Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
S.JITENDRA PAL
Assistant Professor
What is energy?
Energy :defined as the ability or capacity to do work.
Energy is measured in BTU (British Thermal Unit) or Joule
According to Max Planck, energy is defined as the ability
of a system to cause external action.
The term energy carrier thus a carrier of the above
defined energy is a substance that could be used to
produce useful energy, either directly or by one or
several conversion processes
In this respect the following forms of energy are
distinguished: mechanical energy (i.e. potential or
kinetic energy), thermal, electric and chemical energy,
nuclear energy and solar energy etc.
Unconventional (examples)
Oil Shale
Natural gas hydrates in marine sediment
6
Solar photovoltaics
Solar thermal power
Passive solar air and water heating
Wind
Hydropower
Biomass
Ocean energy
Geothermal
Waste to Energy
10
11
12
13
14
16
17
1990
84.0
59.9
18.1
27.0
61.0
346.7
1997
94.2
64.0
21.3
36.7
40.8
379.9
2020
120.9
78.4
25.4
97.3
57.3
607.7
19
20
Resources
Oil
Natural Gas
Coal
Nuclear
Hydel
World
India
37.4
24.3
25.5
6.5
6.3
33.22
9.34
53.54
1.04
2.63
Source : www. planningcommission.gov.in
major shift. Very soon, oil and gas will see its finiteness. It is
high time that we realize this factor and work towards the
fuel of the future.
- Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam, Former President of India, Address
at Energy Technology Conclave Technology for Sustainability
631
1379
Canada
6206
17179
USA
Japan
UK
8076
China
13338
India
9%
6% 1%
Coal
Oil
31%
53%
Gas
Hydro
Nuclear
16
30
5
Coal
Oil
Gas
Renewable
Nuclear
Traditional
16
25
Sources/System
Approximate Potential
12
Improved woodstoves in
millions)
Biogas (MW)
120
20
20000
10000
50000
17000
Source: India 2020 A Vision for the New Millennium by Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam & Y S Rajan, Page No. 254
Renewable energy
These are the resources that can be generated
continuously.
Renewable energy is natural energy which does not have a
limited supply. Renewable energy can be used again and
again, and will never run out.
Renewable energy includes conventional energy sources
like: firewood, petrol plants, plant biomass, animal dung,
water energy etc. These are mostly biomass based which
are renewed over relatively short period of time and then
available in unlimited amount in nature.
Non-conventional energy sources like solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy and hydro thermal
energy etc. These can reproduce themselves in nature and
can be harvested continuously through a sustained
planning and proper management
If we consider the real situation, the earth is notcompletely filled with oil as assumed and further
the annual energy consumption rate is continually
growing. So the fuel may get exhausted in about
70-100 years.
If the reserves of fuels decrease there will be a
sharp increase in the price of energy. This will
lead to decrease in energy consumption through
fossil fuels. If alternative sources are explored and
utilized, then the fuel may be actually used for
more number of years.
Fossil fuels
Fossils fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) are energy rich
substances that have formed from the remains of
organisms that lived 200 to 500 million years ago.
During the stage of the Earths evolution, large
amount of dead organic matter had collected.
Over million of years, this matter was buried
under layers of sediment and converted by heat
and pressure into coal, oil and natural gas.
Coal is mostly used in the generation of electricity
(thermal power).
Natural gas is used for commercial and domestic
purposes like heating, air conditioning and as
fuels for stoves and for other heating appliances.
Oil
Crude oil, also called petroleum, is a thick liquid
found in underground rock formations.
The petroleum industry extracts crude oil out of the
ground and then refines it into products such as
gasoline.
Crude oil contains a complex mixture of compounds
made of carbon chains with hydrogen molecules
attached to each link in the chain.
Oil
Extracted crude oil also contains small amounts of
sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen compounds mixed
with the hydrocarbons.
The principle of oil refining is to remove crude oils
impurities, that is, anything that is not a
hydrocarbon.
The following nations hold the largest oil reserves,
in order:
Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, Iraq, United Arab
Emirates, Kuwait, Venezuela, Russia, Libya, and
Nigeria.
Coals
about 250 to 350 million years ago coal was formed on
earth in hot, damped regions.
Almost 27350 billion metric tones of known coal
deposits occur on our planet. Out of which about 56%
are located in Russia, 28% in USA and Canada.
India has about 5% of worlds coal reserve and that too
not of vary good quality in term of heat capacity.
West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Madya Pradesh and Maharastra are the major coal
producing states of India.
Disadvantage
Mining and
combustion
technology well
developed
Petroleum
Convenience of petroleum or mineral oil and its greater
energy content as compared to coal on weight basis
has made it the lifeline of global economy.
Petroleum
Six regions in the world are rich in petroleum USA,
Mexico, Russia and West Asian countries. Saudi Arabia
oil producing has one fourth of the world oil reserves.
Advantage
Natural Gas
Natural gas mainly consists of Methane (CH4) along
with other inflammable gases like Ethane and propane.
Natural gas is least polluting due to its low Sulphur
content and hence is clearest source of energy.
It is used both for domestic and industrial purposes.
Natural gas is used as a fuel in thermal plants for
generating electricity, as a source of hydrogen gas in
fertilizing industry and as a source of carbon in tyre
industry
Natural Gas
The total natural gas reserves of the world is
about 600 000 billion meters, out of this Russia
has 34%, Middle East 18%, North America 17%,
Africa and Europe 9% each and Asia 6%.
Annual production of natural gas is about 1250
billion cubic meters and hence it is expected to
last for about 50-100 years.
In India gas reserves are found in Tripura,
Jaisalmer, off shore areas of Bombay and KrishnaGodavari Delta.
Disadvantage
Requires pipelines
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is non- renewable source of
energy,
which
is
released
during
fission(disintegration) or fusion (union) of
selected radioactive materials.
Nuclear power appears to be the only hope for
large scale energy requirements when fossil fuels
are exhausted. The reserves of nuclear fuels is
about ten times more than fossil fuels and its
major advantage is that even small quantities can
produce enormous amounts of energy.
Nuclear Energy
For example, a ton of uranium 235 can
produce an energy equivalent 3 million tones
of coal or 12 million barrels of oil.
Definitions
Fuels are substances which, when heated,
undergo chemical reaction with an oxidizer,
typically oxygen, to liberate heat.
Commercially important fuels contain carbon
and hydrogen and their compounds, which
provide heating value
Definitions (contd)
Fuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous
Fuels may be fossil (non-renewable) or
biomass (renewable)
Fossil fuels may be coal, petroleum-crude
derived or natural gas.
Biomass fuels may be wood, refuse or
agricultural residues.
Definitions (contd)
World-wide production of fossil fuels in 1994:
Coal: 180 x 1015 kJ
Petroleum crude: 114 x 1015 kJ
Natural gas: 98 x 1015 kJ
Biomass fuels provide about 20 x 1015 kJ to world
energy production
Fossil fuels provide about 85% of world energy
production. Balance provided by hydroelectric,
nuclear and biomass.
Some statistics
Middle East and Eastern Europe have 70% of
worlds natural gas reserves
Middle East has 67% of worlds crude oil
reserves
Canada has approx. 1 trillion barrels of oil in tar
sands
North America, Eastern Europe and China have
the largest coal reserves
Some statistics
The US with a small fraction of the worlds population
consumes 25% of the worlds crude oil, 25% of the
worlds natural gas and 21% of the worlds coal
production. They also have a third of the worlds
motor vehicles
Each American uses the same energy as 3 Japanese,
38 Indians and 531 Ethiopians!
LIQUID FUELS
88
89
94
Flash Point
This gives an indication of the flammability of
the fuel.
Its significance is in the safety aspects of
storing and handling the fuel.
Viscosity
This is a measure of resistance to flow.
It reflects the energy required to pump the oil
through pipework and it has an important
bearing on the atomization process in burners.
96
97
Pour Point
This is complementary to viscosity in that it
gives an indication of the temperature at
which the oil will start to flow freely.
Calorific Value
The calorific value of a liquid fuel is measured
in a bomb calorimeter, which measure directly
the gross calorific value at constant volume.
It can be seen that the less volatile oils have
lower calorific values.
98
Sulfur content
Sulfur exists in all liquid fuels, but it is present
to a significant degree in residual fuel oils.
When burnt, sulfur forms SO2 and SO3 which
are major sources of air pollution.
99
Specific Heat
A knowledge of the specific heat of the liquid
is important in handling liquid fuels since the
residual oils all have to be heated before they
can be atomized, and the heavier grades must
be stored in a heated tank if they are to flow
freely into the distribution pipework.
101
Relative Cost
Although there is a clear price differential in
favor of the residual oils, the capital
investment in the storage system, handling
and combustion equipment for residual fuel
oils is significantly higher than that needed for
distillate oils.
102
106
107
110
113
114
115
119
6. Twin-fluid Atomizers
A second fluid (typically air or steam) is used
to produce the shear necessary to break up
the oil into droplets.
The nozzle is essentially similar to that of the
pressure jet burner with the addition of an
extra set of tangential ports on the inside or
outside of the oil flow passage.
120
122
124
Min. temperature ()
Storage
Outflow
10
25
40
10
30
50
125
Types of Fuels
Liquid Hydrocarbon fuels may be
1. Paraffins: straight chain compounds like methane, ethane,
propane, etc. or branched chain compounds (isomers) like
iso-butane, iso-heptane (like 2,2,3 tri-methyl butane or
triptane) and iso-octane (like 2,2,4 tri-methyl pentane).
2. Olefins: Open chain unsaturated hydrocarbons with a
double bond like ethene or propylene which also have
straight and branched chain compounds.
3. Diolefins: These are olefins with 2 double bonds.
Both types of olefins produce gum when reacted with oxygen
which can block fuel filters.
Formula
Structure
Paraffins (alkane)
CnH2n+2
Straight and
Branched
Paraffins (alkene)
CnH2n
Paraffins (alkyne)
CnH2n-2
Naphthenes
(cyclanes)
CnH2n
Straight and
Branched
Straight and
Branched
Ring
Aromatics
(Benzenes)
CnH2n-6
Ring
Aromatics
(naphthalene)
CnH2n-12
Ring
Petroleum
Boiling Range, oC
-40 to 0
Motor Gasoline
30-200
170-270
180-340
180-340
340-540
340-650
540+
Solid
Diesel Fuel
Furnace Oil
Lube Oils
Residual Fuel
Asphalt
Petroleum Coke
Refinery processes
1. Distillation: Continuous, Atmospheric, and
Vacuum.
2. Cracking: Thermal, Catalytic and Hydro.
3. Reforming: Thermal, Catalytic and Hydro
4. Polymerization
5. Alkylation
6. Isomerization
7. Hydrogenation
Fuels Obtainable
Petroleum Crude
(0.90-0.98)
Oil Shale
(0.63-75)
Coal
(0.37-0.95)
Biomass
(0.25-0.35)
Nuclear
(0.17-0.20)
Liquid fuels
Liquid fuels are derived from 2 main sources :
From crude oil and from coal.
Liquid fuels can be divided into 2 classes,
Light oils /spirits, suitable for IC engines
Heavy oils, suitable mainly for burning in
furnaces.
Petroleum
The approximate composition of petroleum is:
carbon 80-89%, hydrogen 12-14%, nitrogen 0.31.0%, sulphur 0.3-3.0% and oxygen 2-3%.
Chemistry of petroleum: The main components
of petroleum are hydrocarbons i.e, they contain
only carbon and hydrogen. Carbon combines with
hydrogen in various amounts to form a variety of
compounds. Types of hydrocarbons found in
petroleum are paraffins, iso-paraffins, olefins,
naphthenes, and aromatics.
Paraffins:
They are given the suffix ane,eg.,methane,
ethane propane etc.Their general formula is
CnH2n+2.These compounds are quite stable and
have a lower specific gravity.The compounds
with lower molecular weight are gasses at room
temperature and pressure
Iso-paraffins:
Iso-paraffins are isomers of normal
paraffins.The chemical formula remains the
same but the arrengement of atoms is
modified.
Eg.,2,2,4-trimethylpentane.
Pentane indicates the five carbonatoms of a
paraffin molecule,trimethyl indicates 3 methyl
groups attached to main carbon chain,2,2,4
gives the number of carbon atoms in the main
chain to which the methyl group is attached.
Olefins:
olefins are generally named with the
suffixene,eg., pentene, octene etc.They have
a straight carbon chain but with one or more
carbon atoms doubly bonded together. They
are unsaturated hydrocarbons. They are
chemically active as compared to the other
hydrocarbons and have good burning
characteristics.
Naphthenes:
Naphthenes are designated by the
termcyclo in their name because of the
carbon ring in the molecule.They have general
formula as for monolefins but they are
saturated( CnH2n).
Aromatics:
Aromatics are those that have benzene rinfg
in their molecular sructure.The banzene ring
consists of 6 carbon atoms in a ring with
alternative carbon atoms double bonded.This
leaves the carbon atom with a single
valence.An aromatic which has a single
hydrogen atom in the benzene ring replaced
by a normal alkyl group is called an
alkylbenzene
compound,
eg.,n-propylbengene.
Fractional Distillation
Cracking
Cracking means the breaking of heavy molecules
into lighter hydrocarbons. In this process, the
temperature is around 500c. At this elevated
temperature, heavy oils decompose to give lower
hydrocarbons which have a low boiling range and
a heavy residue of coke.
The cracking process is two types:
thermal
catalytic.
Thermal Cracking
Initiation reactions, where a single molecule breaks apart into two free radicals. Only a
small fraction of the feed molecules actually undergo initiation, but these reactions are
necessary to produce the free radicals that drive the rest of the reactions. In steam
cracking, initiation usually involves breaking a chemical bond between two carbon atoms,
rather than the bond between a carbon and a hydrogen atom..
CH3CH3 2 CH3
Hydrogen abstraction occurs where a free radical removes a hydrogen atom from another
molecule, turning the second molecule into a free radical.
CH3 + CH3CH3 CH4 + CH3CH2
Radical decomposition occurs where a free radical breaks apart into two molecules, one an
alkene, the other a free radical. This is the process that results in the alkene products of
steam cracking.
CH3CH2 CH2=CH2 + H
Radical addition, the reverse of radical decomposition, occurs where a radical reacts with
an alkene to form a single, larger free radical. These processes are involved in forming the
aromatic products that result when heavier feedstocks are used.
CH3CH2 + CH2=CH2 CH3CH2CH2CH2
Termination reactions occur when two free radicals react with each other to produce
products that are not free radicals. Two common forms of termination are recombination,
where the two radicals combine to form one larger molecule, and disproportionation,
where one radical transfers a hydrogen atom to the other, giving an alkene and an alkane.
CH3 + CH3CH2 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2 + CH3CH2 CH2=CH2 + CH3CH3
catalytic cracking
The feedstock to an FCC is usually that portion of the crude oil that has an initial boiling
point of 340 C or higher at atmospheric pressure and an average molecular weight ranging
from about 200 to 600 or higher. This portion of crude oil is often referred to as heavy gas
oil. The FCC process vaporizes and breaks the long-chain molecules of the high-boiling
hydrocarbon liquids into much shorter molecules by contacting the feedstock, at high
temperature and moderate pressure, with a fluidized powdered catalyst.
Visbreaking
Reforming Process
The purpose of the reforming process is to change the chemical nature of
various hydrocarbons to give the desired physical properties. These
include thermal and catalytic reforming.
The main difference between the refining and reforming processes is
that the former is carried out on crude, residue, or heavy oils, while the
latter is done on gasoline.
Catalytic reforming is a chemical process used to convert petroleum
refinery naphthas, typically having low octane ratings, into high-octane
liquid products called reformates which are components of high-octane
gasoline (also known as petrol). The overall effect is that the product
reformate contains hydrocarbons with more complex molecular shapes
having higher octane values than the hydrocarbons in the naphtha
feedstock. In so doing, the process separates hydrogen atoms from the
hydrocarbon molecules and produces very significant amounts of
byproduct hydrogen gas for use in a number of the other processes
involved in a modern petroleum refinery.
Reforming
Thermal Reforming
Catalytic Reforming
Polymerization
Light
gases resulting from fractional
distillation and cracking can be polymerized
to give heavier hydrocarbons, thus increasing
the yield of gasoline from the escaping gases.
Polymerization is the reverse of cracking.
Ethylene, propylene, butylene, etc. are quite
reactive and can easily be polymerized in the
presence of a catalyst at higher temperatures
and pressures to give liquid hydrocarbons.
Isomerization
The process of changing one type of molecule
to another type with the same molecular
weight is known as isomerization.
It is usually carried out in the presence of a
catalyst aluminium chloride(ALCL3) activated
by anhydrous hydrochloric acid.
The temperature and pressure suitable for
such reactions are 110c and 21kg/cm3 for
butane isomerrization.
Fire Point
As fuel oil are heated,
vapours are produced which
at a certain temperature
flash when ignited by an
external flame. If heating is
continued,
sufficient
vapours are finally driven
off to produce continuous
burning and not a single
flash. This temperature is
called the fire point.
Ash Content
Ash is the inorganic residue
remaining after the water
and organic matter have
been removed byheating in
the presence of oxidizing
agents, which provides a
measure of the total
amount of minerals.
Motor gasoline:
Motor gasoline is an ideal fuel for spark ignition engines. The
main advantage of a gasoline engine is its light weight per
B.H.P. developed. This makes it most suitable for automotive
vehicles.
Aviation gasoline:
The desired properties of aviation gasoline are slightly
different than for motor gasoline. Various grades of aviation
are gasolines are available.
The grade number indicates its octane number or
performance number.
Kerosene:
It is extensively used for heating and lighting. Its boiling
range is 150 to 300oc. It mainly consists of paraffins. Its
viscosity should be less than 2.5 centistokes for easy flow of
fuel through capillaries or the wick.
Diesel fuels:
Diesel fuels are used in compression ignition engines. The
normal boiling range for the diesel fuel is 200 to 370oc. High
speed diesel may use oils with initial boiling point as low as
140oc.
SOLID FUELS
1. Introduction
Solid fuel embraces a wide variety of
combustibles, ranging from wood, peat and
lignite, through refuse and other low calorific
value substances, to coal and other solid fuels
derived from it.
Coal represents by far the largest component
of the worlds fossil fuel reserves.
186
187
188
189
191
192
2. Coal Classification
As the rank of a coal increases, its carbon
content increases from 75% to about 93% (by
weight), the hydrogen content decreases from
6% to 3%, and the oxygen content decreases
from 20% to 3%.
A useful method for analyzing a coal is the
proximate process.
Proximate analyses of some common fuels are
given in Table 9.1 (next slide).
193
Carbon
Volatile
matter
Moisture
Ash
Peat
Lignite
Bituminous
Coal
Anthracite
44
57
82
65
50
25
20
15
2
4
4
5
90
194
195
196
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Anthracite
94.4
2.9
0.9
1.1
0.7
Bituminous
89.3
5.0
3.4
1.5
0.8
197
3. Coal Properties
There are a number of properties which are
important in identifying the suitability of a
coal for any given application:
Size
Some common size groups, together with
their rather picturesque names, are given in
Table 9.3 (next slide).
198
199
Calorific value
The ranking of a coal is not necessarily related
to its calorific value.
Coal fuels generally have a range of values
from 21 to 33 MJ/kg (gross).
The design rating of a coal-fired burner is
usually based on an estimated calorific value
of 26 MJ/kg (6,200 kcal/kg).
200
201
Sulfur Content
Many deep-mined coals have a fairly high sulfur content,
typically around 1.5% by weight.
The same consideration apply to coal-fired installations
as to oil-fired combustion equipment namely that
condensation inside the plant must be avoided and that
the design of the flue must ensure that ground
concentration of sulfur oxides are controlled within
acceptable limits.
202
4. Coal Combustion
Coal combustion is a two-phase process and
the objective of the burner is, as always, to
achieve complete combustion of the fuel with
maximum energy efficiency.
Three common ways of burning solid fuels are
currently in use and are briefly reviewed
below.
203
Pulverized Fuel
The coal is ground to a very fine size (about 0.08mm or
more than 70% pass through #200 mesh) when it can be
made to behave rather like a liquid if air is blown
upwards through the powder.
The preparation and handling equipment is very
expensive and pulverized fuel installations are generally
only economically viable in very large scale applications,
such as thermal power stations.
204
207
Grate Combustion
The simplest, and most common, way of burning coal is
by igniting a bed of the fuel on a porous grate which
allows air to rise through the bed, either by buoyancy in
smaller equipment or with fan assistance in the larger,
automatic stokers.
The combustion of a coal on a grate commences with
heat transfer to the raw coal from the adjacent
incandescent fuel.
The first effect that this has is to drive off the volatile
matter from the coal.
209
212
Underfeed Stoker
Next slide, Fig. 9.3, coal is fed into the retort
by the action of a screw.
When combustion is completed at the top of
the bed, a residue of ash and clinker remains
which falls to the sides of the retort.
214
216
219
220
Forms of Fuels
Natural Form
Artificial Form
Wood
Wood Charcoal
Peat
Peat Charcoal
Lignite
Lignite Briquettes
Lignite Coke
Wood
A Renewable Fuel
Moisture,
%
Bituminous
2.5
Coal
Hard Wood
45.6
wet
Hard Wood
0.0
dry
Southern
52.3
pine wet
Southern
0.0
pine dry
Volatile
Fixed
Matter, % Carbon, %
37.6
52.9
Ash, %
7.0
48.58
5.52
0.3
89.31
10.14
0.56
31.5
15.9
0.29
66.0
33.4
0.6
Ash
California Red
Wood
53.5
5.9
40.3
0.1
Trace
0.2
Western
Hemlock
50.4
5.8
41.4
0.1
0.1
2.2
Douglas Fir
52.3
6.3
40.5
0.1
Trace
0.8
Pine (Sawdust)
51.8
6.3
41.3
0.1
Trace
0.5
Ash
Western Hemlock
53.0
6.2
39.3
0.0
Trace
1.5
Douglas Fir
51.2
5.2
39.2
0.1
Trace
3.7
Loblolly Pine
56.3
5.6
37.7
0.0
Trace
0.4
56.4
5.5
37.4
0.0
Trace
0.7
57.2
5.6
36.1
0.4
Trace
0.7
Flash Pine
56.2
5.4
37.3
0.4
Trace
0.7
Ash-white
10,300
12,550
Beech
9,165
12,465
Birch Yellow
8,850
12,150
Chestnut
6,125
13,440
Cotton Wood
7,035
13,950
Elm-white
8,350
13,280
Hickory
9,425
14,420
Maple, sugar
9,490
13,000
Maple, red
8,710
13,880
Oak, red
7,860
12,940
Oak, white
9,300
12,930
Willow
5,510
13,650
Wood Storage
Wood fuels undergo losses in net available
energy as storage time increases due to
1. Moisture accumulation with time and
reaches saturation.
2. Loss of volatiles due to evaporation: 15% of
net available energy is lost this way.
The pH of wood is reduced making it acidic
leading to corrosive effects
Last in, first out (LIFO) must be followed.
Wood Combustion
1. Surface undergoes thermal breakdown: vapors,
gases, mists (combustibles) are evolved. Exists up
to 200oC.
2. More gases are evolved. Heat liberation reactions
occur but no flaming. Occurs from 200 to 280oC.
3. Gases continue to evolve and heat is liberated.
Flaming starts. Occurs up to 500oC.
4. Above 500oC all gases and tar are driven off. Pure
carbon (charcoal) remains. Further heating will
result in combustion of charcoal.
Charcoal:
A carbonized form of wood. Involves the decomposition of
the wood in the absence of air. Three methods are known:
a. An ancient process: in pits.
b. Low temperature carbonization: in metal retorts, at
about 350oC.
c. High temperature carbonization: in retorts, at around
1000-1200oC.
Charcoal is easily ignited. Used as reducing agent for iron ore,
domestic cooking and to manufacture producer gas.
Peat
Beginning of Fossilization
Peat
Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal.
It is regarded as the borderline between vegetation (biomass)
and a fossil fuel.
It is a brown, fibrous mass of partially decayed plant material
accumulated in situ under water-logged conditions.
Composition depends on type, depth of deposit and age. The
oldest peats are about 1 million years old.
Peat is believed to have formed from wood. When wood is
subjected to bacterial processes under nearly stagnant water,
the cellulose, lignin and protein are decomposed. Residuals
combine to form dopplerite.
Peat (Continued)
Contains 70-90% dopplerite and 5-30% resins
and waxes.
Wet peat contains 95% moisture.
Reduces to 90% when cut.
Reduces to less than 25% when air dried.
Ash is about 3%.
Calorific value varies between 16,700 and
20,900 kJ/kg.
Moss Peat
Forest Peat
Old Peat
Carbon
51.1
55.5
59.5
Hydrogen
6.1
5.8
5.8
Nitrogen
1.8
1.5
2.3
Sulfur
0.6
0.8
1.0
Oxygen
40.4
36.4
31.4
Peat Carbonization
Like wood, it may be carbonized at low temperature in
metal retorts. Yields:
Charcoal: 30%
Gases: 19-30%
Moisture: 30-40%
Tar: 6-7%
Gases used to provide heat for carbonization. Tar yields
was and oil. Moisture yields ammonium sulfate,
calcium acetate and methanol.
Carbon:
84.2%
Hydrogen:
1.9%
Oxygen+Nitrogen: 7.8%
Ash:
3.1%
Moisture:
3.0%
Calorific Value 29,300 kJ/kg
Lignite
Lignite
Forms the first phase of fossilization of
vegetable matter.
It is an immature form of coal.
Believed to be between 10 and 40 million years
old.
It is intermediate in composition between peat
and bituminous coal.
Most immature lignites are chemically similar to
most mature peats.
Coal
A Fully Fossilized Fuel
Coal Classification
There are a number ways to classify coals.
One way is to Rank the coal. It indicates the degree or extent of
maturation.
It is a qualitative measure of carbon content.
Thus lignites and sub-bituminous are low rank coals
While bituminous and anthracite are high rank coals.
Rank is not synonymous with grade which implies quality.
Low rank coals may not be suitable for some applications as the
higher ranked ones
Although they may be superior to them in other applications
Rank of Coal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Meta-anthracite
Fixed
Carbon
%
>98
Anthracite
92-98
2-8
To
40700
Semi-anthracite
86-92
6-14
250
36750
Low volatile
78-86
14-22
100
36520
Medium volatile
69-78
22-31
To
-do-
<69
>31
180
-do-
Sub-bituminous A
69-72
28-31
40
36050
Sub-bituminous B
64-69
31-36
To
35000
Sub-bituminous C
<64
>36
100
-do-
Lignite A
58-64
36-42
36050
Lignite B
51-57
42-49
To
35000
Lignite C
41-51
49-59
40
-do-
Moisture
(ash-free)
%
15-50
Ash
(dry) %
Wood
Oxygen
(dry, ashfree) %
45
Peat
35
90
0.1-10
Lignite
25
30
>5
Bituminous coal
>5
Anthracite coal
>5
Refuse-derived fuel
40
24
10-15
0.-1.0
N+S
Ash
%
Moisture
%
Anthracite
93-95
3-4
1-2
1-2
~2
~2
Typical
Anthracite
90.27
3.0
2.32
1.44
2.97
1.0
Typical
Anthracite
93.7
2.0
2.2
Carbonaceous
91-93
4.0-4.5
Bituminous
80-91
4.5-6.0
Typical Bituminous
82.9
5.7
Sub- Bituminous
75-80
5.0-5.1
78
13
Typical Subbituminous
74.0
5.9
13.01
2.26
4.75
2.1
Typical Subbituminous
73.3
5.1
18.4
9.9
N+S
Ash
Moisture
N+S
Ash
Moisture
Lignite
60-75
5.0-5.7
Typical Lignite
68.8
4.7
25.5
Typical Lignite
68
25
Typical Lignite
56.52
5.72
31.89
1.62
Typical Peat
60.5
5.6
33.8
Typical Peat
55
38
Dry, ash-free
Typical Wood
50
44
Tr
Dry, ash-free
Typical Wood
49.3
6.7
44
Dry, ash-free
4.25
15.0
Illinois Coal
(ppm)
Ca
760
>5000
Na
28
200-5000
39
200-5000
Mg
110
200-5000
Mn
97
6-210
Fe
10
>5000
40
10-340
Si
>5000
Al
>5000
Cl
48
200-1000
More on coal
Coal may be banded or non-banded.
A banded coal is not homogeneous but consists of
alternate layers or bands of bright-black, dull-black
and gray vegetal matter. Exists in all types of coal.
Attributed to different kinds of wood and plant
substances in various stages of decay.
Non-banded coals are uniform and compact in
structure.
Coal Combustion
When heated to progressively higher temperatures in
inert atmosphere (very little oxygen present), coal
decomposes.
Evolves water, tar and gas, and leaves a solid residue
whose composition and properties depend on heat
treatment temperature.
Temperature range in which volatilization proceeds
very rapidly is 350-500oC.
But thermal decomposition begins at a much lower
temperature.
Can be divided into 3 stages.
Briquetting (Continued)
Briquetting may be done as follows:
1. Without binder for sub-bituminous coal, lignite or peat.
2. With binder like pitch for bituminous, carbonaceous and
anthracite coals.
Other inorganic binders like sodium silicate, magnesium
oxychloride and lime silica may be used.
Cereal binders like starch and ground maize may also be
used.
Inorganic binders are easy to use but will increase the ash
content when burned.
Coke (Continued)
Two commercial processes are available:
1. Low temperature carbonization at about 600oC and
2. High temperature carbonization at temperatures above
900oC.
Coal is heated in retorts. Evolves gases like carbon monoxide,
methane, unsaturated hydrocarbons, and hydrogen.
Tar forms up to about 500-600oC.
Coals for converting to coke must have carbon content from 83
to 90%.
Coke is used in iron and steel industries (metallurgical coke),
foundries, and as a domestic (smokeless) fuel.
Coal Liquefaction
Coal can be converted into a clean liquid fuel by reducing its
molecular weight with a substantial reduction in the C/H
ratio. Four methods are possible:
1. Pyrolysis.
2. Direct Liquefaction. Examples are the SRC (Solvent Refined
Coal), the Synthoil and H-coal processes.
3. Indirect Liquefaction. The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.
Example is the SASOL process developed in South Africa.
4. Chemical Synthesis.
Liquefaction entails use of large quantities of water and there is
the problem of ash disposal and slag removal plus
elimination of sulfur dioxide emissions if the coal contains
large quantities of sulfur.
Wood contains
Cellulose 45-65%
Lignin 25-35%
Water and proteins in solution 10-15%
Heating Value:
The heating value of coal varies from coal field to coal field.
Measurement of Moisture
Determination of moisture is carried
out by placing a sample of powdered raw
coal of size 200-micron size in an uncovered
crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at
108+2 oC along with the lid. Then the
sample is cooled to room temperature and
weighed again. The loss in weight
represents moisture.
Fuel
Acetone
Alcohol, 96%
Anthracite
Bituminous coal
Butane
Carbon
Charcoal
Coal
Coke
Diesel
Ethanol
Ether
Gasoline
Glycerin
Hydrogen
Lignite
Methane
Oils, vegetable
Peat
Petrol
Petroleum
Propane
Semi anthracite
Sulfur
Tar
Turpentine
Wood (dry)
kJ/kg
29,000
30,000
32,500 - 34,000
17,000 - 23,250
49,510
34,080
29,600
15,000 - 27,000
28,000 - 31,000
44,800
29,700
43,000
47,300
19,000
141,790
16,300
55,530
39,000 - 48,000
13,800 - 20,500
48,000
43,000
50,350
26,700 - 32,500
9,200
36,000
44,000
14,400 - 17,400
14,000 - 14,500
7,300 - 10,000
20,900
12,800
8,000 - 14,000
12,000 - 13,500
19,300
12,800
20,400
61,000
7,000
5,500 - 8,800
11,500 - 14,000
6,200 - 7,500
kJ/m3
Acetylene
56,000
Butane C4H10
133,000
Hydrogen
13,000
Natural gas
43,000
Methane CH4
39,820
Propane C3H8
101,000
Town gas
18,000
Btu/ft3
3200
950 - 1150
2550
kJ/l
Btu/Imp gal
Gas oil
38,000
164,000
41,200
177,000
Kerosene
35,000
154,000
Proximate analysis:
The "proximate" analysis gives moisture content, volatile
content, consisting of gases and vapours driven off during
pyrolysis (when heated to 950 C), the fixed carbon and the ash,
the inorganic residue remaining after combustion in the sample
and the high heating value (HHV) based on the complete
combustion of the sample to carbon dioxide and liquid water.
Proximate analysis is the most often used analysis for
characterizing coals in connection with their utilization.
The proximate analysis determines only the fixed carbon,
volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages. proximate
analysis can be determined with a simple apparatus
Ash Content:
Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical range is 5 to 40%
Ash
Reduces handling and burning capacity.
Increases handling costs.
Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
Causes clinkering and slagging.
Moisture Content:
Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored. Since it replaces combustible
matter, it decreases the heat content per kg of coal. Typical range is 0.5 to 10%
Moisture
Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapour
Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
Aids radiation heat transfer.
Sulphur Content:
Typical range is 0.5 to 0.8% normally.
Sulphur
Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies
Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economisers
Limits exit flue gas temperature.
Ultimate Analysis:
The "ultimate" analysis" gives the composition of the
biomass in wt% of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (the major
components) as well as sulfur and nitrogen (if any).
The carbon determination includes that present in the
organic coal substance and any originally present as mineral
carbonate. The hydrogen determination includes that in the
organic materials in coal and in all water associated with the
coal. All nitrogen determined is assumed to be part of the
organic materials in coal.
The ultimate analysis determines all coal component
elements, solid or gaseous. The ultimate analysis is determined
in a properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist
The above equation is valid for coal containing greater than 15% Moisture content
Agglutinating index
This is determined by mixing the coal with an
inert material such as graded sand and
stating the proportion which fails to give a
coherent mass
Grindability Index
It is important in connection with pulverizing.
Specially sized coal is submitted to a standardized grinding procedure.
The index is calculated from the percentage of the sample remained on a
74 micron sieve
Preparation of Coal
Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the
boiler is an important step for achieving good
combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal
may cause the following problems:
Poor combustion conditions and inadequate
furnace temperature.
Higher excess air resulting in higher stack
loss.
Increase of unburnts in the ash.
Low thermal efficiency.
Sizing of Coal
Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion.
Proper coal sizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps
towards even burning, reduced ash losses and better combustion efficiency.
Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be
economical for smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal
handling system, crushing is limited to a top size of 6 or 4mm. The devices most
commonly used for crushing are the rotary breaker, the roll crusher and the
hammer mill.
It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is
fed to the crusher. This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher.
Recommended practices in coal crushing are:
Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid
extra fine generation in crushing.
Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal,
which may damage the crusher.
Conditioning of Coal
The fines in coal present problems in combustion on account of
segregation effects. Segregation of fines from larger coal pieces
can be reduced to a great extent by conditioning coal with water.
Water helps fine particles to stick to the bigger lumps due to
surface tension of the moisture, thus stopping fines from falling
through grate bars or being carried away by the furnace draft.
While tempering the coal, care should be taken to ensure that
moisture addition is uniform and preferably done in a moving or
falling stream of coal.
If the percentage of fines in the coal is very high, wetting of coal
can decrease the percentage of unburnt carbon and the excess air
level required to be supplied for combustion. Table 1.9 shows the
extent of wetting, depending on the percentage of fines in coal.
Blending of Coal
In case of coal lots having excessive fines, it is
advisable to blend the predominantly lumped coal
with lots containing excessive fines. Coal blending may
thus help to limit the extent of fines in coal being fired
to not more than 25%. Blending of different qualities
of coal may also help to supply a uniform coal feed to
the boiler.