Ch.

15 Sensory System Senses

(Classification & Processes)

2/4/15 6:06 PM

Senses: Classification
Sensory Process
1. Sensation refers to the activation of sensory receptors & generation/transmission
of an AP by those sensory receptors to the brain
2. Perception refers to
Classification
1. General Senses
o senses wide spread throughout the body & are simple senses
a. ex: sense of touch &/or pain
2. Special Senses
o utilized senses that are localized in a particular region of the body
a. ex: smell &/or taste
o there are 5 special senses:
1. Olfactory sense smell, nasal
utilizes the olfactory receptors localized in the nose
2. Gustatory sense taste, mouth
utilizes the gustatory receptors localized within the taste buds
of the tongue
3. Visual sense sight, eyes
utilizes photoreceptors localized within the eyeball
4. Auditory sense hearing, ear
utilizes hair cells localized within the inner ear
5. Vestibular sense balance & equilibrium, ear
utilizes hair cells localized within the inner ear
Sensory Receptors: Classification
According to their structure, sensory receptors can be classified as:
1. Simple composed of unipolar, sensory neurons
** refers to both simple & complex receptors the unipolar, sensory neurons have a
simple process that splits into 2 branches close to the cell body of the neuron
a. 1 of the branches is the receptor of the neuron
b. the other/outer branch synapses with the secondary sensory neuron
o Structure:
a. generally lack myelin sheaths, unmyelinated
b. have free nerve endings
dendrites are free
o ex: nociceptors (pain receptors; sensation of pain) & thermoreceptors (allows
to perceive various temperatures) that are in the skin.
o utilized by general senses
2. Complex composed of unipolar, sensory neurons
o Structure:
a. axons are myelinated
causing transmission of AP to be faster
b. nerve endings are closed
dendrites are enclosed within several layers of CT forming a
capsule
o ex: tactile receptors (allows to perceive sensation of touch) in the skin
o utilized by general senses
3. Special composed of non neuronal cells
o highly complex & highly modified epithelial cells
o utilized by all special senses except for the olfactory sense
Senses 1

a. Olfactory sense utilizes a bipolar neuron

According to where the stimulus originates, sensory receptors can be classified as:
1. Exteroceptors
o located in the periphery of the body, superficially (exterior of the body)
o best suited for detecting external stimuli
o examples include:
a. tactile receptors
b. nociceptors
c. thermoreceptors
*all those receptors are located towards the surface of the body (in the skin) &
therefore is activated by external stimuli such as mechanical energy, touch, heat,
etc.

Senses 2

2. Interoceptors
o located deep within the body; typically within visceral organs
o best suited for detecting internal stimuli (stimuli that arises from the body)
o examples include:

a. central thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus that monitor

temperature
b. baroreceptors in the aorta that monitor BP
3. Proprioceptors
o located within the skeletal muscle tissue & joint cavity
o communicates with the cerebellum the location of the limbs (arms & legs)
relative to the trunk of the body to maintain balance
According to type of stimuli to which they respond, sensory receptors can be classified
as:
1. Mechanoreceptors
o activated by mechanical energy (via the physical deformation of the cell
membrane)
o examples include:
a. osmoreceptors - within hypothalamus & regulates the blood osmolarity
of the body by shrinking/expanding depending on concentration
b. tactile receptors in the skin; when you touch something, it will deform
the cell membrane of the receptor, activating the tactile receptor =
resulting in the perception of touch
2. Chemoreceptors
o activated by various chemicals/ligands that bind to the receptors located within
the cell membranes of the cells
o examples include:
a. olfactory cells that processes smell
binding of chemicals of various odors simulates the olfactory
cells resulting in perception of various smells/odors
b. gustatory cells that processes taste
binding of various chemicals of food, drinks, etc simulate the
gustatory cells resulting various perceptions of taste sweet,
sour, salty, etc.
i. ex: enzymes such as amylase in the saliva, break down
carbohydrates in food to maltose, glucose, etc & it is those
broken down compounds the maltose & glucose, etc
that will then simulate the gustatory cell)
3. Thermoreceptors
o activated by various degrees of heat

Senses 4

a. heat refers to types of kinetic energy (movement of molecules)

o allows to determine when an object is hot or cold to touch
4. Electromagnetoreceptors
o activated by various forms of electromagnetic energy
o examples include:
a. photoreceptors activated by photons of visible light
rods & cones
b. some receptors not found in humans:
infrareceptors activated by infrared energy of the
light/electromagnetic spectrum
i. found in some snakes (ex: rattlesnake) infrareceptors in
the tip of the snakes head detects infrared energy emitted
by another animal, in which the animal will appear
glowy to the snake, enabling them to detect & attack
their prey in complete darkness
electroreceptors activated by electrical fields
i. all living things have an electrical field due to the
generation of AP, nerve impulses = electricity
ii.found in sharks electroreceptors within their head
enables sharks to detect their prey that is hidden, buried
in the sand, &/or camouflaged
magnetoreceptors activated by magnetic fields
i. found in some migratory birds magnetoreceptors in the
outstretch of the neck allow birds to correlate their
magnetory paths with the magnetic field of the earth
(north pole/south pole)
According to the level of adaptation (refers to a process by which the sensory receptors
adapts to a certain stimulus & shuts off, ceasing to generate an AP towards the brain),
sensory receptors can be classified as:
1. Tonic receptors
o slow adapting receptors that continue to generate an AP as long as the
stimulus is present (does not shut down)
o ex: pain receptors
2. Phasic receptors
o fast adapting receptors that generate an AP once stimulus is applied, then
adapts to the stimulus, & shuts down, ceasing to generate an AP
o ex: tactile receptors, or olfactory sense (odors/smell that you are initially aware
of & get used to as time progresses where you do not notice it anymore)
Sensory Process
consists of 5 related processes:
1. Sensory Reception refers to the detection of the environmental energy/stimulus by
sensory receptors & activate different receptors
o examples:
a. sensory receptors in the eyeball detect photons (stimulus) in visible light
& be activated
b. hair cells in the inner ear detect sound waves & be activated
2. Sensory Transduction a complex process by which sensory receptors convert the
energy of an environmental stimulus into chemical energy (changing the membrane
potential of the receptor cell depolarization & hyperpolarization) leading to the
activation of the sensory receptor & generation of APs toward the brain

3. Sensory Amplification occurs when an environmental stimulus is too weak to

activate a sensory receptor, & the energy of the environmental stimulus is therefore,
amplified, before it can activate a sensory receptor
o example:
a. sound waves do not possess sufficient energy by themselves to activate
the hair cells of the inner ear so the energy of the sound waves must
be amplified
b. the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus & stapes) of the middle ear
amplifies the energy of sound waves up to 25x, making it sufficient
enough to activate the hair cells of the inner ear
4. Sensory Transmission refers to the propagation of AP/nerve impulses from some
sensory receptor towards the brain via the ascending pathway of the spinal cord
5. Sensory Integration all APs generated by a stimulus are put together/integrated,
giving rise to conscious perception of the stimulus by the brain
o example:
a. visual information projects into the thalamus & ultimately ends at the
primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe, allowing us to see
b. auditory sensory information projects to the thalamus & then the
primary auditory cortex of the temporal lobe
c. olfactory information from the nasal cavity projects into the primary
olfactory cortex of the temporal lobe
d. gustatory information from the gustatory cells of the taste buds, project
to the primary gustatory cortex of the insular lobe
e. information relating to touch, projects to the primary somatosensory
cortex of the parietal lobe (post central gyrus)
f.
Sense of Touch
Sense of touch utilizes the tactile receptors in the skin, there are 2 varieties of tactile
receptors:
1. Simple
o Structure:
a. lack myelin sheaths, unmyelinated
b. free nerve endings:
project deep into the epidermis of the skin
come in 2 varieties:
i. nociceptors record the sensation of pain
ii. thermoreceptors activated by various degrees of heat
c. root hair plexus:
located around the root of the hair follicle
responsible for detecting the movement of hair
d. tactile discs:
represent flattened parts of dendrites which synapses with a
specialized tactile cell located within the basal layer of the
epidermis
responsible for detecting light or fine touch
2. Complex
o Structure:
a. contain myelin sheaths, myelinated axons
b. dendritic ends enveloped within the several layers of CT capsule

Senses 6

*from deep to superficial*

c. lamellated corpuscles:
located deep within the dermis
responsible for detecting deep pressure & high frequency
vibrations
i. activated by deep tissue massages (pressure) & electric
toothbrush (high frequency vibrations)
d. bulbous corpuscles:
activated by the distortion of the skin (stretching of the skin;
ex: pulling on the skin to stretch it)
e. end bulbs:
located in the midsection of the dermis (more superficial
relative to lamellated corpuscles)
responsible for detecting light pressure & low frequency
vibrations
f. tactile corpuscles:
located on the border of the dermis & epidermis
responsible for the sensation of discriminative touch
i. allows to identify an object by its texture & shape
Referred Pain
Referred pain is a phenomenon by which the brain interprets a sensation, not coming
from the visceral organ itself, but from the skin overlaying that visceral organ
it involves 2 neurons:
1. somatic sensory neuron: carries somatosensory (touch) info towards the brain
2. visceral sensory neuron: carries the sensory info from the internal organs towards
the brain
the 2 neurons enter the posterior form where their 2 pathways merge together, which
then confuses the brain of the true origin of the stimulus
o referred pain is typically present in patients experiencing a heart attack, & report a
shooting pain down their left arm (usual symptom of a heart attack)
during a heart attack, the cardiac muscle tissue is being deprived of oxygen &
the tissue starts to die
as the tissue starts to die off, it releases chemicals that activate nociceptors
the nociceptors then activate the visceral sensory neuron, leading toward the
brain
during the heart attack, the patient will feel a shooting pain down their left arm,
where nociceptors in that arm are then activated
the nociceptors in the left arm activate the somatic sensory neuron, leading
toward the brain, to report the pain from the skin associated with the left arm
as both visceral sensory & somatic sensory neurons travel towards the brain,
they merge in which they share a common pathway to the primary
somatosensory cortex
when both neurons reach the primary somatosensory cortex, the brain
mistakenly interprets the sensation of pain coming from the skin of the left arm
rather than from the internal organ

Vision: Accessory Structures

Orbit:
o structure that supports & protects the eyeballs within the bony depressions in the
skull

o formed by the fusion of 7 facial bones

Eyebrows:
o consists of short & thick hair
o protects the eyes by:
providing shade against direct sunlight
preventing sweat (on the forehead) from entering the eyes
Eyelids (including eyelashes):
o protects the eyes in various ways:
Reflexive blinking (occurs every 7-8 seconds) provides protection by:
moving the lacrimal fluid (tears) across the anterior surface of the
eyeballs, preventing the eyes from drying out & therefore, keeping the
eyes moist
preventing foreign objects/debris (ex: dust) from entering the eye &
landing on the anterior surface
limiting the amount of light that can enter the eyeball
o Skeletal muscles associated with the eyelids:
*both skeletal muscles contract to open/close the eyes)
Orbicularis oculi closes the eyelids
Levator palpebrae superioris opening the eyelids
o Glands associated with the eyelids:
Ciliary glands sebaceous glands located at the base of the eyelashes that
produce oily secretions to lubricate the eyelashes, preventing it from drying out
& being prone to breakage
Tarsal glands set of ciliary glands (sebaceous glands) located at the base of
each eyelid (superior & interior) that produce oily secretions to prevent the
eyelid from sticking to one another as we blink
Conjuctiva:
o thin, transparent, mucous membrane made up of stratified squamous epithelium
(multiple layers of flat cells)
o conjuctiva divides into 2:
ocular conjuctiva covers the anterior surface of the eye
palpebral conjuctiva covers the inner surface of each eyelid & continues with
the ocular conjuctiva
o it is a very vascular tissue; it contains a large supply of blood vessels
allows it to heal rapidly if damaged
o it is instrumental in protecting the lower layers of the eye, mainly the sclera
sclera is avascular lacks blood supply
it heals slowly if damaged
o Conjuctivitis (pink eye): inflammation of the conjuctiva
caused by a bacterial infection
highly contagious
treated by antibiotics
Lacrimal Apparatus:
o Lacrimal glands:
located laterally & superiorly to each eye
produces lacrimal fluid (tears) which are composed of:
water prevents desiccation (drying) of the eye & keeps the eyes clean
by washing out any foreign objects/debris (dust) as it flows across the
anterior surface of the eye

Senses 2

lysozyme an antimicrobial agent that destroys the cell wall of bacteria,

allowing it to swell up with water & cause it to lyse open
excess lacrimal fluid (tears) drains via the lacrimal canaliculi
the lacrimal canaliculi are little channels that go into the nasolacrimal
duct
the excess lacrimal fluid then goes into the nasal cavity
lacrimal fluid keeps the nasal cavity moist
important in air conditioning in which the lacrimal fluid adds
moisture to the incoming air
Extrinsic Ocular Muscles:
o these skeletal muscles attach to the eyes & contract to move the eyes
o 6 muscles associated with each eye are divided into 2 groups:
Rectus:
Superior: moves the eyes up
Inferior: moves the eyes down
Lateral: moves the eyes away from the midline of the body
Medial: moves the eyes towards the midline of the body

Oblique:
divided into 2 oblique muscles:
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique
both oblique muscles are responsible for rotating the eyes lightly on its
axis
normally the actions/movements of the eyes are coordinated, so that the eyes move
in parallel a process known as conjugated case

Vision: the Eye

the eye is a hollow sphere, where the wall of this hollow sphere is made up of 3 layers:
1. Fibrous coat/tunic outer layer
o made up of 2 (avascular) structures:
a. Sclera thin, firm, opaque & white part of the eye
covered & protected by the ocular conjuctiva
made up of dense, irregular CT
contains tough collagen & elastic fibers that give shape to the eye &
protects its innermost structure mainly the lens & photoreceptors in the
back of the retina
gives points of attachment for the extrinsic ocular muscles
contains sensory receptors for pain
it transitions interiorly, giving rise to the dome shaped cornea
b. Cornea transparent portion of the eye
convex cornea is responsible for the refraction/reflection (bending of the
light rays) as part of the focusing system of the eye
it is covered & protected by the corneal epithelium which is continuous
with the ocular conjuctiva
i. cells of the corneal epithelium contain nuclear ferritin
nuclear ferritin protects the cells DNA from UV light exposure
UV light is a carcinogen, a cancer causing agent
without nuclear ferritin, UV light can mutate the DNA, causing it to
transform & become cancer

the corneas transparent structure allows light to enter the eye through
the pupil
i. corneal transparency is attributed to 3 things:
smaller collagen & elastic fibers (& more proteoglycans)
cells & fibers are arranged in a regular pattern which allows for
light rays to pass in between them
low water content prevents the scattering of the light rays
the avascularity of the cornea allows for few complications with corneal
transplants
i. the cornea does not have a direct blood supply
ii. so White Blood Cells do not have access to the newly transplanted
cornea
iii. without access, WBCs cannot recognize the new cornea as foreign &
therefore, cannot initiate a new response to destroy the tissue
2. Vascular coat/tunic middle layer
o contains a large amount of blood vessels
o composed of the Choroid:
a. contains pigment producing melanocytes
melanocytes produce melanin (brown black pigment)
i. melanin absorbs refracted & reflected light to minimize the glare within
the eye
b. the choroid gives rise to 2 structures:
Ciliary body
i. consists of the ciliary process that produces the aqueous humor
the aqueous humor is the fluid that fills the anterior cavity
the anterior cavity is the space that extends from the lens to
the cornea
ii. the ciliary process & associated ciliary muscle (both make up the
ciliary body) are attached to the chrystalline lens via fibers/strings
called suspensory ligaments
iii. it is responsible for regulating the shape of the lens through the
contraction of the smooth muscle, a process known as Lens
Accommodation
the lens system is involved on focusing the image on the back of
the retina
Distant Vision when a person looks at an object at some
distance from them:
ciliary muscles automatically relax
suspensory ligaments become taut
this then causes the chrystalline lens to assume a flattened
shape
this then allows for the object at some distance to be
precisely focused on the back of the retina
Near Vision when a person switches their gaze to a nearby
object:
the ciliary muscles automatically contract
suspensory ligaments relax
causing the chrystalline lens to assume a spherical shape
allowing the light rays to be precisely focused on the back of
the retina resulting in a clear image
Iris (the colored part of the eye)
Senses 4

i.

the color of the iris is determined genetically

eye color is a complex trait determined by several genes
(hereditary) & is modulated by environment
ii. various amounts of melanin give the iris a different color:
a great amount of melanin = brown black iris
an intermediate amount of melanin = yellow green iris
little amount of melanin = results in a blue iris
iii. it is responsible for controlling the diameter of the pupil & regulating
the amount of light that enters the eye, a process known as Pupil
Accommodation
iv. it is made up of 2 sets of smooth muscles:
Radial group: the dilator pupillae
in low light, the dilator pupillae contracts increasing the
diameter of the pupil
Circular group: the sphincter pupillae
in bright light, the sphincter pupillae contracts decreasing the
diameter of the pupil
this prevents excess light from damaging the sensitive
photoreceptors in the back of the eye
3. Retinal coat/tunic inner layer
o subdivides into 2 layers:
a. pigmented layer
lies next to the middle layer (vascular coat/choroid) of the eye
made up of simple, cuboidal epithelial
i. a single layer of melanocytes
the melanin produced, absorbs any light rays that escapes the
photoreceptors to prevent the destruction of light rays from
reflecting inside the eye, distorting the visual image
b. neural layer
consists of several types of cells:
i. photoreceptors:
consists of rods & cones (the functional unit of site)
ii. conducting neurons:
consists of:
bipolar cells synapses with photoreceptors at 1 end &
synapses with the ganglion cells on the other end
ganglion cells its axons form a collection which leads the eye
to form the optic nerve leading to the brain
responsible for transmitting APs from photoreceptors towards the
brain (primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe)
iii. association neurons:
includes:
Horizontal cells synapses with photoreceptors & the amacrine
cells
Amacrine cells synapses with horizontal cells & ganglion cells
mini processors involved in the modification of signals
generated by photoreceptors; clean up the visual image before
sending it to the brain
iv. neuroglia
provides physical & metabolic support to photoreceptors
ex: Mullers cells

large cells that transverse the entire neuronal layer

form a blood retinal layer which prevents various toxic
chemicals from the blood from penetrating & contacting the
photoreceptors
photoreceptors need to be protected since they are non
dividing cells, so once they are gone - theyre gone forever
as the light rays enter the eye, the light rays have to penetrate through
both the ganglion & bipolar cells before making contact with
photoreceptors to stimulate them
the APs generated by bipolar cells travel in the opposite direction from
the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells to the axons which form the optic
nerve to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe of the brain

Cavities of the Eye

Anterior cavity
o extends from the lens to the cornea
o filled with aqueous humor (produced by the ciliary process of the ciliary body)
the aqueous humor continuously formed & as it travels, it exits the posterior
chamber through the pupil, enters the anterior chamber & drains from the
anterior cavity into the scleral venous sinuses that is filled with blood (similar to
dural venous sinuses which drain blood away from the brain)
as it forms with the blood, it carries various nutrients (amino acids, glucose,
oxygen etc) to supply it to avascular tissues the sclera & cornea
o subdivides into 2 chambers:
anterior chamber space between the iris & cornea
posterior chamber space between the lens & iris
Posterior cavity
o extends from the lens to the back of the eye (the inner, retinal coat)
o filled with vitreous humor
jelly like substance
provides for pressure, which along with the sclera, maintains the spherical
shape of the eye
important for focusing the light rays to the back of the retina to form
crystal clear images
pressure created keeps the retinal coat attached to the eye
puncture wounds to the eye can cause the vitreous & aqueous humor to leak
out of the eye in which the pressure becomes lost, causing the retinal coat to
detach from the back of the eye, potentially severing the optic nerve, resulting
in permanent blindness
Refraction of Light
refers to the process of bending the light rays
o every time light passes through the medium of an optical density (ex: air) into
another optical density (ex: water), the light rays are bent
ex: spoon placed in water appears bent (optical illusion)
4 eye structures responsible for the refraction of light:
o Cornea its convex, dome shape allows for it to perform the largest degree of
refraction
o Aqueous humor contributes to the refraction of light
o Lens only structure that can change shape via lens accommodation to precisely
focus the light rays on the back of the retina to produce a clear image
Senses 6

loss of its ability to change shape or loss in the shape of the eye would cause
the light rays to be focused either in front or back of the retina resulting in
blurred vision
Vitreous humor contribute to the refraction of light

Photoreceptors
act as tranducers 2 types include:
o Rods involved with monochromatic (black/white) vision
activated by low intensity light
allow us to see in darkness (night vision)
o Cones
activated by high intensity light
involved with visual acuity
the ability to see objects in fine detail
ex: reading a book
rich in fovea centralis & macula lutea (surrounds the fovea centralis)
as you move away to the periphery of the retina, the rods become more exclusive
both rods & cones contain lectin membranes known as discs
o discs are made up of a phospholipid bilayer
o photopigments are embedded in the membrane
Photopigment
o made up of 2 proteins:
opsin
retinal (derived from vitamin A)
o when light hits the photopigments in the rods/cones, it bleaches the opsin & retinal
separate
the separation causes the photoreceptors to become hyperpolarized
hyperpolarization removes the inhibition on bipolar cells to allow them to
generate APs that are propogated via ganglions & optic nerve towards
the brain
Optic disk blind spot
o contains no photoreceptors
no image can be formed in this area
o area where axons of the ganglion cells leave the eye to form the optic nerve which
carries the AP from the photoreceptors to the thalamus & then to the primary visual
cortex of the occipital lobe where all the APs are integrated to from an image
Macular degeneration loss of photoreceptors in the fovea centralis & macula lutea
o results in central blindness where individual cannot see or perceive an image in the
central area of the retina
o peripheral vision remains in tact
Cones & Color
electromagnetic spectrum consists of waves of different wavelengths & frequencies
o UV light wavelengths <400nm
incapable of activating photoreceptors as they lack UV receptors
invisible to the human eye
o Visible light wavelengths of 400 700 nm
only portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can activate photoreceptors
activate rods & cones
cones are intimately involved in color vision; 3 types of cones:

contains 3 types that are each particularly sensitive to different

wavelengths:
1. Blue cones short wavelengths of visible light; 400 500
nm
2. Green cones medium wavelengths of visible light; 500
600 nm
3. Red cones - long wavelengths of visible light; 600 700 nm
various wavelengths will stimulate the 3 cones to various
degrees to give the ability to perceive a wide range of colors
as sunlight (composite light; made up of all the colors) hits an object
(ex: red apple ), all of its wavelengths will be absorbed by the object,
except the long wavelengths which then become reflected into the eye,
through the pupil, where it stimulates red cones, resulting in the
perception of the color red
Infrared light wavelengths > 700nm
unable to activate photoreceptors as they lack infrared receptors
unable to perceive UV light

Dark & Light Adaptation

Dark adaptation
o occurs when you enter into a dimly lit room
o at 1st, you see blackness & after a minute, you are able to see objects in the room
the cones cease to function as they are only activated by bright light
rods are activated by low light & slowly take over
the photopigments become bleached & takes time for retinol to
recombine with opsin to make the rods functional, allowing us to see
during low light
Light adaptation
o occurs when you enter from a dark room into a light room
o at 1st, you see a white glare
mass activation of cones & rods occur, generating APs
all the APs & the brain result in the white glare
o after a minute or 2, photopigments within rods that have been bleached will make
the rods non-functional, which decreases the number of APs reaching the brain =
restoring vision
o
Disorders of the Eye
*most common eye conditions are myopia & hyperopia*
1. Myopia: near sightedness
a. results from the change of shape of the eye
i. eye assumes an elongated shape where light rays are focused in front of the
retina rather than on top of the retina
o causes the the blurriness of the visual image
b. characterized by the inability to see objects far away & can only see objects near
the eye
c. treatment includes convex corrective lens & lasik eye surgery
2. Hyperopia: far sightedness
a. results from the change of shape in the eye
i. eyeball assumes a compressed shape where light rays are focused behind
the retina rather than on top of the retina
Senses 3

o results in the blurriness of the visual image

b. characterized by the inability to see nearby objects, can only see objects far from
the eye
c. treatment includes concave corrective lens & lasik eye surgery
3. Presperopia
a. occurs with aging where the lens loses its elasticity
b. loss of elasticity makes it more difficult for the lens to change shape
c. results in the blurriness of the visual image
4. Astigmatism
a. results from the irregular curvature of the cornea
b. certain light rays are focused in front of the retina & some behind the retina
resulting in irregular spots of blurriness across the visual field
c. treatment includes corrective lens
5. Glaucoma
a. result of the increase of intraocular pressure within the eye
i. aqueous humor flows to the posterior chamber, through the pupil, into the
anterior chamber & drains away into the blood via scleral venous sinuses
ii. when scleral venous sinuses are clogged & the aqueous humor is not being
drained, it results in a build up of the fluid
iii. aqueous humor built up pushes on the lens, causing the lens to push on
the vitreous humor
iv. the vitreous humor applies pressure on the photoreceptors in the periphery
of the retina, killing them
b. leads to loss of peripheral vision
c. if not treated, photoreceptors in the fovea centralis & macula tulea will also
degenerate, resulting in the loss of central vision & complete blindness
d. symptom of flashing occurs where build up of aqueous humor activates certain
photoreceptors, resulting in the firing of APs = flashing
6. Cataracts
a. refers to the clouding of the lens, making the lens a less transparent structure
b. less transparency results in decreasing the ability to transmit light rays back into
the posterior cavity
c. primary cause is exposure to UV light/radiation, & over time, changes the
chemical structure of the lens, leading to the uniform blurriness across the visual
field
i. other causes include cigarette smoke (toxins tar, which changes the
chemical position of the lens & over time changes transparency)
d. treatment surgically take lens out & replace lens
i. both tissues are avascular in which they lack a direct blood supply
ii. WBCs cannot make contact with new lens & are unable to recognize it as
foreign, so it wont destroy it
7. Color Blindness (ex: inability to determine red & green apart)
a. certain cones are not being stimulated & are defective (ex: red & green cones)
b. hereditary, genetic disorder
i. X linked recessive allele
c. predominantly affects males

8. Treatment for some eye disorders include:

a. Lasik eye surgery involves the change of shape of the cornea, to modify the
focal point of light rays to the back of the retina
b. corrective lenses - modifies the focal point of the light rays so that it will focus on
top of the retina rather than in front/behind it
c. transplants

Ear: Structure of Hearing

The ear divides into 3 regions:
1. External Ear (outer region)
o made up of:
a. Auricle
fleshy outer portion with associated holes known as pinnae
responsible for the localization of sound
damage to the auricle or pinnae results in deafness & difficulty in localizing
the origin of the sound
i. ex: cauliflower ear often occurs in wrestling
damage to the auricle causes it to proliferate with respect to the
CT, resulting in the difficulty/inability to localize the origin of a
sound
b. External Acoustic Canal
tube that connects the auricle to the tympanic membrane
responsible for conveying sound waves towards the tympanic membrane
canal is lined with fine hairs & ceruminous glands
i. ceruminous glands produce cerumen (ear wax)
ear wax is composed of various alkaline components giving it a
bitter taste
it acts as an insect repellant, keeping insects away from the
tympanic membrane
c. Tympanic Membrane (ear drum)
thin, transparent epithelium
it is highly vascular, therefore, it can heal quickly to restore hearing (heals
in about week)
rupture in this membrane results in temporary loss of hearing in the
affected ear
i. common in small children who may proliferate the membrane by
poking the ear with a small object
ii. those who are suffering from middle ear infections
some children have a tube inserted in the membrane to drain the
excess or build-up of fluid within the tympanic cavity
separates the middle ear from the outer ear
2. Middle Ear (middle region)
o includes:
a. tympanic cavity (air filled)
contains a bony depression that separates the inner ear from the middle
ear
i. the bony depression is incomplete, consisting of 2 windows covered by
thin membranes:
vestibular window oval in shape
Senses 3

 cochlear window round in shape

connected to the nasal cavity via the auditory tube
houses auditory ossicles:
i. functions to amplify the energy of sound waves up to 25x due to the
difference of surface area between the tympanic membrane & the
vestibular (oval) window
ii. composed of 3 bones:
Malleus articulates on one end of the tympanic membrane & the
incus on the other end
Incus articulates with the stapes
Stapes smallest bone in the human body (smaller than a grain of
rice)
connects to the vestibular (oval) window
2 skeletal muscles are found in the tympanic cavity:
i. during loud noise, both skeletal muscles reflexively contract to pull the
auditory ossicles apart to decrease the ability of the ossicles in
amplifying the energy of the sound waves
this prevents the sensitive hair cells in the inner ear (responsible
for the sense of hearing) from being damaged
ii. the 2 skeletal muscles are the:
Tensor tympani large muscle that attaches via tendon to the
Malleus bone
Stapedius attaches to the Stapes bone
b. auditory tube
connects the tympanic cavity to the nasopharynx of the nasal cavity
equalizes the pressure within the tympanic cavity & the atmospheric
pressure of the outside air
i. ex: flying in an airplane
due to the low atmospheric pressure of the outside air, the auditory
tube collapses causing the tympanic cavity to fill up with air
the build-up of air in the tympanic cavity increases the pressure
the pressure then pushes the tympanic membrane out resulting in
a decrease of hearing
to remedy the pressure, individuals may swallow or yawn which
reopens the auditory tube temporarily which allows the pressure to
leave the tympanic cavity, therefore decreasing the pressure &
restore hearing to normal
Middle ear infections
a. inflammation of the tympanic membrane
b. more common in little children
the auditory tube is not fully developed, in which it lies horizontally (rather
than in a slope in adults), connecting the tympanic cavity directly to the
nasopharynx
i. this allows for mucus from the nasal cavity to enter the tube &
accumulate within the middle ear
ex: the common cold
i. the nasopharynx is affected, where the bacteria can spread from the
nasopharynx (via the auditory tube) to the tympanic cavity causing an
infection in the middle ear

c. during development, the auditory tube repositions itself more vertically,

making it more difficult for the mucus in the nasopharynx to travel to the
tympanic cavity, decreasing the likelihood of a middle ear infection
3. Inner Ear
o made up of the labyrinth:
a. membranous labyrinth is enclosed within the bony labyrinth
membranous labyrinth: contains the fluid endolymph
bony labyrinth: contains the fluid perilymph
b. divides into 3 regions:
Vestibule smallest region
i. responsible for static equilibrium
refers to the ability of the brain to determine the position of the
head relative to the trunk of the body
ii. responsible for the linear acceleration of the head (both horizontal &
vertical planes)
2 regions of the head contributing to the acceleration are:
Utricle
oriented parallel to the base of the skull
horizontal acceleration = riding in the car
Saccule
oriented perpendicular to the skull
vertical acceleration = riding the elevator up/down
the macula is found within the utricle & saccule
the macula consists of hair cells & sustentacular cells
the stereocilia of hair cells are embedded within the otolithic
membrane
composed of a gelatin layer
otoliths are little crystals embedded in the gelatin layer
responsible for static equilibrium & linear acceleration (includes
the opening of the Na+ channels)
ex: tilting head backwards
- as you tilt your head backwards, the force of gravity pulls
on the otolithic membrane, causing the stereocilia to bend
backwards thus activating the hair cells (tonic;
consistently generating APs toward the brain) & increases
the amount of APs
ex: tilting head forward
gravity causes the otolithic membrane to slide in the
opposite direction, bending the stereocilia forward,
activating the hair cells (tonic) but decreases the amount of
APs reaching the brain
Semicircular canals 3 canals attached to the vestibule
i. responsible for the angular movement
ii. composed of ampullae (found at the base)
Cristae ampullaris involved in detecting the angular acceleration
(rotational movement)
Hair cells
Stereocilia emedded in the cupula
tonically active (continuously generating APs)
Sustentacular cells
Senses 3

Cupula
Extraocular skeletal muscle movement of the eyes
cerebellum coordinates with the contraction of the
extraocular skeletal muscle to track the visual field during
rotational movement
iii. part of the membranous labyrinth (contains perilymph)
iv. as you rotate, the endolymph circulates in the direction of the rotation
(left/right) within the semicircular canals & the cupula (as well as
stereocilia) becomes bent; the cell membrane deforms, activating the
hair cells to generate greater frequencies of APs reaching the
cerebellum of the brain this allows the brain to determine which way
the body is rotating
such sensory information & information from propioreceptors are
integrated within the cerebellum to maintain the appriopriate
muscle tone & to shift the position of the lymphs to shift the weight
in order to maintain balance
Cochlea attached to the vestibule
i. houses hair cells
ii. involved in the sense of hearing sending nerve impulses to the
primary auditory cortex of the temporal lobe of the cerebrum
iii. made up of 3 chambers
Scala vestibuli (upper) part of the bony labyrinth & contains
perilymph
Cochlear duct (middle) separated from the scala vestibuli (via the
vestibular membrane) & the scala tympani (via basilar membrane)
represents the membranous labyrinth containing endolymph
Scala tympani (inner) part of the bony labyrinth, containing
perilymph
iv. includes the spiral organ (organocorti)
lies on top of the basilar membrane
separates the cochlear duct from the scala tympani
consists of 2 types of cells:
Hair cells considered the functional units of hearing
tectorial membrane (gelatinous cavity) hovers over the hair
cells
stereocilia are projections of the hair cells partially
embedded within the tectorial membrane
hair cells synapses with dendrites of the sensory neurons,
where the axons form the cochlear nerve leading to the
brain
hair cells are mechanoreceptors & transducers
Sustentacular cells provide physical & metabolic support to
the hair cells

Sound Transmission through the Ear

any object that generates vibration is capable of generating sound waves (ex: vocal
cords of a person generate vibration that the teeth, tongue, & lips, etc of the oral cavity
controls to make a sound)
the sound waves propagate through a medium (ex: air, water, etc) to a receiver (ex:
human ear or cell phone when recording, etc)
*how sound waves travel in the ear when a person is talking to you*
1. the auricle & pinnae of the external ear localizes the sound waves generated by a person
talking to them (voice)
2. it then directs the sound waves through the external acoustic meatus/canal toward the
tympanic membrane
3. the sound waves cause the tympanic membrane to oscillate (vibrate up & down)
4. the vibrations are then transferred to the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus & stapes) to
amplify the energy of the sound waves enough to stimulate the hair cells
amplification occurs due to the differential surface area between the tympanic
membrane & the vestibular oval window
o concentrates the sound waves from a larger surface area (tympanic membrane)
to a smaller surface area (oval window)
5. stimulation of the hair cells by the sound waves results in the perception of hearing
6. the sound waves in the stapes cause it to beat on the oval window, creating a pressure,
generating a fluid wave within the scala vestibuli chamber
7. the fluid wave disturbs the basilar membrane, causing the membrane to oscillate
8. as the basilar membrane oscillates, the stereocilia embedded in the tectorial membrane
(tectorial membrane stays stationary) becomes bent
9. as the stereocilia bends, it activates the hair cells in which it depolarizes & releases
neurotransmitters onto the dendrites (of the primary sensory neurons) to initiate an AP
towards the brain
the hair cells are mechanoreceptors
o the sound waves that cause the stereocilia to bend, deforms the cell membrane
through the process opening mechanically-gated Na+ channels
the hair cells are also transducers
o it transforms the energy of the sound waves into chemical energy
o as stereocilia bends & the cell membrane deforms, it results in the depolarization
(interior of hair cell becomes more negative)
10. Any extraneous sound energy dissipates across the cochlear duct & into the scala
tympani, eventually exits the labyrinth through the round window dissipates into the
tympanic cavity of the middle ear
Sound Waves: Characteristics
Amplitude
o refers to the height of the crest of the wave
the higher the crest, the higher the amplitude of the wave
o the higher the amplitude, the louder the sound is perceived
o related to the intensity (volume) of the sound wave
Wavelength
o measures the length between one crest & another (distance between crests)
o related to the frequency of the sound waves
higher frequency = shorter wavelengths = perceived as a high pitch
lower frequency = longer wavelength = perceived as a low pitch

Senses 1

Sound: Loudness & Pitch

Loudness (human ear can detect 20 100 dB)
o decibels (dB) measures the volume of the sound waves
o sound < 20 dB = unable to hear
some animals can hear less <20 dB (ex: dogs & cats)
o sound > 100 dB = too loud; can destroy stereocilia of hair cells = loss of hearing
o is a property of the amplitude of a sound wave
higher amplitudes = louder sounds
generate more APs
disturbs basilar membrane to a larger degree
causes extreme bending of stereocilia
stereocilia releases a larger amount of neurotransmitters
lower amplitudes = quieter sounds
generate less APs
causes basilar membrane to move a little
causes stereocilia to bend to a much smaller degree
stereocilia releases a smaller amount of neurotransmitters
Pitch (human ear can detect 200 20,000 Hz)
o measured in Hz (hertz)
o frequencies of the sound waves give various pitches of sound
higher frequency = high pitch sounds
sound waves of higher frequency activates the hair cells of the basal end
of the cochlea
lower frequency = low pitch sounds
sound waves of lower frequency activates hair cells of the apex of the
cochlea
o is a function of the basilar membrane
o
Disorders of the Ear
Deafness is in 2 forms:
1. Conduction deafness
o involves the injury to the outer ear or middle ear
o caused by the infection or rupture of the tympanic membrane
o can be caused by the bony ossicles in which the bones fuse together (occurs in
elderly people)
a. power to amplify sound waves is diminished
2. Sensorineural deafness
o involves injury to the inner ear (hair cells)
a. loud noise causes the basilar membrane to oscillate at a larger degree,
tearing off the stereocilia of the hair cells
b. hair cells start to die off, resulting in the progressive loss of hearing
o involves direct injury to the primary auditory cortex of the brain
a. due to strokes or tumors
b. results in the death of sensory neurons
Smell: Olfactory Epithelium
Olfactory sense depends on the olfactory epithelium

o
o

located on the roof of the nasal cavity

3 types of cells in the olfactory epithelium:
Olfactory cells: highly modified bipolar cells
1 process extends to the apical surface (presurface), giving rise to non
motile cilia known as olfactory hairs
olfactory hairs interact with odor molecules from the air
other process extends through the foramina of the cribiform plate of the
ethmoid bone in the basal surface
synapses with secondary sensory neurons of the olfactory bulb:
- mitral cells
- tufted cells

Sustentaculr cells: provides physical & metabolic support to the olfactory cells
Basal cells: stem cell that differentiates, generating new olfactory &
sustentacular cells
both cells are often replaced by basal cells on an average of 7 days
Olfactory glands: exocrine lands that deliver mucus onto the apical surface of the
olfactory epithelium
the mucus allows for the incoming odor molecules from the air to dissolve
within the mucus, enabling them to interact with the olfactory receptors of the
olfactory hairs

Smell: Olfactory Bulb

olfactory cells each cell responds to 1 specific odor molecule
o odor molecules will bind to a specific odorant receptor due to complementary shapes
as the odor molecule binds to the cell, it causes the olfactory cell to depolarize, causing
it to fire APs towards the olfactory bulb
the olfactory cells synapse with the secondary neurons
secondary neurons release neurotransmitters, exciting the tufted cell which fires another
AP towards higher regions of the brain

Taste: Tongue Papillae

sense of taste depends on the tongue papillae; 4 types of tongue papillae include
o filiform papillae: does not contain taste buds
o fungiform papillae: spread on the superior surface & has taste buds
o foliate papillae: on the sides of the tongue & has taste buds
o circumvallate papillae: largest; located on the posterior region of the tongue in a V
shaped pattern & has taste buds
Taste: Taste Buds
taste buds are made up of:
o gustatory cells
on the apical surface, giving rise to non motile cells known as gustatory hairs

various tastes binds to the hairs to depolarize the cell resulting in APS
towards the brain,
on the basal surface, it synapses with primary sensory neurons where the
axons project into the relay center of the brain (thalamus) & then synapse with
secondary sensory neurons & project into the primary gustatory cortex of the
insular lobe
Senses 2

o
o

sustentacular cells (support cells) give physical & metabolic support to gustatory
cells
basal cells regenerate gustatory & sustenatcular cells every ~7 days.

Taste: Taste Zones

sweet
o elicited by simple sugars (table sugars sucrose)
bitter
o alkaline compounds (poison)
sour
o acidic (weak acids, lactic acids; acids = substances that release H ions where H ions
depolarize the gustatory cells, resulting in APs towards the brain)
salty
o table salt (NaCl; when in saliva, it associates into separate ions which depolarize the
gustatory cells, resulting in APs towards the brain)
umami
o glutamate (certain amino acids giving a minty flavor)
flavor
o combinations of various senses gustatory & olfactory sense
o texture of food also adds to the flavor
it activates various tactile receptors in the tongue
ex: slimy texture initiates a gag reflex