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Defining Culture and Imperialism

Preceding any effort aimed at dissecting Edward Saids Culture and Imperialism, and
thereafter exposing its relativity to contemporary intercultural communications, it is initially
necessary to define the two terms embossed upon the cover of his work: Culture and
Imperialism. First and foremost, it should be appropriate to begin with the latter term of
culture, a term seemingly simplistic in its meaning. Conversely, according to David C
Thomas and Kerr Inkson; Culture is a word that is familiar to everyone, but its precise
meaning can be elusive. As a useful definition by noted social scientist Geert Hofstede is that
culture consists of shared mental programs that condition individuals responses to their
environment ( Thomas and Inkson 2003, 22). Thus it implies a unique set of norms,
behaviours, traditions, language, etc that differentiate one community from another. Yet, it
must be stressed that this concept of culture is not, as one may presume, a static phenomenon,
rather it is a dynamic one; changing within and throughout the historical realities experienced
by all of society.
In Culture and Imperialism, Edward recognises culture as it is used throughout the text as a
dual paradigm. First of all it means all those practices, like the arts of description,
communication, and representation, that have relative autonomy from the economic, social,
and political realms and that often exists in aesthetic forms, one of whose principal aim is
pleasure[...] Second, and almost imperceptibly, culture is a concept that includes a refining
and elevating element, each societys reservoir of the best that has been known and
thought[...]culture comes to be associated, often aggressively with the nation or the state, this
differentiates us from them(Said 1993, xii-xiii).
Imperialism fosters an equally complex significance. According to Said, it is the practice,
theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory;
colonialism [Said notes], which is almost always a consequence of imperialism, is the
implanting of settlements on distant territory (Said 1993, 8). This definition of imperialism
in its classical sense emphasised a more or less direct rule over political, economic, and
socio-cultural sovereignty of the unlawfully usurped territories. The deterioration or
dissipation of the former colonial structures provoked the emergence of a new, and
controversial, form of imperialism. This new imperialism employed singularly by the
United States, implies an indirect control under a fluffy facade of exporting democratic
values to democracy deficient and deprived nations.
Culture and Imperialism: Married within the Historical Reality
Now that definitions have been established, the next issue of relevance is that of their
correlation, or absence thereof. Simultaneously of importance are the implications of this
relationship or lack thereof on societies within the historical reality of a given period in time.
To further explicate this matter and to introduce the variables upon which Saids main
premise is formed, the focus will lie specifically on literature (as an expression of culture)
and the human historical reality (which may express such oppressive structures as
imperialism, and/or resistance to empire.)

It is quite common for one to perceive literary works as disparate from the human historical
reality. One may perceive literature as indeed an escape from the complexities of human
existence; a man-made hallucinogen that transports the mind of the individual beyond
societys pandemonium satiated with class conflict, political upheaval, and economic
exploitation. Literature is equated to an escape from the human historical reality instead of
demonstrative of it. This is not an invalid interpretation of literature per se. Said also
concedes that this interpretation of literature as an expression of culture is that [which has]
relative autonomy from the economic, social, and political realms and that often exists in
aesthetic forms, one of whose principal aim is pleasure (Said 1993, xii). Yet, it is also not
only sufficient but necessary to depart from this widely accepted and arguably onedimensional view of literature as an articulation of culture, in the pursuit of an alternate,
possibly more complex perception.
Hence it could be quite justifiably argued that either by reading certain literary pieces at a
superficial level, or by exclusively reading those works which suffice merely as the
hallucinogen; there occurs a perpetual evasion of literatures other purpose: to voice the
human experience in the historical reality. Contrary to the latter description of literature, this
one compels a marriage of literature to the human historical reality. Quite pertinent to note;
this voice can be utilised to satisfy two rival purposes: 1) to perpetuate a [false or
constructed] reality in order to influence a certain situation or maintain dominance over a
particular group/entity through a promotion of a particular ideology or 2) to give a voice to
the voiceless; in other words, to bring to the forefront unpopular or suppressed truths; which
may clash with or seek to delegitimize a dominant ideology.
Applying this notion to the text at hand, the cortex of Saids work is this marriage between
historical reality and culture, wherein the historical realities of humans throughout time
cannot be divorced from the expressions of culture produced. Edward Saids ultimate focus
is on how culture, specifically through literary works, perpetuates an acceptance and
legitimacy of imperialism, or on the contrary fuels a resistance to, thus delegitimizing, the
acts of empire. According to Dana Polan from IPFW, throughout the text Said calls for a
contrapuntal reading, an approach that by juxtaposition of texts and histories would catch
the complex relations of art and society without ever reducing one to the other (Polan 1994).
Hence, Said imparts a myriad of multifaceted literary classics interwoven throughout the four
lengthy chapters of Culture and Imperialism and sets forth to extract the formerly cryptic
messages within the subtexts of the works to establish its relation to the human historical
reality (specifically to issues of imperialism).
To proceed, this monograph will attempt to review Saids first part of the text which explores
an acceptance or perpetuation of imperialism through literature; focusing specifically on his
example of Jane Austens Mansfield Park. Proceeding the latter will be a summation of
Saids portrayal of resistance to Empire. Finally, this monograph shall attempt to reach
beyond the parameters of a mere review of Saids book, and attempt to establish the relevance
of this text to contemporary intercultural communications.
From the Imperialist Eye
The first aspect of this marriage that Said attempts to represent in the text is that literature, as
a manifestation of culture, may be employed in an effort to prevent domestic mass resistance
to imperialist expansion/activities, and subsequently pacify the masses by legitimising the
acts of empire. This is further elucidated in the common held notion that those indigenous to
the colonised lands, were somehow of an inferior breed; requiring assistance, guidance, and

dominion from those deemed superior. Additionally, as an infant capitalism began to surge
through colonial world, there began a mass awareness that indeed the empires survival
depended upon the continued expansionary activities in the far corners of the earth. Thus by
alluding to both sentiments of duty towards those inferior through exporting civilisation and
survival through the encouragement of continued profit accumulation and territorial
expansion through mediums of literature, the empire, amongst its domestic population was
legitimised.
This complimentary marriage between literature and Empire is further typified in Jane
Austens Mansfield Park. The main character, Fanny Price, the poor niece, the orphaned
child from the outlying city of Portsmouth, the neglected, the demure and upright wallflower
(Said 1993, 85), eventually is taken in at the Bertram Estate and gradually acquires a status
commensurate with, even superior to, most of her relatives (Said 1993, 85). As this socioeconomic metamorphosis occurs, Fanny comes to analyse the world in which she lives. As
many critics note, Mansfield Park seems to be a story principally centred on domestic issues;
leaving a connection between the novel and imperialism seemingly far reaching. However,
Said claims that this perception is derivative of a superficial analysis. Going beyond the
surface, one encounters two very different analyses as they relate to Empire.
The first and perhaps the more pronounced of the two, is Fannys gradual recognition of the
factors which ensure the preservation of a particular socio-economic status in society. This is
epitomised by her uncle, Sir Thomas Bertrams constant absence from the Bertram Estate. It
is occasionally mentioned throughout the novel that his estate in England is maintained by his
work in Antigua (it is assumed that he owns and operates a sugar plantation; Said 1993, p.
89). Thus the notion emerges that the type of socio-economic status that Fanny comes to
enjoy, is dependent upon British imperial activities overseas. This illustrates the survival
sentiments of Empire mentioned earlier.
Somewhat obscured from Saids analyses of Mansfield Park, is another element in the novel
which alludes to imperialism: specifically the duty sentiments mentioned earlier. This is
best explained by attending to Fannys character and development itself; the premetamorphosis state in which she is first introduced. Fanny begins as an orphan,
impoverished, arguably naive, from the perspective of the higher socio-economic classes. In
order for her to develop; or even survive; she requires direction, requires the patronage and
outside authority that her own impoverished existence cannot provide (Said 1993, 85). This
statement is reminiscent of the common held attitudes towards the victims of colonisation and
imperialism as mentioned earlier. This attitude thus manifests into another; a sense of duty
and legitimacy of alien control over backwards peoples. Fanny is in fact symbolic of those
colonised by the British; requiring direction, patronage, and outside authority.
An ostensibly pleasurable work of art reveals through Saids contrapuntal methodology, the
imperial influence (and hence cultural influence) formally concealed between the lines. By
Mansfield Park fostering both sentiments of duty and survival as they relate to British
imperial activities overseas, the novel subconsciously validates and legitimises the concept of
Empire and the imperialism required to sustain it.

Imperial Resistance Expressed Through Literature

The latter part of the book focuses on resistance to Empire through literature. Said focuses
on three separate but interrelated themes that emerge post decolonisation in literature. The
first he alludes to is the insistence on the right to see the communitys history whole,
coherently and integrally. Restore the imprisoned nation to itself (Said 1993, 215). Here
one encounters a reversion in culture to reclaim ones national identity pre-colonisation. The
former colonised citizens divert their attention to formerly practiced language, religion
(animistic beliefs), cultural rituals, etc.
Second is the idea that resistance, far from being merely a reaction to imperialism is an
alternative way of conceiving human history. [Said proceeds noting that] it is particularly
important to see how much of this alternative reconception is based on breaking down the
barriers between cultures (Said 1993, 216). Here Said highlights attempts by authors to
merge cultures of the colonised and the colonisers into an almost new entity; whereby the
suppressed histories of the marginalised finally find a seat within the literary canon. Third is
a noticeable pull away from separatist nationalism toward a more integrative view of human
community and liberation (Said 1993, 216).
To abridge these three themes, it is helpful to reflect upon Shelley Walias work Edward Said
and the Writing of History where she states that: The ideology of resistance is basic to
[Saids contrapuntal methodology]. Using an alien language, the colonised writer
reconstructs and reframes the cultural reality expressed in Western discourse. More than a
mere oppositionality, there is a recreation and recontextualising of history written from a
linear and univocal perspective [aimed at] the recovery of ones identity and history that has
been infiltrated by the culture of empire (Walia 2001, 54). Edward Said provides
examples of authors that illustrate this resistance such as CLR James, Partha Chatterjee, and
William Butler Yeats. Although not included within Saids work, another prime example of
resistance to empire can be seen through other works such as the poetry by Judith Wright,
Louise Bennett, and Oodgeroo Noonuccal.
Conclusions: Relevance to Intercultural Communications
It may seem a preposterous, even an unfeasible task to attempt to link Saids work Culture
and Imperialism to intercultural communications. They seem to convey disparate realities
and unique implications. Yet in reality this is not the case.
Take for example the main argument in Saids work: that culture (through mediums of art,
music, literature) is not divorced from the human historical reality. Imperialism, being part of
this historical reality, can be reinforced in its legitimacy and acceptance through cultural
forms. Just as it can be legitimised, however, it can also be delegitimized through cultural
forms. What is important here then is the visibility of such texts which legitimise historical
realities such as imperialism opposed to those that act as agents against empire. Those texts
that tend to legitimise imperialism come from the dominant western cultures (chiefly from
former or present empires themselves), and subsequently tend to be more visible within the
global sphere. Those that tend to achieve the opposite, are from the subordinate non-western

cultures, and are to a greater degree invisible within the global sphere. Culture in turn then
can act as a catalyst to reinforce or subvert this hierarchical structure within the human
historical experience; wherein the dominant western voice typically results in stifling the
subordinate non-western voice.
The implications of this are found in cross-cultural or intercultural communications. If it is
allowed that this dominant-subordinate cultural relationship supported through the vehicles of
literature, art, and music proceed in its maturation, what will result is a continued attitude of
superiority attributed to the dominant western voice, whilst the subordinate non-western
voice (specifically that which critiques western values and actions) is continually stifled and
considered illegitimate; or at least of lesser importance by comparison. Thus, this bias in
intercultural communications not only hinders a global cultural intelligence; but can create
mass discontent amongst and within non-western societies. The amalgamation of these two
consequences in turn could fuel a continued North- South divide, and in effect could fuel
the fire so to speak towards potential cultural clashes and subsequent global conflict.
Thus, when examining the discipline of intercultural communications, it is not sufficient to
approach the concept of culture as divorced from the human historical reality, but
complimentary to it and reflective of it. Of equal importance, not only should one examine
this relationship between culture and historical reality, but also the implications of this
sometimes imbalanced or detrimental relationship, and its subsequent role in intercultural
communications. For, if intercultural communications is to be truly effective in the future to
come, there exists a necessity to balance the relationship between cultural and historical
reality; whereby a hierarchical structure fostering the subordination of one culture, and
dominance of the other, must be dismantled.

Works Cited
Inkson, Kerr & Thomas, David C. 2003. Cultural Intelligence: People Skills for Global
Business. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Polan, Dana. 1994. Art, society, and contrapuntal criticism: A review of Edward Saids
Culture and Imperialism Culture and Imperialism by Edward Said. Clio 24 no. 1 (1994), in
the Proquest Digital Library, http://proquest.com/en-US/ (accessed October 17, 2008).
Said, Edward. 1993. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Walia, Shelley. 2001. Edward Said and the Writing of History (Postmodern Encounters).
Cambridge, UK: Icon Books.