SUBJECT

History
Academic Year: 2010
IGCSE
Liteno

HI-403: Lecture 1 End of the Cold War (A Broad Survey)

THE USSR IN EASTERN EUROPE
In 1945, after the Second World War the Red Army (Communists) quickly occupied much of
Eastern Europe. The communist countries of Eastern Europe were joined in a kind of unity
under the leadership of the USSR. Stalin set about making all the states into carbon copies of
the USSR, with the same political, economic and education systems, and the Five Year Plans.
All had to carry out the bulk of their trade with Russia, and their foreign policies and armed
forces were controlled by Moscow.
ORGANISATION OF THE COMMUNIST BLOC

After the war there was a political vacuum in many countries in Eastern Europe. The
Soviet leader Stalin helped the Communist parties in them to win power. Through
Cominform (The Communist Information Bureau) Stalin made sure that these
Eastern European countries followed the same policies as the Soviet Union. They
became one-party states. The Communist Party was the only legal party. Secret Police
arrested the Communists opponents.
The council for the Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)
The economies of Eastern Europe were shattered. The COMECON was set up by the
USSR in 1949. The aim was to help plan the economies of the individual states. All
industry was nationalised (taken over by the state), and agriculture was collectivized
(0rganised into a system of large, state-owned farms). Through COMECON Stalin made
sure that the countries of Eastern Europe traded with the USSR. He promised aid to
countries that co-operated with the Soviet Union.
The Warsaw Pact (1955)
The Warsaw Pact was signed by the USSR and all the satellite states except
Yugoslavia. They promised to defend each other against any attack from outside; the
armies of member states came under overall Russian control from Moscow. However,
the only time Warsaw Pact troops took part in joint action was against one of their own
members-when the USSR disapproved of Czech internal policies.

CHANGES IN THE USSR

For some people in Eastern Europe the Communist brought hope. The Soviet Union had
achieved amazing industrial growth before the Second World War. The Soviet-style
Communism offered them stable government and security because they were backed by

one of the worlds superpower. Faced by shortages and poverty after the war, many
people hoped for great things from Communism.
However, Soviet control of Eastern Europe was very different from what people had
hoped for. Countries that had a long tradition of free speech and democratic government
suddenly lost the right to criticise the government. Newspapers were censored. NonCommunists were put in prison for criticising the government. People were forbidden to
travel to countries in western Europe.
Between 1945 and 1955 Eastern European economies did not recover. But the factories
did not produce what ordinary people wanted. They actually produced what the Soviet
Union wanted. Wages in Eastern Europe fell behind the wages in other countries. They
even fell behind the wages in other countries. Eastern Europe was forbidden by Stalin to
apply for Marshall Aid from the USA which could have helped it in its economic recovery.
As Europe began to recover after the war, the people of Eastern Europe compared
themselves with the people of Western Europe. They saw that people in Western Europe
had:
More freedom-e.g. more than one party to vote for, a free press which could criticise the
government, no secret police, freedom to travel where you wanted, relaxed censorship
in the arts and media, a higher standard of living.

DETENTE IN THE 1950S

In the 1950s there seemed to be a thaw in the Cold War. This was known as a period of
peaceful co-existence, or detente.
In 1953 Stalin dies. After a two-year period Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the new
Soviet leader. He was responsible for changes in Soviet Policy.
A policy of De-Stalinization began in the USSR and Eastern Europe. This meant
removing anything to do with Stalin- such as photos, statues or street names. He
released more political prisoners, closed down Cominform as part of his policy of
reconciliation with Yugoslavia.
He ended the USSRs long feuds with China and with Yugoslavia.
Khrushchev changed the Communist doctrine by arguing that there need not be a war
with the Western Powers. The Communist system would eventually triumph over the
capitalist system because it was superior. Meanwhile, the two systems could co-exist
peacefully. The USSR, however, would continue to compete with the USA.
He made plans to reduce expenditure on arms. He attended the first post-war summit
between the USA, France and Britain in July 1955. He also said he wanted to improve
the living standards of ordinary Soviet citizens and those of Eastern Europe.
However, one aspect of Stalins policy did not change. His aim in Eastern Europe had
always been to create a buffer against attack from the West. Khrushchev created the
Warsaw Pact. This was a military alliance similar to NATO. The members would defend
each other if one was attacked.

Khrushchev criticism of Stalin sent a strong signal to opposition groups in Eastern Europe that
they could now press for changes. The Question was: how far would Khrushchev let them go?

THE USSR IN EASTERN EUROPE

In 1945, after the Second World War the Red Army (Communists) quickly occupied much of
Eastern Europe. The communist countries of Eastern Europe were joined in a kind of unity
under the leadership of the USSR. Stalin set about making all the states into carbon copies of
the USSR, with the same political, economic and education systems, and the Five Year Plans.
All had to carry out the bulk of their trade with Russia, and their foreign policies and armed
forces were controlled by Moscow.

HUNGARY: 1956 (A BACKGROUND)

Hungary had been hostile to the USSR before the war. The Communist Party had never
been popular and in the first elections after the war it only gained 17% of the vote.
Nevertheless, Stalin insisted on it taking part in government and then other parties were
eased out. By 1948, Hungary was ruled by a Communist dictator, Rakosi. He was hated
for the following reasons:
Rakosi was pro-Soviet: he did exactly what Stalin told him. The Red Army continued to
occupy Hungary.
Hungary is a prosperous agricultural country but under COMECON (Stalins system of
uniting all the economies of Eastern Europe together) it had to develop industry, mainly
to serve the needs of the USSR. The Stalinist system of Five-Year Plans was introduced.
Workers hours were long and pay low. The council for the Mutual Economic Assistance
(COMECON)
The economies of Eastern Europe were shattered. The COMECON was set up by the
USSR in 1949. The aim was to help plan the economies of the individual states. All
industry was nationalised (taken over by the state), and agriculture was collectivized
(0rganised into a system of large, state-owned farms). Through COMECON Stalin made
sure that the countries of Eastern Europe traded with the USSR. He promised aid to
countries that co-operated with the Soviet Union.
Standard of living was low under Communism. There were food shortages blamed on
the new collective farms. The standard of living actually fell by 5%, 1959-55.
The hated State Protection Group (AVO), and 100,000 Hungarian secret police used
terror and torture against opponents of the government, Communism and the USSR.
There was no freedom of expression. The government controlled the press, theatre, art
and music.
Hungarians were strongly Christian but the Communist Government persecuted the
Catholic Church. Its leader, cardinal Minszenty, was put in prison.
Hungarians were proud and patriotic. They were aware of their culture, traditions and
history. Soviet control of education meant that children were taught the Communist
version of history.

THE HUNGARIAN UPRISING OF 1956

Demonstrations and protests in the Hungarian capital, Budapest, led to the election of
Imre Nagy as Prime Minster in October 1956. He supported reforms, and this worried
the USSRs leaders, especially when Nagy demanded the right for Hungary to leave the
Warsaw pact. The Warsaw Pact (1955)
The Warsaw Pact was signed by the USSR and all the satellite states except
Yugoslavia. They promised to defend each other against any attack from outside; the
armies of member states came under overall Russian control from Moscow. And wanted
the total withdrawal of the Soviet army from Hungary and declare Hungary neutral in the
Cold war. Khrushchev would not allow Hungary pulling out of the Soviet block because
the other Eastern European states might want to do the same. He could not afford to
show any weakness. The USSR sent in a huge army to crush the revolt and there was a
lot of fighting in the streets of the Capital. Some 3000 Hungarians were killed and
200,000 fled to the West. Imre Nagy and his fellow leaders were imprisoned and then
executed. A hard-line leader, Janos Kadar, was imposed on the Hungarians and the
reforms were reversed. Hungary was firmly under the control of the USSR within the
Warsaw Pact. The West ignored the calls for help from Hungarian reformers because
they were too preoccupied with the Suez crisis in the Middle East.
One reason was certainly the harsh actions taken by the Soviet Union. The rebels had
no chance against the Soviet tanks. The other main reason was the lack of effective
support from the West. The Western governments were distracted by the Suez Crisis in
which French and British troops invaded Egypt in order to protect the Suez Canal.
Members of the Security Council wanted to call for withdrawal of Soviet troops but the
Soviet Union used its veto to block the resolution. The USSR refused to allow the UN
Secretary-General to visit Budapest.

RESULTS OF THE UPRISING

The uprising had effects on Hungary and the Cold War:

Hungary. About 200,000 refugees fled to the West. Nagy was tricked into leaving his
refuge in the Yugoslav embassy. In 1958 he was hanged in Moscow. He was loyal to
Moscow but did eventually allow some freedom of discussion.
Eastern Europe. The other Soviet satellite states now realised that they would not be
allowed any independence or the freedom to follow policies different from those of the
USSR.

WHAT DID THE PEOPLE OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA WANT IN 1968?

Before the war Czechoslovakia had a more developed democracy and manufacturing economy
than Hungary. However, since it had been a Soviet satellite since 1948 with its government
taking orders from Moscow. However, many Czechs wanted changes

Freedom of expression. They wanted to be free to discuss ideas.

The freedom to set up political parties and to vote freely in elections.

More influence over the way their factories were run.
An end to Soviet control of the economy. The USSR forced Czech industry to produce
those raw materials which the Soviet economy needed, such as steel. It stopped
factories from consumer goods. As a result the Czechs had a low standard of living.

PRAGUE SPRING, 1968

In 1968, a different group of Communists led by Alexander Dubcek, the new Party Secretary,
removed Novotny (in power for more than 10 years) and took over the government. They put
forward alternative plans. In order to achieve more growth and competitiveness in the economy,
there should be more freedom. More economic freedom needed more political freedom. They
called it Socialism with a human face.

Provision of basic human rights.

Less state control, increased standard of living.
Powers of the secret police curbed, end of press censorship, free elections, opposition to
parties allowed.
Freedom to travel abroad plans to increase trade with the West, encourage competition
and less state control.
Weakened the power of the secret police
Writers and artists supported them. This exciting time in Czechoslovakia was called the
Prague Spring

The Soviet response

Soviet leaders believed that Dubceks reforms threatened their control of Eastern Europe. They
feared:

There would be further demands for even more freedom in Czechoslovakia. If granted,
people in other Eastern European states would demand them too. This, in turn, might
destroy the rule of the Communist parties in these countries and Soviet control.
The USSR also feared that Czechoslovakia would ally with Yugoslavia, who had refused
to join the Warsaw Pact, and Romania, who would no longer attend meetings of the
Pact.

RESULTS OF THE CZECH CRISIS

Soviet action in Czechoslovakia had several important effects:

It temporarily worsened East-West relations. The West protested at Soviet actions.

Detente, however, continued after only a slight break.
Czechoslovakia returned to strict Communist rule. People in Eastern European countries
were reminded that the USSR would maintain strict Communist rule and Warsaw Pact.
Nevertheless some Communist countries began to move away from Moscow. President
Ceaucesu of Romania refused to send troops to join the forces invading Czechoslovakia

in 1968. He took a more independent line against Moscow. Albania did likewise and left
the Warsaw Pact for good,
China criticised the invasion. The Chinese disliked the use of force against a fellow
Communist nation. They feared that The USSR might do the same against China.

THE BREZHNEV DOCTRINE

Brezhnev had eventually succeeded Khrushchev as Soviet leader.
The Soviet leader announced that if forces hostile to Socialism tried to turn a Communist
country towards Capitalism it was the duty of Communist countries to intervene. This caused a
split in the Communist world. Yugoslavia, Romania, China and Communist parties in the West
opposed this doctrine

Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev did not like it, but did not act at once. He threatened
Dubcek and Czechoslovakia. Eventually, the other Communist leaders of Eastern
Europe feared for their own positions if Socialism with a human face spread, and tanks
were sent in to crush the Prague Spring. The Czech people reacted with passive
resistance, but Dubcek was removed and gradually the old system was restored
Again the West did nothing. Western leaders were trying to get detente(an easing of
tension between two countries and a move towards better relations) going and did not
want direct confrontation with the USSR
Brezhnev announced that:
No member of the Soviet block was allowed to leave the Warsaw Pact
No multi-party systems would be tolerated

These two principles became known as Brezhnev Doctrine

GERMAN UNIFICATION AND THE COLLAPSE OF THE BERLIN WALL

This signified the end of the Cold War for the world at large, despite the fact that
Gorbachev denounced the Brezhnev doctrine in 1988.
On December 3rd, with Bush as the new President, the announcement was made with
Gorbachev that the Cold War was over.
The Sinatra doctrine meant that communist regimes in Eastern Europe would no longer
be propped up and allowed to choose their own form of government.
East Germany had ignored glasnost but the surrounding countries had not, and with
Czeckeslovakia and Poland independent, this strengthened anti-communist protests
within East Germany.
Tensions were at boiling point in 1989, when the new leader of East Germany refused to
make reforms.
The fall of the Berlin wall has symbolic significance for the West as a symbol of the end
of communism.
Bush was elated and in 1990, the two states officially became united and communism
ended in Germany.
By the end of 1991, all of the satellite states had become independent and the Soviet
Union had collapsed.

SOLIDARITY IN POLAND, 1980-1990

The first major threat in the 1980s to Soviet control over Eastern Europe came in Poland with
the emergence of the Solidarity movement.

The Poles always disliked Soviet control because it had tried to suppress the Polish
Catholic Church. Despite this, the Church remained strong and demanded freedom to
preach as it wished and run its own schools
There was a strong feeling of nationalism in Poland. The Poles wanted their country to
be free to make its own policies even if it was closely tied to the USSR
Protest in Poland had always been purely economic: demanding higher wages, or lower
prices, or the right to free trade unions. (There were official trade unions but the
government and the Communist Party controlled these. Strikes were forbidden by law)
The government had usually met their demands. Polish workers did quite well in the
1970s, but by 1980 depression had set in
In 1978 the Polish Cardinal Wojtyla was elected Pope John Paul II. This led to even
greater nationalist feeling in Poland, greater hatred of the government and stronger
church opposition to the government.
In July 1980, Lech Walesa, an electrician in the Gdansk shipyards, led a strike for higher
wages. He set up a free trade union, called Solidarity (A movement set up in Poland by
Lech Walesa to campaign for greater freedom and more workers rights). By January
1981, Solidarity had 9.4 million members-60% of all non-agricultural workers in Poland.
It was recognised by the government and campaigned for all kinds of workers; rights,
including the right to join the free unions and to strike

Solidarity threatened Soviet Control of Poland. The Soviet government knew that it had to
keep control of Poland-otherwise other Communist countries in Eastern Europe might also
claim their freedom. The USSR encouraged the Polish armed forces to seize control of the
government, ban the trade union and imprison its leaders. However,
1. It had massive support, including many Communists
2. It had lots of members in vital Polish industries
3. Walesa was careful not to criticise the Communist Party or make any proposals for
political change
4. Walesa and Solidarity had close links with the powerful and popular Roman Catholic
Church
5. Half of all journalists, writers and film makers had joined it
6. Walesa was well known in the West-appearing on Western television and in the
media

The Solidarity protest lasted longer than the revolts in Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
However, it was too much of a threat to the government to be allowed to continue.
Poland was in chaos, with massive inflation and unofficial strikes. Walesa could not hold
Solidarity together. Splits occurred and some members called for changes which were
against the Brezhnev Doctrine

Early in 1981, General Jaruzelski, head of the Army, became Prime Minister of Poland.
In December 1981, he arrested Walesa and 10,000 Solidarity members. Solidarity was
suspended. 150,000 members were hauled in by the police for cautionary talks
Poland remained in a state of unrest for the next few years. By 1986, Solidarity was
reviving and Walesa was again a leading figure. But by then all events over Eastern
Europe were changing fast

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SOLIDARITY MOVEMENT

Solidarity had forced a strong Communist government, firmly backed by the Soviet
Union, to give way. This had been achieved by:
The action of industrial workers backed by popular opinion
The use of non-violent methods
The government in Poland had lost the confidence of the people and Solidarity showed
that a Communist government could not solve Polands economic problems
The USSR still wanted a one-party Communist government in Poland but had not used
force to ensure this-unlike in the cases of Hungary and Czechoslovakia
Gorbachevs reforms including the freedom of speech allowed discontent to grow
Many wanted to see the collapse of Communism as Gorbachevs reforms were not
working as food shortages remained and prices were high
Gorbachev wanted a more equal relationship and was no longer willing to use armed
forces to get his way. This helped reduce spending on military
Gorbachev introduced perestroika. This encouraged more competition in industry and
glasnost where Soviets could criticise the government. These reforms came too quickly
Interest in capitalist methods increased as trade with the West. This also increased
Soviets awareness of better standards of living in the West
Communism was seen by many as corrupt and Soviet industry and agriculture
inefficient. This was not helped by the spending of large sums of money on defence and
in Afghanistan

COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM IN EASTERN EUROPE

Independence of Eastern Europe

The failure of Gorbachevs reforms meant that Eastern European states felt that they no
longer benefit in terms of trade concessions from USSR through COMECON.
Previously, USSR bought from Eastern European states at high prices but sold them at low
prices to maintain their political loyalty.
These states were reluctant to send profits or taxes to Moscow due to the reforms and this
in turn worsened the Soviet economic crisis.
It also heightened anti-Soviet nationalism in Eastern Europe and their desires to break away
from the Union.
Gorbachev also wanted to give up Eastern Europe to reduce spending there and as a
means of strengthening the economy.
The breakaway of Eastern Europe from USSR inspired the Soviet 14 non-Russian republics
to do the same esp. after Aug 1991

There was an increase in anti-Soviet nationalism and with the introduction of the Sinatra
doctrine the states had the opportunity to gain the independence that they desired.
Without an empire, the Warsaw Pact and COMECON came to an end.
With no empire, the Soviets were weakened and they were less of a threat to the USA and
this contributed to the end of the war.

July 1989 - in a speech to the Council of Europe, Gorbachev insisted on "the sovereign right of
each people to choose their own social system," or also known as the Sinatra doctrine. Soviet
institutions throughout eastern Europe began to be dismantled
1989 - Bulgarian Communist Party deposed its longtime leader, Todor Zhivkov.
1989 - Two weeks later, Czechoslovakia embarked on its "Velvet Revolution," quietly deposing
the country's communist leaders.
1990 - Gorbachev and West German chancellor Helmut Kohl had worked out an agreement by
which the Soviet Union acceded to a unified Germany within NATO.
July 1989 - in a speech to the Council of Europe (see Glossary), Gorbachev insisted on "the
sovereign right of each people to choose their own social system,"
1991 COMECON dissolved
1991 Warsaw Pact ended

End of Warsaw Pact

Due to the nature of the pact, the Eastern European nations that were previously part of the
empire would have nothing to do with it. They had become independent from Soviet control
and there was no other option but for completely disbanding.
NATO was still in existence but in an act of peace, invited officials from Russia and the 8
other countries that were part of Warsaw to a NATO conference in Brussels in 1991.
The end of the Warsaw Pact signified the collapse of the Soviet Union as the official
recognition of soviet rule over its satellite states ended.