. Positive displacement meters and turbine meters usually have a percent of reading accuracy, whereas orifice meters and rotameters have a percent of full
scale accuracy in their <;pecifications.
00
Rongeability
'"
Measurement Fundamentals
"'ow is one of the most difficult variables to measure (Campbell, 1984),
because it cannot be measured directly like pressure and temperature. It
must be inferred by indirect means, such as the pressure differential over a
specified distance, speed of rotation of a rotating element, displacement rate
in a measurement chamber, etc. For this and other reasons, many flow measure~en~ techn iques and devices have been developed for a wide range of
apphcatlons. This discussion is limited to those devices that have found use
in the oil and gas industry, primarily for natural gas measurement.
Attributes of Flow Devices
A flowmeter or measurement device is characterized using the following
parameters.
Accuracy
MeOl1l.ltemlmt
(10-1)
'l'
Maximum rate that can be measured
Rangea b I Ity - ;:;::::;:==.:c;=-T'::...:=..;:::..::===;c
Minimum rate that can be measured
(10-2)
454
455
1.
2.
3.
4.
Figure 10-1. ~ ve~turi meter. (After Corcoran and Honeywell, 1975; courtesy of
Chemical Engineering.)
\/fmturi Meter
This type of meter, shown in Figure 10-1 , consists of a short pipe section
tapering into a throat, coupled with a relatively longer diverging pipe section for pressure recovery. It is similar to an orifice meter, with the advantage of low pressure loss, and is a preferred choice where less pressure drop is
available. Venturi meters have a rangeability of 3.5:1, with an accuracy of
1 % (Corcoran and Hone)'\\!ell , 1975).
A brief introduction to the different fluid measurement methods, well described in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' report on this subject (ASME, 1971), and by Corcoran and Honeywell (1975), is presented
here.
In this method, the flow rate is computed using the pressure difference
over a flow interval or restriction and other data. There are basically two
types of differential pressure devices: one in which the pressure difference is
measured across a flow restriction, such as the orifice meter, venturi meter,
etc., and the second type where the difference in pressure is measured upon
impact, such as the pitot tube. The dynamics of the relationships involved
have been studied in great detail for these types of meters, and very precise
and accurate results can be obtained from them. Some of the commonly
used differential pressure devices are described.
Orifice Meter
This is by far the most commonly used device for metering natural gas. It
consists of a flat metal plate with a circuJar hole, centered in a pair of
flanges in a straight pipe section. The pressure differential is mea~ured
across this plate to yield the flow rate. This is a rugged, accurate, simple,
and economical device, and can handle a wide range of flow rates. Orifice
meters have a rangeability of about 3.5: I, with an accuracy on the order of
0.5% (Corcoran and Honeywell , 1975). Details of this important meter
type are discussed later in this chapter.
Figure 10-2. Flow nozzle. (After Corcoran and Honeywell, 1975; courtesy of
Chemical Engineering.)
Flow Nozzlel!
Flow nozzles have a rounded edge that aids the handling of solids in the
flow stream (see Figure 10-2), The analysis is similar to orifice meters. Flow
nozzles are used for high flow rate streams, because they permit, for the
same line size and pressure differential , a 60% greater rate of flow than an
orifice plate (Corcoran and Honeywell. 1975). Flow nozzle; have a rangeahility of 3.5:1, with an accuracy of 1.5-2% (Corcoran and Honeywell,
1975).
Pitot (]mpacl) l ... be
Figure 10-3 shows a pitot tube installed in a pipe section. The pitot tube
measures the difference between the static pressure at the wall of the flow
conduit and the flowing pressure at its impact tip where the kinetic energy
of the flOwing stream is converted into pressure. It gives the flow velocity
<5.
~
Figure 10-3. Pilot tube metering. (Aller
Corcoran and Honeywell, 1975; courtesy 01
$Iat" pressure,
Chemical Engineering .)
\~ ImpiICl
liP
only at a point (at the tip). To compute the mean flow velocity. the calibration must account for the velocity profile in the flow conduit. Another factor
that makes the cAlibration of a pitot tube difficult is the low pressure differential produced by it. The tip can be easily clogged by liquids or solids.
Because of the relatively poor accuracy of this device (most of the error is in
measuring the static pressure), it is not used very often, except on a temporary basis.
This device
.57
co~ists
gas gravity, and the Jawing temperature (see Equation 7-83) in order to calculate the gas Jow rate.
II is important to note that the critical-flow prover u.ses a rounded-edge
orifice, because sharp-edged orifices do not conform to critical flow theories
and do not give a good repeatability.
Displacement Meters
attachment of different sharp-edged orifice plates at its end. The device discharges the gas to the atmosphere, and only the static prm;ure just upstream
of this plate needs to be measured. It has limited accuracy, but finds application where gas is at relatively low prm;ures and is being produced to the
atmosphere.
Critical Flow Proven
Similar to the orifice well tester, a critical-flow prover consists of a special
nipple equipped to facilitate the attachment of orifice plates at its end, and
it discharges the gas to the atmosphere. The critical-flow pro\'er, however, is
based upon the principle of critical flow of gases through Jow restrictions
(see critical Jaw through chokes in Chapter 7), In this device, critical flow
Cvhnders
tfourl
(two)
45.
consists of a rotating element, whereas the diaphragm type has a piston-C)'Iinder arrangement. Both are quite similar in operation. They contain measuring elements (or chambers) of known volume, with valves that channel
the gas into and out of these measuring elements. and counters to count the
number of times the measuring element is filled per unit time.
Turbine MetelV"'"
The.se- mf"ter; art> sometimes classified as positi"e-di>plaLtment meters.
They consist of a turbine or propeller that turns at a speed proportional to
the velocity of the gas flowing past it. converting linear velocity to rotational speed (see Figure 10-5). The speed of the turbine is measured as pulses
that give the rate. These pulses are counted to give the instantaneous rate, or
accumulated to give the cumulative rate.
45.
__
Pr"~~lJfe
IJIJS
Figure 10-6 . An elbow meter. (After Corcoran and Honeywell , 1975; courtesy of
Chemical Engineering.)
FIgure 10-5. A turbine meter. (After Corcoran and Honeywell, 1975; courtesy of
Chemical Engineering.)
The driving torque for the propeller is proportional to the fluid densit~
and the square of the fluid velocity. Turbine meters have therefore traditionally been used for measuring liquid flow rates rather than gas flow rate!>
Fluctuations in velocity, caused by pressure fluctuations, turbulence, or un
steady-state flow conditions, will cause the turbine meter to give a higher
than actual value. To allow sustained accuracy and trouble-free operation.
filters are almoo always used ahead of the turbine meter. Thrbine meter~
typically have a rangeability up to 100: 1 for gases, with an accuracy of
0.25% and a repeatability of 0.05 % (Evans, 1973). Further details
about turbine meters can be obtained from November (1972) and Evans
(1973).
460
St~!f",q
1)0.
gMtlltd
0"9"
"I~
ours.dt !>ere
se,e",o" ,
",.;:==~
_,.".--::::::::;p
S,,,tI,"9 boa
10
I~hltn
CO~OCI'Y
q,oduahons erched
.Iull,n..
mete""o; r.. ot
Inltl
These devices.are based upon the principle of vortex shedding, which occurs when a lUld flows past a non-streamlined (blunt) object. The flow is
unable to follow the shape of the blunt object, also referred to as low element, and separates from it. This separation of the flow leads to the forma?on of eddies or turbulent vortices on the surfaces along the sides of the obJect that grow in size as they move downstream, and are eventually shed or
detached from ~e obj~ (see Figur~ lO~8a and b). Shedding takes place
alternately at either side of the object (Chemical Engineers' Handbook ,
!..... -ryWoo-~
112
~~~
~@
\0
Vortex-Shedding F10wmetcrs
-=@i
461
@-o::::::
~
'#
2 I
~
-..... -,.. ...
,
w
Figure 10-8, (8) Idealized Karman vortex trail behind a circular cylinder; (b)
vortex flow pattern. (After Powers, 1975: courtesy of on & Gas Joumal.)
Ultrasonic Meters
Although several ultrasonic measurement principles are known, only two
types are commercially used (Munk, 1982): the Doppler, and the contra-
propagating (or transmitted energy) methods. Of these two, only the contrapropagating method is applicable to natural gas measurement. The Doppler method, using the reflections of ultrasonic energy off particles, is not
applicable to natural gas, which is generally free from particulates.
The contrapropagating ultrasonic flowmeter computes the flow velocity
by measuring the time difference between two ultrasonic waves traveling
over the same path, but with one with the flow and the other against the
flow. For this purpose, two transducers are used, as shown in Figure 10-9,
that alternately transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses, This flowmeter can
measure flow in either direction and indicate the direction of flow. It has a
rangeability of 50: 1 and an accuracy better than 2% (Monk, 1982).
There are some difficulties with ultrasonic meters caused by the effect of
solids, gas bubbles, etc. However, because these meters can be mounted out
side the pipe, they do not disturb the flow, cause no pressure loss, are portable, and offer applicability to large pipes.
462
Row
r---- l - - l I
Ultrnonlc
path
463
--'----''k-!'-- I - - - k -
o
BORE W/ 8 EVEL
Orifice Meters
Because orifice meters are simple, accurate. relatively inexpensive, rugged. and reliable, they are the most important and widely used of the
flowmeters for gases. Other devices such as turbine meters have also been
used because orifice meters have a limited rangeability (typically 3.5: 1), and
are difficult to adapt to automation.
An orifice meter consists of a thin plate, 0.115-0.398 in. thick depending
upon the pipe size and pressure, held perpendicular to the direction of flow
by a pair of Clanges. with a circular sharp square-edged orifice (hole) accurately machined to the required size in the center of the plate. Pressure taps
are provided on the upstream as well as downstream end in the fitting that
holds the orifice plate. A pressure measuring and recording device is connected to the pressure taps. The orifice fittings are designed to permit easy
changing and inspection of orifice plates.
The Orifice Metering System
Oriface Typn
In addition to the concentric (centered) orifice, there are two more types
of orifices as shown in Figure 10-10: eccentric (off-center), and segmental
(part of a circle).
The concentric type is the most common, because of its low cost, ease of
fabrication. and ease of calibration. It has a rangeability of 3.5:1, with an
accuracy of 0.5%. The sharp-edged plate, however, is subject to wear and
a consequent loss in accuracy.
ECCENTRIC
SEGMENTAL
The eccentric and segmental types are very useful for two-phase flow
streams and for flow streams with suspended solids. such as dirty gases or
slurries.' They have a rangeability of 3:1, but with an accuracy of 1.52%, they are less accurate than the concentric type. The segmental type ~as
the additional advantage that it does not retain solids on the upstream Side
of the plate. Centering the hole, howe"'er, is critical to its performance. and
it is recommended for use only on large pipe sizes (Corcoran and Honeywell, 1975).
Location of Preasure Taps
1. F1ange type: In this type. the pressure is measured 1 in. from the upstream face of the plate and 1 in. from the downstream face of the
orifice plate. This is the most common type of pressure tap.
2. Pipe taps: In this type, the pressure is measured 2.5 pipe [Os from the
upstream, and 8 pipe IDs from the downstream (where the pressure
recovery is maximum) face of the orifice plate. This type requires location tolerances 10 times higher than the flange type.
3. Vena contracta: The point at which the velocity is the highest, and
pressure is the lowest. is called the vena contracta. In the vena contracta type of pressure measurement. pressure is measured 1 pipe ID
upstream or the plate, and at the vena contracta downstream. It is
used where flow rates are fairly constant, because the location of the
464
'.
465
/1.-""", ,.
lutely necessary, because they introduce additional pressure loss, clog easily,
and are subject to erosion.
'-Yo" I."
C-1"1,. I.,.
lIJJ.!!it!1
o' .., ......
For commercial measurement of gases, the ratio of the orifice to pipe diameter. /3, should be between 0.15 and 0.70 for meters using flange taps,
and between 0.20 and 0.67 for meters using pipe taps (CPSA. 1981). The
lhiclmc<>S of the orifice plate at the orifice edge ~h(l\lld not exceed ltv! of the
1-'
,~
'ti
""'". c--j
~~
~
1-'
g tc-<~~
, ""'"
~i
Figure 10-11. Pressure prolile through an orifice meter and the relative
locations of taps.
Straightening
\~JJJn
1-' l:n
""" ~:i 8
- ....,lP
H U I
l
8 C:C---jH,
<1<0250
. ....
,.,
'"
,..,, " "" ""
"u "".,
'"
.,"" "
..
,
'"
"
,.,
..,
'"
'"
..
1'. _ _
.."..,,
",."
'"'"
0.."",,-
~r
~73
...,.,
"
'"
'"
'"
8-1 -1J1
l
""'"
"""
~-=~
Jf5,~
""'"
r8r1~~
a "
I 11m
"'~
((I
r """"
1','1
\[1
l'k.'.,1
vena contracta depends upon the orifice size, and the orifice size chosen depends upon the rate. This type of pressure tap provides greater
accuracy because it gives a greater p~ure drop.
4. Corner type: In this type. the pressure taps are located immediately
adjacent to the upstream and downstream faces of the orifice plate.
The use of this design is limited, for the most part, to some European
countries only.
I - 1l:J
""'"
t-'
!,
- -
1 +--1
Ul
_.
r'F~
~-
t'''IOd
,
,
.,
"" ...
,
..."
., .,
," ,'" ",
'" '""
'"
'" '" ,.,
... .... ..
0
11.$
1$,0
...
lO.l
'05
..
'"
,,
17.'
.,
".'"'"'"
".,
'"'"." '"
'"
'"
OII01"1keIO _ _ oI_
pipe diameter and lIs of the orifice diameter. The orifice location should be
such as to have a stabilized flow to ensure proper metering. Figure 10-12
shows the minimum requirements of straight pipe section and/or \'anes recommended by GPSA (GPSA, 1981) for this purpose.
467
The common chart ranges for differential pressure are from 0 to: 10, 20, SO,
100, or 200 in. of water, whereas for static pressure, the common chart
ranges are from 0 to: 100. 250. 500, 1,000. or 2,500 psia.
Measurement Calculations
meter range
. ,
(chart readmg)100
For example, for a square-root chart with a range of SO in. x 100 psi, a differential reading of 7 is equivalent to a differential pressure of
Differential pressure -
1~
The relationship for orifice meters can be derived from the general energy
equation (see Equation 7-2). written between two points in the flowing
stream~point 1 bein1! some point upstream of the orifice plate, and point 2
representing the orifice throat:
~
1 2
g 2
Vdp+-l vd\'+-1 dz-w,-I"
lI
(k I
&c I
(10-3)
1V dp + -l
&
,
1 '
,dv + I. - 0
C2
I'
l 'dp+-l
&
p vdv-O
(10-4)
(10-5)
476
.."
''''
5.189
S_~1
."" ""
Onl,ce
8.071
0816
1),01>70 I) 07}4
1),0578 00645
Q,0SQ2 O0S67
00852
01)7';]
OD66S
0.05117
00430
1),0442 O,OSOO
00520 OOS57
1125
003811
1),0]9(,
1315
'SOl
'W
,.'"
1),11'S
UD)
.'"
'''''
2125
0.0467
0.0507
00S4fl
00589
0.0626
0.0659
,'"
2.315
'SOl
..
2625
2.7SO
,''''
0.0l16
OOj)8
0,0)50
0,0370
0.0]95
00427
0046l
0,0501
0.0540
0.057')
00615
ODM7
0.0673
''''
3.)15
,.""
,.'"
,.'"
....'''''"
0336
0_0318
O.()307
0.0305
00308
I)
00344
O_OlD
ij,03()(,
0,02911
0,0296
0.0367
0,01]7
0.0314
0.02'13
002&7
I)
(1474
OlW7<I
D_OOS 00439
00l'J9 01J.101
OOlM 00371
0014O 00341
0.0271
0.0274
00174
0027'9
0.02117
00300
0.0114
0.0112
O,OXW
O~
0,0271
0,0259
0.0251
00246
0,0244
0.0245
0.0)15
0.0295
0.0278
0,0264
0.0151
0,0245
00240
0.0238
00118
00197
0028D
0.02M
0.0254
0024~
00240
0.02)7
O.OS)}
0.0S64
0.05<)4
O,062()
0060
002~
0.0239
0.0242
0.0248
00255
00265
0.027.
0.0289
0,(l)()4
0.D'll7
O.OHO
00244
00251
OOM
0.0271
0028.l
00297
0.021\1
00281
0.02116
O.om
O,OlOll
0.0124
0.034)
00)66
0.0254
0.026J
0.0273
O~
O.OJOO
0.0)16
0,0034
....""
,.
,...
""'"
S.'"
DI.~I"',
95b1
"
"
o.wn
0.034b
0.0322
0.0302
0.0283
0.02f>J
0.02S4
0.0243
00)89
0,0J62
00B7
0,031$
0,0296
00218
0 026J
002S0
0.038.1
0.01'>6
OOllO
00308
002117
O.OM
0025J
o,om
0,0438
0.0410
O.OID
0.0)59
0.0)36
0.0]16
00291
0.0278
0,0458
0.0429
0(1402
0.0377
0.0354
00332
00312
00294
O.~
0~2
0.(4).1
0.0401
0,0382
0,0358
0,03}6
0,0111
002911
00514
0,0467
00461
00436
00413
0,0391
00370
0,0214
00226
O,Cr.!21
0,0219
0,0218
0,0218
0,0221
oons
oom
002:Ml
0,022)
00216
0,0214
0.0213
00211
0.0214
0,0241
O,02Jl
0,0224
0,0218
0,0214
0,0212
0.0111
00212
0.026-1
00251
0.0239
0.0229
0.0221
0.0214
0020tl
0,0204
0.02711
00lf,1
00250
0.0216
0.0226
0.0219
0.0212
0.0206
0.021\1
0.0lfit>
0.025)
00241
0.0230
0.0221
00211
0.0207
0,02)11
0.0256
0.027':1
0,(1307
001911
00195
001%
0(1202
0.0191'1
0.01<).1
0.019<1
(1.019')
00223
0.0206
00193
001..
002211
00210
001%
0,0185
0.0]];
0,(l3ro
0,0404
0,(1;138
00178
0.017&
00176
00110
0,0178 00179
0,(1174 O.OIN
0,(1174 o.oln
001710 0.0173
0.0473
0.0505
0.053&
0.051>2
0000'
0046l
OOO}
00S2l
o OSSO
''''
2,]75
'SOl
..
2.75(1
2,175
3.125
'''''
3.375
'.SOl
....''''""
H25
SOl
~7SO
S""
S""
S.SOl
S,7SO
'''''
15000 15,250
10000
"
o 06M
O.O?ll1 00705
0.0635 0.0652 00656 0.0f.9II
005IIII 11,0606 0.0610 0.0654
0,os..5 0,OS6J 00S6l 0,0612
o 0S04 0052) 0,0527 O,OS73
00461 000lllS 0.Ge90 O.05:Mio
0,0714 O,G'IB
0,06]1 00676
O.Q6jl 0.0615 0.0706 007lJ
(1.0'>92 00597 0,0670 00671 0.06&1
0,0S55 00560 0,06l6 0.Dt>W 0.0650
"
2125
,."""
S.soo
O.if,ce
DOno
0,0]66
0,040';
0.0446
"
..
....'"
.',.."
10.136 11376
0.04]]
0.0401
.""
..,'"
'.SOl
1,250
S."
1,625
l.7SO
0D4~7
IH1418
0,038.1
0.0)53
0.0327
00]00
00110
00314
00342
0.0]65
0.0391
00418
0.0+408
4.750
"'"
.soo
00151
(10343
00322
0.0301
0.02M
0.0111
0.01J4
00354
0,03711
O.04Ob
00436
0G4611
0.0500
'.SOl
1,315
00718 1),0742
0.OS7& 0.0&60 DOb7b 0.06tI0
...
"
101Y./O
3.750
3.125
1.125
oam
I)
..
D_OIIl!O 0.0892
I) n7A~ (I (lOOIIJl
00701 0.0718
00f02S Q,Ob(4)
'"
'J.!ioM
1,175
2,625
O0J4S
00]54
OO}72
00398
00430
16n
1.750
1,115
I)
o.i~l .. r,
0.1047
O.OI!'J.4
0076)
Q,1lf>53
0.0561
01)137
0.]75
I) 10$4
1),0907
I) 077<.1
477
'SOl
''''
'.SOl
o,osn
0.04111
00'51
GO4&]
G.osn
00540
0,0Sb0I
0.0551
O.osn
0.0496
0.(471)
0.0445
0.0422
00399
0,0371
00160
001l1li
0.01911
0.0210
0022'
00240
0,0257
00276
00558
0,0529
00502
004'&
0G452
O,G4la
0,0406
0,0385
0.0232
0.0213
0.0196
(1.01117
ODIn
0,0183
00191
00202
0.0216
G.02JO
0024(0
0.02601
''''
'SOl
''''
000402
0G42S
0044'
0,(10169
O.OJIIJ
0.040>
0.0427
0.0449
00l6e
00)90
0,00t12
0,00tl-'
100250
10.SOD
10750
11000
11.250
0.0489
00501
00526
0.Q5.41
0.(471)
0.04'iO
0.0S09
0052t1
0.0541
00455
0,(1475
00495
0,0513
00521
(table continued)
468
Equation 10-5 uses pressure p in Ibfl ft2. Converting to commonly used pressure units of psia (lbf/in.2) and rearranging, we get:
vi -
vi _ 2(144)g.,C'(P,
- p,)
(10-6)
P.
469
(PI -
.
(62.43 Ibmit')(g fusec')(&h in. wate,)
psla ... (144 in.t/ftt){12 in./ft)(g. Ibm.ft/lbf-sed)
(lO.j'
62.43 "h
(p, - p,) - (144)(12)
p~" A~
AT
0',
(10-11)
p,)
P '
(28.97)(62.43)g,>sP" "h
f'
m'
Aj [I
(10-8)
Let d j and d 2 be the diameters of the pipe and the orifice, respectively. in
inches. Defining /3 - dz/d j and solving Equation 10-8 for m:
m - CA [2(144)g.,P"(P' - p,)f'
,
(I Il')
(10-12)
Gas flow is generally reported in terms of the flow rate q.., in scf/hr at standard conditions, which is related to the mass flow rate m in Ibm/sec as fol
lows (m ... qp):
m _
Using standard conditions of PM: - 14.73 psia, TIC ., 520 oR, and the fact
that ~ ... I, we obtain:
0',
(28.97)(14.73)
(10-9)
Using the gas law, the gas density P., can be expressed as:
(10-10)
where
R - gas COnstant
(10-13)
m - (3,000)(520)R >,q,.,
q,., -
~,
7,717.96 Cd!
J" ['h
up."
[(I-ll'h.Z.,T.,
(10-14)
1',.
q,., -
K. ["h
p"J"
(10-15)
470
K.. is given
Table 10-2
Flange Taps-Bule Orifice Factors-F b
by:
Orifd
p,r'
(10-16)
in,
1,689
1,9:)9
2067
')00
a.2S0
12MS
12701
unl
lZ.71O
1I~~.
:u.~lq
1lI~'~
a~"
a.m
0.,500
a blS
o.m
1.000
50m
110090
50W
" wt
lI~.W
117.0'1
lW'J5
219."
1~W.
212 '7
SO S21
" )11
liS I~
lsa'7
no 22
~" ro
).15 1l
.n 50
SOl 16
l.llS
U.
,,,.,
1.625
il.\
am
llIJt..1
5(1 25e
;'852J
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1'\04.n
so.m
7a~
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ISS."
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The factor Fb is simply the constant K., in Equation 10-15, Its va lue depends upon the type of pressure taps, and the pipe and orifice diameters, Fb
can be obtained from Tables 10-2 and 10-7 for flange taps and pipe taps,
respectively, For sizes that cannot be found in these tables, interpolation is
1l.70)
11)99
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50 OIS
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These factors, determined through extensive tests and reported for use as the
industry standard by ACA, are given in Tables 10-2 through 10- 14 for two
pressure tap types-flange taps and pipe taps,
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The expansion factor, Y, accounts for the change in gas density with the
pressure changes across the orifice. It is computed assuming a reversible adiabatic expansion of the gas through the orifice, and is a function of f3, the
ratio of the differential pressure to the absolute pressure, the type of taps,
and the specific heat ratio (Op/c,) for the gas (generally ignored). The expansion factor can be obtained from Tables 10-4, 10-5, and 10-6 for flange taps,
and Tables 10-9 and 10-10 for pipe taps, These tables indicate the pressure
tap from which the absolute static pressure PI is measured- YI for upstream, Y2 for downstream , and Ym fo r static pressure recorded as the mean
of the upstream and downstream static pressures. As with F" an average h",
Pf should be used .
(text continued 011 pagc 489)
472
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not recommended; the exact equations or charts given by ACA (ACA, 1969)
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I~
......
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116
2HOI
14"~2
11>''16
2'.-.z
lQ.4t>l
J~ 001
35.110
lI.I,l
42.671
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uno
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2Q.1>'n
2!l.672
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11,;1114
11116
11.11>
12.971
1l,'JI!fj
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21.767
21.0121.45/1
n.H6
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21,4<;0
22,S))
n.bn
nl><;6
n.60~
25.257
24.817
24.7''19
24]81
If>S'I1
27.8:'8
If>4'1'l
0.'"
n.m
15.9';'1
27,76t.
2~,199
27.11>1
2'I.lOS
2')
on
27.1~
1II,4]1
a,411
18.J'IoI
.111.429
29.7011
29.617
2'160;<}
n.""
12.28J
U,06II
)5.0)1
1O.5~4
)5.0&-1
lJ.3lO
JI,~J
.111.5"
It.,1ST
15,114
..
....
-",7112
4J,24'
J9,'i41
Jr.,n
4J,015
~.M
19000
F, ~ 1+
f'i~
SS,l'U
~=
\o4.51l
".'"
51.20:1
\04,'12]
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,.'"
'''"'
,
51,O/'!i
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1125
... '"
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1>7.017
71510
",
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11.012
paf!.t! 479)
'.50)
1.625
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0.375
47,Wl
011
Table 10-3
" b" Values for Reynolds Number Factor F, Determination-Flange Taps
'50)
'65
44,2')1
17.5(10
18,500
(text cOIltinll('d
In
"".
"
"
This factor accounts for the variation of the orifice discharge coefficient
with Reynold's number, Tables 10-3 and 10-8 .show the value of F, for flange
taps and pipe taps, respectively. The pressure extension, [h" Pff 5, should be
some sort of average pressure extension. These F, values have been calculated assuming average values of viscosity equal to 6.9 x 10 6 Ibm ft-sec.
temperature equal to 60F, and gas gravity equal to 0.65, These tables do
not , therefore, have a general applicability to all sy!.tems. In any e\'ent, the
variation in F, in gas measurement l~ quite small. and is often neglected.
'8.11J
19.17'
21U9Ib
ll.tm
".
lS.OOO
lHOO
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11.)&
141lS&
25,J.44
21,;>19
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15,2'10
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Il.nl!
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28.621
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150
1,68')
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2.(167
2.300
2(,26
2'100
1068
1152
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0.09S0
0.07S5
0.0612
0.0516
0.0402
0.0445
0.04511
0.097'1
007'l2
0.0648
0.0<;41
0.0470
0.Q.l2'J
0,(\416
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0.1014
0.0B44
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00591
00504
0.0441
0040J
0.1030
0,08&1
0.049$
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0061'9
0,0735
0,0427
0.04%
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0.0554
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0,0717
0.0196
0.040IJ
0(4)5
0.0474
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0.0477
0.0524
00574
0.0624
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0.0331
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004211
000457
00500
00549
0,05911
O.DSn
00575
O,062a
o,orn
0,0618
0,05211
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0,0365
0.0378
00402
00434
0.0473
0.0517
87,0:"')
92.114
86.568
'.140
86,2 ....
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2,125
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110,_
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m.no
475
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(table contilll/cd)
Table 10-4
Yt Expansion Factors_Flange raps
,.'.
~,.
"
Upstream Tsps
"
IDCIIOIIUXI
045
'"
0110
0 '19119 0 9'M9
(I. 'l'II'I
09'1b6
0'M54
09'/01)
09'/01]
0 'l'1li8
0 9'lM
(I 9geI!
'M06
(I 'l!IOt)
0'V'l';. 09:'<15
09784 Ort]
0971"1 09:-2
(I
(I
9988
0 'I'IM
(I _ ,
0,'M17
0
0,9l'Jo4
0.9711l
O'J77'
0 980l
097'1,
0l1li70
09M9
D~7
(I '!IIl~
0 '!ell
O'Mll
0 '/eOO
0."88
09;")'6
0.9915
09'J01
"~. c. 9'lI!~
~~
,- ,- ,- ,-.. ,09915
0.9914
0.9668
(1,\11167
09l!l';6
'JeSS 090'151
O'MU
(I~3
0 'lII)!
0'Je11
O. 'M2O
09tlOll
0 9;'%
09914
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099tJ
09l!lllo
OW)
0.'Ie06
(I'M];
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0.9921
0,9910
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O'lllJJ
0'1111
"'" ,
9~&4
0,9~41
O'~
0'jlb9]
0.96&1
0%'11
'libel
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09f058 O'llt..,.
964] 0 '11>41
0.96.16 09615
09624 09624
D.""'} O'llt.l~
01lllQ2 It 'MOl
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09:'112
0')691
0.'jIb74
0,,",5
0'JI6J1
0.'Jti.9I
096&
O,96M
0'lMl
D,'jIb1'9
0,'l6al
09676
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0':1661
O'jlbro
0':1667
0'jlb!;4
0.'Jb]O
0,9587
0.9576
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0'J561
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095SJ
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09'iSl 0')';S2
0'1515
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0,9&47 D96-IO O.~ 09llt.l4 0.'lIIIlO
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0'JS95 omJ 0,9S90
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11 957V 09561 0'564
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0.9917
0.9'T'4
0.9'161
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09987
0.9'11"4
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0.9'1048
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0.9981
0.9'161
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0,91127
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09778
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09&14
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0.9737
0,9721
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09148
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0,'VliO
0.9712
091\911
O. 968S
09671
0 w.57
09109 09J'06
0,9695 09692
0 9681 0 WI
0.101
09100
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0.9841
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0.97'!IB
09:"81
09:'54
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0.9716 09714
11 mt
O.'WIO 0.!J6111
0.'J677 Otli1S
0.9ns
0.9711
D.,....
0.96IS
0.9r072
09n1
09709
09696
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0.966'1
0.'1664
0.9651
0.'J6JI
09625
0,"11
0.9662
096t9
O'Will
0.'M.ll
09610
0.9659
0.9646
O.Will
0.9t020
0.96OIi
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0,9600
0'9Sl1
0'574
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0.95J7
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0.9465
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0.9586
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0.9562
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482
Table 105
.., "'
"
."
-iloIlO
060
g.61
10011
10011
l00U
10011
IOOIl
l00U
1.0012
10011
10011
10012
10011
10011
,-,-~.,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,
"
"
,.
"
'",.,"
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10071
1007\1
1_~
,-
1.0087
1 00II1
10081
l00v
l!011i
100801
UIOII2
UIOIIO
UlO78
10077
'.001S
loon
IOU,.
un07
1 010&
101001
111101
lOO'lf1
1.~
10095
1 QOIJl
10114
10111
101211
10US
1.01,.
10'121
1.01211
1,0114
1.01U
1.0120
10126
IOUl
1.(nl0
1.0117
10I0Il
1 (Ill.
1.0121
1.0127
l!MOf
unl!
10111
IOID
1010]
'(1101
10099
10109
10107
1.01001
1.00tS
1.0121
10TH
1.0119
10110
1.0116
,,- ,....
tim}
U,I1JO
HlO9Il
1.0102
1.01D!!
10114
UIOM
1.0105
10110
1.0102
1.0107
1.0141
101~
10116
101.M
1.0129
1.1t117
1.0125
10122
1.0n,
1.0116
1.0114
'Olll
,-,-,-,-~.,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,
,-~,-,-,-,-,_,_,_,_w~.,_
,-,-,-,-,-,-~.,-,-,-,-,-,1.0182 LIlh!O 1.0m. 1.01n 1.0161 1.0164 LIl16, HilS/! 101504 101SO 10148 10141i
1.0182
'_~.'_'_~R'_'_~.'_'_,_,_,_
1.0196
1 OlD)
1.0196
l.o2OJ
UI'I'I
UIlIl1
1.0'89
1.11196
101115
1.0192
1.0180
1.0186
1.01&)
1.01110
1.01'"
1.00n
101~
I.OI~
1.01M
100S'
1016!
","".. ,-~.,-,-,-,-,-,-~.,-,-,-,~
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l.o:zsa
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10210
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101011
1.020)
1.01"
10192
1.01"
1.0186
10182
1.0111
1.0173
1.011'1)
10166
10Zl4
1.Q1lO
lill)]
1.m3
'-'1210
1.1I2ll
1Il221
1.11221
HIlJj
10216
1022l
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1.0211
10218
1(1224
10211
10211
1_020".1
1.0lDI
1.0214
101...
102001
1.0210
10194
10200
1.1llO(,
1,0189
1.019S
1.0201
1,011'
10190
1,0196
1,0111
100Si
1,0193
1011't
101i1-<
1.01'10
102<44
1,0251
'0244
1.O:ZS1
1 ~l
102)6
1.02l1
1,0224
1 026.l
1,0251
1.0lfi
1.0220
1.D2lfi
Ullll
1.02)')
llmS
1,0216
llJ222
1OZ2'J
l,on5
10141
1,0212
1.llll'
1.0224
10210
1.02)6
1,0l07
1,1ll1l
1,021'
1.0225
1 WI
10202
1.0l07
1.021)
10219
1,0215
1.0199
1.0204
1,0210
1.0216
1,0222
10191>
10.'01
1 (P.Ol"
, rull
1,0218
1025f
I
, IDio4
1,021'
10255
1024)
Il--Roloo
...
,w
O,fo'I
070
.n
.n .n
,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,"" ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-, ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,-,-,- ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,". ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,..",.. ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,-,-,--,,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-," ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,." ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,. ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,., ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,"
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0.14
1,00151.OIIU
10015
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10014
1.0014
1,0013
lOO1l
lOO1l
1.0012
1,011\1
101m
10011
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100015
U)(I.4
\ 00013
1.0041
101141
10CM0
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1.00)1
1,011:16
lOOl4
loon
100511.0056
10055
l00S4
IODS3
10051
l11DSO
1004'1
HOI'
1,01146
I,OOU
loon
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1~ 1.0IIIIl
10081
UlOIl6
\.0091
l007'J
1.110114
1.00&9
1 fX1T1
10082
11)(18]
11101'S
UlOIlO
101185
'.0073
1,11011
10083
10011
I.OOM
1001>1
HID!19 1,00M;
I.IXl'JoI 1.0093
1.0016
1-(10110
'0014
1,0018
'0011
1.0076
1001>5
UOt.9
101113
l00b2
10066
10070
10060
101J601
IOI)6IJ
10105 1.00Ql
1.0101
1.00'19
l00'J7
100'IS
1.0092
lOO9Il
10087
100&4
100111
lOO7tI
1007'S
10111 1.0109
1.0\16 1.0114
'0121 1011~
10121 10124
1.0012I.111l1l
1.0106
1.0112
1.0l11
'-0122
\.0121
1.0l04
1.0109
10114
'0\20
1.00lS
'-0102
10107
'0112
1.0111
10122
1,0100
1.0104
'-0109
10114
10'"
'0097
1.11102
1011.16
'.0111
1.0116
llXl'Jo1
1,00'19
1.0104
10108
111111
1.0II'J2
10096
1.11101
1,0l05
101'0
1.0IIII'J
l1lO'11
1011'Ja
1.0101
10106
11101!11i
10090
10094
loo.t
1.(10)
1.00113
100111
1.0091
1,01195
100'19
1,001'9
10081
ItlOll1
10091
lOO'K
1.01)11.0135
101431 .0140
Utl<la 1.0146
101504 10151
'.OIfoO'OIJ1
1.01])
10113
1014)
10148
10154
1(1)0
1.0115
10140
10145
1.0lj(!
10121
10112
1,0117
1.0142
1.0147
1,0124
1.0129
1.0134
1011'
10144
1,0121
1.0126
1.01l1
101:16
10140
1.0118
10122
1.0121
'0112
10111
10114
1.0119
1.0124
1.0121
1.011)
10111
10115
10120
1.0124
1,0129
1(11)1
10111
10116
10110
1.0124
1.0101
1.0101
10112
1.0116
111120
lOO9'J
10101
10107
10111
lOll'
101115
1,0110
1.01'"
1.0181
1.0lSi
1.016:2
1.0161
'0111
1.0111
lOll'
1 015~
1.01601
10110
\.OIl'S
101110
1.0156
10161
1,0166
1.0111
1.00n
1.0152
lOIS/!
1.0163
101611
1.(11)
1.0149
1.01504
1.0159
1.0164
101M
1.0145
1,01511
1.11155
101611
101M
10141
10146
1.0151
1,0156
101611
1.01l7
1-(''''2
11'147
1.00SI
1.0156
1(1))
101111
10142
1.0141
1,0151
10129
1.01)3
10131
10142
1.0146
1.0124
10121
1.00ll
1,01l1
1.0141
10120
1.0124
10111
100ll
1(1)6
10192
1111911
'.02001
1020t
10215
10189
1.019S
UI200
II1'2l)6
',0111
UlllIi
101't1
1.0196
1.020".1
\,0201
10182
1.0111
1.0192
1.01911
1.D201
10118
1.01&)
\.01.
\.OI'M
'0199
10114
1.1117'9
1.01&4
1.0189
1.0194
1,0110
1.1IlTS
1.0180
1.01M
'0190
101M
1.0110
10175
1.0180
10185
'0161
1.0165
1.0110
HII75
1.01110
1,0156
10160
101M
1.0170
1.0114
1,0151
1.01S5
10160
1,0164
'Olfo'l
1.0146
101j(!
1,01504
10159
1,0163
10100
10144
100<1a
1015)
10151
"
OJ
1.0103
1,(1109
,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,." ,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,,.,.""
10142
483
"
,.""
u
,.,a
u
"
'"
"uOJ
.."
,..
"u
..."
84
...
"100
"
u2
Table 10-6
Y", Expansion Factors-Flange Taps
DWM
O~
G9'A6 099'>&
099'K O~
6,,")
11
12
U
'4
I ~
O'l'lelJ
09964
O'l'!i8l
O<m<!
o')'m
0997~
O'l'l71
0'1910
0.9!I6a
09'11>1:>
0,",'
69'191
o.9'1e6
0'1'181>
0911&1
09'1111
0.997'1
0'19"
099l!l1
09981
0'197'
09976
09975
0.9'/72
0'l'l7(l
09!l6a
09966
09"1601
0"'"
0'l9S9
0.9957
099'S;
il99"F
0.9'/95
ow;;
0.,,,,",,
0.'1992
O'lMil o.,9'iI'J
0,'" 11._
099'1'2
0.9'/&1
0.9'182
0.9980
0.9977
0,.;1&1
0..9'1111
Q.9'J78
G'l9'I7 O'i~
0._ 09'1'11
ij,':I'/9l
O_'I'HI 11._ D,99'JI)
0._ O'I'IN 69'1117 0.991;1
0.9985 O.9'JM 0.,9\1&1 0911&1
O,1ffi7 D'l'I'i;
6,'I'/'l0l 0."""
0.998.2
0._
0,'1977
0.""'.
0..998.2
O.9'J7'j
0.,9976
6.'1'971
0..9970
0.99boI
,.
0,')968
09965
0,9961
0,9974
09910
0.9966
0.9!162
o,me
0997'
09969
0,9965
099101
0,99$6
09960
09955
0,'997.1
0.9'lfI8
099I\J
0,9956
0.9'JS.!
09956
0995)
0.99S0
09961
0995a
0.995-1
09951
09')017
0.9960
09956
0995\
09950
O~'>
0.9956
0.9954
0.9951
0.'1947
0.9943
0.9957
0.9953
0.9949
0.9946
0.990
099S6
09952
0'l9l8
09'1+1
0'194<1
0995S
0.9951
0.'l9I7
099U
09939
09953
0'1949
09945
0'1941
099)7
0,9951
0'l9l8
09'1+1
099]9
0.9915
09951
09946
09942
09933
099lJ
0.9949
09945
0,99010
09'J16
09931
0.'l9I8
D.'l9IJ
0,9919
099)1
0.9'J19
0.9'J046
0.9942
099)7
09932
0,'1927
0,'1945
0.'194<1
09'1)5
0.9'I1O
0,992.)
0.'1941
09933
D.9'JH
0.'1'128
0.99ll
09'141
0.'1'116
099Jl
O~
1.1
1.1
I.J
1.'
1.5
0.9!M4
0,99010
(99)7
099}<
0,")0
09942
099"
099.16
09912
0'l9l1
099.
D99}<
09910
0.99" 0.9936
0.99)1 D9911
0.9'l30 0,9'129
0.9927 0992S
0992] 0.'192'
09'1),
0991'
0.9917
09')1)
0991'
09911
09929
0992.)
09921
09917
099)1
0.'1921
0992)
09918
0.9914
09925
09920
0,9'116
0,9911
09907
0.9911
0.99011
0.9'IOf
0.9920
0.9915
0.9910
0,9'lO!I
0990T
0.9918
09911
0,9'iOII
09903
09912
0.9927
0.9921
09918
0.9914
09909
09'll2
0.9'118
0.992~
0.99'0
0.99l6
09911
0.9'129
0.9925
09929
0992.)
O.~
1.'
1.1
U
U
U
0991;
0991D
09'101
0.9900
0.'IIm
(992)
1.1
1.1
l.l
0,9921
0.9918
0991,
1.4
0.9911
0.9907
0.99"
09916
0.9911
0.99011
0.990S
09917
09914
09910
0.9906
0990:.1:
09915
09911
09907
0990]
09'100
(991)
09'10'1
09905
0.9901
091197
09910
09906
09902
0._
0.')11904
09'iOll
09901
0t1199
0.91I9S
0'"'
0.9905 09'102
0990T 0 _
0'lll!l6 O!IMl
09D92 091!1119
0 _ 0,'11&4
0._
0.'lI895
09890
O.'JMS
OWl
0'lll!l6 0'J89)
0'Jl91 0._
0.9817 O'llllll
0'lMl 0.'1B78
0'11U7 0.'lII71
0 .... 09ll'!6
0,'JIII9!i 09l9l
0'Jl91 0.9888
09817 0.91164
091164 0 _ '
0'J89]
0.9M9
09MS
0_'
0'J177
09190
0'J111116
0'lMl
09878
0987'
09817
09lll:.l
0.9178
091174
091!10
O.~
O,'JI'IJ
0.'1190
0990T
6_
0.91194
0.W90
0.911117
09V'i
0'Jl15
0.'JI7V
0.'J11L6
0...,
0'J17S
0'lll71
0.'lIIf>7
0'Jl6l
O'JIII?'
0.'II7l
0.9167
0.'JIII6l
0.'J8SI
0.')871
0.'II16II
0.'JIII6l
0.'J8SI
0.'J1S4
O.WoI
0,'"
0,'JI59
0.'J1S4
O.'I!W'I
0.')116.1
O'lllbl)
0.'JIIISol
0";(1
D....,
0'lll16
0'Jlll
0986'1
0,'J1166
0,9873
0.'JI6'l
0.9Il66
09862
0"73
09870
0.91166
09ll6l:
09MI
0.9870
D.'*"
09l6l
O'JIIISII
0'J1S4
091166
09861
O'JIIISII
0.91S4
091150
091162
0'J8S1
0.'JISoI
O'MSO
0.9845
0.91I5a
0.'JISoI
0 ....9
O'J8oi,
0,_'
0.'lIS4 0 .....9
0 ....' 0 ..... 5
0 ....5 D.'il&tO
0'il&tO 0.91)5
0.'I1I.l6 O,'lIIJl
0.",,"
0.'il&tO
(91)5
O,'JI}(!
0.'lIl6
0._
0987~
0.'1M3
0,'lIIlO
0 ..76
0.'lII71
0,91!I69
0'11U7
14
l.S
0._
0.'1M3
0.9V'i
D.'J176
0.9IIn
0987l
0.986'1
09866
O'llMil
0'l1lS9
1.'
).7
1.1
3,'
4"
0.'1&b9 0.'J166
0._ O.!iIl6l
0.'l8b2 O.'JIS'
0.'J1S9 O.'JIS
''1111:S6 0911S2
O.!iIl6l
0.'J111S8
O'J1S5
O,'lBSl
O.96Ca
O.'JIISII
O.'JISS
0,'JIS1
0 .... '
0 96M
09115001
O!l85O
0 .... 7
0 .... )
O,'JI)'
09llSO
09846
0.960
0.911
09llJ5
0.9846
0 ....1
0.91)0
O,~
O,'JIJO
0,91\011
0911]7
O,'JIll
0.91129
0.9112S
0.'11SJ6
0.'lIIJ1
0.9828
09824
0,"19
O.'JIll
09QJ
0.9123
0.91118
0."14
0.91121
0.':11116
091111
0'lllO7
O.!leOl
091115
0"'0
0.9110&
0'JOllD1
097%
o,~
0'196)
0.9961
O,'J'JS/I
09'JSS
0.9951
0995~
69971
O.'l'ji'fl
O'
0.9%2
0.9960
0'1\157
09961
O,'J'JS/I
O,995S
0.'1'162
0.9960
099Sa
09956
09'J5ot
09960
0'l'Y.>1
0995S
0,9951
09950
09'JS7
0.9955
09951
0.9950
0.'l9I7
0.9'J5ot
09'JSl
099<19
0._
0,99011
0.9952
0,'J95(I
099017
0.'1'M4
O.'l9Il
D.9'JS1
0._
0.99oIS
09942
(99)')
0.99<19
0.99<11
099)9
0.99.16
0.'I'Jo'6
099ol}
0.99010
09917
099.14
099S) 0'l9S1
09951 099019
0.9948
O.,,",S 0.9940
0.99012 0.99.
D..,.., O,99)S
0")7 09912
0"ll5 0'19)0
09938
0.99.16
099J]
09910
0.9927
0,99)6
09930
0,'1927
0'l9l4
D.99))
09910
0'l9l7
0'1924
0'l9l1
0.9930
0.9927
0'l9l4
0.9921
0.99'11
09927
09924
0,99lO
099'17
09914
09925
09912
0'1911
0""5
0.",1
0.9920
0.9916
(991)
09910
0.99)1
09930
D'I92B
0.9925
0992]
0.9927
09924
09922
09919
0.9924
0.99'22
0,9'119
09917
09'114
0,9922
0.9919
09916
0,9'111
0.9910
0.9911
0991S
09911
0,9910
09906
D.""S
0.9911
099011
0990S
0.9902
0,9911
0.9'107
0.9904
0,9901
0.'"'
0.99011
0.990S
0'l'lO2
0.9Ige
0.91I9S
09906
09901
0.91199
0W'16
0'J1192
U
1.7
2.1
U
l.G
0."'"
0.9886
0_1
0.9V'i
).1
l.2
U
27
Z.
n
)0
(9901)
0.,..,
0""
09').16
0'99)1
0,,",2 0"'"
0.....0 0'19.
099" 0.99.16
099.16 099}<
099)1 0'1911
0.9')4~
0990lS
0"")
099.16
(99)1
09911
09'129
09927
0,991~
)~
099
0'99)0
0'1'128
0.9'126
Ow.z4
099)2
09930
o.w.z.
09926
09924
09910
099211
0.9926
09')14
0.9922
0'1925
0992]
0.9'r.!O
09918
09916
099lO
0.'9911
09916
0991)
09!\,
09914
0.'9911
09'JO'il
0.9906
0,99(101
0.99'11
0,9'iOII
0.9906
0990]
0,9900
0.9'JOII
D.990S
09902
D'lIII99
D.'lII!I6
09901
09901
D.""
0.'lII95
0.91192
D.,,"
0'lll!l6
09119)
09MO
D.'111117
0.9fI9oI
0.9891
O.'!MII
091!1115
0'lMl
),6
)7
]8
"
,0
09912
09921
09919
09917
0991S
09921:
09920
0'9911
09916
09914
0,9920
099'11
0'9916
099'1 4
0"12
0'19'4
0.9912
0.'9910
0.9907
09905
0'1'109
0.9906
099(101
09'101
O.'JII'J'I
0.9901
0._
0.'iIl196
O.'iI8!M
0,'JI91
0.9II'JII
0,98'1S
0911'1)
098'JO
0_7
0.'lii')0i
0'J891
0.9lI1\II
0._
0.'lIIIll
0.'Me!I
0.'IIIMo
0._
OWl
0.'JI18
0.91164
0.'"
09&71
0.9875
O,.. n
09V'i 0.ge76
0,9876 0.9872
0.'IOn O'IWI
0.91!I69 O,*"
0.91166 0916)
09952
0,99(,.1
0991$
09971
0.9967
0.99I\J
0.99;9
0.9971
0,99]2
09!l6a
0.9"1601
0,996i'I
0.9')61;
0.996]
0.9'JbO
09'JS7
0.'1'J'i4
0.9948
Ot9ol4o
09!M4
0995]
09948
O.~
o." n
O,'/'J69
(99))
0.9'lS5
0.997'
0.9971
09969
0.9966
0.99b1
0._7
09'J0t6
O"..}
0,"",
(99)')
.mo
0.9977
0.99611
0._5
09'lS]
09951
0,,"
0""
0.,,",5
0,9'1611
O'
OJ
o..<J971
0,'J9611
D.~
...,
..- .."" ..,,,
0991. 099:-7
0.997. 0997~
0,9'J70
0.9%&
0'l'ltoS
0.9'J6J
O.'l'9bO
(I,9')f,.I
0.99fIl
0..9978
O.991S
0..9971
0.'1972
0.997(1
0'1"167
0.9!16S
0.9962
0.9971
0.9970
D.5
Q,'l'I72
0997.
0,9'170
0.9966
0.9961
0._
0'1951
O,9'MI~
0.9981
699)'9
0'197&
09:l7J
0,'196')
0.')961,
o~r.m
091192
0.91119
O!IM~
0'lMl
09V'i
Q.9o/b)
09959
0995,
09952
0.')'W5
1.S
3.)
0.99D4
D.'J900
0.91I9J
09996
09971
0.9966
0.9961
0.9957
0.9951
69'l1l':I
(I,"
09991
09917
0991ll
099711
099111
09977
0..9')89
69985
o.,ft12
o.,'J'Jll1
69'17'
09975
0.!9'16
099'11
09917
O.998J
0997')
0.9993
09991
09916
0.99112
09977
0.991>11
o.~
09920
09916
0.9995
09991
~-
Q.9'JI'I
0.9992
09996 0.9')')6
0.9992 0.99'
0 . " 09'J17
0 _ 09'1&]
09980 0.997')
099119
0.9984
0.99711
0'J971
69'J16
09982
D.9'I'JoD II ........
6,",93 o.999!
C.9'J'Jf>
09992
0.9'JIIII
0._
0.99110
O"""'i 0 _
0.9'I'JII 0998')
0,99IS 09'1&(
09')80 0997')
09975 0.9974
0._
0.9984
0.'l981
OW9lo
0.999)
0._
oms O"'IGS
0._ 0_
0 _ 0'J'J85
0.9981 09')80
0.99"6 09975
0.1
G.2
1U
0.4
D~
own
0.9'l'IO
0.9'IIl6
DMeJ
0.997.
0.9971
09'16'1
09967
09965
21
22
2)
14
1,S
0~9
'w
0.9'17.
09964
0.'1'11>1
099Sl
099SS
0.9976
O.997l
U
17
18
"
20
l'
]2
)]
H
-"bO
.S>
0.1
0.4
.."
..
485
". ."
..."_,_._,_._._._,-,_._._," .. ...
II
. 1
as
oow
0.91126
o.'len
0.91111
0.91111
0,_
0._
D.~
o'm~
09920
09890
0_5
0'l1!l!lO
09874
0,'JII7(I
0.1I&l~
O"I~
O ..lO
O'Jlll,
0.ge20
486
Table 10-7
Fb Basic Orilice Factors-Pipe Taps
~ l"m~'~IUnl! .. 6O"F
Su.. pr"uute" 14 n
..r;;:;;r .. GO
Onfoce
0;""""1 ....
In,
16119
1939
,.'"
12850
12
~:m
OJ"")
,~
,~
Hm
IJ 212
an
u.,
",
Z'/,(I9:"
12800
.9 ou;
12765
.~
.~
Sl\tl'
lInl
51 591
.,.,
'U~
11' 99
''''
'.B
m"
,'"
20) 27
1.125
2.1126
lV12
18102
15110
191.74
,'" ".,
1J223
015(1
pt..
J
on ..
om
tn.s
120010
ULlO
n.~
m"
19U1
81.;>95
'6Jll
:l'Il.11
>n"
1175
4"''''
,~
~.,
,~
~~
.. ft
,~
l.alS
1115)
3152
12.7-18
12.7IS
28 fo82
l\Il>6'I
21.6].01
51.196
80103
111.10
1&2 7;'
216 n
51 (16.4
,Iun
116.116
161 11
2U.1'i
285.0\&
28166
2!1O,02
21S42
~'1
}5712
J';'''5
... , q
54] Jl
66281
]A70)
'2'91]
525 j.()
"'~."
'i6!; "
S49 ""
6'-171)
f.1l~
1156.17
1190.7
al~05
'J91'JII
12056
lo16~.
8(lJ,n
971.19
117U
1415.0
2150
2 ]:'S
um
11:'22
U~
.~
,~
5O.9J6
0.1015
l'U7~
~79
alS
11571
''''
'B
,=
1 PS
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16.l97
490
Table 10-8
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1.175
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0.0460
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2,125
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0,0414
0.0418
0.0431
0.0450
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0.0492
0.0508
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0,0285
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0.027l
0.0296
0.0320
0,()).42
0.0268
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0,1l344
0,0364
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0.0694
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0.0599
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0.0514
7.9111
0.0211
0.0212
0.0014
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0.0224
0.0230
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0.0246
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7,625
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0,04511
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0,0J65
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00204
0,0199
0,01'.1S
00193
0.0192
0.019)
0.0195
0.021'
00209
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0.019S
0.0191
0.Q11!1e
0,0187
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00:110
00202
0,0196
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0.01'7
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0 (2)5
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0.0194
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0,11268
0,02S4
0,0240
0.0228
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0,032f>
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0.0215
0.0261
0.0247
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0.0152
0.0])2
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0.02'l7
0.02'1
0.0267
0.0253
0,0240
0.0203
0.0215
0.02l0
0.024
0.0192
0.0200
0.0212
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00197
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0.0223
0,1)176
0.0175
00178
0,0185
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00174
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0.0171
0,017(1
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0.0207
0,0190
0,0176
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0.0213
0.0194
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0.0168
0.021'
0.019$
0.01112
0.0170
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oron
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(table contimll,d,
492
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2.625
0,0151 0.01504
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15000 15.250
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0.05304
0.0510
0.1M8II
00466
0.0562
0.0539
0.0515
00492
0,0470
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00476 0.0549
0.04045
0.0425
0.0406
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0.0J69
0.0152
0.0JJ6
0.OJ2O
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0.06l0 0.0624
0.05'11!! 0.060J
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00SS6 0.0561 0.0649 O.or.s. 006S7
0.0S41
00521
0.D502
0.04&4
0.0466
0,04049
0.04Jl
0.0416
0.06J0
0.0613
0.059S
0.0571
011561
00S45
0.0528
0.051)
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lH,ae
,...,
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0.06J6
0.0616
0,0601
0,05&4
00S61
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0.0622
0,0604
OIlSIll'
0.0571
oasso 0.05S04
0.05304 005111
0.05111 0,0522
493
_ _ _ _=,,=---__
m.
lU14 19000 19250 22!>26 21000 23250 281028 29000 2'J 2SO
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0,0155
0,0141
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0.0141
00156
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0,0'.'
00193
0,0274
0,0257
0.0241
0.01';17
002711
0.02f,0
0.0244
00140
0.0140
0,0142
00146
00140
0.0140
0,0141
0,01....
001)9
0,0139
0,0140
0.0142
0.0226
00212
0.0199
0,0187
0.0229
0.0215
0.0202
O.ot90
0.0179
0.0169
0.0161
00153
0015)
0.0146
00140
0.0136
0,0156
0,01411
00142
0013&
001S11
OOISO
0,0144
0,013&
0.0221
0.0207
0.0195
0.01113
0.0180
0.0189
0.0191
0.0209
0,0176
00185
001901
0.0204
0.0171
0.0180
0.01119
0.0191
0,0133
0,0136
001)9
00143
0.01l1
O,O1ll
0.0136
0.0140
0,0130
0,0132
001304
O.011S
0,0142
0.0136
0.0132
0.0128
0.0144
0.013&
0.01))
0.0129
0.0146
0.0140
0.01304
0.0130
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0.0219
00230
0.0241
0.0252
00214
0.022S
0,0236
0.0247
O.Q2OI
0.0219
0.0229
0.0240
0,0148
0.01S04
0.0160
0.0161
0.01....
0.0150
0.0155
0.0162
0.0142
0.0147
0.0152
0,0151
0.0125
O.ot23
0.0122
0.0121
0.0126
0.0114
0.0122
0.0121
0.0117
0.011.
0.0122
0.0121.
".250
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12.000
0.0165
0.0112
0.01110
0.0190
0.0122
0.0122
0.011.
0,0126
0.0121
0.0121
0.0123
0.011.
0.0121
0.0122
0.0122
0.0123
12.500
1).000
1).500
14.000
14.500
15.000
15.500
16000
16,500
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10.000
10.250
10.750
11.000
" .".,
17,000
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17.500
"
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18.500
o 02n
002'J2
o112M
'9'
Table 10-9
.
..
"
..
r.pI
J--1lo1lO
.~,
051
060
10000100001000010000100001000010000100001000II100001000010000
""
"os
099'10
0_
ft""tl!!
09'JS:!
0.9'II!Il
099fjQ
09979
0_9911
09977
0997~
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099611
D99SI
09976
09'J6ol
09951
!.''''lI!5
0.9971
0.99';6
09942
O.!'l&I
0,""
0""
O'19b2
0.9'16/1
O,'Ml
09936
0.9'1>01
O.9'JoI(,
09928
D_'J962
09'loU
0.992';
09'161
09'1011
09921
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09911
09951
O.9')lS
099U
09'J5.1
09911
09!iOll
0995]
09'm
09'J06
09952
0",,1
(99)9
099V
09919
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0.990&
O.99C/2
09891
0,"'
098M
09M2
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09'Joll
09931
0,9926
09'JV
0991S
0991]
D.....
09\W
0'lllS7
G987~
0_1
09M1
0.9169
O_'iIIIIIl
0.91162
0.9876
0,'.1$56
0.9810
119&48
09Il102
09ll4O
09859
09l3S
0990]
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0\1811]
O'le69
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09871
0.9155
0985'
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11.9821
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0.9812
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0_'l601
098,15
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09794
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0'*'6
09857
093&01
09874
09116)
0985)
096012
0'"
0911))'
0'J1128
091111
0'Jl109
09812
09821
091111
091!1Xl
097'JO
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0.912]
0.11603
0.9794
0,9734
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0'781
09761
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0.9.59
0.96011
0,97OCI
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0'11\66
0.9&<16
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0,96019
09Wa
0,'1626
0'l6Oll
0.'lIWI7
09587
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0,9678
0'J662
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0,9662
0960
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0,976'
09n9
09718
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0.9741
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0,9&7'J
0,,*,,4
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0.9&J3
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09511
09623
0.9599
09576
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0.95<12
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0'710
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0'710
0.101
0,t607
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0.9oIJ7
09410
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0.9418
0.90100
09J111
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D,9)12
09)60
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0.92'JII
09277
0.m2
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0.92)6
09]16
09195
09174
9712
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09695
096011
095711
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09b14
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0.9563
0.9517
0'1<180
0.9'62
0,954'1
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09519
0.95O!i
0.9501
09<lSS
0946')
0,9452
0.9436
09426
0,'N08
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O.91n
09716
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09611
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D.9Sl1
0.9574
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091>56
0'1621
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0.90176
0961]
0 9600
09590
09519
0.9550
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09';26
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09461
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0,9512
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0"1)
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0,9354
09lJ6
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09213
09362
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09435
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0'354
0.'170
09)68
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09246
09261
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0.9196
09115
09153
091)1
0924-4
0.9221
0.9198
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0,91)'5
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09151
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1.0000
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0.99S1
0.9975
0.9950
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09971
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0.'1'l63
0.9')6&
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0.9876
0.9'Jl5
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0.9871
09851
0.'11145
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0."14
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0.'11&4
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0.9742
0.9710
09711
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0.9753
0.9n1
0.9691
09716
09690
0.96tt<I
o9639
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0.9680
0965)
0 WIl7
0.9691>
09669
0 '16<11
0 9&14
0.9600
0 95116
0.9685
0,9757
09621
09599
09571
0,9SJ(,
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0.961J
0.95111
0.9S411
0.9516
095117
09561
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0.9520
09558
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0.9476
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09&50
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0,9673
0.9660
0,96<IJ
0,<)629
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0.9554
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0.9567
09525
0,9S05
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0.9oIS5
09456
0,9421
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0.9oIU
0.90106
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0.94S2
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0,9412
09)81
0,9419
1,,]117
0.9]SS
0,9l9!1
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0.9lI9
0.92S11
0.227
0.9ID
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09198
0,91101
091J11
0.9101
09196
0.91"
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0.910l
09161
0,9129
0.9097
0.906<1
0.'lDn
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0.91)019
09019
0.90"10
0.t197'J
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0,9346
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0.9).45
0.9321
0.9296
0.'1272
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0.919'l
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0.92S0
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0,9115
0,91SO
0,9125
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09X13
09277
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09)(17
09280
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09227
09W
0.9255
0'1227
09200
0,9226
0'1100
091n
09200
0.9174
0.91018
09122
09091
09111
0.9147
09120
09093
09061
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09126
09102
09078
0.9100
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0.90)'5
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0,9071
0,91)015
091)19
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0.9677
095012
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0.70
Q,925fo.
09227
09199
09170
09142
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0.'9226
0.91'104
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0.11941
0,11913
0.1I91O
0.&171
0.5841
0.l1li56
OMll
0.I11III7
0.aM6
0.1III2S
0.17'Jo'
0V6l
0.1II3'J
0.M06
0.&774
0.1742
0.8110
496
Table 10-10
Y2 Expansion Factors-Pipe Taps
Static: Prenure, Taken from Downstream
..,
Ito,..
0..
, __ Rob<>
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-;~---;~---;;----;;---;;;---;;;--';;';--'C:---:CO--c,~-0'
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0.45
0,50
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0.999!I
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0 9997
099'J04
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0,9'JI'lQ
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0.9991
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0.999:'
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0 99')01
09992
0_9!1'12
0 99!10
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0 9'J86
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0.911111
o'l'm>
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En~ineeri"ll:
This factor corrects for cases where the base (standard) temperature. T
in R, at which flow is to be measured is other than 520' R:
(10-19,
As expected, F!b - 1 for a desired base temperature of 520oR.
The flowing temperature factor corrects for cases where the flowing temperature. Tr (OR), is not 520 o R, using the fact that the gas flow ratc varies
inve~ly as the square root of the absolute flow temperature:
Ftf
T,Jr'
520
(10-20)
(10-21 )
>.
SU'~lIIprnsibi/ity Factor,
F~
ft~
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+ 5.420)'~
(10-22)
where Zb, Z - gas compressibility factors at the base (generally assumed to
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(10-23)
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'99
+ 2.641yc
(10-24)
These fph and flk values are used to determine the pressure and temperature
correction factors from Tables to-llc and 10-lId. that are added to the actual flOWing pressure and temperature of the gas, respectivel}'. These corrected pressure and temperature values are used in Table lO-lle to estimate
the supercompressibility factor, Fp,'
This method gives reasonable results for a gas with a gravity within 0.75.
and non-hydrocarbon content of less than 12 mole% N2 andJor 5 mole%
CO2 .
500
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Table 10-11b
Supercompresslbility Temperature Adjustments, LiT
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This factor is requ ired only where a mercury manometer is used for measuring the differential pressure. It compensates for the different heads of gas
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temperature.
(text continued on page 51 i)
502
Table 1011d
SupercompreulblUty Temperature Adjustments,
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1.2693
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1.1&4$
1.19n
1 ,21136
1,1971
1.1955
1 ,19-17
1.1937
1.2828
1.2823
12811
1,2ao'J
1.2'126
1.1915
1,21101
1,17'93
1,278<1
1.3010
1.2891
1.2n4
1.28711
1.27601
--
119711
,.,...
1.19f>1
1,21150
1.2943
1 .2907
, .,."
1.2IISI
1,2Il.ll
1.2811
..",,,
".,
U448
1.2Ul
124;:'9
124H
''''''
1 2lN
1.2"-44
1245-4
1 242'
1.2401
1.2421
1.2}?S
12149
1.2124
U3?4
,,..
1.2149
U100
1.211~
l.an
1-219$
1.2114
I.Un
l.n46
U216
1.2252
1.2227
,1,2181
.=
l.2202
1.2178
1,2153
1,2157
1.21)4
1.2111
12633
12584
I.UO}
12S7}
125-4)
125B
1-2463
l,lSSS
1,2526
124'11
1.2476
1.2~54
1.2~13
U424
,.ms
".;
1.2).\11
1,2)09
1.2469
\2441
'''''
1 ,2356
12328
1,2101
1.2271
l.m?
12261
122.3<1
1.2221
12195
"
"
"
"'"
"'"
12400
T~mJH' ..ture.
IS
124M
114.\11
1 2~1_
I.Ul5
1.2322
1,2199
1,2Jn
\ 2155
123)4
11]11
12315
12290
1 221:>&
\,2246
12224
1.2202
"'"
1 2214
1.2251
1.2228
Il:!"l~
12175
1.2255
112J.o1
I
nil
11191
121n
12152
1.211!1O
UBI
121S8
12135
1.2110
12112
12091
12069
"'''''',
, ""
12027
"f
JI)
so
"
10000 10000 1.0000 I 0000 10000 10000 10000 10000 I 0000 10000 10000 1,0000
~1~1~1~1.~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~11~
1,2788
urn
1.2755
1.m7
1.271'1
'""00
1.26112
'.2702
..""
1.2674
1.2659
U641
1.1627
,,,,,
1.2611
12624
1 ~1~1~1.~1~1.~1,~1~1~1~1~1~)
~1~1~1~I~l~ldll~l~l~l~I~I~
lOll 1.0"121
120 un."
I~ 1.0110
160 1.0195
I~ 1.0ll0
1.0"117
1.0"141
1.01f>.l
1,018&
Hl:!l}
10"11)
1.01111
1.0158
1.01&2
I.mm.
1.009II
\,011'
Hnle
1.01S11
101711
1.~
'.0114
1.0111
100U
1.0"111
100'11
1,0"110
1.0128
10147
1.0116
l008B
1.0101>
1.0124
1.0141
1.0160
1.0015
1.0101
1.012(1
1.00le
1.000n
I DOlI)
'0100
1.0116
10Ill
l.OnO
_'_'_,_,_,_,_,_
,_'_~.,_
,~1,~I~I~IOllOI.OlI)I,mm.I~I~I~I.O"I~I01nl~
:MIl 1.D29I 1.0211 U1271 1.(126;7 1.1IZS1 1.02'" 1.0019 10l.l1 1.022) \.0l15 1.0201 lmol
160 I.OJ14 1.0JIl 1.0102 I O2'JI I Ol8Cl I ,00J'll I m60 I 02S0 I .0142 I on4 1.0:!26 I.O!I'I
280 1.0)SI \.0))9 1.0ll' I.OJIS 1.0XIl I eml 1.0l11 1.01n 102f>1 1.0252.I.IIl'" 1.0ZJlo
lOO I.oJ" 1.0lIIS 1.0352 1,0})'1 I.om I.OJI4 1,010) 1.02'J\ 1.(1211 1.Clln 1.0162 loaJ
~1~1~1~1~1.~1~1~1~21~1~1~1~
1()4)4 1()417 10401 10lIIb l.ru11 101~ 1.0)4.4 IOll2 10llO 10JOe IOHII 1.02"
lIiO 1,006l 1.1M44 HNV I ()411 10195 1.0_ I.~ 1.0)5) 1.0J000 10J2I I.OJI' IJlJQS
).4Q
1.2W4
1.2535
12524
.,""
,,.,, ,""
"'"
,.""
1.2_
1.2470
12451
125'J7
1.2507
1.2484
1.2505
1.2693
126f>J
, ,
o
1.2493
1 24~)
1.2)}6
urn
''''''
1.2511
12596
"'"
"'"
,..,
"'"
1.2521
1.2557
12531
1.26-1)
12614
1.25&7
1,255'1
-.
""'"'"
"',..
1.2670
1,21\.41
1,2612
1.275-4
12m
-,
-IS
1.2n6
1.2sn
1.2575
1.2553
""
"'"
".,
,..
""
""
"'"
->S
1.2820
12804
1.2663
1,2661
1.2t.42
voo
mo
-"
1,2.I"1lO
Of
12105
12644
,-
-"
p<os
-JI)
MI,~I~I~I,~I~I,~1~191~81.00181~71~61~6
l.m?
I.""
Tempe'~!llre.
p,
1.2i'S1
1.27(1
12748
"""
'25'"
I.2sn
12~7
..
1 ,2&t<1
1.2"..1
1.3052
1.JO)'1
.
..,,., .
'''''
,,,13228
1.)199
1.)170
""
...."'"
1.3lOS
1,]Z911
1.3289
1.2505
1.2484
507
1.24)J
1.241'
1.241>2
,m<
1.2441
1.2420
1,2175
12356
lID 1.CM9l
1.()471
1.()45J 1.()4JE. 1.()4M 1.001(l0I 1.1IJII8 1.0114 1.0llo1 1.0147 1.01)4 1.0J22
400 I.OS" 1.!N'iIII I.()o179 1.(1461 11M44 l()o1l' 1,()o110 10m 1000l 10JMi I.01SJ 100.>0
420 I.~ 1~ 1,O!nt 1001II> 1.~ 1 ()4SO 1 ()01)) 1b11~ 1.040l 1.0)86 IJl}lI I.on.
~1~1~I~I~II~I .()4nl~I~I~I~l~l~
~1~1~11~1~1~1~I()o1~I~I~II~I~l~
..., I~ 10!I09 1.0S8S 1.0Shl los..a 1.05" 1.04'iIII 1.()o1" I _ I 1.\MoW 1.()o1V 1.110111
(table continued)
508
,.,
'M
'"
"'
1.0667
lOi'JJ'
10127
1.11159
1.06)9
1061.1
1~
I.on.
LIl1\lO "'1]\;
" "
2S
1 CBS)
wo
1~
,-,
HlilII 1117'1]
780
1.11l~
11159
120 11ln
1.121'0
11)1
MIl I1UO Illll
'li'O 1.14-18 I.un
. , 1.14S 1 1-407
,~
, "" "'"
11~
1.11~
1.1175
11205
1.llJoI
1 1265
1.1C1'l1
1111.
1.1146
1.1175
1.1:!OJ
ant
,~,
,=
,'0'"
,~
10120 106t1
1.0~.2 1071l I. (W,&4 I ot.S/t I (It, 10
1,0766 107j.t 1071)01 lObI'S 1O(,..a
.ons
1 (IrioO 1 00>;
1.0788 1.07S6 1
111771 1 0745 1.0714 1 Ob3~
u"no
1-10010
1,0991
11~
1.I\II~
Ill'Jo4
1.1114
11)51
l.ll1J
I,."
1.12JO
1,1251
11285
I,U11
1.1340
1.1170
1,11%
LIID
1.1249
11m
11011
"M
11-40
"..,
".
1.1:>117
117"'4
1.1711
II."
1.1N
11612
""'7
11I0Il1
Iln61.1751
11524 1''''''
1.1555 1 1471
11567 1.1SOI
I ' ' ' . llBI
11651 IlsS9
I.I:IM
"m
1.1114
un.
1.111>]
1,1111
1.1211
11'J1ll
1.lG16
1.104&
11071
11.7
111197
1.1926
11954
1.17)(1
1.17511
1.171l6
""4
1.1640
111>]7
\.li!J1;)
I1W1'l
1.1714
1.I7ft
,~
110102
1.10$(
11107
1.1111
l.lIn
, ,,'"
1.15SO
1.1514
I.IS'iI'J
lllr.22
I'''':;
11#>9
1.14<r.!
1.151.
1,15)6
1.IUl
1,07S~
10906
1.0921
10'150
1097'
1 0992
11*01 UIII)o
1.0811 1 _
1090II1._
1.0928 1.01187
1 OMI 1 0906
1.1011
1 HIlS
1.1057
1.1073
1.1099
,,,.
...
, ""
,~
,""
L~7
10'17V
1.1092 11041 1.C19M
1.1119 1.10f.S 11\1161.1145 1 11190 1 10)9
11)65
1.1.l97
11421
1.1#>1
11491
1lD1S
1,1109
1.21"'4
l-l1711
L1210
1,0752 1,0721
1.0171 1.0740
1.0$(1
1.1475
1.1509
115-4-1
I1S7I
1100
1J20
lJo1O
IlIoO
Ileo
,,~
,., so."
11520
1.1ssa
1.15'J5
1."ll
1,_
"
106'It
1.0II1~
1000
11120
10010
lor.o
1011l
11M
1.1421
1.1451
1.1411
1 Irn)oI 1 0I01S
1.1206
11217
1.12M
1.llO1
1 U3o'
l.ons
, _ 1011Jl
!OO I,UI7
'-!O I.un
,-
",.,
1,1m
SS
1,103/1 10Wl
1.0'i00 '0IIb0
1.11170 11019 1O'J71 1 0917 1.01IIII5
1110)
111)5
SO
eoo
4S
1O!.].f 10100'J
1.ow.
1t.O 1.1011'l1
",,,
40
,....
NO U""
610 1,0951
700
lS
JO
109Y
1091le
1.100II
\1028
\.1043
,,-
1.0l"95
101111
1.(1112
1.0150
1.ca.a
1.092:5 Ul8IJS
1.(I'jo45 10'l04
1,0'J(,< 1.0922
1~ 1.0!M0
I,HIOI UI~7
11069 1.1020
110)$
11109
11121
111411
1.0976
UJ9IJ3
1 1011
1.1C121
I.ItM6-
1-101>3
1.1181
11)95
11411
l.l.l7
1.1451
1.14"
1,11.7
1.111.l
1.11l1li
1,119'5
1.1211
,,,,,
11111
1.1)017
1.1)66
1.llIIIi
11400
11261
IIlSI
l .l2'iI'J
I.U"
l.lll4
509
11202
1.1l1'
1.1217
1,12Sl
1.IVU
,,.,
"'"
"" ,,,'"
,,~
JO
" "
,~,
1]tIl
1720
11.j()
17t!O
1780
1.2606
1,2620
1.l'3)
1.1645
1..2(0S6
1.24S7
1.2411
1.2411S
1.2497
12509
18iXJ
lllO
181
1160
I..,
I.l46S
1.2674
1.l6lIO
1.26115
1.2690
1.2519
1.2S19
1.25)11
1:!SoI5
1,:lSS1
..
TemperlOlure. Of
I.U.7 12112
1.1900
12421 , 1271 1 211t
1.1921
1 2"'47 122'l18 I 2160
1.20S4
1,1'J040
12)10 1.1111
l.n04
1.201l
1.1'l1h1)
11492
,",.
..
, ",.
1.11147
1.1861
1.2091 1.1'Il10 1187.
1.210& 1.19\1) 1.1&117
1.2111 1,2ODS 111199
11751
1.1764
1 1m
1.1787
11799
"m
114M ,,~
11450 1,1]71 l.nU
1 '''''' I Il'l] 11327
114110 1.1407 1.1).40
1149'5 1.14;"0 U)S2
1.204~
11590 11510
1116-'1
1.178f> , 1692
I 152'
1.1:>117 ,,~ 1.1517
1."'OS
1.1911 1.1'" 1.11ll 111.l1 115SO
1,19)1 11m ,,~ 11647 1.1~
12Oi.O
1,1~)
1.~llm
1.1171
,,~
"
,""
1,21'"
1.11"
1.2115
I.ll11
1.2)015
I llS7
l.ll1O
UIQ
1.21'Ja
U2U
1.2227
l.ill9
1.2181
1.239:1
1.2401
12410
12417
"'"
so
1.207'1 1.1'167
, "'"
1.105
1,144/1
1.1461
11411
l1eas
1.1)66
11171
1.1!tO
,,~
1.14U
,,,,,
1,154~ 1.1473
1.lsse '-'411:1
1,1SfJ6 1.1490
1.1575 U49I
1,15&) I.1SOf>
I~ 1.l!694 I.lSS6 U'24 1.~ 1.2117 1.:!(I6,I 11956 1.1856 11M 1.167} 1.1591 1.1514
1'J20 1.M7 1.256112429 I.no1 U1114 1.:zon 11964 1.1864 1.1170 1I!IIl u s . 1.1521
-,-,-~.,-~.,-,.~,.-,-,-,-,
".., 1.2700 1.25W> 1-l'lI 1.2114 UI97 l.lOIS 11'71 1.1177 1.1714 1,16')6 1.IM2 UI
1_ I.VOO 1.lS68 1.2"'41 1.211' 1.22CIl '-2092 l.l'l11S IleIIo1 1.11\10 1.1701 \,1617 1.IJoIO
-,-=-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,.....
~1~1~1.~I~l=I~I.~ll~II~I.lml,'wl.~
lO'II 1.2695 1."B6'I 12446 1,l:\26 I,UIl 1.2104 1.199$ 1.11191 1.111OS 1.1716 1.1632 1.15'!04
-,-,-,-,-~"'-,-,-,-,=,-,-
,-
,,~
I 1114
linD
1400 1.2244 '-1101 1.1'*1 1.1166 I.In.J 1.16f>7 1.1sn 1.1_ II42l llill 1.1111 I.1U(o
14211 I.Wfo 1.1117 I.JOIa 11m 1,17Il6 1.11iII'J 1.1598 11516 11"'41 IIJM 1.llOl 1.11.'
~1~1~~I.~I.lml.~lln21.~I.I~I.l~lll111il,~II~
1460 1.1))1, 12191 l.lOU 1.1"2 I.llll 1.17]2 1,I(oJ'l 1.15S4 II." 11402 1.lllJ 1.lVU
~1~1~1~11~1~1,1~11~llml.lffil.14111.~I.I~
",,,
1 2"")
l.lWO 1.25JI
I~I
l.nlJ
1.l6l1 l.lSl4
11610 I 250S
1,26OD 1.2<'~
1.2411
1.l417
1.2410
1.1402
1 D94
:ueo
,,~
, ""
,.16
'''5
..=
"."
, ""
nne
"'"
usn
1,IS7'I
1.1571
1.1S"
I.lS74
-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-
2400 1.lS21
1.2410 IllM 1.22'" 1.21511 120;>0 11"-1 11f19S 11810 un7 1.164/1 usn
-,-~"'-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,2460 1.247S 1llt1 1.2lIIl l.n:ll 1.11'" IlOO't l1'AS 11., ""'" 1.111' 1.I(oJ'l 1.1s.5
-,-,=,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,~,-,.-
(table continued)
518
Ga a Flow MeaaureT/lclit
519
Table 10-13
F1-Gauge location Factors (Gravitation Correction Factor. tor
.....
....
,..,'" ,,....
'''''
,,.., '''''' ,.'''''
'''''
,''''''
"" ,....
,.".,
' '''' '''''
,.""
,,.",.
,2,1XXl'
...
,
""
"
(EquoolOrl
O.'IiiI7
.000'
0.99117
0.9987
,.".,
6,000'
8.000'
10.000'
0.9991
0.9993
""
""
,.".,
0.9983
,''''''
""
,
,
....
'''''
,.-
0.9991
0_9983
099$5
0.9967
'''''
0.9991
0.9997
1.0002
, 0000
1.0001
....
1.0002
...
"n
"
1.11007
1.(11)10
...
T,0011
1.0011
10010
U lOID
10010
OS
10011
1,0012
1.00l)
90 (Pole)
HIO!)
.....
1.0007
10010
1.()O11
10012
\.0012
H 1OOi'
,"'"
,,--
09995
1./XXll
1.0007
.....
"''-0 "
1969:
courtft)
Emmpfe 10-1 . An orifice meter with a 2-in . orifice, equip~ with pi.pe
taps using upstream static p ressure connections in a.6-in. n?mmal (6.065- ~n .
. ternal diameter) pipeline, shows an average differential head .. 6O-m .
~ater and an average upstream static pressure .. 90 psia. The flowing temperature is 50F, and the gas gravity is 0.65. Using a base p ressure of 14.9
psia and base temperature of sooF, calculate the gas flow rate indicated by
the meter.
Solution
t.(XXll
...
- 216.065 - 0.3298 .
foe ...
of AC.<\.
This factor accounts for the expansion or contraction of the orifice hole
with fl OWing tem perature, calculated as follows:
F... 1
+ [0 .0000185 (T f
F... I
'Stem can only be achieved if all these factors are carefully c:ons1der.oo In
;hoosing the size and type of orifice, and the pressure measunng devlces.
0.9983
'''''
'''''
'''''
,.""
0.9995
,09993
'''''' ,."" ' ''''
0.9997
,
, "'" 1.0003
,
"'"
'''''
UIOOJ
I.oem
,
'''''' ' ''''' ,
'
''''''
UWS
'''''' '''''' '''''' ",
'''''' ,
''''''
'''''' '''''' ,1.0007
'''''' ,
O. 999J
SO
55
OJ
6S
_Ii . . . . .
. of the orifice affects the range of flow rates that can be measured,
an~ :::pressure differential that will be obtained . A well designed ~eteri~g
50.
"!Jtudf
Th
""o
expectoo .
0 .9914 .
From Equation 10-19, for Tb - 5Oo r~ FIb - {460 + 50) /520 "" 0.9808.
510
p,
PS'I
2SOO
2520
~
2'iW
-~---C~--~---';C--co,c'~m~..~'."'"~'~.~.~"~:o---,,-__-c___________
0
5
TO
IS
20
Z5
JO
lS
'Il
.($
so
114'1
11161
1.2~27 1.2lo'~
1.2411 1.2115
12m 12120
123711 12104
12282
1.2269
1 US6
11242
1 ma
1.2199
121113
12'76
111M
UUl
1....,.,
1.11169
1186)
11456
1.1&1'
11642
117$11.1708
1.1711.1 l1ro]
1.1176 1.1698
11170 116'1)
1171 11667
1,1611
116Ui
!1WI
1.1617
1 Ifill
1.1SSII
1.1555
1.1551
l1So16
1 ''''~
-'-'-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-~.
1 no 1 un 1 221 1 211" 1.!0S2 '-1m !.I'JOT !.111lS 1.1 ~.9 1 1~ 1.1601 UUl
21040 1l12S lln6 1211'S , 211l 12040 1.1'1W; "192 11e1' 1.1742 1.1668 TWA 1.1527
Z660 1.2lOI l.ll40 Ilno 12100 1.1021 11";5 1.llISl 1.180lIl 117J.4 1.1"'" 1.1S'30 urn
~1~1~1~"1_'~51~11ml1~11rn'~ll~11ru
:vm
,.=
1710 1,22SJ
511
12206 121), 12Ol':! 12001 I."n 1.1A2 111ft 11117 11646 IlSn 1.1510
1,218'1 12124 l20Sa II~ 1.1'1n 1.1~1 1.1~ 117O'l 1-1r.J11 1.1SM ll50l
-'-,-,-,-,-,-,-,_,_,_,_u.
-'-,-,_,_,_u_,_,~,_,_,_,_
~1,~I~~I~I~I~II~l'~II~lll~llrnl.~llm
~ln~1~MI~t~llml~II_I,'~I,ml~llrnl,lm
-,-,-,-,_,_,_u~,_,_,_,_,_
.,
p,
no
'00
I.~
1028S 1027S
10~S
10lS6
I(I,~
.,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,~1~IOl"lrull~l~l~I~I~I~I~I~102~I~
~1.~I~10l~1.~10l111~1~1~lmnl~I~1~1.02~
~1~1~ll0~1~1~1~10l181~1~1~1~1~1~
~1~1)1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~
~1~~I~UI~I~I~I~I~IOlUlmll~I~I~I~
S40 IOW7
I~)I
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5I.G 10465 I GU8 I ~12 I ~16 lOOOD 10J8S 10J?"2 1(1159 10).46 100M 10Jl2 10Jl1 10lOD
5110 1.~ lOOt>'1 100147 I 0U! 10015 10199 10l8S I (l3n I Irn8 I (\)40 100ll lonl 10010
~1~1~II~I~I~I~141~1~1~11rn81,~I~lml
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ml~I~I~I~I~171~1~1~1~1~1_121~1.~
-~.,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,lI60 1.1120 1,2\166 12(110 1951 118'11 1.1&l:! 1.1770 111'01 116012 115" 1.1sn 1.145]
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2M)
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-'-'-,-,_,_,_u_,_,_,_,_,_
131/1(1 I~ 1.19111 1.19)7 1187& 1.1811 1.17V 11f>9{, llfoJl 1.1S6111~ 1,1,,",5
-'-,-,_,_,_u~,_,_,_,_,_,_
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60
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1.07111 100;75 1.0&41 1.000J I OWl 1.(K15 lOSS) 1.05Jl 1.0511 1.~<J2
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II ItI(Q) l,tI(Q) I tI(Q) 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 1000 1000 1.0000 1000
M 1,001& I.oon 1(1(/1. 1001. 10014 1.001) I.oell] 1.0012 1.0012 10012 1.0011 1.0011
1,0000
1.0010
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601~1~1~1~)1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1,~
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11 um 10109 10105 10102 IOJ9!I 10095 lOO'l2 10081 looes 1.001) I,com 10071 I.om.
160 l.G1n 111125 10121 10111 1011l 1.G101 1.0105 ll1nn 1.1X1'II 10095 lOO'l2 1.008'11.0017
110 I,OI'S 101010 IOU' 111131 1.0121> 1.lI1n 1,11118 1,0114 1.0111 1.0107 UnO) 1.0100 l.!1D'J$
200 1.111112 1,1I1S6 10151 t.O'''' 11111 1.01 1.0111 111121 llI1n Hnl. 1.11115 111111 101011
120 l.11171I,OIn 1111'" 10160 111150' 1.014' 10145 111140 lOU6 1.11131 1111~ 10112 1.1111'
l~ 1.0191 1.II1M 10181 UIll'S 10168 Hl1fo.l 1.0158 10lSJ 1.0148 1,01')
1fIIl 1.0211 I 0104 1.01~1 1111'10 101lll llI1n 1,0171 1.0165 10160 10155
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I (lIn
10115
1.0196
10lIV
1.021'
1111"
1(1171
1.018'1
10200
UIlI1
1.0162
I.01n
1.0113
1.G1'H
HI20.
1000
1(JlI)
II)j(\
1060
I'*'
10!U7
1,01165
101182
10900
1"".
101111
1.01121
10&'1
10lI60
IQI7}
1.1:."
1100 10911
IUO 109SO ID!IOII
11~ 109i4 1.09:1.
1160 1.0'lIl1 1"'19
1\110 11000 I09SS
1200
1120
1240
Il60
1.101'
I lOll
1.1043
1.10ft4
lzaJ 1107'1
I.05l9
107111 10ft1) I~ 1.(11)19 1,QS9S 1.05n 1.0549
I.on. 10b6S I (l6S1!1 HII>JI 1./I60I0 1.0582 1.055'
IIrl7 101>97 1(1670 1.~1 1.(1617 HI5<J2 1.OS6'J
1./f,"40 IOn19 10bII1 lOI>S4 I.OI>ZI 1,!IIIIll 1.0571
101116
1.0&28
1.1l&fD
1.08>.2
1-(1116)
1.078<1
101'!l4
LOIIOS
1081b
I 0&27
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1.0no 10m
1.0nl 1.07
107'1 I (174&
1.0~1 1,07St
1 (1612
1.0ftll
1,0ftll
1.(I64}
ll1bSl
1.11b89 1.(11)61
1.!IoI'J9 1.0ft11
1.07'Il'J 1.(11'&1
I (ln9 1.0690
1.0728 1.0b9II
1.(\51'
1,0529
1.(5)11
1.0541
I(\S~
1.0S8I 10566
I,CMII 1.0574
1.0!0a1 1.05IJ
1,0b16 1.0592
10000S 10601
1.1IbJA
1,0ft4]
I.ObS2
1.1Ib61
10b7tl
lObIO
1,0b1'
1.()6.l6
1(6)5
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1100 11094 11(1+1 I (l99'!I I09SS I,I)'JU 1.0IIl"S 1.08)1 l\*ll I.(\;'M 1.IJ711 1.0107 1.(1671 1.0651
H2O 11110 1105' l1(1ll 10961 10'125 101l8I0 10149 10112 I.Onl 107'" 1,0716 1.0681. 100'
(table continued)
512
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T~mpe'OIU'~"f
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1.11"
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1.01!5] 101116
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1.0791
14010 1.1197 l n4 1 1.11l'lO 1.1()42 1.0'Jn 1.0951 1 0912 1 tel] 1.I111l4 ,~
141:(1 11210 1.11~ 11103 '.1053 l.100b 1.0'l6.l 1.11'121 1.01182 1.0&'1 1.01I.III
1~ llUS 1.1167 l111S 110M 1.101& 1,!l'l71 1.0931 HilI'll 1.0S52 '-01116
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1,0759
1.0767
1.0775
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100,Q
I.OT.!7
lOllS 10705
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1,07SO 1.1))"19
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1,09J'8
1.0978
1.0978
1.0977
10931
1.0'l37
10937
10936
10935
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2l1JO l.lS01 1.14]1 1,1369 1.1]11 1.1257 1.1205 1,1156 1.1110 1,106] 1.1020 1.0978 1.0937 1.01197
2400
14!O
1440
2460
2480
1 1499
1.1497
1.1495
1.14'3
1,1491
1 142'1
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1 1424
1.1422
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1,1020
1.1020
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1.12bl
1.1176
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10727
1.0734
1.0741
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1,0755
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1.11.14
1.1345
1.1233 1.1183
1.1l'~ 1 119]
11260 1 1101
1.1"'0 1,1213
1,1281 11223
1.07b]
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1.0775
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1.12l'J
1.1D6
11232
1.1219
1.lill
1.118'1
1.11116
1 1181
1.11110
1,1177
1.1141
1.113'.1
1,1136
1.11l3
1.1130
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1.1.l66
1,117ft
1.13M
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1,12')0
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1.1l45
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2700
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2740
27100
1710
1.1173
1.1170
1,1166
1.1162
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1,1410
1.1418
11426
1.14n
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1,1l49
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1,1261 11204
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1.108l
1.10119
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1 .1104
1.141'
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1,1294
1.1291
1,1100
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1.1102
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1.0973 1.0932
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l$4O 1.14&1 1,1414 1,1)56 1.1100 1,1247 1,1196 1.1149 1,11OJ 1.1057 \,1014
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1.1)925
1.1058 1.1014 1.0'171 1.0919 10Ma 1.01152
1.106l 11019 U)9]t; 1 0914 101194 ,~
1.1068 1.111lJ 1,11'l8O 1.09l11 1.0B'lI1
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1.1(114
1.10S'.1 1, lOIS
1,11160 1.1016
1.10r01 1,1(117
1.1ID
1,1254
1.1256
1.1251
513
1.1263
1.1256
1.124'1
1.1141
1.1235
1.1:1'lO
1.1287
l1la3
1.117"'1
1,1175
1.1213
1,1207
1.1201
1.1194
1.1181"
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1.0000
1.0000 1.0000
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40 1.0022
100 1.0032 10030 100.30
eo 1.0042 1.0040 1.00)') 1,00l9
100
120
140
1100
180
I.DOS1
1.00u
1.(1074
1.00II4
1.0094
1.0051
1.0061
1.0071
1.00II1
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1.0049
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1.0068
1.0078
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1.0057
1.(1066
1.001(,
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1.1097
1.10'J01
1,1091
1.10&8
1.10115
1.091&
1.0917
1.0914
10911
1.0'.l0I1
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1.1121
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1,1111
1.1105
1,109'J
1.1079
1.1074
1,1069
1.1063
1,10S8
1.1024
1.1020
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1,1012
1.100II
1.0'lIIJJ
1,0979
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1.0'l36
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I.OM7
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1.1027
1.0'l1l ,~
1,00000S
1.1012
I.OVI 1,01135
1.1017 1.0918 1,00000I 1.11'JOoI 1.\lIl67 1.01131
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1.1010
1.0927 1.0IIII7
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1,1004
1.092] 1,0IIII3
1.11'll1 1,0000l
1,1001
1.11610
1,1160
1.1155
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1.1142
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1.1G45
1,10012
1,01197
1,0i!97
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1.0000 \ .0000
1.CKJ07 10007
10016 1.0016 1,0016 10015 1.0014
1.0024 1,00"23 1.0023 UIOZZ 1.00:11
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1.000II 1.000II
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1.00)<)
1.0047
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1.0063
1.0070
1.00l8
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1.(I05l
1.0061
1.006II
1.0037
1.!J044
U JOSI
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I .oor.s
1.00lS
1.0042
1,0049
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1.000J
200 1.(1104 1.0101 1.1)0'17 1.0094 1.(0,;/ 1,008'/ 1,1XlI6 1.00IIl 1.00l10 1.(1078 1.001S 1.00n 1.0070
220 1.0115 1.0111 1.0107 1.0104 10101 1,00'lIIJ 1.011'lS l.wn 1,00IIII 1.(10116 1.00IIl HOllO 1.(1077
514
....
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lOCI 10125 IOIlI 10111 ,cn14 1.0110 1.0107 1.(11I1l I.01OJ 1.009!i 10JII0I lllO'1O 1,0011 1.00&1
M , all! , 0112 lOT:M 1.012l 10119 1.1t1l' 1.0'111 1.0'109 1.1)104 11)102 lD0911 l009S 111091
. , I en.. 10142 Ullll 1.0112 10118 Ions 1.0121 1.0'117 1.01\1 1.0109 I mos 1.0102 1009II
100 I01S1 10152
no 1011>1 10161
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Ja) 10191 1019'
1111'" 10141
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1 DI(oS 1.111110
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lOllS 1.0P'
IOU7
101016
1.015S
1.01601
1.!I171
101M
10142
I.01S1
unS9
1.016&
lono
I(.na
1 en66
1.01S<!
1.016.1
1.0125
10lll
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1,,""'1
1.0151
1.0121
111119
un11
1.01+1
1.0'152
10195
1.0204
1,021)
11n22
102J2
1.1t111l
1.01'1"1
1_0100
10219
10218
UTl77
l.fI1lSS
l_fIlU
10202
1.0211
1.0171
1.017'1
1.fIl81
1(n'lf>
1.02001
I.OlloS
l_fIl71
l.fIll1
10111'J
l,fIl'17
1.01110 HnSol
1.01~ 1.fIl&1
l.fIl1"5 l,fIl'"
1.0182 1.011$
1f1l'ilO 1(18)
unll9
1.111'"
1_0l07
1.021&
1.0225
1.01'1
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1.0156
1(16)
1.0169
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10144
1.0151
10157
1016)
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s..c
1021'9 1026a 10260 10252 10243 1,02.16 10m 10110 1,0212 1,0:104 10191 101'iO 1.0181
%0 10289 10.1111 10269 10:161 10252 10245 1.Ol.l6 10227 10219 10211 10l(U 1.01911 101"
500 10m 10288 1.0219 10170 10"lt11 10253 1,0244 10.HS 10216 1.0218102101.020210195
600 10)09 lime 10288 10219 UIl70 10"ltI1 1.0251 10242 I02JJ UIl25 10211 10'20II 1020"1
IolO 10)19 101011 10l'M 100M 1021$ 10l6'J 1025' 1,02S0 1,0:241 lOU2 102l} lOllS 10201
.., 101)') 10111 10)07 102911 1(Jl81 loon 1.0267 1.0257 10:243 10:219 10210 10212 10214
IJ60 1.0J0I0 10127 10l" 1 OXIS 11l2'1S lD:!l1S 1.021"5 1.D2M 1,02SS 1_02* I.OUl 10228 1.0220
WO 10lSO 10111 1_0125 10114 101 102'J} 1.I1l82 nnn UllIU 10151 10244 10lll 10226
1'00 10159 1_0301(, 104 10m 10)1l 1,0101 lCU'i1O 10V'1 10'l6.f 10m 10250 10241 102:11
no
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I OlS5
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10)61
IOJ71
1.0111
10)40
1.0].09
10354
1.0ll0
lOll.
1.0116
10)14
1.0l0'J
101"
1 fUl4
1.00ll
1.0251
UJ263
10269
UIlI1
1.0241
U1251
1 (125'
I(I2M
1.0211
1 cr.!O
10249
10255
100
S20
1000
860
_
10)<)1
I D'02
lQoIU
111'21
100)(1
10lllO
10J8I
10""
1.00105
1.0014
10)66
I.OP4
10loll2
10J91
10199
1,0)5) IID40
UIl60 10)17
10)61 1.0]55
I.om. 1.0l62
10)14 10]10
I_D2II1
10'lII7
102')4
10lOCl
I_on
10271
10211
l0lill
10211
102')4
10260
1026&
900 IQoISS 100)<) I.QoI11 10001 10m 'OJ17 1-0363 10150 11Il)6 10124
10Jll
I_om 10281
la..ot
1110118
IQoIV
10011
l00W6
5 15
ulln
10211
'-OW
ml~I.~llI'nl~~I~I~I~I~I~I~Imll~l~
~1~I~I~I~I~I~I~I~I~I~I~I~I~
~1~1~1~1~II1'I~I~I~I~I~I~I~I~51~
, . 1 a.92 111'11 1.0056 II1'M 1.lI'n 1(M07 10J91 1_0J1t. lOl6J 10)48 101)1 10)21
IOlOll
~1~I~II.~1~1~I~ll~I~I~I~I~I~IM1J
1~1~1~1~1~\~I~I.~I~I~I,~I~I~I~~
1000 IOSII 1_00'111 1,0480 100101 '-0444 1.11'18 1.1I'1l 1.01911 1,0111 10)65 10lSO 10116 101H
1060 IOSl7 10S06 I .QoII1 I QoI6i 10052 '-QoIfi 1,00119 I~ 1.0ll] 1.0111 '-01S6 10}oll 10118
lceo IOS)5 I.OSI4 111'95 1,11'16 I_II'S~ 111'42 1.11'25 1.640'1 1,0393 1.0177 10., 10}ol6 10Jll
115
,.
'"
12;10 UJ6O\ losn 1.os54 HJSll I_OSll 10091 1007) UMSS lOO}l 111'20 lOOOJ IOJB(, 1.0170
1260 1.0Ii1O 1.0S8S 1.000l 10519 10511 111"11 III''' HM61 1044) 1001:5 HM07 1,0391 1.0)1"5
'lID 1.0Ii18 UIS92 1,0S6I 11lS46 '-0Sl4 1050f 1 QoI8S 1.Mb& I.~ 111'10 1_11'12 1.0l9S 1.0)1"9
~I~'~I~'~1~)(II~IO'~1~1~)IOOHlooI7'01991~
lJl1l I_OIill I_OIi01 1051J IOSS9 IOS)6 lOSIS 100911 1.11'17 I,II'S7 111'39 1.11'21
l)o1Q 1 .
I05W 10S6S 10S0I2 IOS21 HrsOl 104a2 1 QoI62 10444 1.(1426
...a
I."'''
IQoIOoI 1.0l8I0
\.IMOS 1.0)'10
1160 1.1"'47 l_OIilI 1.1IH1 I,osn 11154 10521 10S06 100II1 111'6] 1.11'49 1,11')1 1.11'12 10J94
lJliO 1.0654 1.IlfolI 1060.) 105111 1_05501 105)2 IOS11 111'92 lll'n 1 IM5) 100S 111'16 1.0)'l1li
1400
IHD
1440
J.46D
,48(J
1,06611."']5
I.IIWJ 1Il1041
1.0r.76 , ' 1.0&8.) 1.11655
1.06'10 I.GIoW
H1610
I."'''
1.1lf>21
1.0E.J9
1,1lf>l5
UI51S
I,OS91
105911
I OWl
10609
1.115410
10S66
1.OS11
IOS17
10S&l
105)1
10000l
1_0S43
lOS,..
1.0560
IOS16
IOS21
10521
IOS)2
1.0511l
1,11'91
1,0501
1.0S06
IOS10
1.05IS
111'17
10481
1.1M86
1,0090
1.0094
1.11'54
1.CM6.2
1.0066
1.11'70
1_1I'1~
1.11'39
1.044J
1.0447
1.11'51
1.0054
1.0020 I.QoIOl
11I'1~ 1(M!16
10018 1.0010
10411 111'14
1.04fi 1.0411
ISOII 1,1)697 1,~ 10641 10614 IOSSII 1.0S6S 10542 10Sl0 111'9") 111'18 1,11'54 1.11'19 10421
1S20 10704 1,0Ii75 10641 10620 lOS94 lOS70 10541 I,osn 10s0) I,1M32 1.CM6.2 10441 1042>
1S40 1,0711 l(lt,1!l 101i5J 1111>26 10600 IOS1S IOSS2 lOSlO 10507 1 JM.I!I> 10466 106 1.0428
156(1 107111.06a11,1J65,8 10631 I OliOS lOS1'9 IOSS6 I.Q5}o1 IOS11 1,00'ilO 10470 1.005(1 I.QoIll
15811 I .on~ !.ClUJ) 101i601 1001 10610 IOSIo! 10561 100Ja I_OSI6 111'94 111'7) 1,11'53 10015
16011
1620
1640
1660
11080
I .D1lO
1_07)1,
1,07.)
1,074a
1,075A
1.1IW1
1 0105
1.0711
10716
lOr.11
10670
1 (J675
1.(lt,I!1
1~
10691
17'1lD
lno
17-40
11oil
1110
1_0]$'
1_01f0S
I.D17O
1_07161-1&",
1.0126
107ll
1,07]7
1.0742
1,0741
106911UI.701
10701
1.0711
1.0716
lOIi4Z
10641
1.000U
l0Ii51
10142
10615
10620
1.01>25
1 DO)
1.06J.4
IOSII'J
lOS91
IOS'17
1.11602
1.0&06
10566
10570
IOS74
1.0S7e
1.0SS2
10541
1.05<17
1.0551
lOS5-4
lOS54
I OSlO
10Sl4
I.OSl'
1.D511
IOSJS
1.11''111
10S01
1.0s0s
lOSO'i
lOS12
1.II'S7 100)9
1.<M6D 1,0442
1.1Mf>ol 1.0445
1 (M67 1,0447
10070 111'50
loe41 106J9 1.0611 I.ose. lOSU I.OSl'J lOSI. 1.0494 104n 1.0053
10611 10643 1000lS 10S91 10S67 1000l lOS" 111''17 1_11'16 1,11'56
1_
I fI6l1 106<1 10620 1.0S95 10511 1.0s.6 'OS:U I05()D 1.11'79 I.oo~
UJ681 106Y 1 ~~ IOS'JII IOS74 1.0Sf'J I.OS25 1.I.SOJ I Q.I8l 1.11'6.2
I ~ 10656 106211 106(l2 I,OS17 I,OSl I.OS18 UlSOS I.CMIM
105111
1OS4J
10S111.
1115M
I.OS'l
''*'
111'17
10481
1.04&1
1 I)4a8
10491
1.0i'09 106111
l071l 106&l
10116 llI6ti
10"9 106M
1.0121100>90
10IiS0
1065)
10656
I 0659
1.,*,1
lOIilI
101>25
'-DUa
I OIi)(l
lOIi)2
IOS56 IOS)1
1.lI50II
I_OS11
IOSU IOS)l t OSI~
1.0Sf04 I,OS)9 L0516
1.0s.7 1000l lOS"
'-OSS') 105M
lOSlI
lOSl)
,-OSl4
1_0S26
1.0S2a
10481
1.04'10
10492
1.1M'Y,;
1.0497
1_
1.046'J
1_11'71
1_11'71
111'75
1,11'99 1.lI'n
10S01 111'1"9
1.050) I.JMI
I,OSQS l1M32
1.0S0Ii I.~
2000 10!21i 1.07'J0 l1m7 lon4 I (69) 10Ii60I lOIoJS 10601 I.OSIO IOS5-4 I_OSJO 10501 1,048S
2020 1.0Il0 I m ) 111760 10121 I l169li I0Iit>7 I 06lo11 10Ii0'J 105&1 10S56 '-OS12 10S0'i 1 0431
204D 101SJ) 1079{, 101U 10729 lOMe 1 OWl 10640 10611 105l0I I.OS54 IOS}ol IOS11 1,1)4a8
10lIO 10116 1.0719 1.01f0S \.1'7)2 1.0701 lOIi71 l0Ii42 '_061l 1.0586 1.0560 1,05.16 1.0512 1.0489
2OaO 1.0I]'J 1.0IICI1 1,07l07 101)4 1070) lOIi1) 10Ii44 1.0615 IOSSII 1.QS62 I .OS11 I_OS14 1.0490
10)11
10)13
10).48
1,0152
10351
-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-----,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,--"-,-
1200 10585 IOSW 1,OS4Q 10519 lOO'J'J 111'7'1 10461 10443 111'16 111'10 lim) 10171 1.0161
lDO IllS'll 105M 1_05<11 1.0526 1,0506 1 , _ 1.0I{01 1.0449 IlI'll I.II'IS 10l'JI 10111 10)65
(table continued)
1100
1120
1140
1160
1110
I,~
IOSU
10Sl1
105M
1.0571
HIUl
I OSlO
IOSle
10501(,
l.os",
11150l
IOSIO
IOSl1
I,OS25
I.OSll
1,0464
'-001
111"11
1.0s0s
l.osl2
'-~ I~
1.0015-4
111'78 1.Do46Q
I.II'&S 111'67
100I'1.I 1.003
lMn
1.11'11
111')7
1.0443
I .OOSO
1.0&56
1.11'15
111'20
1,11'26
10Ul
III'''
10199
I_(NII'
1.11'10
111'15
1_0421
1.f3&)
lOW
1.0)')01
10199
I QoIOoI
10]61 10)'1
I Ol~
101111 10l6J
10l1Z 10)61
IOlII 1,00n
1.0)n
2100 HilMI 1.0lI04 10170 107)1; 10705 101074 1,01045 1.0Ii11 1.OSM 1.0st.3 I.OSla I,OSI5 1.11'91
21100 1,011-47 10111 1.0nt0 10142 1,0111 101179 1.0IiS0 lOUl IOS92 1.0567 1.05-12 I,OSI8 1.(149]
2110 1.... 9 1_011) 10m 10140 10712 1060C1 IOMI ll16Z2 I.OS91 1.QS61 1.0543 I.OSI9 I_QoI<N
516
"
JKl8
Table 10-12
F", Mercury Manometer Factors
~.)
lrmp.ututt. "f
IZ'i
'"
'"
1.06Sl
1 0Ml
IQr.s4
10f>S,1
I.OMS
'"
1062J 1.0S94
UIS9S
1.06025 tosw.
1.('6.15 1.>'iIf>
1 ~ 1.11597
1.06l~
,.,
1051>9
1.0569
U1510
1.11510
1.11571
llOO 10!S6 1.01119 107&' 1.0750 lana 1.0685 10655 101>26 1.0597 1.osn
ll2C 10ftS7 1.0Il0 107M 10751 10n9 1,061\6 1.0655 101>26 1.0597 l.osn
10S0W
U15""
lQ5015
1 OSH
'0S46
UI5Z1l
UI52<,
1.11521
10S11
, 0'>21
SpecifIC
Gr,vity,
'"
10t9S
1.0t9S
100'15
11)1'M1
1 Df9lo
2J,oIIJ 1.I.SS1 lOll! 1071S '.01S2 lon' 1.06&7 1010S10 1.0621 HI5!18 losn 1.054' lOSZ2 111491
1360 101S1 1 Dill 1 (1781, 10m '.0719 IOIJV UI(,56 10621 105'111 l.osn 10541 1.0522 1001"
2110 1 011I0Il 1 OIl! 1 07810 I 0112 I 071' 10681 1 06S6 '0bV ',05'J8 111572 ,os.1 1,052l HM91
l.osn
1.0Il2
lOUl
101m
10822
101m
10717
1(1787
10787
10786
10736
1.111011
I 0&57
10&51
10&57
HI651
106J11
I I.I6l8
I ~8
11.1617
10611
1.11599
105'J'1
105'1'1
105\111
105\111
l05n
l05n
10571
1.0571
1~
1 0S<I6
10S41\
10545
1 ClS45
1.ill
10521
10521
10521
IOS20
1 Of"'"
1.00196
10'%
10'9S
10'95
1.07BS
10,;'&1
1.078J
10782
UJ781
U1750
11174'
10748
U"47
10746
lor.M.
UIbII5
106&1
10l>Il]
10bS1
1 001
10.56
1005
1.0654
1065)
10b21
10b21
101.26
10t.25
1(1624
U15911
1.0S'iIII
1059]
IOS'll6
1059S
10511
IOS1l
IOS7'O
1056'J
HIS61
1 ClS45
I.OSM
10S41
10542
10S41
10510
II;I!;"
1.0518
1,0517
11;1!;16
I~
104'93
UI4'Jl
1(loI')2
10'91
1.0S!
1.05)9
l05l7
10741 10:'09 1 tI!o1f 101>41 U16l1 lO5'JD 1.1lS62 I.OS)6
101l'J 101V7 1.0IJ6 1,01>45 10616 1.05IlI 10560 IOS)4
1.0515
1.0514
IOSll
IOS12
\,0511
1.()<I'lO
1.0489
1048&
104a1
1048S
1.00;0,
1.0501
1.0505
T.05O.1
1.0501
1 ()<I8l
lo.M
10"8
lOP'
2-100 1.0SS9
2~lD 108.'1'
2"-10 II1M9
HID 108>8
1.DB5&
2'"
10711
t 0716
I."'"
I 071S
10714
1.067'5
1067)
10611
I OWl
1.06i1
1.0644
1.01>41
101>41
106)9
1.06JI
10615
106'4
10611
10610
10601
1.05&' 1.I1:5S9
l.oser. I.OS58
1.0534 10556
IQS12 1,05n
Hl5110 10SSl
1.05])
I.OS)2
I.OSlO
IOSU
1.0527
1.~
1.II1JO
lU827
1,0824
10f1U
1.11119
1._)
1.01'91
107lIl
10186
ID78l
1.015'9
107S1
1.0150l
10m
1.()<I"
10''1
1.0'10
1046&
1.1)0166
1.11116
!IIIU
I.,*"
IIl105
~ Ullin
lOOO 1,0197
10180
1.11171
1.G71l
lono
107f01
107f04
10746
10743
1.0140
1,01J1
1"'J4
tonI
111461
10461
1.()oIS&
1,()01)6
I()o1SoO
1,()oISI
1*10
2l2O
2140
2860
28110
290D
192D
lt4D
2960
1."'1)
HITIO
I.CI7Ql'
1,1ll'O4
ICI7\l1
1.06'JI
1061l
10&1'9
1.(16;:1\
lor.n
1.06l'0
106/)1
10650
1.060II
Ulfo46
1.01>41
10640
1.0617
1.06l)
IGUO
1.0617
1.061.
10611
1,06IlI
I(IS95
losn
1.0SIJ
10$IIi
1.05el
105ID
105116
1,QS64
1.0561
1,0551
1055f>
1.055-1
1.05"
1,05l1
1.05l4
10511
105J"J
1,0527
517
1051l
10511
10509
10506
1(1504
10501
1._
1._
1.04l0I
1()0131
I,()oI7')
1()o176
"
,.ss
,.,
,.ro
'",."
,,."
."
,ro
,."
,,,
...
."
.ro
,.,
..,""
'''''
..,,,'" .""
,"'"
,"'"
,"'" "'"
099117
,"'"
,"'"
,"'"
,"'"
,."'"
,"'"
,"'"
,"'"
"."
0,9976
..""
0.9'172
0,9961
,,.,
'''''
09952
09941
09917
.-.""."" ..
. ..
.-
.0,997'9
0,9976
09987
""
""
""
0,997U
0,99')1
0,9'181
0,997'9
O.99n
0.997.
0,9971
,"'" .""
""
,."'"
"'"
099043
0.99)2
.""
09907
."" ,.""
'''''
""
0.9955
099017
09937
""
""
"'"
"',.
0.9917
0.9926
0.9915
0.9942
09933
.""
.""
09912
0.9912
09923
0.9913
0.990}
0.989}
''''' .""
'''''
'''''
''''' ."" ."'"
0.9955
0.99013
0.9935
0.9941
0.9933
0.9915
,."
",.,
,"'"
,."" , "" ",..
." ,"'"
'''''
""
,ro ,"'"
'"
,"'"
,." ,"'" ,.""
"'" ."" "'" .""
""
0,9967
...
Ambiml
09951
Trml"""~l u~
0.99)1
12O"f
0997.
0,9992
0.9'181
0.9979
O,99n
0,9975
09971
09967
0.9955
0.9959
0.99013
0.991&
.-.""
0.9941
0.9914
0.99}7
0.9918
,"'Ol~' F'ac:tors for intermediate ~.Iues of p"""",e. lemperltu",. and 'p<'f.'if~ ,''''il}' ohould ~ Interpola-
ted. This tllble Is for ..... with me-rc:ul) minometer type teOOrding ,",ug<!' Illal hi,... gu in rontad .. ilh the
lnanI.y SU"""Ie. The n:al g.. dnuit} iI equal to II ,z"...- z..._); Ihm for.1I practical purpore!. the ",.1
P-I m.ltive demit) .. Ipprmimlllel> equ.llo 1M PI specific gr"it). ~I'
From Orifice Mnmng oj .\'atu",1 CIlI, 1969; rou.tl'$)' of ACA
520
Thus, i>pr - 90/670 - 0.134. Tpt" - 510/375 - 1.36, and Z from Figure 3.2
is equal to 0.98.
SO"
50F, Fm - a.999F!
K - (870.93)( 1.00037)(0.9914)(0.9886)(0.9808)(1.0098)(1.2403)(1.010)
(0.9998) - 1,059.23
521
The Petroleum Extension Service (1972) also lists the following as tht
most common sources of variable errors:
Hydmre Formation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cas dehydration .
Use of hydrate inhibitors.
Installation of heaters along the line or near the meter.
Other methods-elimination of pipe leaks. enlarging meter piping
and valves, and replacing needle valves with plug or gate valves (Petroleum Extension Service, 1972).
Pu.lsating Flow
522
1.
2.
3.
4.
Slugging
Slugging refers to the accumulation of liquids in the gas flowline. In lowpressure lines, the liquid accumulates at low spots in the line, restricting gas
flow until enough pressure is built up for the gas to blow through the liquid
In high-pressure lines, liquid is swept through to the orifice and beyond
Both these situations result in flow disturbances that cause erratic and inaccurate measurements. A common method of preventing slugging flow is the
installation of liquid accumulators in the flowline.
523
In recent years, fluids are being handled near their critical region, where
the fl uid density changes very rapidly with small changes in the flowing
conditions. Consequently, several instruments and techniques have been developed to measure mass flow rate. There are essentially two types of mass
flowmeters: tnle mass jlowmeters that respond directly to mass flow rate,
and injerential mass jlowmeters that infer the mass flow rate from separate
volumetric flow rate and density measurements.
True MOM Flowmeien
Several types of true mass flowmeters have been developed, including the
following (Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 1984):
1. Axial-flow, transverse-momentum mass flowmeter.
2. Radial-flow, transverse-momentum mass flowmeter.
Sour
em
As discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, sour gas is detrimental to all flow equipment for two reasons: corrosion and accelerated hydrate formation. Sour
gas in a closed line causes little or no corrosion; it is the hydrogen sulfide in
the surrounding atmosphere that affects the measurement equipment (Petroleum Extension Service, 1972). Common preventive measures to ensure
proper gas metering include using hydrogen sulfide resistant components in
the meters, and sealing the meters against the atmosphere.
524
2. Head-type meters with velocity compensation. This type of mass measurement Use!i a head meter and a velocity meter (pitot tube, or a turbine meter) . The signal from the head meter is divided by the velocity
signal from a velocity meter to obtain a signal proportional to the mass
525
For mass flow rate measurement in pounds per day, the following equation
by the Foxboro Company (1961 ) may be used:
(10-28)
flow rate.
3. Volume or velocity-type meters with density compensation. In this
method, the signal from a velocity meter (such as turbine meter or
sonic velocity meter) or a volume (displacement) meter (such as rotary
meter or reciprocating piston meter), is multiplied by the signal from a
densitometer to generate a signal proportional to the mass flow rate.
where ml..
hw
=
=
(10-26)
where
q h", Fb =
Fill FII =
F, '"
1\vo-Phasc Systems
F10wmeter accuracy is generally quite poor for measuring two-phase
f1owstreams. No good method is currently known~most techniques give
only an approximate value. Murdock (1962) gives the following equation for
two-phase flow through orifice meters:
F b , Fro Y, Fm, F], and Fa are the orifice factors as described earlier.
where
(10-29)
(10-30)
where
526
For metering two-phase flow, the Petroleum Extension Service (1972) recommends the following precautions:
1 Keep pressure and temperature as high as possible at the meter.
2_ Use a free-water knockout upstream of the meter.
3. Use a vertical meter run that may impro,e the differential pressure
and flo" ,olume relationship in some, if not all, cases.
4. Determine a meter factor to correct the metering results. using test
data from (periodic) separator tests.
5. Connect manifold lead lines to bottom of bellows-type meter With sell
drainin~ pots installed above orifice fitting.
"
,~,
527
Neglect F"" Flo and Fl' Assume base conditions of 14.73 psia and
OOF, and that the gas has (in mole%): CO 2 ,,, 1.2, N2 .. 0.58, and
H,S - 0.96.
10. It is suspected that the chart recording device is malfunctioning in a
field orifice measurement system. A test with a mass flow meter indicate; a gas rate of 18,000 Ibm hr. For the oHowing conditions, determine if the orifice meter chart is in error:
Pipe diameter .. 8-in_ nominal (8.0il in. ID)
Orifice diameter - 3.0 in.
1'_ '" 0.63
F10wing temperature - 85' F
Static pressure reading,., 110 psia
Differential pressure reading = 175.5 in. water
Pipe taps downstream
If there is an error, find its dollar value, given that gas sells for $1.0
per Mscf (measured at 14.73 psia. 60F).
Hcfercnces
American Meter Company, 1973. Orifice Meter Constants: Handbook E-2,
revised.
AGA, 1969. OriJice Metering oj Natural Cas. Cas Measurement Committee
Report No.3 (Revised), American Cas Association, New York.
ASME , 1971. Fluid Meters- Their Tlleory and Application, 6th edition.
Report of AS~1E Research Committee on Fluid Meters, The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York.
Campbell, J. M., 1984. Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol. I. Campbell
Petroleum Serie;, Norman. Oklahoma, 326pp.
CliemiClJI Engineers' Handbook, 1984. R. H . Perry and D. W. Green (eds.).
McCraw-Hili Book Co., New 'ark, 6th ed.
Corcoran , \V. S. and Honeywell, }., 1975. "Practical Methods for Measuring F1ows," Cilem. Eng .. 82(14.}uly 7), 86-92.
DeVries, E. A., 1982. "Facts and Fallacies of Vortex F1owmeters," Hydr.
Proc., 61(8, Aug. ), 75-76.
Evans, H. }., 1973. "Thrbine Meters Cain in Gas Measurement," Oil & Gas
J., 71(34, Aug. 20), 67-69.
Foxboro Company, 1961. Principles amI Practices oj Flowmeter Engineering, 8th edition. Foxboro Company, Foxboro, Massachussets.
CPSA, 1981. Engineeritlg Data Book. 9th ed. (5th revision). Gas Processors
Suppliers Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
528
GO$ Production
Eflgifleerifl~
11
Introduction
Natural gas produced from several wells in a given area is collected and
brought to field separation and processing facilities \1a a system of pipes
known as a gathering system. Processed or partially processed gas is then
sent to the trunk lines that transport the gas to consumers. Cas is often distributed via pipeline grids that introduce a lot of complexity into the flow
computations . This chapter briefly describes gathering systems and the
transport of gas through pipeline neh\orks. building upon the concepts for
steady state flow through a single pipe described in Chapter 7. Some basic
elements of unsteady state gas flow. encountered quite often in pipeline
practice, are also introduced.
Gathering Systems
The surface flow gathering system consist.. of the section of pipe and fittings that serve to transmit the produced fluid from the wellhead to the field
treatment facilities (generally, the oil-water-gas separators). Production systems with extremely high capacity wells may provide individual separation,
metering, and possibly treatment. facilities to each of the wells. Because
these single well systems are seldom economical, it is quite common to design gathering and separation facilities that enable combined handling of
several wel1streams.
The two basic types of gathering systems are radial, and axial. In the ra.
dial system (Figure I1-Ia), flowlines emanating from several different wellheads converge to a central point where facilities are located . Flowlines are
Usually terminated at a header. which is essentially a pipe large enough to
529
530
""''
ff
Cas Go/hi'ring
- - ~(AO[~
1l0.l'~[
system.
Gild
Trallsport
531
The term "simple" is used here to indicate the gas pipeline systems that
can be handled with minor modifications to the flow relationships presented
in Chapter 7. The one feature for simplicity is that gas flows in at one end,
and flows out at the other end; no flow occurs at any other point in the
piping system. Such a scheme is orten used for increasing the throughput of
a pipeline while maintaining the same pressure and pressure drop (such as
when new gas wells have been developed that must use the existing pipeline)
or for operating a pipeline at a lower pressure (pressure-deration) while
maintaining the same throughput. The latter may be required when the
pipeline has "aged" or corroded.
The three possible ways of handling these requirements are to replace a
portion of the pipeline with a larger one (pipelines in series). place one or
more pipelines in parallel along the complete length of the existing line
(pipelines in parallel), or place one or more pipelines in parallel only partially along the length of the existing line (series-parallel or looped lines). For
each of th~ systems, relationships will be derived here, based upon the basic equation by Weymouth (Equation 7-29) for steady-state flow of gas
through pipes , that reduce the set of pipelines to a single pipeline that is
equivalent to the set in terms of the pressure drop and flow capacity.
The We)'mouth equation (Equation 7-29) can be written as:
q - K, [d'/fLl',
(11-1)
532
K, _ 5.635382
(T.)
[vl- Pij'
p. ,iTZ )"
(1l-2)
533
where the subscript t indicates the total for the system. The pressure drops
through the pipe leg;. however, are not equal. The total pressure drop is
equal to the sum of the pressure drops in each of the pipe I~. Thus,
Note that q denotes ~ throughout this chapter for simplicity. Equation 11.1
can be written as:
(1l-7)
and
L - Kd I(q')
(1l-3)
(11-8)
Consider two pipelines A and B. of lengths L" and LB. and diameters d ... and
dB. respectheJy. \\e can e(luate these two lines A and B using Equation 11.3.
For example. the length 48.\ of a line of diameter d .. that will have the same
pressure drop as line B of length Ls and diameter dB (i.e .. the equivalent
length of line B in terms of the diameter of line A) is given by
From Equation 729 (or, Equations 111 and 112), we know that the pres
sure drop.dp in a pipe section is proportional to the length L, all other fac
tors being the same. Substituting in Equation 118,
(1l-9)
where
(1l-5)
where c4BA is the diameter of a pipe of length L.", and friction factor f... equivalent to the line B of length LB, diameter dB, and friction factor (8'
Series Pipelines
Consider three pipelines A (length L ... and diameter d ..). B (length La and
diameter dB). and C (length Lc and diameter de). connected in series as
shown in Figure 113. The inlet and outlet pressures for the system are PI
T herefore, the three lines A, B, and C in series are equivalent to a single line
of diameter d A and length 4 given by Equation 119.
Let <WeI be the old flow rate for the pipeline of length LA + LB + Lc and
diameter d A , and <lne-,r. be the new flow rate obtained by altering the sections
B and C of the pipeline to two pipe sections of length LB and diameter dB
and length Lc and diameter de. Using the fact that q is proportional to
(1IL)0.5, we get
<!new _
<loid
11(L,,)o.~
l/(LA + L8 + Lc)O 5
(L.~ +
L8 + 4:)O'~
L"
(Il-IO)
;
c
(II-Il)
and 1>2. respectively. For this system, the flow rates through each of the pipe
legs are equal:
Q.~ -
ClB - q(; - ql
(1l-6)
Parallel Pipelines
Consider pipelines A (length L. . , diameter d ...), B (length LB. diameter
dB), and C (length Le. diameter ~.) in parallel, as shown in Figure 11-1.
534
Assuming LA ,. La -
Le.
535
The ratio of the new flow rate for lines in parallel to the old flow rate for the
single line A is given. as before for the .series pipeline. by
The inlet and outlet pressures for this system are PI and 1>2. respectively. Because the pipeline:, are in parallel ~ ith a ,-:ommon inlet ami outld, the pre..
sure drop through each of them is the same, but the flow rates are not. The
total flow rate, however, is the sum of the flow rates through each of the
pipe legs. Thus,
( 11.12)
1/(4)o.~
q.-....
..<loki
lI(L A)O.5
(L'4 )"
(1118)
where 4 is obtained using Equation 1116 or 1l17, as the case may be. The
fractional increase in flow capacity, .:l.q, can then be calculated using the
following relationship used earlier for series pipelines:
(1113)
and
(11.14)
A special case of two lines in parallel, also called a fully looped line, with
both lines of equal length, Jeserves mention. Substituting for L" from Equa
tion 1117 into Equation 11.18 for such a system:
Let the length and diameter of the pipeline equivalent to the three lines A.
L~'
+ (dil~ dll,)' 'I
q_.
(1115)
(~" + (~:;~"
In Equation 11 -15, any value may be assumed for two of the three unknowns, d.. ft. and 4, and the third calculated. Equation 11-15 can also be
expressed as:
[(~" + (~fl(~)"
L~'I [ (IJI,)"
q".
( 1119)
Looped Pipelines
~5
L.-
d. - d A we obtain:
[(IJI,L,)"
'
+ (d!lJd\I,L,)" + (dIf.ld!lcLc)"
(11 16)
A looped pipeline is one in which only a part of the line has a parallel
segment. The original pipeline is looped to some distance with another line
to increase the flow capacity. In the loop!..>d line shown in Figure llS. the
original line having two segments A and C of the same diameter is looped
with a segment B. A looped system may be considered to be a combination
of series and parallel sections. For the two lines A and B in parallel, Equation 11-15, 11-16. or 1117 can be used. The resultant equivalent pipe for
the parallel segments A and B is then combined in series with the segment C.
536
531
Relatively simplified expressions are often found in the literature for the
case when the loop-line B has the same length as A. For this case. the equivalent length for the parallel section A-B, (4)AB. can be determined using
Equation 1117:
(~iI,Jd\f,)U'I']
0'
Solving for
Xr:
(11-21)
l.." becomes:
Note that A indicates the original line. and B indicates the added line.
I.e - Lc + (4)"8
Extensions to Commonly Used Pipeline Equations
- Lc + [(1,If,)"
LI'
+ (d,l,Jdll,)"
]'
Le.
From
(L' L. Lc)"
+
The expressions for series, parallel, and looped pipelines described contain the friction factors for the individual legs. t>,fost non-iterative equations
for gas flow, such as the Weymouth, Panhandle-A. and Panhandle-B equations, assume a friction factor correlation that simplifies the flow calculations (see Chapter 7). The resulting expressions are given below for these
equations for series, parallel. and looped lines. The values of the exponents
a, b, c, and d are given in Table 11-1.
Equation 11 -4 for the equi\-alent length of a line becomes:
0'
L", - L,(d,/d,)'
[::], -L,: Lc
- LA':;" Lc +
k,':
Lc ][[(1,11,)" +
(~iI,Idll')"l']
where
I.
L.21
(1120)
Table 11 -1
Coefficients for Serlea, Parallel , looped Une Equations
Equation
Weymouth
Panhaodle-A
Panhandie-B
(11-22)
1613 .. 5.333
. 854
4.961
,.,0
0.5394
0.510
,
8.'3 - 2.007
2.618
2.530
2.0
,'"
538
(11-23)
where ~I is the equivaler!t diameter of line 2 in terms of the length of line 1
For lines in scries, the equivalent length is the sum of the indh-jdual equi\alent lengths of all the pipe sections (Equation 11-9). For lines in parallel.
the equivalent length can be calcwated as follows (compare with Equation
11 16)
539
Example 111. Gas of specific gravity 0.65 is being transported from station A to stations C and D. A single pipeline of diameter 8 in., length 3
miles, runs from station A to a pipeline junction at B. A &'in., 2..mile pipeline connects junction B to station C. while a 4-in .. 3-mile pipeJine connects
B to D. Given that the pressure at station A (PA) .. 400 psia, and that stations C and 0 are at the same pressure (Pc. Po) - 30 psia. determine the
capacity of the system. Assume that the flowing temperature is BOoF, and
use the Weymouth equation.
Solution
(11-241
where 411 is the equivalent length of pipe leg i. determined using Equation
1122. If all the parallel pipe legs are of equal length, Equation 1124 sim.
plifies to (compare with Equation 11-17):
L, _ d'L
I
[
"b
(11-25)
If all sections in the parallel lines afe of equal length. the ratio of the new to
the old flow rate is (compare with Equation 11-19):
::;-1 +[~
where
d..a.t dip
(11-26)
l...4 ".
Similarly,
],,,
1
- [
- 5.689 miles
4
{11l20.9525)O~ + (1 9.2i62)U ~
"
If the diameter of original and parallel lines is the same, Equation 11 -27
to:
x _ 1-
(qoldlq,~.)d
'-I
IIl1+ 1]'
(qold/q......-)d
1- 2 d
So, PI"" " 0.4, and Tpr - 1.44, and therefore. Z., - 0.955.
Using the Weymouth Equation (Equation 7-34),
520 [
q.
1
Using Equation 11-24. the 4in. and 8-in. lines in parallel an' thus equiva
lent to a single 8-in. diameter line or length:
_~impli(jes
(l1-2Il)
~ 31,5027 IU3
f'
[(400)' - (30)'](8)'"
(0,65)(8,689 x 5,280)(540)(0,955) J
540
COJ
Production Engineering
cific gravity equal to 0.64. The pressure at the upstream end of this section is
375 psig, and the average delivery p~ure is 300 psig. The average temperature is 73F. Due to new well completions, it is desired to increase the capacity of this line by 20% by looping with additional 6.067-in. ID pipe.
What length is required?
Ul:I)! + 17.847.084
x, =- 1 1
(111.2)2 _ 0.4074
Soilltion
Note: Weymouth equation paramete~ are used throughout fo r the calculations.
Using the approximate relationship of Equation 11-28,
Xf -
p.,
(314.i~Lj
_ [{3/H.i3)3 .. 340.31 ia
(384.73)' - (3 14.731'
1"
pp.
2'
lows.
Desired flow rate q... - (1.2)(7.6) = 9.12 MMscfd - 9, 120 Mscfd
For 'Y, - 0.64. P.... ,., 671 psia, and T.... _ 360 0 R
For the looped section:
541
r'
+ 71 ,768.06
Xf "
From Equation 11-25, the equivalent length of the looped section is:
j' "
P3 is quite close to the assumed value of 364.73 psia: Z factor will not
change substantially for such a pressure difference. A second trial is not necessary.
Therefore, the length of the loop required "" (0.35 12)(9.4) ,. 3.30 miles
Assuming the pressure P3 at the point 9.4 x/ miles from the inlet (where the
loop ends) to be equal to 350 psig ( ,. 364.73 psia), and using Equation 7-32.
,_ [(389.73)' - (384.73)'j_ 377.34 ".
P.
(389.73)' - (384.73)'
P
~ [[(389.73)' -
(p,)'J(6.067)"',
14.73 (0.64)(533)(12,408,,)(0.94) J
542
Ga~
Before constructing a model of the pipe1ine network, it is necessary to describe the mathematical models for the individual NeE's. These models are
essentially pressure \;ersus rate (throughput) relationships, as described be
low.
543
(11-36)
(11-37)
For critical (sonic) flow, the flow relationship given by Equation 7-89
0'
is applicable:
(11~30)
(11-38)
(11-39)
(11~311
q ~ k,(p1 - plI"
(11-40)
0'
(11-33)
!:F..I
where k2 _ 0.015744
PiCj"~!~.,fL
(11-34)
Qj"
(11-41)
By Kirchhoff's second law, the algebraic sum of the pressure drops (taken
with consistent signs) around the loop is zero. Thus, if n is the number of
NeE's in the loop, then for a high-pressure pipeline:
(11-35)
(11-42)
544
Ca,~
Product/oil Ellgilleering
(11-43,
A pipeline distribution system may either be loopless. or contain one or man:
loops. The application of the relationships developed so far is described bt-10", for each of these system types.
I ,()Opl~
Sy~tems
A loopless pipe S)'5tem, defined as onc where the NeE's joined by nodts
form no closed loops. is shown in Figure ll-B. There are n pipe legs. and
n + 1 nodes. Cas enters through node I and leaves through nodes j, for
j - 2, 3, .. " n + 1
'" ,
"""
CVIU_.o
NJM8ER
PR[ssufIE: ~
"'~.I
.,
The problem requires a trial and error type of solution if the maximum
throughput through the line at the oudet (node n + 1) is desired for a given
set of terminal pressures and flow rates into or out of the intermediate
nodes. Hain (1968) describes an efficient procedure for solving this problem:
1. Guesstimate the maximum throughput of pipe leg 1. q~ll. The superscript (1) indicates that this is a first approximation.
2. Calculate the throughputs for individual pipe legs, q;11 using Equation
11-41.
3. Using Equation 11-44, calculate the outlet pressure for the system.
( pn .. 1) .
4. [f (p~l~ 1)2 differs from the given outlet pressure p~ .. 1 by a value
greater than the prescribed tolerance, then correct the throughputs for
the individual pipe legs determined in Step 2 using:
'"
(11-46)
t ,-, ,! ,
,-,
,-,~--"'V"'I
'h-,
P".,
P,
545
'" I"~
where ~q" (p"+1
-Pii .. 1
"
2 E
(11-47)
k,q;i)
, .. 1
p/-pj-
E
,- ,
k,qr
[(P~'~')'-pl .. ];2
[(pl)< - (pf)<]/q< +
(11-48)
1:
,-,k,q;"
Similarly, If the outlet pressure, Pn+ I, is known. Equation 11-45 can be used:
E k,qr
'-I
In Step 4, the correction A.q becomes more complex for flow systems with
a greater variety of NCEs. Hain (1968) gives the following correction for a
line containing a compressor station:
Aq(11 -441
where j - 2, 3, .... n, n + 1
Pf - P~+1 +
reached .
(1l-45,
Looped Systems
There are two types of looped pipe systems: single-loop (Figure 11-7a),
and multiple-loop (Figure 11 -7b). Cross (1936) gave the first solution for
low-P~ure looped systems, which was later extended to high-pressure systems (Hain, 1968).
546
547
Solving Equation 11+49 for aq, and assuming that I1q < < ql. we get:
"""-",
'jL-72-_---'~-- -
'"
'h ---
,
\
-CY3
(11-50)
The gas throughputs for the next iteration. {L -', are computed as before
(Equation 11-46):
,"
I
'l;
This procedure is repeated until for an iteration k, a.q is less than or equal to
a specified tolerance. After this (successful) kth iteration. the node pressures
can be calculated using the relationship (Equation 11.44) for a high-pressure
network:
---
E krl qi
pf- Pi ~
I q:kl
(11-51)
;. 1
for j
2, 3, . _., n, n
+1
where k, for pipe legs arc calculated using Equation 11-31 for high-pressure
lines. For a low-pressure network, k, for pipe legs are calculated using Equation 1134. and the node pressures are computed using Equation 11-52:
Figure 117. Looped systems: (a) single loop, (b) multiple loop.
(11-491
j- I
PJ" P, -
E
,-, ~I ct:
'
Iql'"
(II-52)
for j .. 2, 3, ... , n, n +
For a mUltiple-loop system, an individua16.q is computed for each loop, and
the flow corrections are done for the pipe legs loop by loop. A pipe leg which
is COmmon to two loops can be handled in two ways:
1. Correct the flow rate using the correction for the first loop, then cor.
reet it again using the correction for the second loop (Cross, 1936).
Thus, the flow rate is effectively corrected twice at every iteration for
any line common to two loops. Note that the flow rate through this
common line will be equal in both the loops.
2. Use the sum of the Aq 's for the two loops to which the pipe leg is com
man as the effective flow correction for the pipe leg. This has been
5.'
suggested by Renouard and Pemelle (see Szilas, 1975). The /1q values
are computed by solving the n linear equations in the n throughputcorrection unknowns (~CL for i = 1, ''', n) obtained using Equation
11-46 for each of the n pipe legs in the network. These values are then
used for updating the pipe leg throughputs. The procedure is repeated
until convergence.
549
imbalance at the node and will be equal to zero when the system is in balance. For example, consider nocle 2 that receives gas from underground storage (1,2) and pipe leg (10,2), and delivers gas to compressor intake (3,2),
and consumer supply attached directly to node 2. Equation II-53 for node 2
can now be written as:
(11-54)
With the substitution of the appropriate NCE equations (from Equations
11-29 through 11-40). Equation 11-54 becomes:
curate.
,I
,,
--lforpl<p,
8... ....
,
,,
where SI.j is the sign term that accounts for the flow direction:
s..j =
23 ~/
I,
(11-55)
For any node j, the continuity equation (Equation 11-41) expresses the
fact that the sum of the inflows and outflows at the node is zero:
(11-53)
where fL. is the flow from node i to nocle j. F10ws into the nocle are consid
ered posith'e, flows out of the node are negative. F j thus represents the flo\\
(11-56)
Similar equations are written for all the other nodes in the system. Consider
a system of n nodes and m NeE's. Steady-state flow through this system of n
nodes is mathematically represented by a system of n non-linear equations.
There are a total of (2n + m) variables: for each nocle, there is one pressure
and one node flow rate variable, and for each NCE there is a constant k,
defining the flow resistance through it. Thus, we can use this mocleJ consist.
ing of n equations in (2n + m) variables to sol\'e ror any n variables, given
the value of the remaining (n + m) variables.
Each of the node continuity equations, such as Equation 11-55, can be
expressed as follows:
(11-57)
550
~k.1i
where
_ xlkl
I_I
+ ax("k+11
~ llXj -
ax,
(II-58)
(II-59)
where the derivatives aFjiaxj are obtained by differentiating the node continuity equations. The method requires an initial estimate for each of the un
knowns. xf. Generally. good initial guesses are required to achieve satisfac-
where QJ is computed using the llx, for the current and previous steps. Stoner
(1969) proposed the following scheme for obtaining ell:
Let AI - llX~k.ll/ax:kl. For the first two iterations, where divergence is
most likely to occur, an 0', '"' 0.5 is be5t to use in order to ensure convergence.
In subsecluent steps, the value of Il'j is determined as below for every other
step: for the steps in berneen, Il'; - 1.0 is used:
For A, S - 1.
For - 1 < A, < O.
ForO<A,<l.
For A, 2: 1,
cr,
Il', ,.,
Il'j
Il'j ""
O.SIA,I
LO - 0.51 A, I
LO + 2.01A j l
(11-61)
Stoner obtained these specifications for aj by experimenting with the mathematical model on a computer. Naturally, these are empirical, system-dependent values, and the user may have to do some experimentation to obtain
similar or better schemes for the acceleration factor a, applicable to his or
her own system.
In designing and operating transmission systems, it may be useful to ascertain the effect of varying the several different parameters that influence
the system, such as pipeline diameters, operating p~ures, and so on, and
determine an optimum design and operating condition that maximizes thc
pipeline utility at the lowest cost and satisfies all the requirements. This is
known as sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis requires generating a large
number of solutions using the computer mode1 for all the possible system
configurations, entailing very high computational and associated expenses.
Readers interested in this topic are referred to the work by Stoner (1972)
who has presented a further development of his steady-state model to enable
sensitivity analysis of production and transmission systems.
551
ZRT
-~--
(11-62)
where the gas compressibility factor Z, a measure of the deviation of the gas
from ideality and a function of pressure, temperature, and gas composition,
can be expressed in a variety of ways (see Chapter 3). Assuming isothermal
flow and a constant composition, this necessary relationship simplifies to:
(11-63)
Several relationships are available for representing this functional dependence of Z on pressure, as given in Chapter 3. In practice, howC\'er, an a\erage (COnstant) value of Z is used, reducing the number of equations to three.
Equation 11-62 can now be simplified to (Streeter and Wylie, 1970):
5:>2
0'.
p ..
pg.,..82
(11-64)
sec')
553
Note that each of the terms in Equation 11-63 has the units of Ibflftl. Also
note that instead of v2, v I v I is used in order to include the direction of flow
in the friction term .
[f A is the pipe cross-sectional area , then the flow velocity v is related to
the mass flow rate m as follows:
v = m /Ap
mB'
Apg.,
(11-66)
v---
where
In"
x ..
p ..
A ...
t -
11-67) becomes:
Substituting for p from Equation 11-64, the equation of continuity (Equation 11 -65) can now be written as:
0',
ap + 1:
ax
am + a (ApgJB' ) _ 0
ax
at
8 2 Ag., Ap 2g.,
pg .
B'
ax
Aplg"
ax
at
p2
at
f m l m l B2 0
2dg. A'pg.
+~sma+--
0'
0<,
(11-661
ap
m~B2
ap
p m ap
p mB2
am
----- - --- - +
a, Ag., Ap'g. a, Ag. P' at Ag.,Ap'g. a,
The equation of motion can be expressed as:
ap +!!... [v av + a v] + pg SinO' + fv lvlp _ 0
ax ik ax at g.,
2dg.,
P 1 am
Ag., P at
(11 -67
where p" pressure, lbf/ft 2 ; conversion constant of 144 required in EqUlltion 11-67 if psia is used
g - gravitational acceleration, 32.17 ftlsec2
a - angle of pipe inclination from the horizontal
f .. pipe friction factor (Moody)
\- .. gas flow velocity, ft /sec
d '" internal diameter of the pipe, ft
pg.
+ ---+~SlOa+
2
8
fm I m I 82 - 0
2dA2~p
Substituting for ap/at from the continuity equation (Equation 11-66) and
rearranging, we get
1_
m~B2] ap + 2mB! am + _ 1_ am
a, A'p~ a, Ag. at
A'p'~
+pg.
fm l m l B!
82 sma + 2dA2
w-
(11-691
554
Equations 1166 and 11-70, describing the transient flow of gas in a pipeline. constitute a system of two non-linear partial differential equations
(NL-PDEs). Equation 11-70 is often used in the following form that results
on muJtiplying it throughout by p:
1 opl
p _
am +_sma+
pZg.
fm i m B~ '" 0
_+ _
ax
Ag,.
at
B~
2dA2~
(1171)
555
velocity). Depending upon the choice exercised for specifying the boundary
conditions, two cases are possible:
556
size. For these reasons, and also because of the inaccuracies in computations
that generally result from the use of this method. the explicit scheme is
rarely used, except in conjunction with the method of characteristics.
The partial differential equations can be discretized along the space (x)
and time (t) axes in three ways: backward difference scheme, central difference scheme. and forward difference scheme (see Figure 119). Let o.x be
the length of each pipe segment: solutions are computed successively at values of time increasing (or decreasing) in time steps of size at. Then. usin~
,+0
P,
P;.~I
pP+PP.1
2
(11-.3)
The transient 10\\ equations can now be linearized using the relationships
of Equations 11-72 and 11 -73. The equation of continuity. Equation 11-66,
becomes:
-m'l
~n'l
H
,,'
p.
_B' [mHI
"
Ag.,;1x
Solving for
+ p,d_ p '
I
~t
p~. I:
(11-74)
at
557
Since the values of all the parameters on the right side of Equation 11-74 are
known from the solution for the previous time step, pro I can be directly Dbtaine<i. The equation of motion can also be transformed in a similar manner
using Equations 11-72 and 11-73. as below.
at
am _ mp+l_ mr
at
.6.t
~_ mr~l-
ax
.6.x
mr
where the subscript i indicates the grid along the x direction, and superscript
n indicates the parameter value at the previous time step.
Thus, pr is the pressure at section i at time step n, pr~ I is the pressure at
grid point i + 1 at time step n, pr I is the pressure at grid point i at time step
n + 1 (at which solution is sought), and so on . .6.x and .6.t indicate the grid.
block and time-step size, respectively. The pressure p and mass now rate m
are discretized as follows:
mr 1 - mr - [
All<
pr+prd
fB2~t
-;-;-:-'~"-:;;--; (mr
4ciAll<M + pr.,)
+ mr. d I
(pl')2] -
2(P~~t
)B2 sino
+P.I
mr + mr.ll
(11-75)
Additional details may be obtained from the published work of Thppeck and
Kirsche (1962) and Distefano (1970) who have described and used the exPlicit method .
558
559
ap
at
pr *1
-~
Ut
ap'
-ax
am
-at
am
n.1
ax- ""
Ux
mr+ l + m~:/ - mr - mr.l
Ut
,.\
r"
m;+1 +m+l-m
2.lx
m~
m-
-mj
_I
n+
'
+m n+1
m,+,
j . , +m,
+mr.ll-O
(11-78)
Thylor (1962), Coacher (1969), and Streeter and Wylie (1970) have pro-
"
a+ I -mrl
-B'- (n.'
mi.1 +m,.l-m;
A~x
and
BdA-g;
(11-76)
Substituting the expressions of Equation 11-76 into the equation of continuity (Equation 11-66) and the equation of motion (Equation 11-71). we obtain:
At
Ill' ( l I * l
+--,-~mj
.Hethod of Chamcteristies
1 ( , .. + P'+l-t'l-P,+In1
'"'"
II I
0
+-p,
1 (n*1 +PI+I
n+1 +p,II +P,.l
n)( m,n*l +m,.l
n*I_"_
II)
+---Pi
m, m,.1
2A!(c.lt
(l1.77)
posed and used the method of characteristics to solve the transient gas flow
problem for pipelines. In this method, paths (called characteristic lines) are
defined in the (x, t) plane, along which the system of NL-PDE's is transrormed into a system of ordinary differential equations (ODE's). These
ODE's can then be solved numerically, using either the eKplicit or the implicit finite difference method of solution_ The procedure used by Streeter
and Wylie (1970) is described in the rollowing section.
. Equations 11-66 (designated by F,) and 1170 (designated by F2), describIng the transient flow of gas in a pipeline, have two independent variablcs. x
and t, and two dependent variables, p and m. These two equations are combined USing an unknown multiplier >., and rearranged as follows:
560
G(U
F .. )'F1 + F2
fmimtB2
pg
+--sina+
=0
1
8
2dA2~
1
111-79)
Figure 11-10.
t I--------'-------+--------'~----~_l Characteristic hnes
I
),
OI$TANCE,X - - - - - - - -
implying that
(II-SO)
(II-SI)
Ag., dt
B'
2dA'gip
1 dOl
I dp pg.
fmlmlB2 0
- +--+-sma+
Ap< dt
B dt
82
2dA 2W
_1_ dm
on an x-I diagram.
--).,B~-
I
+Bo r
"
Equation 1179 can be transformed into two ODE's using a)., gh'en by.
)..=
561
t+4t~------~------~~------+-------1
dx
dt
[pgSino:
82
fmlmIB!]
+ 2dA2gip dx
= 0
Discretization along space (x) yields (see Streeter and Wylie. 1970):
8
roll
6.x
On the x-t plot shown in Figure 11-10, consider JX>ints Rand S at which m
and p are known. By constructing the C+ characteristic line dxldt .. B
through R and the C- characteristic line dx/dt - - B through S, an inter
section P is found at a later time and an intermediate value of x. Since both
Equations 11-S1 and 11S2 are valid at P, they may be solved simultaneously
to yield the new values of m and p at this later time. In this way, the solution
can be obtained at a later time, from known values at the previous time
step. at all locations in the pipe.
e'-I
Pi>
(mrlmpl+mRlmHI)--+
(e'-l)=O
s
PP+PR
(ll-83)
(1l-S4)
562
v-
SG3
For the case of critical flow (p" Pd > 2). lzawa (1966) has presented the
following relationship:
(11-86)
where
(ll-S7)
564
565
p, ~ [Pi q~~r
+
(11-90)
(11-91)
q-
pj Pi]''
- -
Z"
(11-89)
r'
q "
'z
[P!-T
(11-92)
0'
Pi]
p,"-,""-2 [PI+--3
PI + pz
PI+P2
0'.
(11-94)
566
567
p, ~ [(P,).... q:H'
v~
"
"
"
p"T.,AL
P",Z., T.,
"
(11-95)
,1 "'________,
.!"
where
__ ___________ c
P." T., ,. a\"erage pressure and temperature in the pipeline, respecti vel)
p",. T ... s< specified standard conditions of pressure and temperature, respecth'ely
Z~, ... a\erage gas compressibility factor (at PM" T.,)
A - pipeline cross-sectional area
L - length of the pipeline
TIN(.
IIOUR!
---_
Figure 11-12 shows the daily fluctuation of Rq, the percentage hourly
consumption referred to daily consumption. The dotted line parallel to the
abscissa indicates the average consumption Q..v' In segment A-B, consumption is less than q,." and gas accumulates in the pipeline. In segment S-C,
consumption is greater than q.". and the gas accumulated in the pipeline at
the earlier time is used to cater to this increased demand. Note that at point
A, the gas flow (supply or input) into the pipeline is exactly e<Jual to the
demand, and gas reserves are zero. Thus, the pressure at output (tail) end of
From Figure 11-12, we can determine the area embraced by the cun'eADB
and line AB by planimetering, and convert it to gas volume" This gas volume is the volume of gas stored in the pipeline during the slack-demand pe_
riod, VAB. This stored volume will be maximum at the time corresponding to
point B in Figure 11-12. Therefore, the head and tail end pressures, p! and
P2, in the pipeline will also be maximum at B. Using Equation 11-95,
P - p",T" IV + V
Z.,
T.,AL
AR
(11-96)
568
Figure 11-12. Then, the volume of gas stored in the pipeline during the pcricx:l. of low demand is determined by measuring the appropriate area enclosed by the curve. Then, Equation 11-96 is used to calculate (p.vlZ..,) from
which p.,- and Z .. can be obtained by trial and error. Then, the value of the
expression 3p.,k/2qv,:,S is calculated. . Figure 11-11 can then be used to read
off the corresponding value of Rp. Knov,ring the ,,'alue of RI" P2 can be calculated using Equation 11-93, and then the required upstream pressure p! can
be obtained (PI ., Rpp~).
Let (PI)", .. be the maximum ftl<l!>ible pressure at the head end of the pipeline. Now, if PI :S (P')mu, then the quantity of gas V"8 stored in the pipeline
during the slack-demand period will be sufficient to handle the excess demand in the high-demand period Be. Otherwise, the pipeline must be redesigned.
Handling Variable Consumer Demand-Case of Variable Injection Rate
Bateyet al. (1961) described a method for obtaining solutions to the case
of varia.ble injection into the pipeline and conducted a sensitivity analysis of
the vanous factors that affect pipeJine performance. They represented gasconsumption variations in time by a Fourier function (Figure 11-13),
<l2 "" (t). From this supply function and the constant supply pressure Pz, the
gas flow rate and pressure versus time functions can be calculated, proceeding step by step for various pipe sections backward along the line from the
tail to the head end. Such functions, represented as ql '" I(t) and PI _ 2(t).
are sho"'Il along with the supply function <il .. (t) in Figure 11-13. Any nu-
INPUT FLOW,
I0
~.
,
,
0
0
to
,.
n
!;z::;
"
912151121243&912
569
merical technique may be used for solving the system of equ.ations ~r obtaining the 1 and P functions. The pipeline can then
prOVIded optlmum
control to meet the demand variation at a constant d.ehver y pressure P2
Bateyet al. (1961) conducted a parametric anal~"S1S that enables one to
o'd the expensive numeric computations involved in solving the system of
:;;u~tions. To permit Fourier series exp~nsion, the load. Le . the demand of
gas, is expressed in the following functIOnal from:
be:
(11-97)
+ ql sin (hlt,,)(t +
1"1)
(11-98)
To specify how the sine wave propagates in the pipeline system. values of the
amplitude ratio, qtfqJ, and TI are required..
.
Batey et al. (1961) studied the effect of the three types of pipeline section
parameters that affect flow:
1. Parameters that depend upon line section geometry. such as length. diameter. and relative roughness (tid).
570
"
1"
,:
"0
h'
-.............
~
~
,
---
,
"(1'1 100
'"
P[ "100, HOURS
'"
I-
.,~~
Figure 11-1 4. Amplitude ratio of input upset to output upset versus period of
upset, as a function of the output pressure. (After Batey et aI., 1961 .)
The corresponding time deJa}'s for these variables are shown in Figures
11-15. 1117, and 11-19. These figure; show that higher the frequency
(Io\\er the period on the abscissa), lower is the time delay or phase shift of
the demand wave (i.e., the phase velocity is higher). For a given frequency.
f'
["" ~ ~01
~
" .
HOURS - - - -
~~ ~
~ ~~
-" "
Illl
'"
:-------; ~
'--.....::::
,,
,
al. . 1961 .)
Figure 11-15. Time delay 01 upset propagation from one end to the other end 01
a line section versus period. as a function of the output pressure. (After Batey et
,o
,,
.~
~ !--
"
roo
.,+-------~-------4------_+~'
,,.
."",
"
-- ,. f--"
I ,.
571
~.,'"
OO~
""
"",' ""
,
1'(1'1100, HOURS
""
----
'"
Figure 11-16. Amplitude ratio versus period as a function of the friction lactor
(After Batey et aI. , 1961 .)
phase shift decreases with increasi ng output pressure (Figure 11-15), decreasing friction factor (Figure II 17), and increasing pipe diameter (Figurc
lJ19).
Figure 11-20 shows that the amplitude ratio decreases (or, attenuation in~
creases) along the pipeline length . Figure 11-21 shows that the phase ~hift
increases with increasing length along the pipeline. These figures can he
572
Ga~
I, ""
t ",
""
"
,
0"
"
12 it!
40
20,"
'0
0-011
'0
""
0-007
'o>-______~--------L-----~~~~
"
1
573
d.
.;
'0-1:-----1------:---=~-l
12
6
J
I-!\
j-:I
_ _ _ _ _ _ PEIIIOO,HOURS - - -- --
PERIOD, HDUIIS
Figure 11-17. Time delay versus period as a function of friction lactor. (After
Batey et aI. , 1961.)
0'
"'- ~~
"'''''"
"
o
"
0'
"'-.."'-.. ~
..... 07
"
_ ___
~uuoo
Figure 11-19. Time delay versus period as a function of pipeline diameter. (After
Batey et al" 1961.)
d,
.;:
;.-
~O'"
~ 06
)'Z,.~ "-
"""" i"o...
~,~
..
'0
f'a..
1'0..
~ c.
,'-....'""
'-<>.
,
~
'0
'0
'"
M
.0
_ __ _ __ LNGTH,MILS - - - - - -.
,HOUJIS _ _ _ __
Figure 11-20. Amplitude ratio versus pipeline length. (Afler Batey et at , 1961 .)
Figure 11-18. Amplitude ratio versus period as a function of pipeline diameter
(After Batey el at , 1961 .)
574
,,.
ap2
vv
"'"
"
-- ,.
>
"
'7
>
-ax -
,./
Ag.,dx dP! =
B2 dt
"
'0
"
'00
the flows com-erge to, or di\"erge from. nodes. The node Jaw (Equation
11 -41 ) must apply to each of these nodes:
"
V,':' dp, ~ t
B- dt
m
I
- m...J
;.1
mi. -
rn...
(11-103)
(11 -100)
ap _
at
0',
Figure 1121. Time delay versus pipeline length . (After Batey et aI., 1961.)
(11-102)
dA ~g!
- - - - - L ENGTH, N ILES - -_ _ __
mn + Ern, - 0
fm l m lB2
Every node is assigned half the length of eac h pipe leg associated with that
node. Let V J be the \'olurne obtained on summing up the \-olumes of each of
the pipe legs that connect to node j. Equ ation 11 -101 can then be written for
node j as follows:
"
575
(11 -101 )
m _
1,1
,.,
(11-104)
I.j
where L;.i represents the lengths of the indh'idual pipe legs. and S'.i is given
by
Substituting for m . ) from Equation 11-104 into Equation 11-103, and multiplying by B2/Vig.,:
11'1 - PI'
0,
dp
';if - K, E
i _I
[J,.,(I p1-
Pl i)"'5q! -
= m..,
BK
g,
(11-105)
576
, .. here K
--
Pipeline Economics
B
\'
and
J'.I - 1.
., dl.'Af.,
( 1t - 1{l6)
f. I
PI(t
577
It.
,-
Pipeline sizes are generally dictated by the available pressure drop, reo
quired flow rate, and the available pipe sizes. If two or more pipe sizes satisfy all the requirements and constraints, then one is chosen based on the
economics. An economic pipe diameter minimizes the (discounted or amortized) capital costs and operational (compression) costs. With increasing
pipe diameter d. the capital costs increase, whereas the operational costs decrease due to smaHer pressure losses. Thus, there exists an optimum d such
that the sum of the amortized and operational costs is a minimum.
It is obvious that for such an economic analysis, no general correlation or
equation can be easily determined for all possible cases because pipeline
costs, amortization (or depreciation) allowan~ within the corporate tax
framework , and operating costs vary widely. A simplified analysis by Peters
and Timmerhaus (1980) is presented here for determining the optimum ec0nomic pipe diameter for a single pipeline. The concepts developed are subse.
quently extended to the far more complex problem of the economics of gas
transmission systems.
IIt-I07)
A Simplified Analysis for Optimum Pipe Diameter
Comprmon COS"
PI(t + .1t) - C 1 + Pi(t)
"here C, -
~IK,
It.
(it - lOS)
111-1091
Similar equations can be written for all the ot~er nod~ in the s:rste.m ,
Thus. we will have a system of non-linear algebraic equations ,:prescntmli!:
transient flow in the pipeline network. This syste~ ?f equaltons can i~
solved using finite difference techniques. For the explicit method. Equat
ll- IOS is expressed as:
PilI
\1
+ at)
- CJ(t
+ at , and Equa
+ 6.t) + Pi(t)
Other elements in the system, such as chokes and compressors, can also be
incorporated in the previous equations as done for steadystate networks.
II
w, _ fl."'ll
+ L,p) + B
2g.d
where
111-110)
578
As discussed in Chapter 7 (see Equations 7-14 through 7-21), several relationships can be described for the friction factor, f, in terms of the Reynolds
number, !".Jlko Peters and Timmerhaus (1980) use the following equation for
turbulent flow:
(11-111)
Combining Equations II-Ill and 11-110, and applying the necessary conversion factors, the following equation can be obtained for the annual compression costs:
(11-112)
where
f'ixed
emu Jor
where
579
Optimum Economic
Pi~
Diameter
The total annual COSt CT for the compressor and pipin~ system can be obtained by adding Equations 11-112 and 11-114:
II
II
Fp
(11-115)
L,p)H~ll r~ M n.
n(1 + Rp)CpEC Fp
(11-116)
The value of n for steel pipes is about 1.0 for d < 1 in ., and about 1.5 for
d ~ 1 in. Thus, for the commonly used greater than I-in. diameter pipes,
Equation 11-1l6 becomes (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1980):
(11-117)
(1 + Rp)CpECpp J
Piping System
For most t)1>eS of pipe, the purchase cost per foot of pipe is related to the
pipe diameter as follows:
(11-113)
where Cp,pe _ purchase cost of new pipe of diameter d inches per foot of
pipe length, .$ 'ft
C p _ a constant equal to the purchase price per foot for a I-in.
diameter pipe, $Ift
d - pipe diameter, in.
The annual cost for an installed piping system can be expressed as (Peters
and Timmerhaus, 1980):
( 11 -114)
0.0039q0~5pO,1J
__ 0.OO22mo45lpo,31
(II-liB)
581
d~pt' .. n
'1-;-+.,;O~.;""94"L-,,"d..,.-1.046 x
where
1O-IOH)C.,m2M,...016[~W
(11-119)
~t
Supply and demand projections are made using complex computer mod-
els that aerount for the vast number of factors that influence such predictions. The supply model involves reservoir modelling for production rrom
known reserves, geologic information for predicting the growth of these reserves, and field development plans. The demand model is even more complex. It deals with global (or local, as the case may be) economic growth,
expected energy consumption. energy consumption patterns (share of gas as
an energy source), price of gas and its effect on gas production and use, etc.
It is thus clear that supply and demand predictions are rarely accurate; some
commonsense analysis may often prove more reliable.
Availability of capital is usually not a serious constraint, but may preclude overambitious, ultra-large projects. Technical problems may be too
overwhelming in some cases, resulting in alternative feasible designs that
may not be optimum. It is easy to imagine how several other factors may
also become important in a given situation.
Capacity factor l~ the ratio of the actual a"eragl:! discharge to the design capacity.
582
Solve this expression for the case where: gas gravity - 0.81, gas inlet
pressure in the sytem - 950 psig, input gas flow rate = 4 MMscfd,
and flowing temperature _ 78F.
5. An 8,OOO-ft we11 is equipped with a 3-in. tubing. What minimum size
of surface flowline would be required to enable gas production at a
rate of 1 MMscfd, with a guaranteed pressure of at least 100 psia at the
separator? Use the following data: 1'11: - 0.6. bottom-hole pressure - 2.()(X) psia. bottom-hole temperature = 250F, surface temperature - 82F,
Can this surface flo\\.. line diameter be considered economic?
6. Write a computer program to solve Equation 11+48 for loopless pipeline systems. Use this program to solve for steady-state flow for a simple pipeline system.
References
Load factor is the ratio of the 8"erage rate 10 Ihe muimum houri), rale of flo,",
583
Ariz, K. and Settari, A., 1979. Petroleum Reservoir Simulation. Elsevier Ap.
plied Science Publishers Ltd., England, 476pp.
Batey, E. H., Courts, H. R., and Hannah, K. w., 1961. "Dynamic Approach to Cas-Pipeline Analysis," Oil l,- Gas 1.,59(51, Dec. 18),65-78.
Campbell, J. M., 1984. Cas Conditionillg and Processing, Vol. 2. Campbell
Petroleum Series, Norman, Oklahoma, 398pp.
Cross, H., 1936. "Analysis of Flow in !\'etworks of Conduits or Conductors,"
Bulletin oj the Univ. oj Illinois, 286.
Distefano, C. P., 1970. "P1PETRAN, Version IV, A Digital Computer Program for the Simulation of Cas Pipeline Network Dynamics;' Cat. No.
L20000, March.
Coacher, P. S., 1969. "Steady and Transient Analysis of Cas Flows in Networks," paper CC157 presented at the Research Meet. of lost . of Cas
Engrs. , London.
Cuy, J. J., 1967. "Computation of Unsteady Cas Flow in Pipe Net\I.'orks,"
paper presented at the Inst. of Chern. Engrs., Midlands Branch ConL, U.
Nottingham, April 14.
Hain, H. A., 1968. " How to Determine the Maximum Capability of a Complex Pipeline System," Pipe Line News, 9.
lz~wa:, H. S., 1966. "How to Calculate Cas Volume in Blowdown and Purg109, Oil & Cas 1.,64(19, May 9), 118-123.
Peters, M. S. and Timmerhaus. K. D., 1980. Plant Design and Economics
JOT Chemical Ellgineers, 3rd ed. McCraw-Hili Book Co., New York, N, Y..
973pp .
or
584
Rachford, H. H., Jr. and Dupont, T., 1974. "A Fast. Highly Accurate Means
of Modeling Transient Flow in Gas Pipeline Systems by Variational MethoW," Soc. Pel. Eng. f., 14(2, April), 165-178.
Stewart, T. L., 1971. "Computer Speeds Surge Calculations;' Oil & Gas J.,
69(47, Nov 22), 55-60.
Stoner, M. A.. 1969. "Steady-State Analysis of Cas Production, Transmission and Distribution Systems," paper SPE 2554 presented at the SPE 44th
Ann. Fall Meet .. Denver. Colorado. Sept. 28-0ct. 1.
Stoner, M. A., 1972. "Sensitivity Analysis Applied to a Steady-State Model
of Natural Cas Transportation Systems," Soc. Pet. Eng. J., 12(2, April).
APPENDIX A
115-125.
Streeter, V. L. and Wylie, E. B., 1970. "Natural Cas Pipeline Transients,"
Soc. Pet. Eng. J't 10(4, Dec.), 357-364.
Szilas, A. P., 1975. Production and Transport oj Oil and Gas. Developments
in Petroleum Science, 3, Elsevier Scientific Pub!. Co., Amsterdaal.
630pp.
Taylor, T. D., Wood, N. E., and Powers. J. E., 1962. "A Computer Simulation of Cas Flow in Long Pipelines;' Soc. Pet. Eng. J. 2(4, Dec.), 297302.
Tuppeck, F. and Kirsche, H., 1962. "Ein Numerisches Verfahren zur Berechnung Instationarei Stromungs\,organge in Ferngasleitungen," Dos Cas
Und WasserJach, 103(21, June}, 523-528.
Wylie, E. B., Stoner, M. A., and Streeter, V. L., 197 1. "'Network System
Transient Calculations by Implicit Methods," Soc. Pet. Eng. J., 11(4.
Appendix A1
Some Useful Physical Constants
Avogadro's number
Gas constant (R)
Dec.),356-362.
0.0'
- 273.15'
0.0'
- 459.Si
6.022 169 E + 23
0.082057477
0.084 784
1.987
8.3145
1.9859
1545.3
10.732
0.730 24
0.001 223 2
0.076362
0.001 293
0.080 719
33.136
1,089
9.806 65
"'.665
Dimensional constant (g.)
Indicates that tM
num~
In uni ts ot
Magnitude
Quantity
3217405
1.0'
10'
32.17405
22"1'
3.141 593
2.718282
,,""act
.85
"R
C
F
mole
(atm Iiter)/(gmmole K)
(kg/cmlliter)/(gmmole K)
(gm cal)l(gmmole K)
Joulesi(gmmole OR)
Btu'(lbmole OR)
(ft Ibf)/(Ibmole OR)
(psi ft"')/(Ibmole 'R)
(aim ftl)/(lbmole R)
gm/cml
Ibm/hl
gmlcml
Ibm'ft'
cm'sec
ft'5('C
m"'"
cm"~
ft . . ~
(kgm)I(N~
(gm cm)l(drne ~
(Ibm ft)I(lbf sec')
dimeruionless
dimensionless
dimemionle5lii
586
Appendix A
Appendix A-2'
General Data for Natural Gas Constituents
Appendix A2 Continued
General Data for Natural Gas Constituents
~n,11y
Compound
....
~...,.
0<.
"
C,H.
,~.
P'OfW'~
'.041
Xl0711
"'097
-}S8119 (SOXII
127.<18 1Il001
,.lU
1900
-~~
-297 ""
C,H"
12 lSI
1.~\f'hyTpent.~r
86 111
86.175
J.."V'hllpen'.~
N~ .. ~
4'1 .
116178
"S19
c.H ..
116.178
111 52
2. }'()',.,...,h\'lbu II""
CoIl"
86.171
1)6.]6
209.17
1901 ,0'9
n-"'ep .. ~
(,H .. 100205
l-MeIIlyIM .......
)Melh~lhe'.~e
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588
Appendix A
Appendix A2 Continued
General Data for Natural Gas Constituents
Appendix A2 Continued
General Data for Natural Gas Constituents
Den~n'l
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Appeudix A
En~in(,l',jllg
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Appendi x A2 Continued
General Data for Natural Gas Constituents
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An Overview of the SI System of Units
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592
51
a.. s.
Appendix A4
An Overview of the Commonly Used OIlFleld Units
au.nu~
SI unll
~bol
lenglh
mISs
meter
kilogram
tim.
second
,kg
lemperature
emount of substance
kelvin
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entropy
force
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specIfic heat
thetmel conductivity
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593
Velocity
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d.,
"'d
ye,f
Y'
hI.
ft/mln
mph
cu
fillS
J/(tg K)
W/!m K)
ml,
p"
m 2/s
m'
Flow rau
(IIOIUme tr iC)
faet pe f sacond
to
5280 It
144 1n 2
9 h'
43560 ,,2
4840 Vel 2
640 acres
27.878.400 ,,2
2"
4 q'
01336806 ttl
1728 in l
7.480 520 gal
5614584 ttl
4 2 g al
43560 ftl
'0.
3600 s
24 hr
1440 min Of 86,400 s
36525 d
(1150 takan as 365 d)
60 fUmin
06818182 mph
60 ft/s
1466 667 hIs
88 hlmln
3600 fl 3/hr
26929872 gph
15388.495 bpd
gal/hr (gph) 3.713 34 -05 "l/s
bbl/d (bpd) 6498 36 -05 fillS
(table continued I
59.
AJlIJrndix A
Appendix AS
" Memory Jogger" for Metric Units
MISI
gr,In
gl,m
ounce (.v)
ounce (Irov)
0'
0'
pounds (mus)
Ibm
ton f"hnr'fl
'0"
ton (long)
Density
liquids
Fore.
Pressure
'M
Ibm/in l
Ibmtrt J
Ibm/gal
API
480 gtains
.,"
{ '000
16 oz (11111')
2000 Ibm
2240 Ibm
barrel
Bulish IherlT'al uo,1
Bntish thermal uM per poundmass
{ 2300
o 133 660
6 Ibm/g.1
] 480 520 Ibm/It]
141 S/(specll,c 9ravltv)
- 1315
pdl
Ibl
Iblfin z
144 Iblilt 2
Ibflft z
Viseosity
(dynamic)
46330632 Ibm/lft-s)
32174 05 Ibm/{M-sl
2.15839 -04 Ibm/(ft-s)
Viscosity
(kinematic)
ftI/s
,.4 in 2/S)
6944444 E-03 in 1/s)
Temperature
",
Ener"". work
foot-pound (Iorca)
Blltlsh thermal unIt
horsepower-hour
therm
quad
ft-Ibl
hp-hr
therm
quad
7781692 ft-Ibl
1 98 E 06 ft-Jbf
'.0 e.05 Btu
1.0 e.,o therm
horsepower
hp
550 It-Ibl/s
Btu/min
]3.000 ft-Ibl/mill
42 407 Btu/mIn
778.169 2 ft-lb1lmln
Power
/s
"R
""
'000
OF. 45967
R-45967
,.,.
,
05
,.
calorie
centipoise
centlstokes
darey
degree Fahrenheil (Iemperalure difference)
dyne per cenllmeler
'001
cubic 1001 (cu tt)
cubic 1001 per pound-mass 1t1"lbm)
square 1001 (sq tt)
loot per minule
In
square meters
hectare
0.16 ctJblc meIer
04
23
poundal
pound lorca
Customary Unit
4375 g"ms
595
loot-pound-Iorce
lool-pound-Iorce pel mlnule
lool-pound-'Ofce per second
holsepowef
horsepower, boiler
"'"
IuIowatthour
mile
ounce (avolldupols)
ounce (fluid)
pound-force
POUnd-force per squale Inch tPfessure, psi)
pound-mass
pound-mass per cubIC 100\
section
ton. long (2240 pounds-mass)
Ion. melllC (Ionne)
Ion. short
{
{
lou!es
joules per kilogram
klloJoules per kilogram
JOules
mrilipascal-second
square millimeter per sacond
square mlCromeler
kelvin
mlliinewton per meIer
cenllmelers
30
03 meIer
0.03 cubiC meter
006 cubic meIer per kilogram
0' square meIer
03 meier per minute
millimelers per second
5
)Oules
0,02 wan
waUs
wans (~.:. kilowatt)
750
10
kilowatts
25 centImeters
3.6' rnegaJoules
IS
kilometers
grams
28
cubic C1tnlJmelers
30
newtons
kliopascals
7
05 kilogram
kilograms per cubic meIer
hectares
260
26 million square melers
26 square kllomelefS
kilograms
'000
kilograms
'000'
kIlograms
900
,..
"
"
{ "
'U.a lqUnoal_
(From Tluo 51 Metric Sy., ..m of l'"lu t)nd SPI;; Metric Sltmdord. 1984, CQlJrtesy of Sod!>ty of P.. ,r,,/...,'"
Eng;"........ Richardoon. 1~n~, I
596
---.......
597
Appendix A6
Alphabetical List of Units (all Field to 51 Units Conversions)
T9~Ffl!'!'
......"
_.........
---...
..._'m')
""
_,m')
r.+.!!II(/IyB ..'
.01
+01
.<
.<
".
".
".
".
".
"'"
".
".
".
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_(fl)
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ICI'.(U$_I'"
lO'e b:lt
..
4~'J'3
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........ (""1
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....'.. '1111
puctI (PI)
I>UC"I (p.)
pascal (pal
...-I .... 1m')
~.(~
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1Int,1II ",.,mtl_IWF)
6otllllo ",.,mll ..... IWF)
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-,.
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l ...... mtI~)
IIIu I~ ' _ I.... l'II''Fj
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..
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10!.9 '1
t 0!.4 68
1 730 715
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1121511
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81u1~'.
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IIIu (...... _ _ tII)Il.II'-'f1
5 112 2001
E.~
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(W (....1<))
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581~*
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20421!101
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. . . , ....... _
..... _. ____ .. __ ....,., ...... '.. m.__ ,... _ .. _____
..... _ ...
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......... _
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(I'.
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... " _ ..... _ - . .. _ _ ... _ _ .... _ , ,. _ .... U ......... _ , _ _ ... _ _ _
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... -,_._t._
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t. _
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(From TM SI Mdric S!fIt('71O oj t'"Ie....J SPE Merric Sr..nd..rd. 198-4. COIIrtl'$)' of Sktv oj hrrcHf"t""
CllDriet_1
....... (I5"C)
cool tlnl_IIOIWITIICIt~'g
cool t_"iOChemic;I/)Ig
cool (lnlemalionej Tabie~(g"C)
cool (IhtoOIoochtmocllll(g'"C)
...
pM 1* '*9.... ~1IMn ~I
4 llot 000
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'11168'
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4'8190
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4114"
4.1 84'
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.,...t: ("*"<)
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1oIogt.." (kg)
2.0'
1.33322
UII06 :JB
city 1 - ""'1
city
MOIlI'd lsi
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8Iu ~ r_VI>toI
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2 JSi 131
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".
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mel'" 1m')
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Btu rlttt .. _
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Appendix A6 Continued
Alphabetical List of Units (011 Field to 51 Units Conversions)
1.711102 E-Ol
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(table continued)
598
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_ _ _ _ tAml
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Appendix A6 Continued
Alphabetical List of Unit. (011 Field to 51 Units Conversions)
----
'*'"
Appendix A
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,."
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,."
,."
,."
"
ConY!<! From
1 562 '211
E-12
-'m')
_'m')
To
IbI.....P
11511'7 E.O!
1.0'
'00
,1
puaoI (PI)
pucIII M<:ond (P ... )
~--
2.6211 000
[lvnI{PaflTIn
- _ ........ cml'n')
.....
_---- --- --
E .. O!
5ta3&11 E .. O!
E-12
1iJIoVr..... ~I"vm'J
(SI'C. tpeaIIc \ w I _ )
'P'Y9y"
' .0'
"53 22
....
_.-........... ""
..........
...-...
_..._-_-.....--_..,..,., .
.......
(\giIP.......)1
tnHn.'(rnor-.Iof_)
601
Appendix A
~rp.)
",.
..., fU S liQuid)
-"'1-'11)
.-...
........,
.......
----...
",lImpe
""
_(UwN\Ie~)
luDgf_tc'kgl
_,m')
'-I'M!)
-"'(I)
....,...(...,
coulomb (C)
, Iid IF)
-,~
......... (5)
'*'" In)
"'M
....,
... Im')
CIIndIlIa
_ _ _ loo.1TI')
mtMr'" _
..."..., I.... I)
_'m')
mel.... (m')
1IIogr.... _ ....... f\<g.m)
.....
""" IJ)
"'"('SUY)
"'" IIM1ricI
"'" lnudear MI\III'...... 01 TNT)
"'" Ifllrigerltian)
"'"I. . . .)
"'" Ishoft. 2000 Ibm)
~-",..
~'t.-
-"...,
w.
.....-,-",,-W'"'
W...
1\01
Id\oot..... I~)
1IJogr....
1d\ogI1m (kg)
""" (J)
...IH(W)
meI"'(m,)
ldIogr_ ('leg)
1<Jogo".... 1* mt1 .... (lo.g 1TI')
1dIogr.... PI< MCIDfId (kg.")
-..........,
.....-IN)
1oIIogr.... (kg)
_,m')
~IPII
jDultlJ)
wtll_~{W"'"
wJII
_ _ {W 'm ')
,~
IMler,,,,)
~.
........ (m')
mtter' _ --.oj (m'JI)
\'M"I~)
--.oj (I)
.,..,11icIer.'"
mtle<' (.....
....",...a (I)
-"'Ill
.~'"
'00
".
,...
,.~
...,."..s (I)
IUilft.j
,."
E_g!
(_~_')
~I*
..-....
--...
_,m')
E _01
1,101221
-1m)
- "'lang")
"'"I __
paSQI (PI)
newton 1* ~ .... (N.'I<g)
~,78802e
, 'Sf)9() E.O!
'.7811 0211 E .01
US! 2M E.02
'54 751
'.00
,.~
~6oI813T
E-OII
'!iI121ilM1 E -Ol
(_F_,)
1 000000 E-OI
1(59390 e.Ol
, 788026 E _01
5.1537N E.02
33356'0 E-l0
3.3356'0 E-l0
1112650 E-12
'.111175~ E. II
U12650 E-12
111117 S50I E.-l1
2"1.25
'.00
..
".
,
,."
..... ...
1.0
"11678
,.~
,.~
,."
",
"
". ,'00
'00
,."
,."
,
."
".
"M
,~
2.11166el
1.018 ()47
E tot"~
3516800
2 631 6B5 , .00
.0716017 E .02
,."
,."
",,'"
....
."
,
,,, ."
.=" '00
,..,. ,."
".
._.
2_5111158 E-OI
I_F_'I
1.258637 E-OT
10
1550003
.1 ...
361 27.
760155<10
1.27' 258
3 153Il00
3.155115
3155 fi3
"00
,.~
E.03
E-Ol
E-Ol
E-Ol
,00
E.-01
E.07
E_07
602
Appendix A
o~, 08
38 8 0 80
'. ,.
, .,
L
I
603
.....
.. -- ..... ..
~-
,!." ',e
I~
!
;;;
! i IHI~ll I~ '. Ii I!
.
:.:.
, I' I~
I{ ,. If Ii
11 II
t
i If ~
, I'
II
-...
... ...
ze ,.,
Appendix B
605
APPENDIX B
Computer Programs
(FORTRAN Subroutines)
This section presents a few subroutines in FORTRAi'\' that find use in developing any computer program for computations related to gas properties.
production. and flow. Readers are encouraged to use these programs as they
are, and also as a part of mOTe complex programming effort~.
Subroutines
CRIPT
CASCOM
CASVIS
FRICF
HORIZF
CSMITH
VERTF
HACBR
BEGBR
INTPI
INTP2
~U\tlNT
604
APR ..
ANC ..
APCR ..
CR ..
DENL ..
DELTAP ..
DND ...
DNFR DNCV ..
DNL ..
DNLV ""
DP ,.
DPH '""
DR '""
EPCR ..
FF ..
FLH ..
FNSLH ,.
FPCR ..
CCRA '"
GDEN ..
GVIS ..
IERR,.
I FREG IOU ,.
ITER
MITER
MW
P
PI
P2
PBH
PC
PL
PR
PWH
QCSC
R.."JUM
..
..
..
..
..
..
,.
..
..
..
...
..
..
606
SICMAL
T
Tl
T2
TBH
Te
TOt.
TPGR
TR
TWH
\'ISL
Y\1
y
Z
ZC
Appendix B
607
c
IF(INDEX.EQ.2) GO TO 40
SUMA-OO
PCM" 00
TCM-ao
002011.18
SUMA" SUMA Y(I)"MW(I)
PCM - PCM Y(I)"PC(I)
TCM - TCM Y(IJ"TC(I)
20 CONTINUE
GORA .. SUMA/28.97
00 TO 60
C
40 PCM .. 709604 - 58118*GGRA
rCM - 170491 307344'GGRA
c
C Apply Wichert 8.
AliI
c
60 A - V(14) V(IS)
S - VIIS)
EPS 1200tA'09 -A U I6)' 150"tS"OS - 8'40)
TCM - rCM - EPS
PCM PCM'TCMI(TCM"EPS BEPS"(1 O-B))
c
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ F~O~R,-,T",R~A'C"~'S~u~b~,"~u~ti~ncs=---_ _ _ _ _ __
RETURN
END
c
SUBROUTINE CRIPT(lNOex.Y.GGRA.PCM.TCM)
c
c---------
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------
SUBROUTINE GASCOM{PR.TRLCR)
c
C ---------------------------------------------------------------------C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C ---------------------------------------------------------------------C
c
C----- HALL 8. VARBOROUGH -------------
6<)8
609
c
c
OR... OR'.O
oZDR .. Al A21TR AlITR3 .. 2.0CA'.ASITR)DR
, SOASA6DR.ITR (20A7DRfTR))
, (10<-MDR2-CA82 0)oR4)*EXP(-ASOR2)
CR .. , O/PR - (ZC/IIZH20)-TR))(DZDR/CI.0+CDRIZ)OZOR))
c .................................................................... ..
c
c
c
RETURN
'NO
c
...................................................... .
C
c
SUBROUTINE ZFACT2CPRTR.l.CRj
SUBROUTiNE ZFACT1(PR,TRl.CRj
c ------_______________________________________________________________ _
c
C --- --- ----- - - -- - - --- --- - - - -. -- ----- - - -- - --- -----. - - - ------ - --- --- ----C Follows the procedure Irom Yarborough and Hall's (197') paper
C Nomenclature and melhodologV similar to subroutine ZFACTI
C ------.---------------------------------------------------------------
c
Y(1) .. 0.3723
TOl .. 0.0001
TRI .. 10fTR
TRI2 .. TRI**2.0
TRI3 .. TRI"3.0
00 10 I - '. '00
ZC .. 0.270
20 OR,. Y(I.,)
OR2 ,. OR u 2 0
z .. '.0 <- CA1-A2ITR<-AlfTR3j.DR <- (A A5ITR)"OR2
, <- (AS*A6ITR)COR"S 0) (A7/CTR**3.0))"OR2
, "110. A80R2).EXP(-A8.0R2)
DO 10 I .. I, 100
F(I) .. -0 0612S(PRlTR)EXP(-1,2<-1I1.0-TRI)U2 0))
, .. C{Y(I)+YCI)2.0<-Y(I)"3 O-YCW' 0)/((1.0-Y(I))30))
, - (1'.76ITR-9.76TRI2.' S8"TRI3)O(Y(I)d2.0)
, (90.7fTR-242.2TRI2<-'2.'''TRI3)(Y(I)CZ18o 2.82fTR))
ZO OR - YCt.,)
z .. (0.0612SCPR/TRjEXP(-,ZC(I.0-TRI)"ZOj))fDR
C
ZC- 0.Z700
TR2 .. TRuZ.O
TR3 .. TROJ.O
OlDY" ('<-'DR-Z*CORZO))/((I-OR)' 0) - (1'.76fTR-9.76ITR2
, +4.S8/TRJ) 0 C90.7ITR-Z42 2fTR2.'2 'ITR3)
610
Appendix B
, (1.1S-282ITR)*COR"*(O lS+Z.82fTR))
CR .. 10/PR - (ZC/((ZoZO)OTRWfOZOY/(10o(DRlZloDIOY)
70 PRCAl-P/0.27
IF(ABS(PRCAl-PR)-OOOI ) 170.170.80
80 IF (PRCAl-PR)ISO,170.90
90 DR .. DRI
OElDR .. DELOR/2 0
00 TO 160
100 ORI .. OR-(P-O 270'PR)/OP
IF (ORI)110.nO.120
110 ORI - OS-OR
120 IF{DRI-22) 140.1'0,130
130 ORI - ORo09"{22-0R)
"0 IF{ ASS/DR-OR I )-0 0000 1 ) 170.150.150
ISO DR-DR I
160 CONTINUE
170 Z .. 0,270 oPRI(OR"TR)
200 CONTINUE
RETURN
'NO
c ................ u
........................................
c
SUBROUTINE IFACTJ(PR.TR.I.CR)
c
c -- '''''---. --------------------------________________________________
__
611
ITeR .. 0
J 1
OR" '.0
C
ZC .. 0.2700
OR2 .. ORO"2,0
OR4" DRh,.O
OZOR .. A I .. A2ITR .. A3/TR3 .. A'ITR ... As/ITR"OS 0)
, .. 2.0"(AS+A7ITR_A8/TR2)"OR - s.0"AS"(A7{TR-A8/TR2j"OR'
, .. (A 10"(OR2ITR3)-A I 0.0, II O(DR'fTR3),"(-2 0".0, IIOOR)"EXP(-A II-OR2J
, .. (2.0"A I 000RITR3_' 0-.0, 10.0, 11"(OR--3.0)/TR3)"EXP(-A II"OR2)
CR .. I,O/ PR - (ZC/((Z**20)"TR))" (OZORl{1.0-(ORIZ)*OZOR))
TRl TRuZ
TRJ .. TRo'J
TR4 .. TR".
Cl .. A7.ABITR
CO ..
C2 ..
C300
C4
RETURN
IF (PR-30 0) 10.10.200
10 IF ITR-10) 20.20.30
20 J 0
DRooOO
DElDR" 01
30 IF (TR-3.0) 40.'0.200
.0 DO 160 ITER 1.100
IF (J) 50.50,60
50 ORI OR
DR DR.OELOR
60 DR2 .. ORu2
DRS OR-oS
TI CO"OR
T2 C2"OR2
T3 .. C3DR5
T C,oDR2
T5 .. AnoOR2
T6 EXP(-TS)
P - ITRoT1-n-T3)OOR -T4"DRO(10_T5)"T6
DP .. TR200T '-30"T2oS 00T3.T'"TSO(30_3,0"Ts-2,0*TsOTS)
IF (J) 70.70.100
'NO
SUBROUTINE GASVIS(PR,TR,T,INOEl(Y.GGRA.GVIS,IERR)
C-------------------------------------------___________________________ _
C Cllculltes the viscosity at I 915 from liS
(i) composition, using Stl,1 ,nd Thodos (1961) 'qullion.
C
C or (ii) gravity using Clrr .t.1 (1954) method
C
Pressure correction by C,rr.t ,I. (195') is used
c
C
V.lid in the rlnge of 105 <'" TR <'" 30, 0.10 <- PR <'" 20,0,
SOD < .. T <- 860 (Rlnklne). Ind 0.55 <oo OGRA <- 1,50.
C
C INPUT'
CPR, TR, T.
C
INOEX .. I If gas compOSition Is known
C
.. 2 It gas grlvlty only is known,
C
Component mole frictions, y,
C or GORA Ilongwith the mole Ir.ctlons 01 N2. C02 Ind H2S.
C OUTPUT: On viSCOSity OVIS It PR, TR, Ind
C
IERR .. Error indlClllon - beyond rlnge a. method
C SUBROUTINES USED, VISCOR. INTP2.
612
c
REAL VIIS). MW(18), PCPS). Te(18). VCQMP(18)
Appendb:: B
C
150 IERR '"' 1
GVlS '"' 0,0
RETURN
, 100.205.1'4232.128259,142286,28013.44.010,34076.31.999.
, 2.016,180151
DATA PCI 6678.7078.6163.550.7,529 1,488 6.490 4,436 9,396 8,
f 3608,332 0.304 0,493 0.10709.1306.0,737,1,1882.32036 I
DATA Tel 343 1.549 8.665 7.765.4,734 7,845.4,828 8.9134.972 5,
I 1023910704,11118.227.3.547.6.612.4,278.6,599,1165.1 I
c
C --GIS "'Iscoslty II 1 81m & gtven temp Tusing componenl data __ _
51 TC(I)"(1./6.)/( (MW(I)"*{O.5})*(PC(I)H(2./3.)))
TRI TITCII)
IFITRt,OE.1.S)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c
SU8ROUTINE VISCOR(PR,TR,GVISA.GVIS.IEAR)
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------
00201-1,18
ao
TO 10
GO TO 20
10 VCOMP(1) - (1.778E-4)( (4 58"TAI - 16W{5/8,) )/51
20 CONTINUE
C .. u
IF(INOEX,EQ.2) GO TO 100
613
SUMA" 00
SUMB - 00
00301-1.16
SUMA .. SUMA .. VCOMP(I)"Y(I)*(MW(I)05)
SUMB .. SUMB - Y(I)(MW(I)**O 5)
30 CONTINUE
OVISA - SUMAfSUMB
GO TO 200
C
100 IF( GGRA LT 0,55 .OR GGRA GT, 1,50) GO TO ISO
IF! T .LT. 500 0 ,OR. T GT, 8600) GO TO 150
T-T-460,0
GORA2 .. GGRA'''20
OGINV - 1,0/(1.0-GGRA)
VBASIC" 0.0126585 - 0.00611823"GGRA ... 0,0016457.GGRA2
, - 00000164574"T - (0.71922E-06j"GGRA"T - (0.609046E-06)GGRA2"T
CH2S 1.0E-6 - ((1.13E-4)"YHZS*GGRA -(3.BE-5)"YH2S .'.0E-6)"OGINV
CC02 .. (0,000134"YC02"GGRA - 0000004YCOZ + 0,000004GGRA)*GQINV
, - 0.000003
CN2 - (0.000170YNZ"GGRA _ 0.000021"YN2" O,OOOOIGGRA).GGINV
, - OOOOOOB
GVISA - VBASIC + CHZS .. CCOZ + CNZ
T-T+480.0
GO TO 200
C---------------------------------------------------------------------c
614
Appendix B
615
c
C ---- VISCOSITY AT GIVEN PRESS eo TEMP ---------------C
60 GVlS - VlSGRGVlSA
RETURN
C
100 IERR - 1
GVlS .. 0,0
RETURN
END
c
c.. .. .... .... .... .... .. ........ .. ......
c
c
C ---- VISCOSITY RATIO ----------------------- ____________ _
C
lP .. 2
HP - 21
C----------------------------------------------------------------------C This subroutine finds the value Y for a given X IVlng In the range
C
of four points (Xl.Yl). (X2.Y2). (X3,Y3), and (X4.Y4),
C
using the generalized Lagrange Interpolalion equation
C----------------------------------------------------------------------C
AI-XI-X2
A2 -Xl-X3
A3 - Xl -X4
A4 .. X2- X3
AS .. X2- X4
AS .. Xl-X4
Bl .. X- Xl
- X- X2
83 - X- X3
B4 - X- X4
Y .. B2JA1'B3/A2 'B4/A3 'Yl - BlIAI'BJ/A4'B4/AS'Y2
I + BlIA2'B2JA4'B4/AS'Y3 - BlIAJ'B2JAS'B3/A5'Y4
LT - 3
HT .. II
DOIOJ-LT.HT
IF{TRTBL{J).GE.TR) GO TO 20
10 CONTINUE
J-HT"
20 IF{PRTBL{lP - l)lT PRJ GO TO 30
I I
CALL INTP2{TR.TRTBl{J- 2), TRTBl{J-I), TRTBl(J), TRTBl(J" I.
I VISI. VlSTBl{I.J- 21.VlSTBl{I.J-l ),VISTBL(tJI,VI STBl(I,J'I))
VlSGR - 1.00 (PR '(VISI-I,D))
GO TO 60
.2
RETURN
30 IF(PRTBL(HP ').GT.PR) GO TO 40
, - HP 1
CAll INTP2{TR,TRTBl(J-2), TRTBl(J-I).TRTBl(J), TRTBL(J" I.
I VlSI,VISTBL(I.J-2),VISTBL(1.J-I),VISTBL(I.J).VISTBL(I,J"II
VISGR .. VISI
GO TO 50
c
4000451-LP.HP
IF(PRTBL(I) GE PRJ GO TO 50
45 CONTINUE
I .. HI'. I
50 CAll INTP2{TR.TRTBl{J-21.TRTBl(J-l1.TRTBl(J).TRTBL(J"),
I VISJ. VISTBL(I.J- 2),VISTBl(I,J-! I.VISTBl(I,JI, VISTBl(I.J -, I)
I .. I - ,
END
SUBROUTINE FRICF(OP.APR,OGSC.GGRA.GVIS.FF)
C
C----------------------------------------------------------------------C This subroutine finds the MoodV friction lactor lor gas flowing in
C pipe. using Colebrooke's equation, With Newton-Raphson itlrltion
C INPUT:
COP, APR, OGSC, GORA, QVIS
C OUTPUT:
C
FF (MoodV Irlctlon faClor)
C---------_____________________________________________ ----------------C
REYN - 20 1230GSCGGRAI(GVISOP)
A - APR/(37'OP)
FF" 0.030
TOl .. 0.000005
616
e
108" A +
o 62S1(REYN*(FF
Appendix B
e
U
DELTAP .. PI - P2
PRI .. PIIPC
PR2 .. P2IPC
PAV" (20130)*(pl"30 - P2*~0)/(PI20 - P2"2.0)
PRAY .. PAV/PC
CAll GASCOM(PRAV.TRAV.ZAV,CRAV)
CAll OASVIS(PRAVTRAV.TAVJNDEX,Y.GGRA.GVISAV.IERR)
COEF4 .. (OP"S O)/(GGRA"TAV*Pl)
RHS4 .. 7 969634*PC*(S20 0/14 73)*(COEF4"OS)
COEF" (PI"20 - P2*20)*(COEF4IZAV)
RHS .. S.63S3821*(S20,0114.13)*(COEf**0 S)
O 5))
C .. O.314/(REYN"{Fp'511
OOOF .. -05/(FF"'.5) - (2 O/ALOG(10.0))"(C/8)
ffN .. FF - OQIDGOF
IF(ABS(FFN-Ff).lE,TOL) GO TO 20
Ff " FFN
GO TO 10
e
20 FF .. FFN
RETURN
END
e
SUBROUTINE HORIZf(DP.PLAPR,INDEX Y.GGRA.PC,TC.T1.T2.lFINO.
, IMETH,OOSC,Pl,P2.0ElTAP)
e
C---Thll unknown rate must be guessed to enable calcn of FF-C
except tor thl clSe of IMETH .. 1.
fF .. 0.0321(OP"(1013 0))
OGSC .. RHS / FF*O,S
tF(IMETH,EQ.l) RETURN
c----------------------------------------------------------------------C
This subroutine finds the pressura drop or 'Iownle
C tor steady-state ,Ingle-phas, ;1$ flow in I horllontal pipe. using
C
(I) If IMETH .. 1, than Weymouth equltlon
C
(iI) If IMETH .. 2, Ihln Plnh.ndle-A aqUlllon
C
C
617
e
C ---Iterate for Flow rate and frIction factor ----------
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
C----------------------------------------------------------------------e
COMMON TRAV
DIMENSION Y(18). DATARA(100,2)
ITER - 0
IF(IMETH,EQ.4) CAll NUM1NT(PR2.PRI ,V1NT)
10 ITER" ITER" 1
IF(tMETH,EQ.4) GO TO 20
REYN .. 20.123*OGSCGGRA/(GVISAVDP)
IF{IMETH Ea.2) FF .. 0 0768/(REYN u O 1461)
IF(IMETH Ea.3) FF .. O,003S9/(REYN**003922)
OGSCN .. RHS/fF"O,S
00 TO 40
20 CAll FRICF(OP APA.OGSC.OORA.OVISAV.FF)
OGSCN .. (RIIS4/fF u O,5j-(VINT**O S)
e
C--- CASE OF PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION ------------ __________ _
IF(IFIND,GT.I) 00 TO 100
e
C--- CASE OF FLOW RATE CALCULATION -----------------------
618
Appendix B
200 PRI .. X
PI .. PR1PC
ITER .. 0
210 DElTAP .. PI - P2
RETURN
2D)
PRAV .. PAV/PC
CAll GASCOM{PRAV.TRAV.lAV.CRAV}
END
CALL GASVIS(PRAV,TRAV,TAv,INoex,Y,GGRA,GVISAV,IERR)
cC
REYN .. 20 123*OGSC"GGRAI(GVISAV"OP)
GO TO (140.120.130,1S0j.IMETH
619
._uu............... ..........u............................
SUBROUTINE NUMINT(A.B.VIND
c
140 D2PN .. RHS"Z,AV"FF
IF(IFIND E0.2) P2 .. (p,uZ.O - D2PN)**Q.5
IF(IFIND,Ea.3) PI .. (02PN P2*-2.0)O.5
ERR" A8S(02PN - D2P)/02P
D2P .. 02PN
C ---------------------------------------------------------------------C
C
C
C
C
C
C ------------------ ---------------------------------------------------C
COMMON TR
DIMENSION T(I1.11)
DELTAP .. PI - P2
RETURN
C
TOl" 0 OOOS
MITER" 10
C-B-A
FA .. FUNCG(A)
FB .. FUNCG(B)
ITER - 1
lVl- 1
KMAX" 1
T(ll) .. (CI2,O)*(FA FB)
VlNTO" T(l . l)
C
150 CALL FRICF(OP,APR,aGSC,GGRA,GV1SAV,fF)
VINT .. RHS.oFF
PfU .. PIIPC
PR2 .. P2IPC
IF(IFINO_Ea.3) GO TO 160
PflGl .. PRI
PftQ2 .. osapR2
GO TO 170
160 PRG2 .. PR2
PftGl .. osapRl
c
170 DO 190 I - I,SI
CAll NUMINT(PRG2,PRG1.0ATARA(I.2))
IF(IFINO.EQ3) GO TO 180
OATARA(I.l)" PRG2
PRG2 ,. PRG2 + 002PR2
GO TO 190
180 OATARA(I,I)" PRGI
PRO 1 ,. PRQl + 0.02 apRI
190 CONTINUE
C
CAll INTP1(2.I.DATARAXVIND
IF(IFINO Ea.3) GO TO 200
PR2 - X
P2 - PR2PC
GO TO 210
...
10 ITER - ITER" 1
lVl .. lVl 1
KMAX .. KMAX .. I
OX - C/(20 0 (KMAX-Ill
l .. IFIX( 2.0*"CKMAX-l) - 1 )
SUMF - 0.0
DO 20 J .. l ,l
SUMF .. SUMF + FUNCG(A .. JOX)
20 CONTINUE
T(1.KMAX) .. (O)(l20)*CFA + Fe .. 20*SUMFI
00 40 l .. 2,lVL
0030 K" KMAX-1.1.-1
EX .. 4.0"(L-l)
FAC .. 1.0/(EX - II
T(L.K) .. FAC*CEXT{L-l.K.') - T(L-l.K))
30 CONTINUE
40 CONTINUE
620
Appendix B
c
'lINT T(lVL 1)
ERR'"' ABS(VINT-VlNTO)1V1NT
IF(ERR.LE.TOLANOHER.LE MITER) RETURN
VlNTC YlNT
70 Z .. DATARA(IJHV}
GO TO 100
GO TO 10
'NO
SO Z OATARA(M.lHV)
A .. 1.0
cc ....................................................................... .
C
FUNCTION FUNCG(PR)
COMMON TR
RETURN
110 X - OATAM(I-I ,I)" A*(DATARA(I,I) - OATARA(I-I.l))
IF(PR l1.0.2) 00 TO 20
CALL GASCOM(PR.TR.l.CR)
FUNCO PR/Z
RETURN
20 FUNCO '"' 00
RETURN
'NO
cc ..................................................................... .
RETURN
SUBROUTINE INTP1(IND,M.DATARA,X,V)
c
C
For INO '"' 1. Y Is dlllirmined for' glvefl XC
INO 2. X Is determined for. given Y
C INPUT:
C
DATARA Arr ., 01 (X.V) dall points
e M . number of dIll points (Iangth of arr ., DAlAMI,
C----------------------------------------------------------------------C
DIMENSION OATARA(100,Z)
SUBROUTINE CSMITH{OP,PLDPH,APR,INOEX,Y,GGRA,PC,TC,OGSC,PWH,TWH,
# TBHJSFCON,PBH)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------C
c
IF(INO EQ.Z) GO TO 10
IHV" 1
lX
GO TO ZO
10 IHV - Z
'NO
621
lY
Z000601-Z,M
A- IZ - OATARA(I-l,IHV))/(OATARA(I.IHV) - OATARA(I-I,IHV))
IF (A) 30,40,50
30 Z DATARAll ,IHV)
A- 00
GO TO 100
40 Z .. OATARA(I-I,IHV)
A" 00
GO TO 100
c
Gl - 0.0187S-GGRA*DPH
IF(ISfCON.Ea.I) Gl- Gl*IOOO.O
PRWH .. PWHIPC
TRWH - TWHITC
CAll GASCOM(PRWH,TRWH,l,CRWH)
PTZ .. TWH*VPWH
622
c
ITER-a
IF(ISFCON Eo.O) GO TO 20
PTZ .. lOIf'TZ
CALL GASVISjPRWH.TRWH.TWH,INDEX,Y,GGRA,GYlSWH.lERA)
CALL FRICF(OP.APROOSC.GGRA.GVISWH.FF)
FQ2 .. 2.6957*(1 OE-6)*(FF/4 OJ*(QaSC"*20j*PU(DPH*{OP'os.O))
TKENER .. 1 11\*\ 815*(1 OE-S)*GGRA"(OGSC**2 O)l(PWW(OpU4 0))
PTl- (PTZ ~ TKENER)/(FOZ 000I"(PTZ**ZO))
20 VINTGl .. A(l)'PTZ
PRES" PWH
TEMP" TWH
VlNTG I .. V1NTG2
C
C-----Integr.tion loop ---------------
C
30 ITER" ITER 1
PINeR" (PBH - PWH)130
c
00501-2,4
PRES" PRES + PINeR
TEMP" TEMP. TINeR
PRED .. PRES/PC
TRED .. TEMPITC
CAll GASCOM(PREO.TAEO.Z,CRED)
PTZ .. TEMP'VPRES
IF(ISFCON Eo.O) GO TO 40
P11 .. 1.0/PTZ
CAll GASVIS(PREO,TRED.TEMP,INDEX.Y,GGRA,GVISCOJERR)
CAll FRICF(DP,APR,OaSC,GGRA,GVISCO,FF)
FQ2 .. 2.6957*(1 OE-6)*(FF/40)*{OGSC"2.0)PlI{DPW(DP"S 0))
TKENER .. 1 '1''.875*( IOE-6)GGRAO(OGSC**2.0)/{PRES*(DP*4.01)
PTZ - (PTZ * nENER)/(F02 .. a 001*(PTZu2.0))
'0 VlNTG I VINTG 1 .. A(1)-PTZ
50 CONTINUE
C
C-----Newton-Raphson il.ullon-----
Appendiz B
c
SUBROUTINE VERTF(DP.PLOPH,APRINOEX,V,GORA.PC.TC.Tl.T2.
IIFINO.OOSC,PI.P2.0ElTAP)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------C This subroutine finds the pressure drop or IlowUtl for sleady-stale
C single-phase gas flow In I nOn-hOfl20ntal pipe using Sukklf-Cornell
C (1955) method. with the integrand evaluated bV numenCII Integration
C
C II IFINO .. 1. then compute lIawrale (Irom known PI Ind P2)
C
.. 2. Ihen compute prlssure drop (Irom known COSC and Pll_
C
3, then compute pressure drop (Irom known COSC and P2)_
C NOTE
C (1) Pl,T1 Is upstre.m. P2,r2 Is downstream OPH Is pOSitive
C
lor upwlfds Ilow from I to 2, negative otherwise
C
So. lor. flowing well, 1 is bonomhole, 2 Is wellhead
C (2) Subroutine NUMINT should be suitably mOdified to ICcept
C
Function FUNCSC (instead of FUNCG), Also. the COMMON
C
declaration In NUMINT should include vlriable BB
C
C INPUT:
COP, PL DPH, APR. V, INDEX, GGRA. PC, TC, n, r2. IFINO, IMETH,
C
Ind one of Ihese three
C
(I) Pl Ind P2, or (Ii' COSC and PI, or (ii) CGSC Ind P2
C OUTPUT:
cane 01 these three. depending upon Input
C
(i) aGSC or (il) PI Ind DELTAP, or (iii) P2 Ind DELTAP
C SU8ROUTINES USEO
C
GASCOM, GASVIS. FRICF. NUMINT, INTP1.
C----------------------------------------------------------------------_
C
COMMON TRAV, 88
DIMENSION V(18). DATPOO,2)
c
TOl - 0.001
MITER" 20
c
TAV n
IFrnNE.T2) TAV (1"1 - r2j/AlOG(T11T2)
TRAV .. TAVITC
RHS 0,01S7S"GGRA"DPHITAV
ERHS EXP(20 0 RHS)
C
FUNC Gl - (PBH - PWH)*VINTG 1
PNEW PBH .. FUNC/PTZ
ERR" ABS(PBH - PNEW)1P8H
P8H .. PNEW
IF(ERR.lT.TOLOR,ITERGT MITER) GO TO 100
PRES PWH
TEMp .. TWH
VINTG 1 VINTG2
GO TG 30
c
c
IF{IFIND.Eo.I) GO TO 100
C
C Assume I v.IUI for unknown pressure to enlble IV viSCOSity cllcn.
C
100 CONTINUE
RETURN
'NO
623
FF .. 0.0321(OP"P 0130))
XX .. (2_S272E-OS)"FF"OGRA*TAV"PL *(ERHS-l 0)*(QGSC**2.0)
XX XX/(2.0"RHS"(Op*S 0))
624
Appendix B
FF .. 0032/(OP*"(1.0/3 0))
XX .. 2.0"RHS"CDpS.O,"(P'2 0 - (P2"2 O)"ERHS )
YY .. (2.S272E-OS)FFGORATAVPL (ERHS - 10)
OOSC .. (XX/YY)O 5
c
C ---Iteration procedufe for Flow ratl and friction factor -----
c
OOSCO .. O.S"OOSC
DO 110 ,- 1,51
CALL FRICF(DP.APR.OGSCO,GORA.G"'SAV.FF)
BS" (6.6663E-04,FFPL(00SCO2.0,"(1A"2 0)
B8" BS/(OPHCDpS.0)(pC"2.0) ,
CALL NUMINTCPR2,PR1,DAT(I,2))
OATCI,
OGSCO
OGSCO .. OOSCO .. 0.0200Se
110 CONTINUE
CALL INTP1(2,I,DAT,X,RHS)
oose .. X
OELTAP .. P' - P2
CAll FR1CF(OP,APR,OOSC,GGRA.GVtSAVfF)
BB .. (6.6663E-(4)*FF"PlO(QGSC**2.0)"(TAV**2.0)
BB .. 881(DPH"(Dp"S O)"(PCZ.Q) )
I, .
IF(IFINO eUZI GO TO 20
625
CALL NUMINT(PR2,PRG1,DAT(I.2))
OAHI,I) .. PROt
PRG 1 .. PRG 1 .. aOZ"PR I
15 CONTINUE
CAlL INTPl(2.I.DAT)(,RHS)
PRI .. )(
RETURN
END
PIN" PR'''PC
ERR .. ABS(PIN - Pil/PIN
PI" PIN
GO TO 50
FUNCTION FUNCSC(PR)
COMMON TR, BB
IF{PRLT.0.2) GO TO 20
CALL GASCOM(pRTRl..eR)
FUNCSC .. V(PR BS(Z20)/ PR)
RETURN
20 FUNCSC .. 00
RETURN
c
20 PRGZ .. OS"PR2
00 25 I .. 1.51
CAll NUMINT(PRG2.PR1 .DAT(I.2))
OAT/I,ll .. PRG2
PR02 - PR02 002PR2
25 CONTINUE
CALL INTP'(2.l.OAT,X,RHS)
PR2 .. X
P2N .. PR2PC
ERR" ABS(P2N - P2)/P2N
P2 .. P2N
END
SUBROUTINE HAGBR(DP.ANGAPR,GOEN,O"IS,DENl.VISl.SIGMAl.VM,FNSLH,P,
, IFREG,FLH,EPGR,FPOR.APOR,TPOR)
C---- _______________________________________________________________ _
C for mul1lphue flow using the Hagedorn Ind Brown (1965) correlation
C The Duns Ind Ros C'961) IIquulon Is used for computing the
C ,cceleration pressura gradient.
C INPUT:
c
C--- CASE OF FLOW RATE CALCULATION -----------------------
C
C
C
'00 PAV" (2013.0)(PI~.0 - 1'2"3.0)/(1""2.0 - P2"2.0)
PRAY .. PAwpe
PRI .. P1IPC
PR2 .. P2IPC
CALL GASVl5(PRAV,TRAV,TAV,INOEX,Y,GORA.OVISAV,IERR)
C
C
C
C
OP, ANG, APR, ODEN, 0"15, OENl. "ISL SIOMAl. VM, FNSLH,
and Pressure P .t which the gr.dlent Is dlsired to be computed
OUTPUT~
626
Appendix B
C----------------------------------------------------------------------C
C
IFREG - 3
VS '" 080
FGH" 0.5( 1.0 .. VMIVS - ((I 0-VMIVS)"2.0 - 4.0VSGIVS)oO.5 )
fLH'"10 -fGH
IF(fLH LTfNSLH) fLH .. fNStH
OENMIX .. FLH"OENL - fGH"GOEN
RNUM .. 1488 0OENlO(VSUFLH)-(OP/12 O)IVISl
fF" 114 - 20-ALOGIO(APR/OP 2.125/RNUM oo 09J
ff - 1 0/ff u 2 0
EPGR " OENM1X"SIN(ANGR)f144 0
fPGR .. FFOENL "(VSUfLH)2 0/(2 0'32.2"12.001')
CFf-OO
GO TO 70
DATA OATHU
, 02.0 5,1 0.2 0,50.1 0 0 20 0,50 0,100,0.200 0,300 0.1000,0.
cC Calculat.
C
VSL
\/MFNSLH
VSO" \/M - VSl
C 1 .. IDENUSIGMAl)UO 5
C2 .. IDENUSIGMALj*"O 25
C3 _I DENL(SIGMAl"30) )"025
DND" 100727*OP'CI
ONGV" 1.938"VSG*C2
ONLV" 1,938"VSl"C2
ONL .. 0 15726"VISUC3
c
C-- Hagedorn & Brown correlallon -----
C
30 If REG .. 4
0040 I .. 1,10
OATCNI(I, I) .. ALOG(OATCNL(I.1))
OATCN1(1,2j .. ALOG{OATCNL(12))
40 CONTINUE
00501-1.12
OATHlI(1.1) - ALOG(I.OE-OS"OATHL(II))
OATHL 1(1.2) - OATHl(I.2)
OAT$ll(I.1)'" OATSI(I.I)
OATSll(I,2)" OAT51(1,2)
50 CONTINUE
C
~-- Uquid holdup calculations -----
IF(FNSlH.lTI,O) GO TO 10
FLH'" 1,0
lFREG .. 1
OENMIX .. OENt
GO TO 50
10 IF(FNSlHGT,O 0) GO TO 20
FLH .. 00
lFREG ... 2
627
X ... AlOG(ONL)
CALL INTPI(I.IO.OATCNI ,)(. Y)
628
Appendix B
629
c
ANGR" ANG*nO/(7 0*180.0)
RNUM .. 14880"DMIXNS"VM*(OPI12.0)IVISMIX
Ff .. I ' . - 2 O"ALOG10(APRIDP 212S/RNUM u O.9)
C
IFREG .. 5
IF(FNSLHGT.0.99999) IFREG .. 1
IF(FNSLH.LT I .OE-05) IFREG .. 2
IF(IFREG GT2) GO TO 10
FLH .. FNSLH
GO TO 100
FF .. 1 O/fF"2 0
EPOR .. OENMIXSIN(ANGR)/l44 0
IF(eFFGT 0 95) aD TO 80
70 TPGR .. - (EPGR ... FPGR)/( 1 0 - eFF)
APGR .. - TPQR*CFF
RETURN
c
80 WRITE{IDU.200)
200 FORMAT(/2X:CRITICAL FLOW REGION IS BEING APPROACHEO
, , ABORTING SUBROUTINE HAGBR.'/)
INDIC .. 0
AINDIC .. All
IF(FNSlH.LT,O.Ol) GO TO 20
IF(FNSLH.GT.O.4) AINOIC .. AL4
IF(ONFR.GE.AL2.ANO.ONFR.LT.AL3) INOIC .. 1
IF{ONFR.GEAl3.ANO.ONFR.LT.AINDIC) IFREO .. 4
IF(ONFR.OE.AiNOIC) IFREG .. 3
GO TO 30
20 IF(ONFR.GEAL 1) IFREG .. 3
30 IF(INDIC,Ea.1ANO.IFREG.EQ.5) IFREG .. 6
'I7X,
RETURN
'NO
SUBROUTINE BEGBR(DP,ANG,APR.GDEN.GVIS,DENLVISL,SIGMAL, VM,fN 5lH,P,
I IfREG,FUUPGR,FPGft,APGR.TPGR)
c-----------------------------------------------------------------------
C-----------------------------------------------------------------_____ _
C
C Cllcul'te liquid (VSl) Ind gls (VSG) superficill velocities
C
VSL .. VM-FNSLH
VSG .. VM - VSL
c
C Cllcullte the required dimensionless numbers.
C
DNLV .. 1 93B""VSL e((DENVSIGMAL)UO.25)
DNFR .. lZ.0-(VM-"Z.0)/{3Z.Z*DP)
c
C ANGR I, the Inclination Ingle in r.dians
C
1I-IFREG-2
GO TO (40,50.60,SO), II
c
C-- For distributed flow ----40A-l065
B - 0.5824
C .. 0.0609
o .. 1.0
E .. 0.0
F .. 0.0
G .. 0.0
GO TO 70
C-- For Intermittent flow ----50 A .. 0.845
B 0.5351
C .. 0.0173
o .. 2.96
E .. 0.305
F .. -0.4473
G .. 0.0978
GO TO 70
C-- For segreg.ted flow ----60 A .. 0.98
B .. 0.4846
C .. 0.0868
630
Appendix B
0-0011
-3.768
F" 3.~9
e ..
G .. -1614
c
70 FLHO .. A"(FNSlHoSjIONfRC
If(FLHOLT.FNSlH) FLHO" fNSLH
IF(ANGR.Ge,O 0) GO TO 80
C--For all Ilow types 'or downh,ll lIow--
a ..
470
E .. -03692
F-01244
0-05056
GO TO 90
631
RETURN
c
140 WRITE(IOU.200}
200 FORMA T(nX:CRITICAl FLOW REGION IS BEING APPROACHED
, '.. ABORTING SUBROUTINE SEGaR '1)
:nx,
RETURN
'NO
C
80 IF(ANGR,NE.O 0) GO TO 90
FlH .. fLHO
GO TO 100
C
C--flow is non-horizontal ------
C
90 X .. O"(fNSLHUE)"(DNtV"Fj"(ONFRuG)
CFAe .. (1 a - FNSlH)"ALOG(X)
IF(CFAC.lT.Q,O) CFAC .. 00
x .. SIN(lS"ANGR)
c
C Mixture properties .nd ffictlOn f.ctor
C
100 OMiXNS .. fNSLH"DENL + (1 0 - FN5LH)*GOEN
DENMIX .. FLH OENl + (1 0 - FLH)'"GOEN
VMIXNS .. FNSlH"ViSl (1.0 - FNSlH)'"GVIS
RNUM .. 148800MIXNS*VM'"(DP/lZ.0}NMIXN5
FF" 1.14 - Z.0 '"ALOG10(APR/DP + ZI.Z5/RNUM'"0 9)
FF .. 10IFf**Z.0
IF(IFREGU.Z) GO TO 130
c
v .. FNSLH/(FLH*" 2.0)
IFtyGT.l.0ANOV.lT 12) GO TO 110
YLN .. AlOG(Y)
S .. VLN/(-00SZ3 3 18Z'"YLN - o 872S'"(VLN'"'"Z 0)
, .O.018S3'"(VLN'"*40))
GO TO lZ0
110 S .. ALOG(ZZY - 1.2)
lZ0 FF .. FF'"EXP(S)
C
C C.lcul.tlon 01 prusure gr.di,nts
C
130 EPGR" DENMIXSIN(ANGRI/144 0
Index
Abandonment pressure, 32
Abwd,." 212-213, 218-226,
261-262, 265-267
Absorption, 260-262, 263-271
Dehydration.
Acentric factor, 44-45, SO, 64
Acid gases, 7, 255
removal of. See Desulfurization
P""""'" .
Additive injection, 208-2lO
requirements, 209-210
techniques , 208-209
type., 208
288-290
cubic-average, 35
molar-average, 35
normal, 34, 35
Bottom-hole pressure
flowing. See flowing
bottom-hole pressure.
409-412
ADlP process, 264
Adsorption dehydration. See
Dehydration.
Aerosols, 128
448
Brown's chart, 48
Bubble point curve, 22, 31. 36
prediction of, 36
284-285
Alumina. 236
Amine:s, 263-267
Annular flow, 347-348
633
63'
lhrou~.
354 359
purpose, 354-355
subsurface. 354-355
surface. 354 355
dia!{l'ams. 23
Compressibility, 68- 71
Compressibility factor. Sec
Z.factor.
Compression
adiabatic, 406-408
426-428
isentropic, 406-408
isothermal. '00
optimum ratio, 425
pol>1ropic, 408
406-412
pr~,
characteristics, 408-409
stages, 413. 424-425, 440
Compressors
aftercooler, 422
axial-flow, 401
centrifugal. 400-401. 403-406,
438-447
design, 438-447
continuous-flow, 394-395,
400-403
design
analytic method, 414-417,
438-439
centrifugal,438-447
Index
619-620
steady-state flow
horizontal, 616-619
vertical: Cullender-Smith,
621-622
vertical: Sukkar-CorneU.
623-625
viscosi~~
611-615
Concentric orifice. 462-463
CondensatE'S. See Gao: ('Ondf>no:~tt'"
Conservation of mass, law of, 29
Constant pressure process, 20
Constants, physical. 585
Contactor, 212-213, 218-226.
261-262, 265-267
Contaminants. 4
Convergence pressure. 135-136,
164
Conversion factors. 593-603
oil-field to SI. 596-603
Corresponding states. law of. 44,
50
Cricondenbar, 22, 34-35
Cricondentherm. 22, 34-35
Critical
compressibility factor. 45. 50
flow, 357-358. 456. 543, 563.
See also Flow, regimes.
locus, 23, 136
point, 20-23. 35
pressure. 20, 45, 46-49
saturation, 32
temperature, 20. 45, 46-49
Critical-flow prover, 456-457
Cullender-Smith method, 338-340.
345-347
Cunningham correction, 129
Cyclone, 98
D
Daltons' law, 29
DEA. See Amines.
635
521
absorption. 210-235
flow scheme, 211-213
plant design. 215-232
plant problems. 213-214
additive injection, 208-210
ad~rption, 235-250
adsorbent (desiccant) capacity.
242, 244-245
adsorbent (desiccant)
properties. 242
adsorbent types, 236
analysis of proces.~, 240-241
bed design, 243-250
bed regeneration cycle, 238.
239-240
breakthrough time, 245-246
chemical, 235
cycle time, 242
design variables, 241-242
flo\\' scheme, 237-239
minimum bed length, 246
physical, 235
regeneration calculations.
247-250
expansion refrigeration. 251
soh-ent properties, 210
Densitometer, 524
Density. 66
Desiccants. See Dehydration.
adsorption.
Desulurization processes
alkanol-amine process, 263-267
alkazid, 268
Benfield, 267
carbonate, 267-271
Catacarb, 267
chemical absorption, 263-271
G-V, 267-268
Holmes-Stretlord. 268-271
636
se1exol, 261-263
solidbed (adsorption). 258-260
types. 256
water wash (aquasorption). 261
depression. 170
prediction of, 36
Differential liberation, 116-117
Differential pressure. 454-457
Diluents, 4
E
Eccentric orifice. 462-463
Economics
gas transmission, 581-582
optimum pipe diameter, 577-580
EC. See Glycol.
Ejectors, 402-403
Elbow meter, 459
Electric precipitators, 134
Embrittlement. of steel, 128
EMR. See Eykman molecular
refraction.
EMR index, 57
Ener~y balance, 275-277
Index
250-251
Expansion, temperature drop due
to. 127
Eykman molecular refraction. 50.
57-62
F
Fanning friction factor. 282-283
Fillers, 4
Filters, 133
diatomaceous earth. 267
Finite difference methods.
555-562. 576
backward difference, 556
central difference, 556
explicit, 555-559
forward difference, 556
implicit. 558-559
Flange taps. 463
Flash calculations, 29-31.
134-136,164-166
Flash liberation. 117
F1ash tank. 212, 261-263
Flow
annulus. 347-348
liquid present in small amount.
366-367
modeling of, 532-550. 551-576
multiphase. See Multiphase flow.
nozzle;, 455
pipe
steady-state. See Steadystate
flow.
unsteady-state. See
Unsteady-state flow.
pipeline systems. See Pipeline
systems.
pressure profile. 289
regimes, 277-281. 282-283. 368
restriction/chokes, 354-359
critical flow, 357-358
subcritical low, 357-358
steady-state. See Steady-state
flow.
temperature profile, 359-362
unsteady-state. See
Unsteady-state flow.
Flowing bottom-hole pressure,
341-347
average approximate. 341-342
637
Cullender-Smith method,
345-347
Sukkar-Cornell method. 344-345
F10wing temperature in pipe. See
Temperature profile.
F10w measurement
mass. 523-524
methods. 454-461
natural gas liquids, 524-525
problems. 521-522
two-phase. 525-526
F10wmeters
attribute;, 452-453
accuracy, 452-453
calibration curve, 453
linearity. 453
precision, 452-453
rangeability, 453
repeatability, 453
critical-flow prover, 456-457
differential pressure. 454-457
elbow meter, 459
flow nozzles, 455
mass, 523-524
inferential, 523-524
true, 523
natural gas liquids, 524-525
orifice meter, 454. See also
Orifice meter.
orifice well te;ter, 456
pitot tube. 455-456
positive-displacement, 457-458
reciprocating-piston, 457-458
rotameter, 459-460
rotary meter, 457-458
selection, 454
turbine meter, 458
two-phase, 525-526
ultrasonic meter, 461-462
venturi meter, 455
vortex-shedding, 460-461
638
Index
programs.
Fracturing:. 13. 14
proppant. 13
Friction. 276
Friction factor. 282- 283
chart. 278
rU~ddty. :!7 -~, ';.5, 46. 179-181
Fugacity coefficient. 28, 29, 45.
46. li9 181
chart. 181
G
Cas cleaning. 128- 134
methods, 130
steps in, 128
Gas compressibility. 68-71
Cas compressibility factor. See
Zfactor.
Cas condensates, 11, 32
reservoir. 32
Cas constant, 26-27. 40, 79
Cas density. 66
Gas deviation factor. See Z-factor.
Cas drive reservoir
dissolved. 31
internal, 31
solution. 31
Gas formation volume factor. ()f
Cas gravity of total wellstrcam,
366
Gas horsepower, 423-424. 439-440
Cas hydrates. See Hydrates.
flow.
Ca . oil ratio, 32-33
producing. 32
Gas production
system optimization, 33
worldwide, 5-6
Gas relief valH~:S. 91
Gas resenoir. 32
Gas specific heat. See Specific
heat.
Gas transmission economics.
581 582
Gas. type of
condensates. 11
dissolved or associated. II
free gas. 9
in brine, 14
in solution, 9
non-associated, 10
Gas viscosity. 72-79
Carr et al. method, 72- 75
dynamic. 72
kinematic. 72
Lee et al. method. 7S- 79
single-component, 75-76
Gathering systems. 529-531
axial. 529-530
common-line, 530-531
radial. 529-530
trunk-line. 530-531
well-center, 530-531
Gels. 236-237
Giammarco-Vetrocoke process.
267-268
Gibbs free energy. 25
Gibbs phase rule, IS- 19
Glycol, 208. 210-232
contactor, 218-226
corrosion, 214
decomposition, 214
flash separator, 231-232
injection pump. 209
10=;,213
plant design, 215-232
H
Hammerschmidt's equation, 209
Holmes-Stretford process, 268-271
effluent stream. 270-271
Stretford solution, 269
Horizontal flow, 285-305, 368-371
Horizontal separator. See
Separators.
Horsepower. 416. 423-424.
438-440
Hydrates, 183-20S, 521
conditions promoting, ISS-1S6
curve, 184-185
formulas, 184
from sudden expansion. 186
phase behavior. IS4-ISS
prediction. 186-207
approximate. 186-187
equations of state. 206
Katz et aL, IS9-193
McLeod-Campbell . 2O-t-206
Trekell-Campbell , 193.
197-207
prevention. See Dehydration.
without sudden expansion, IS6
Hydraulic radius, 277-279
I
Ideal gas, 40
deviation from ideality. 40-41
639
J
Joule-Thomson effect. WI. 126,
250, 360-361
temperature drop upon
expansion, 127
K
Katz et al. method. 189-193
Kay's rule. 46. 51-52
Kirchhoff's laws, 543-544, 574
K-values. See Equilibrium ratio.
L
Laminar flow. See Flow. regimes.
Latent heat
fUSion, 20
vaporization. 20
Law of conservation of mass. 29
Law of corresponding states, 44. 50
Lever's rule. 24
Liquid
discharge valves, 91
loading. See Liquid loading.
recovery maximization, 116
640
641
386-388
prevention, 386-388
unloading, 388~391
beam pumping. 389
gas lift. 390
plunger lift, 389-390
165-166
Log-mean temperature, 286
Looped pipes. See Pipeline systems.
Low temperature separation.
~Iultiphase
flow. 365-391
directional wells. 381
hilly terrain' inclined. 382-383
horizontal,368-371
liquid loading. See Liquid
loading.
pressure traverse curves. 369-379
small liquid presence, 366-367
vertical, 372-380
Multipole correction factor, 64
125-128.250-251
LTX units. 125-128, 250-251
M
McCabe-Thiele diagram. 220,
226-227
McLeod-Campbell method.
204-206
McKetta-Wehe correlation, 171.
172
MOEA. See Aroines.
MEA. See Amines.
Xatural gas
constituents, 4, 7
physical data, 586-591
consumption, 2-3
contaminants, 4
"""'. 4
development, 1-4
diluents, 4
field processing, 89
fillers, 4
history, 1
hydrate;:, See Hydrate;:.
occurrence, 9~14
coal, 14
geologic structures, 8-10
geopressured aquifers, 14
reservoirs, 10
tight sands, 13
tight shales, 13-14
origin, 8
production, 5-6
o
Oil-field units, 593-594
conversion to Sl, 596-603
Optimum pipe diameter, 577-580
Orifice meter, 454, 462-522
accuracy, 520-521
calculations, 467-519
installation, 465-466
factors, 470-519
basic, 470-475, 486-489
expansion, 479-485, 494-497
flowing temperature. 498
gauge location, 517-518
manometer, SOl. 517
orifice theTmal expansion,
518-519
pressure-base, 489
Reynolds number, 475-479.
490-493
square-edged, 462
straightening vanes, 464-465
t}1)E$, 462-463
concentric, 462-463
eccentric, 462-463
segmental, 462-463
Orifice well tester, 456
p
Panhandle A equation, 291, 537
Panhandle B equation, 291, 537
Paraffinic, 35
Parallel pipes. See Pipeline systems.
Partial pressure, 28, 170
Particulate matter, 128
Peng-Robinson equation, 43
Phase behavior
applications, 31-33
multicomponent systems, 21-25
single-component systems, 19-21
Phase diagrams, 18-25
pressure-temperature diagram,
19. 21-22
pressure-composition diagram,
24-25
ternary diagram, 24
Phase rule, 18-19
Physical absorption, 260-262
Physical constants, 585
PhYSical data for gas constituents,
586-591
Pipeline
advantages of, 275
aging/corrosion, 531
allowable pressure, 284
allowable velocity, 284-285
average pressure. 288-290
blowdownlpurge, 562-563
capacity factor, 581
closing valve, 563
64.
economics, 577-582
efficiency, 292, 303
flow modeling, 532-550,
551-576
flow through
flow.
bide,;
unsteady-state. See
Unsteady-state flow.
load factor, 582
pressure deration. 531
pressure profile, 289
pressure testing, 563-564
reserve factor, 582
roughness, 281
storagefbuffer capacity, SOt, 582
transmission factor, 303
trash. i, 128
variable demand. See Variable
consumer demand.
Pipeline systems, flow through
steady-state, 532-550. See also
Steady.state flow.
looped, 535537
networks. 541-550
looped, 545-550
loopless, 544-545
parallel, 533-535
series, 532-533
unsteady-state, 551-576. See also
Unsteady-state flow.
approximate solutions,
562-572
networks, 573-576
pipes, 551-562
Pipe taps, 463
Pitot tube, 455-456
Plunger lift, 389-390
Poi).tropic efficiency, 411
Polytropic exponent, 409-412
457-458
R
Real gas behavior. 40
Reciprocating compressors. See
Compressors.
Reciprocating-piston meter,
457-458
Redlich-Kwong equation, 43
Reduced density, 56
Reduced pressure, 50
Reduced temperature, 50
Refrigeration. See Expansion
refrigeration.
Regeneration, 239-240, 258-261
Relative paraffinicity, 35
Reserves
classification, 11
possible, 13
potential, 1\, 13
probable, 11
proved, 11-12
worldwide, 12
Reservoir
abandonment pressure, 32
condensate, 32
engineering, 33
gas, 32
oil, 31, 32
undersaturated oil, 31
Residence time, 96, 104
Restrictions. gas flow through,
354-359
critical,357-358
subcritical. 357-358
Retrograde
condensation, 32
region, 22
Revaporization, 32
Reynolds number, 129, 277-281
Robinson et al. correlation, Iii,
173-175
Rotameter, 459-460
Rotary meter. 457-458
Roughness, of pipe, 281
S
Scrubbers, 133-134, 211-212,
215-218
cartridge, 134
dry, 134
oil-bath, 134
specifications 216-218
Segmental orifice, 462-463
Selexol process, 261-263
Separation
baffle
angle, 92
centrifugal, 91
conical,91
plate, 100
centrifuge, 96-98
coefficient, 99, 102
differential, 116-117
economics, 101
equipment, 90-91
643
131-133
fiber. 133
sizinll. 102-103
vane-type, 131-133
wire mesh, 100, 131-133
optimum, 119, 123
primary, 90-91, 92
principle<>, 95-100
stage, 114-125
Separators
allowable velocity, 101
de<>ign, 101-114
design considerations, 104-105
functions. 90
gas capacity, 100, 102-103,
107-112
high-pressure, 105
horizontal, 92-95
advantages of, 94
disadvantages of, 95
double.tube, 93-94
single-tube, 92-93
specifications, 118-121
liquid accumulation section,
90-91,93,95
liquid capacity, 103-104,
112-113
liquid discharge (dump) valve.
105
liquid settling volume, 103-104.
114, 117, 119, 121-122
low-pressure, lOS
manufacturers' charts, lOi-113
minimum diameter, 104
64'
Index
308-309, 336
Steady-state flow
hilly terrain. 348-354
specifications. 122
flow correction, 350-351
types, 91-95
general method, 351
vertical. 91-92
static correction, 349
advantages of, 91
horizontal, 285-305
disadvantages of, 92
Clinedinst equation, 292
specifications, 113-117
effect of assumptions, 288
Series pipes. See Pipeline systems.
Panhandle A equation, 291
Sharma-Campbell method,
Panhandle B equation, 291
179 181
Weymouth equation, 290
Silica gel, 236-237
verticallinclined, 305-348
51 units. 591--592
fiov.ing pressure. See F10wing
conversion from oil-field units
bottom-hole pressure.
to, 596-603
limitations due to
Slugging flow, 522
assumptions, 348
51u!1.', 90, 91
static pressure. See Static
Solution loading, 265
bottom-hole pressure.
Souders.Brown equation, 99, 102
Stewart-Burkhardt-Voo mixing
Sour gas. 51, 255, 522
rule, 62
Sour gas correction factor, 52
Stokes-Cunningham equation, 129
Specific heat, 20, 79-85, 407
Stokes law, 129
constant pressure, 79, 80-83
Stoner's method, 548-550
constant volume, 79, 83-84
Straightening vanes, 464-465
heat capacity difference, 79
Stress corrosion, 265
molal singie-component, 82
Spherical separator. See Separators. Stripping gas, 231
Subroutines. See Computer
Square-root chart, 466
programs.
Stage separation, 114-125
Sukkar-Cornell integral, 310-335
Standard conditions, (f1, 451-452
Sukkar-Corne11 method, 308-309.
Standard pressure, 451-452
336,344-345
Standard temperature, 451-452
T
TEA. See Amines.
TEe. See Glycol.
T4EG. See Glycol.
Temperature drop due to
expansion, 127
Temperature profile, 359-362
horizontal pipe, 360-362
vertical pipe/wells, 362
Terminal velocity, 129
Thermodynamic equilibrium,
25-27
Thomas et al. equation, 47
Throttling effect. See
Joule-Thomson effect.
Tie-lines, 24
Toxicity of H2S, 255
Transition flow. See F1ow. regimes.
Transmission ealnomics, 581-582
Transmission factor, 303
Traverse curves. See Multiphase
flow.
Tray efficiency, 226
Trekell-Campbell method, 193,
197-207
Triple point, 20
'furbine meter, 458
Turbulent flow. See F1ow, regimes.
u
Ultrasonic meter, 461-462
Units
conversions. oil-field to Sf.
596-603
oil-field. 593-594
51,591-592
Universal gas constant, 26-27, 40,
79
Unsteady-state flow, 551-576
approximate solutions, 562-572
blowdown/purge, 562-563
closing valve, 563
pressure testing, 563-564
variable demand. See Variable
consumer demand.
in networks, 573-576
in pipes, 551-562
initial and boundary
conditions, 554-555
numerical solutions. 555-562
v
Van der Waals
criteria for critical point, 42, 44
equation, 41-42
forces, 185
Vapor-solid equilibrium ratio,
189-193, 194-197
Variable consumer demand
constant injection rate case,
564-568
variable injection rate case.
568-573
Variational methods, 562
646
l'
~ ' 1'
.!I_O\'
z-
IJt)L I
"
estimation
Campbell, 171 , 174-178
empirical plots, 171
equations of state, 178-181
McKetta-Wehe, 171, 172
partial pressure, 170-171
Robinson et aI., 171, 173-175
Sharma-Campbell, 179-181
factors, 169- 170
Water wash, 261
Watson characterization factor, 35
62-63
Wichert-Aziz correction, 52
Z-factor related properties, 66 -68
Z-values. See Z.factor.