Chemistry Unit 2: Notes

2.1-Shapes of molecules and ions

Electron-pair repulsion theory:
The shape of a molecule or an ion depends on thenumber of electron pairs that
surround the atom. The electron pairs repel each other so stay far apart from
each other.
Linear:
2 el
ectron pairs, 180
bond angles (e.g. BeCl
2
, CO
2
)
Trigonal Planar:
3 electr
on pairs, 120
bond angles (e.g. BCl
3
)
Bent:
2 electron pairs, 1 lone pair,
Tetrahedral:

4 electron pairs, 109.5

bond angles (e.g. CH
4
, NH
4+
)
Trigonal Pyramidal:
3 electro
n pairs, 1 lone pair, 107

bond angles betweenelectron pairs (e.g. NH

3
)
Bent:
2 electron pairs, 2 lone pairs, 104
.5
bond angles between electron pairs (e.g.H
2
0)
Trigonal bipyramidal:

5 electron pairs, 90 and 120 bond angles (e.g. PCl

5
)
Octahedral:

6 electron pairs, 90

and 180
bond angles (e.g. SF
6
)
Lone pairs and double/triple bonds
repel more than electron pairs hence thedifferences in angles even with 4/ 3
bonds.
Alkanes:

Tetrahedral due to all bond angles being 109.5 due to carbon forming 4
bonds.
Alkenes:
Bonds around the double bond are trigonal planar but due to the double
bond the bond angles can range from 121

118.

Alcohols:

Hydrocarbon chain is tetrahedral so bond angles are 109.5. C

-O-H bond
is a bent molecule so is 104.5.

Carboxylic acids:
COOH group around the carbon is trigonal planar so 120.

Haloalkanes:

Tetrahedral as halogen bonds dont affect bond angles. Same as

alkanes
Carbonyls:

CHO/C=0 bonds around the carbon are trigonal planar (120).

Diamond:
Tetrahedral due to 4 carbon electron pairs being formed.
Graphite:
Trigonal planar as only 3 carbon electron pairs are formed. Goodconductor due to
weak London forces
Fullerene:
Spherical molecule made up of about 60 carbon atoms which candissolve in
petrol and is a good conductor.
Nanotubes:
Tube-like cage structure made up of 12 membered rings that can beused to carry
drugs to target body cells.
2.2-intermediate bonding and bond polarity

Electronegativity:
A measure of the attraction of an atom in a molecule for a pair of electrons in a
covalent bond.
Fluorine
is the
most electronegative
as it has the
least shielding
whilst still havinga
large number of protons
so has a
greater pull
.
Covalent bond
: Shared electrons.
Ionic bond:
Loss of electrons by metal and gainof electrons by non-metal.
Both
are two extremes of the spectrum.

Differences between electronegativities

of atoms can determine what percentageof each character (covalent or Ionic)
they are. Looking at the
electron cloud
aroundthe bond can also determine their character.
Polar covalent bonds
will have an
even spread of charge
whereas
Ionic bonds

will show a
distortion
in the electroncloud around one atom.
Non-symmetrical molecules
tendto be
polar
so will produce a clear
dipole
(e.g. Trichloromethane) with aknown
polarity
measured in
dipolemoment
(Debye, D).
Symmetrical molecules
are
non-polar
due to the
dipoles cancelling
.(e.g. CO
2
)
2.3-Intermolecular forces
Types of Intermolecular forcesPermanent dipoles:
Polar molecules only. Negative dipole attracted to the Positivedipole and vice
versa. 100x weaker than covalent bonding.
London forces:
Electrons distributed around the nucleus change so more electrons
are distributed around one end. This induces another atom thats near it to do
the
same. So a weak temporary bonding forms between the two atoms. Is a weak
forcebut strength does depend on the size of the electron cloud. More
electrons=moredelocalisation=more London forces.
Hydrogen bonding:

Hydrogen attached to a very electronegative element (e.g.fluorine, oxygen and

nitrogen.). This is the strongest intermolecular force.
Boiling temperature trends (determined by intermolecular
forces)Alkanes with increasing chain length:
Increasing boiling temperature due toincreasing London forces with the increase
in the number of electrons.
Branching in the carbon chain:
The boiling temperature decreases. This isbecause the side chains interfere w
ith the packing of the molecule. Molecules cant
form many intermolecular forces.
Alcohols:
Have hydrogen bonds present so have high boiling temperatures. Water has a
higher boiling temperature than alcohols as it can form double the amount
of Hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen halides down the period:
Fluorine is highly electronegative so has avery large boiling temperature
compared to the rest which from chlorine starts lowaround 80
and then gradually increases due to increased dipole-dipole interactionsfrom
increased number of electrons.
Solubility trendsA solution is made up of a solute and a solvent. Table
below shows thesolubility of different substances. Ketone is unusual in
that it can dissolve inboth water and organic solvents as it has both of
the functional groups.Formula Description E.g.Polar
AB Linear COHA Single H HCl A
x
OH OH at one end C
2
H
5
OHN
x
A
y
N at one end NH
3

Non-polar
A
2
All elements O
2
C
x
A
y
CarboncompoundsCO
2

2.4-Redox
Oxidation no.:
amount of charge due to no. of electrons.
RulesAtom Oxidation no.

Elements 0Uncombined ion

Its charge
Molecule total 0Fluorine -1Hydrogen +1 (except metal hydrides=-1)Oxygen -2
(except peroxides=-1 and withfluorine=positive no.)Chlorine -1 (except with
oxygen or fluorine=positive no.)Group 1, 2, 3 +1, +2, +3 respectively
OILRIG:
Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain.
Reducing agent:
Reduces another substance whilst being oxidised itself
Oxidising agent:
Oxidises a substance whilst being reduced itself.
Reduction half equation:
Cl
2(g)
+ 2e
2Cl
-(aq)

Oxidation half equation:

2I
-(aq)
I
2(s)
+ 2e
-

Key half equations:

0
2(g)
+4e
20

2-(s)
2H
2
0
(l)
+2e
2OH
-(aq)
+H
2(g)
2H
+(aq)
+2e
H
2(g)

Displacement:
One substance replaces another in a
reaction.HighlyPolar solidsPolar organicsubstancesNon-polar solidsIoniccompoun
d(e.g.NaCl)Non-polar liquidsWater soluble soluble insoluble
Soluble(Hydrationenthalpy)Hexaneinsoluble insoluble
solublePolar liquidsImmiscible(forms twoseparatelayers)Non-polar liquidsmiscible

Disproportionation:
Where a substance is both oxidised and reduced in a reaction.
2.5-Periodic Table
Group 2Trend in 1
st
Ionisation energy:
Decreases down the group due to increasing atomicradius where the outer
electrons are further away so less energy is needed toremove an electron. Forms
2+ ions easily
Reactions- With Oxygen:
Burns brightly to produce a metal oxide with increasingreactivity down the group.

With Chlorine:
Solid metal chloride formed. Also has an increase in reactivity.
With Water:
Increasing reactivity down group. Beryllium has no reaction,Magnesium only
reacts with steam to produce a magnesium oxide and the rest reactwith cold
water to produce metal hydroxides.
Oxides with Water:
Increasing reactivity. Beryllium and magnesium only reactslightly, Calcium fizzes
to produce calcium hydroxide (slaking lime), and strontiumand Barium react in a
similar way.
Oxides/Hydroxides with Dilute Acids:
Forms a salt and water. E.g. CaCl
2
+H
2
O or Ca(NO
3
)
2
+H
2
O
Flame Testing:
Place nichrome wire inconcentrated HCl then heat in a bunsen flame toclean.
Colours of flames are shown in table.
SolubilityOf hydroxides:
Increases down group
Of Sulphates:
Decreases down group
Thermal StabilityOf Nitrates:
Decreases down group 1 due to weaker charge of attraction. Group 1are more
stable than group 2 apart from lithium due to larger charge.2NaNO
3
2NaNO

2
+O
2
, 4liNO
3
2Li
2
O+4NO
2
+O
2
, 2Mg(NO
3
)
2
2MgO+4NO
2
+O
2

Of Carbonates:
More stable as you go down the group as cations get bigger sothere is a more
polarising effect on the carbonate.
Common Oxidising Agents Common Reducing agents
O
2
+4e
2O
2MM
n+

+e
(metal)Cl
2
+2e
2Cl
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+e
Br
2
+2e
2Br
2I
I
2
+2e
I
2
+2e
2I
-

2S
2
O
32S
4
O
62+2e
Fe
3+
+e
Fe
2+
C
2
O
422CO
2
+2e
2H
+
+2e
H
2
H
2

O
2
O
2
+2H
+
+2e
Mn0
4+8e
Mn
2+
+4H
2
O S0
32+H
2
O SO
42+2H
+
+2e
Cr
2
O
72+14H
+

+6e
2Cr
3+
+7H
2
O2H
2
SO
4
+2e
SO
42+2H
2
O+SO
2

Cation Flame ColourLithium

Red
Sodium
Yellow
Potassium
Lilac
Magnesium
No colour
Calcium
Orange/Red
Strontium
Red
Barium

Pale Green

Group7-HalogensSolubilityIn Water:
Chlorine forms chlorine water which is colourless, Bromine water is
Orange; Iodine isnt soluble in water as it needs I
3ions so instead, it dissolves inPotassium iodide which is Brown.
In organic solvents:
As halogens are non-polar, they dissolve more easily inhydrocarbon solvents
than water. Chlorine= Pale yellow, Bromine=Brown,Iodine=Purple
Oxidisation reactionsHalogens are strong oxidising agents,With metals:
Form salts. 2Fe+3Cl
2
2FeCl
3
, Fe+I
2
FeI
2

With Hydrogen:
Decreasing reactivity down group. Chlorine explodes whereas
Bromine and Iodine need 300C and Platinum catalyst.

With Phosphorus:
Chorine forms a chloride (III) then a chloride (V).
With Iron Chloride:
Green iron (II) chloride becomes oxidised to brown iron (III)chloride.
Chlorine is a stronger oxidising agent than iodine:
2KI
+Cl
2
2KCl+I
2

Sulphuric acid oxidises halides and halogens with increasing vigour

down thegroup.

Hydrogen Halides are covalent but become increasingly ionic as you go

up thegroupHydrogen Halides and Ammonia:
NH
3
+HCl NH
4
Cl
Disproportionation reactionsWith cold dilute Alkali:
Cl
2
+2OH
Cl
-

+ClO
+H
2
O
With warm Alkali:
3ClO
2Cl
+ClO
3-

Testing for halogensSilver halides:

AgCl
-White precipitate which is soluble in ammonia,
AgBrCreamprecipitate which is soluble in ammonia,
AgIYellow precipitate which is insoluble inammonia.
Concentrated sulphuric acid and glass rod with ammonia:
Chlorine=whitefumes, white smoke. Bromine=white and orange fumes, white
smoke. Iodine=Whiteand purple fumes, white smoke.
2.6-Kinetics
Rate of reaction:
Speed with which reactants disappear and products are formedfor a particular
reaction.
Decreased rate=Decreased yieldFactors in rate of reaction

Concentration:
Affects number of collisions due to change in number of particles ina given
volume.
Temperature:
Affects activation energy due to faster moving particles with moresuccessful
collisions.
Pressure:
Affects number of collisions due to change in number of particles in agiven
volume.
Surface area:
Affects the number of particles open to contact.
Catalysts:
Changes the rate of reaction without being used up or undergoing anypermanent
changes by lowering the activation energy through forming an activatedcomplex.
Industrial processes rely on catalysts to save money, energy andresources.
Collision theory:
In order for a reaction to happen, colliding particles need to be inthe right
orientation and have enough energy. Rate of reaction depends on this.
Maxwell-Boltzmann modelmodels the distribution of molecular energies sochanges in concentration,
temperature or pressure can be calculated to predict therate of reaction. E.g. As
the temperature rises, the graph flattens so there are agreater proportion of
particles moving fast enough to overcome activation energy.
Activation energy:
Minimum energy required for a reaction to take place.
2.7-Chemical Equilibria
Dynamic Equilibria:
Two opposing processes that occur at the same rate so haveconstant
macroscopic properties.
Le Chateliers principle:
Whenever a system in dynamic equilibrium is disturbed, ittends to respond in
opposition to the disturbance in order to restore equilibrium.
Increase in Temperature:
Moves in the endothermic direction.
Increase in Pressure:
Moves to the side with the fewest number of moles.

Increase in Reactants:
Moves to the other side as more products are formed.Increase rate.
Equilibria Reactions:
N
2
O
4
2NO
2
, ICl+ICl
2
ICl
3

Haber Process:
Production of ammonia (Exothermic reaction). Atom economy=100% as all
reactants are used (Recycled).
2.8-Organic Chemistry
AlcoholsFunctional group:
-OH (Methanol, Ethanol, Propan-1-ol)
Primary Alcohol:
1 carbon attached to the carbon with the functional group on it.
Secondary Alcohol:
2 carbons attached.
Tertiary alcohol:
3 carbons attached.
Combustion:
Produces carbon dioxide and water
Reaction with sodium:
2Na+2C
2
H

5
OH 2C
2
H
5
O
Na
+
+H
2,
effervescence, forms awhite precipitate.

Reaction with PCl

5
:
Reaction produces a chlorine haloalkane, POCl
3
and HCl gas(misty white fumes that turn damp blue litmus paper red).
Oxidation using acidified potassium dichromate (toxic, carcinogen):
Primaryalcohols when oxidised, produce aldehydes, then carboxylic acids if
refluxed.
Secondary alcohols produce ketones which cant be oxidised further. Tertiary
alcohols show no reaction.When making ethanoic acid, add ethanol carefully to
dichromate as it couldevaporate if added quickly.
Fractional distillation
is used to separate

ethanoic acidfrom the waste product, water.

Distillation Apparatus:

Reflux Apparatus:

HalogenoalkanesFunctional group:
R-Cl, R-Br, R-I
Primary Haloalkanes:
1 carbon attached to the carbon with the functional group.Most reactive as
nucleophiles are more attracted.
Secondary Haloalkanes:
2 Carbons attached.
Tertiary Haloalkanes:
3 Carbons attached.
Structural isomers
are
very common
in
haloalkanes.
A
change
in
halogen atomposition
makes a
huge difference
to the
properties
of the
molecule.Halogens react faster
in
substitution reactions
if the
halogen is attached
to a
branched chain.

Metal halides
and
concentrated sulphuric acid should not be used
in the

creation of a haloalkane
as they are very reactive.Reaction with aqueous KOH:
Substitution reaction which creates an alcohol as:OH
is attracted to the carbocation after breaking H-Cl.
Reaction with alcoholic KOH:
Elimination reaction which produces an alkene. KOHattracts H

+
by acting as a base.
Reaction with silver nitrate dissolved in water:
Ag+ ion reacts with the halogensto create insoluble products. (See page 6-Silver
halides)
Reaction with alcoholic ammonia:
ammonia acts as a nucleophile which replacesthe halogen atom in a
halogenoalkane.
Uses of halogenoalkanesAnaesthetic:
To put patient in a deep sleep. Chlorine= deep sleep, Fluorine-Carbonbonds=
stable molecule so less toxic.
Fire retardants:
Used to be in fire extinguishers but is now in circuit boards, fabricsand clothing.
Refrigerants:
Liquid that changes phase to keep things cool.
Also used in:
Aerosol containers and Insecticides
2.9-Mechanisms
Addition:
Two or more substances react to form a single product.
Elimination:
Small molecule removed from a larger molecule leaving a double bond.
Condensation:
Addition followed by elimination of H
2
O or HCl.
Substitution:
One atom or group of atoms replaced by another atom or group of atoms.
Oxidation:
Process where electrons are lost.
Reduction:
Process where electrons are gained.
Hydrolysis:

Splitting of a molecule by reaction with H

2
O.
Polymersiation:
Joining of small molecules together in a long chain.
Homolytic fission:
When a bond is broken and both atoms take a single electroneach and form two
free radicals.
Heterolytic fission:
When a bond is broken and both electrons only go to one atomcreating a
negative ion and a positive ion. (Carbanion and carbocation.)
Free radicals:
Has an unpaired electron so is extremely reactive and short lived.
E.g. Cl, CH
3

Electrophile:
Atom attracted to an electron-rich centre. Has a positive charge. E.g.H
+
, Br
+

Nucleophile:
atom attracted to an electron-deficient centre. Has a negative charge.E.g. :NH
3, :OH
-

Classifying reagents
gives
clues
to
how a mechanism

will
take place
.
Bond polarity
determines whether the centre will be
electron-rich or electron-deficient.

Nucleophillic substitution reaction:

Halogenoalkanes
Free-radical substitution reaction:
Alkanes with a halogen.
Electrophilic addition reaction:
Alkenes with hydrogen or a halogen.

Ozone layer:
Formed by O

+O
2
O
3
. This layer absorbs UV light from the sun butwhen cloud cover and chemicals
build up, the spring UV light hitting the cloudscauses any CFCs in them to break
up and create free radicals which break down theozone layer into O
2
molecules.
2.10-Mass spectra and IR absorption
Mass spectraHighest m/z Value=
Parent ion.
Most Abundant peak=
Base peak.

Peaks are produced by the fragmentation of organic molecules.IR

absorptionC-H Stretching=
2820-3010
O-H Stretching=
Broad peak at 2500-3750
N-H Stretching=
3300-3500
C=O Stretching=
1680-1740
C-X Stretching=
500-1400There is a
change in functional groups
when
alcohol is oxidised
to a
carbonylor carboxylic acid
.Only
molecules that change polarity
when they
vibrate
can
absorb IR radiation
e.g. Greenhouse gases.
Diatomic
molecules
cant
absorb IR.
2.11-Green Chemistry
Bio-oil
is made for fuel from
pyrolysis
(heating wheat without burning).

Ethanol
isproduced from
organic waste
by converting sugars using bacteria or yeast.
Starch
has lots of uses including adhesives, paper bonding, textile fibres, shopping
bags,absorption paper, drug and pesticide encapsulation and corrugated card.
Catalysts
enable a reaction to go under lower temperatures and pressures to saveenergy.
Catalysts need to be cheap, very active and produce no by-products.
Microwave ovens
can heat reactants more economically. Continuous pulses of radiation heats up
reactants. Electric field occurs which rotates polar molecules andlines them up.
Recycling glass
and
aluminium
saves energy from having to make more.
Water
asa waste product from a reaction in a factory must be treated before being
disposedto avoid contaminating the environment. Waste
acidic gases
are removed from therest of the air before it goes into atmosphere.
CO
2
is the most worrying greenhouse gas as it absorbs lots of IR and is abundant in
the atmosphere. The other greenhouse gases arent as abundant.

Athropogenic factors
: due to activities of human beings.
Natural factors
: due to natural processes on earth.
Carbon neutral
: a process that gives out as much CO

2
as it takes in.

Carbon footprint
: a measure of the impact on environment from how muchgreenhouse gas is
produced. (Measured in CO
2
)
Petrol

isnt carbon neutral due to the slow process of formation of crude oil.

Bio-ethanol

isnt carbon neutral e

ither as production of biofuel requires energy.
Hydrogen

isnt carbon neutral as it creates CO

2
when it is being formed frommethanol.
Cl+O
3

ClO+O
2

ClO+O
3

Cl+2O
2
So in total, 2O
3
3O
2
due to CFCs so more UV radiation therefore hits earth.
Titration calculations
To find percentage of a metal in an impure substance1. Find the no. of
moles using the known concentration and volume of asubstance.2. Use
the molar ratio to find the no. of moles in the other reactingsubstance
with the metal.3. If divided by 10 fold in question, x no. of moles by 10
to get original no.of moles.4. Original no. of moles x Mr of metal= Mass
of metal in grams5. Mass of metal/Total mass x100= Percentage of
metal