276

Proceedings of the National Seminar & Exhibition

on Non-Destructive Evaluation
NDE 2009, December 10-12, 2009

Imaging using Phased Arrays

Michael Moles
Olympus NDT, 48 Woerd Avenue, Waltham, MA USA 02453

Abstract
Ultrasonic phased arrays offer great advantages in scanning, sweeping, steering and focusing beams, as well as options for advanced imaging.
Until recently, the imaging options have been limited to S-scans and E-scans, or the standard top, side, end views. However, more recent
work has shown great potential for alternative imaging approaches, e.g. superimposing the ultrasonic image on the component to show defect
location. Also, advanced digital filtering techniques can be used to tighten up images. Some of these techniques are commercial, while others
are still under development. Advanced imaging techniques have significant advantages for trainees, managers etc., but the value for structural
integrity is less obvious.

Introduction
Imaging has always been an important aspect of NDT;
after all, if one cannot image a defect, how can one interpret
the readings? However, it is primarily in the last decade or
two, when personal computers and laptops became dominant,
that imaging has taken great strides. These steps have
occurred in conjunction with technical developments in NDT,
to ultrasonics in general which lends itself to complex
imaging due to its digital data and to phased arrays (PA)
in particular.
Phased arrays [1,2] are well described elsewhere, and
will not be defined in detail here. PA inherently provide a 2D
or 3D image using S-scans and E-scans, and particularly with
encoded scans where all the data is stored for subsequent
imaging. However, it is possible to go well beyond the
standard PA images and reprocess them into complex overlays
and others. This paper describes developments in these
areas.

Fifty Years Ago

When ultrasonics first started, the only functional
display was a waveform, subsequently known as an A-scan
(see Fig. 1 for an example). The operator scanned the probe
over a reflector, and interpreted the defect from his experience,
training, knowledge etc. While good operators could produce
excellent analyses, the overall approach had several
limitations: no recorded data, no alternative interpretation,
highly operator dependent.
Top, Side, End Views
With the arrival of Automated Ultrasonic Testing in the
80s, A-, B-, C- and D-scan displays became the way to
display. Figure 2 shows an example of a top, side, end
view. These same views can be mimicked with PA using
encoded scans.

Fig. 1 : Typical A-scan display on flaw detector

This standard display can be embellished by adding

extra views and overlays, which are particularly useful for
locating reflectors relative to the component, e.g. welds.
These types of displays are now standard in the advanced
segments of the NDT industry (see Fig. 3 for an example).

3D Imaging
Naturally, some people wanted 3D imaging to show the
flaws in the best possible way. Software programs are
available today [3], but their engineering value is
questionable. Figure 4 shows an example, with a 3D image in
the bottom right view.
Almost all analysis approaches, be they called Fracture
Mechanics, Engineering Critical Analysis or Fitness-ForPurpose, use an ASME-style box round the defect for
defining the defect boundaries (see Fig. 5). This suits a top,

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Fig. 2 : Top, side, end view of weld. Top left: top view or C-scan; top right, end view; bottom left, side view; bottom right,
waveform or A-scan.

Fig. 3 : Multi-view display showing S-scans, C-scans, weld overlays and linked cursors.

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the 2009,
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Seminar &
10-12,2009
Exhibition on Non-Destructive Evaluation

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Fig. 4 : Images of pipe. 3D image at bottom right.

Fig. 5 : ASME CC 2235 defect analysis box

side, end view display much better than a 3D image.

However, the 3D image looks great for managers, regulators
and clients. 3D images may also have a future for complex
products, but that is not clear today.
A related approach is to animate the results. For example,
for PA inspections of bolts where the array is rotated 360o
round the head, the data can be replayed using a freeware
program to re-animate the scans [4]. This is useful for looking
for differences, or fingerprinting components.

model both the array itself and the component. There are
several approaches: simple and advanced ray tracing, beam
profiling, beam propagation models.
Figure 6 shows a simple ray tracing program results for
a weld [5]. These programs are very useful for developing
Scan Plans for codes, and can save a considerable amount
of time and effort. With these easy-to-use programs, one can
determine coverage, appropriate angles, number of beams
required etc. very quickly and fulfill the code.
More complex ray tracing programs can be used for
advanced components. For example, Fig. 7 shows a PA beam
in a rail head (6) using Imagine3D. This particular program
also provides an A-scan for operator evaluation.
Commercial programs are available as well to model PA
beams. As there is (theoretically) an infinite variety of array
shapes, sizes and frequencies, this can be important to
optimize for some special applications. Figure 8 shows
modeled results comparing unfocused beams in a pipe (left)
with focused beams (right) under various parameters [7]. It
is clear that there is a substantial difference between these
two array designs.

Ray Tracing and Beam Imaging

Ray tracing can be used to plot the beam image to
optimize an array design or inspection technique for a specific
application. Beam modeling is well suited to PA as one can

Fig. 6 : Sample scan plan for 50 mm weld using S-scans [5]

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2D and 3D Overlays
More advanced overlays can be used to give better
location and overview of defects [1,2]. These can be
produced in both 2D and 3D, though neither approach is
strictly commercial yet. Figure 10 shows a 2D overlay of an
S-scan on a steel weld. The overlaid weld profile shows that
the stress corrosion cracking occurs in and around the root
and HAZ.
3D images and overlays can also be developed, as
shown in Fig. 11 [2].
Again, the value of these displays is not proven yet,
but they are in the process of being commercialized.

Advanced filtering
Fig. 7 : Ray tracing of PA beam in rail head.

Actual modeling of the beam in a component can be

done in a number of ways, but all tend to be complex,
expensive and time-consuming. Figure 9 shows a commercial
program widely used for visualizing beam responses in
specific components [8]. This particular program gives a
simulation of the PA response, as shown in the top right
view.

Fig 8

One aspect of ultrasonic testing that has been largely

ignored (or perhaps, not become commercial) is digital signal
processing. Despite major efforts in the 80s to develop the
Born Approximation, little has come of DSP in NDT. However,
it has potential, especially as computing costs drop and
power rises. Figure 12 shows a series of steps to sharpen
waveforms (9). These kinds of approaches offer potential for
improved accuracy of measurements.

: Comparison of unfocused beams (left) and focused (right) in thin pipes.

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Fig 9

Michael Moles : Proceedings of the National Seminar & Exhibition on Non-Destructive Evaluation

: CIVA images of complex nozzle with predicted response.

Fig. 11 : Example of 3D data plotting and defect reconstruction

for a crack located on turbine blade
Fig. 10 : S-scan overlay on weld showing cracking.

Limitations of advanced imaging

So, where do we stand with the various advanced
imaging approaches? Ray tracing? Yes. This is definitely
needed for codes and simple applications. It also answers a

lot of what if? questions. Beam profiling? Yes, particularly

for special applications and for developing applications for
complex components. 2D and 3D imaging? Maybe. These are
good for viewing the full picture, great for impressing
management, regulators, customers etc., but limited for
engineering assessments.
Overall, the market will ultimately decide what is
commercially viable. Engineering applications of advanced

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Fig. 12 : Steps in DSP of A-scans. Top, original waveform. Second, Weiner filtering. Third, Autoregressive spectral extrapolation. Bottom,
magnitude of the analytic signal.

imaging are limited to date, but imaging is good and useful,

and programs are not that expensive. Also this imaging is
applicable to special applications (especially nuclear), so most
likely has a future. And they look TERRIFIC!

References
1.
2.

Conclusions
l

l
l

Phased arrays have opened the door to many advanced

imaging approaches: Multiple views simultaneously; Ray
tracing; Beam profiling; 2D and 3D overlays and images.
Advanced imaging looks great, and helps operators on
complex components.
The engineering value of advanced imaging, particularly
3D imaging, is yet to be established.

Acknowledgements
Several images were used from other companies,
specifically Eclipse Scientific, UTEX Scientific, CEA, and
Zetec. In addition, some images from the Olympus NDT
books are courtesy of OPG.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Olympus NDT, 2004, Introduction to Phased Array Technology

Applications, published by Olympus NDT.
Olympus NDT, Advances in Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology
Applications, published by Olympus NDT (2007).
UltraVision 3, www.zetec.com/pdfs/catalog_products.pdf
Moles M and Ginzel R G, Phased Arrays for Detecting Cracking
in Bolts, 6th International Conference on NDE for Structural
Integrity in the Nuclear Industry, Budapest, 8-10 October, 2007
ESBeam Tool3, see www.eclipsescientific.com.
Imagine3D, see www.utex.com/Products/Simulation/I3d/
Imagine3D.htm
Moles M and Zhang J, Curved arrays for improved horizontal
sizing in small pipe welds, Insight, 50(5) (2008) P 1.
CIVA-9, see www-civa.cea.fr/scripts/home/publigen/content/
templates/show.asp?P=55&L=EN
Wesley L J G, Sinclair A N and Moles M, Enhanced Ultrasonic
Defect Sizing Techniques using Weiner Filtering and
Autoregressive Spectral Extrapolation, 12 th International
Conference on Fatigue, ICF 12 Ottawa, 13-17 July 2009.