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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process
File Reference: CHE10701
Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
Water Treatment and
Distribution / Sources, Uses and Quality
CONTENTS
SOURCES OF WATER
USES OF WATER
Once-Through Cooling Water
Recirculating Cooling Water
Boiler Feedwater
Domestic (Sanitary) Water
Firefighting Water (See SAES-B-007A)
Engine Cooling Water
Chemical Mixing Water
Hydrostatic Testing Water
WATER ANALYSES
QUALITY OF WATER
Scale
Corrosion
Solids
Caustic
Organics
Purity Targets for Once-Through Cooling Water
Purity Targets for Open Recirculating Cooling Water
Purity Targets for Boiler Steam Water
Purity Targets for Domestic (Sanitary) Water
Purity Targets for Firefighting Water
CONTENTS
WORK AID 1: COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND
IMPURITIES IN WATER
WORK AID 2: PURITY TARGETS FOR OPEN
RECIRCULATING COOLING WATER
WORK AID 3: TYPICAL TREATMENT PURITY TARGETS MAXIMUM IMPURITIES IN BOILER MAKEUP WATER
WORK AID 4: TYPICAL TREATMENT PURITY TARGETS MAXIMUM IMPURITIES IN STEAM DRUM WATER
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
Saudi Aramco Standards
Saudi Aramco Design Practices
Exxon Basic Practices
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Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
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SOURCES OF WATER
The usual sources of water are:
Sea water
The major concerns with purchased water are the cost, the reliability of supply, and the potential quality
variations. Saudi Aramco does not purchase water.
Surface fresh water can come from rivers, streams, lakes, or ponds. These waters usually contain suspended
matter, organic matter, dissolved solids, dissolved gases, and other man-made and natural pollutants. Surface
fresh water is rare in Saudi Arabia.
Subsurface ground water can originate from springs and shallow or deep wells. These waters are usually
relatively free of suspended matter. They can have wide quality variations. Even normally fresh water wells
can have salt water intrusion or limited availability during dry periods. Wells are a common source of water
throughout Saudi Aramco.
Seawater is often used offshore or in arid regions such as Saudi Arabia. This water has a high dissolved solids
content, frequently over 30,000 ppm. Waste heat or low level heat is used in many cases to evaporate sea water
as a first step in water treatment.
USES OF WATER
Water has many uses both in municipalities and in plants. The five main uses of water in Saudi Arabia are:
Boiler feedwater
Firefighting water
Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
Water Treatment and
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In addition to these five main uses, water is also used for engine cooling, chemical mixing, hydrostatic testing,
and for other minor uses.
Engineering Encyclopedia
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Boiler Feedwater
Boiler feedwater must be treated in nearly all cases. Makeup water is frequently a low percentage of total
feedwater, often less than 10%, because most of the condensate is returned. Water quality required depends on
the use of the water. For example, higher pressure boilers require a better quality of water. Returned
condensate can also require treatment, particularly to remove oil and control pH.
Boiler feedwater treatment will be discussed in detail in the module on Water Treatment Systems.
Storage of the treated boiler feedwater is required if steam is used in critical services. Typically, a supply equal
to 4 to 8 hours of treated water consumption is maintained.
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The firewater system should have a minimum of two electrically driven normal pumps with a total capacity able
to supply the maximum design rate. Spare diesel-driven pumps are required to supply at least 50% of the
design rate if there is a total power failure.
The firewater distribution system should be kept under pressure at all times. Within Saudi Aramco, the
minimum pressure allowed at a hydrant is 100 psig in process areas and 80 psig in offsite and other areas. To
keep the system under pressure, a small jockey pump (300 to 500 gpm capacity) can be used. For systems
requiring 500 gpm maximum or less, no jockey pump is required. System pressure can be maintained by
running a regular pump. For systems requiring 500 to 1,000 gpm, one jockey pump is required. For systems
requiring more than 1,000 gpm, two jockey pumps are required.
If a motor-driven firewater pump is used, the motor should be automatically started when firewater system
pressure is low. It should also be provided with remote start capability.
Firewater piping should be installed below ground in areas where the risk of fire is high. The piping should
arranged in loops with adequate valving so that any section of broken pipe can be isolated. Pipes must be large
enough to provide the required pressures at hydrants at 50% of maximum flow to any fire risk area with any
one section of pipe out of service.
The entire system should be tested frequently to make certain it is all in working order. Frequency of testing is
established based upon the experience with a specific system.
Engineering Encyclopedia
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Engineering Encyclopedia
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WATER ANALYSES
Water analysis must be performed in order to determine if impurities are within acceptable limits for the
required use. Water analyses are conventionally expressed, for both cations and anions, in parts per million by
weight (ppw) except for hardness and alkalinity, which are usually expressed in ppmw of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). These ppmw values can be converted to a common basis (such as milli-equivalents/liter). This
permits the summation of oppositely charged ions such that total cations will then equal total anions. Cation
and anion concentrations in milli-equivalents/liter can be converted to ppmw CaCO 3.
The calculations for water at a specific gravity of 1:
Molecular Weight
= Equivalent Weight
Valence
Water Analysis
Ion
Equivalent
Weight
ppmw
MW
100.1
40.08
40
Magnesium (Mg+2)
20.4
24.32
24
Sodium (Na+1)
12.0
23.00
23
366.0
61.02
61
Sulfate (SO4-2)
48.1
96.06
96
Chloride (C1-1)
7.1
35.46
35
Calcium (Ca+2)
Bicarbonate (HCO3-1)
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Ca+2
Mg+2
Na+1
100.1/20.04 = 5.00
20.4/12.16 = 1.68
12.0/23 = 0.52
Totals
7.20
ppmw CaCO3
(5.0)(50.05) = 250
(1.68)(50.05) = 84
(0.52)(50.05) = 26
360
Anions
Ion
ppmw CaCO3
HCO3-1
SO4-2
Cl-1
366/61.02 = 6.00
48.1/48.03 = 1.68
7.1/35.46 = 0.20
(6)(50.05) = 300
(1.0)(50.05) = 50
(0.20)(50.05) = 10
Totals
7.20
360
Total hardness is the sum of calcium and magnesium and is therefore equal to 334 ppmw as CaCO3 (250 + 84).
Correspondingly, alkalinity is the sum of CO 3-2, HCO3-1, and OH-1 ions and is equal to 300 ppmw as
CaCO3.
The values obtained by these calculations can be compared with the Purity Target Tables (Work Aids 2, 3, and
4) to determine if additional treatment is required.
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QUALITY OF WATER
Five types of impurities found in water are a concern in cooling or steam generation applications. For a
summary of water impurities, difficulties and treatment methods, see Work Aid 1. The five impurity types are:
Soluble salts and dissolved gases that can enhance or cause corrosion
Dissolved solids, oil, and silica than can carry over into the steam from a boiler
Scale
Scale and deposits result when insoluble salts deposit on heat transfer surfaces. This reduces heat transfer and
can cause equipment failure. Scale is caused primarily by the hardness salts, metals, and silica.
Among the significant scale- and deposit-forming impurities are:
Calcium
Magnesium
Silica
Phosphates
Oil
Iron, copper
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Corrosion
Corrosion affects distribution piping, feedwater piping, boiler internals, and condensate piping. The main
causes are oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine, and excess alkalinity.
Corrosives act in different ways. Oxygen causes pitting or formation of small pits in distribution piping,
feedwater systems, and boilers. It also aggravates corrosion in condensate systems. It can be removed
externally in a deaerator, and it can be scavenged internally by adding sulfite or hydrazine.
Carbon dioxide also causes condensate system corrosion. It can be removed in a deaerator, degasifier or
decarbonator.
Ammonia attacks copper alloys. It is sometimes added for feedwater or condensate pH control. It can also be
formed by hydrazine decomposition. A deaerator will remove ammonia.
Abnormal alkalinity produces caustic embrittlement, film corrosion, and turbine fouling.
Excessive chelates or dispersants can cause corrosion in steam piping and throughout the steam system.
Impurities that enhance corrosion include:
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Ammonia
Alkalinity
Chlorides
Sulfites
Hydrazine
Chelates
Organics
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Solids
Carryover of solids from boiler water into the steam is caused by inadequate separation in a boiler drum, by
volatilizing of silica, and by foaming resulting from oil contamination of boiler water. Solids carryover can
result in superheater failure, steam turbine blade fouling, and process catalyst fouling. The main causes of such
problems are high total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity, oil, and silica in the boiler drum.
Caustic
Caustic embrittlement is the cracking of metal along grain boundaries. It can result from too much caustic in
boiler water particularly in poorly controlled caustic-pH programs where caustic is added for pH control.
Organics
Organics in the makeup water can also foul water-treating exchangers.
Organics are complex acids resulting from decaying plants and other forms of pollution. If they exist in
makeup water in large quantities, they can foul anion exchanges, affect the quality of treated water, and
drastically reduce anion exchanger run lengths. They can be detected by a permanganate test or a total organic
carbon (TOC) test.
Organics can be removed by coagulation and filtration, by chlorination and by preceding a strong anion
exchanger by a weak anion exchanger. Exchangers can be regenerated by periodic rinsing with salt water.
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Caustic and sulfur gases must be controlled to reduce steam turbine blade corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking.
To protect catalysts, the following limits should be met for impurities in steam:
Work Aid 3 lists the maximum quantities of various impurities permitted in boiler makeup water based on the
conditions listed in the notes.
Work Aid 4 lists the maximum quantities of various impurities allowed to accumulate in steam generator drum
water.
If impurity concentrations do not exceed these targets, most of the difficulties associated with impurities in
boiler water and steam can be avoided.
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Chemical Formula
Difficulties Caused
Means of Treatment
Turbidity
Color
None
Hardness
Alkalinity
Corrosion
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
pH
pH
Sulfate
(SO4)-2
Chloride
Cl-1
Nitrate
(NO3)-1
Fluoride
F-1
Silica
SiO2
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Chemical Formula
Fe+2 (ferrous)
Difficulties Caused
Means of Treatment
Fe+3 (ferric)
Manganese
Mn+2
Same as iron
Same as iron
Oil
Oxygen
O2
Hydrogen Sulfide
H2S
Ammonia
NH3
Conductivity
Conductivity is the result of ionizable solids Any process which decreases dis-solved
in solution; high conductivity can increase solids content will decrease conductivity
the corrosive characteris-tics of a water
examples are deminerali-zation, lime
softening
Dissolved Solids
None
Suspended Solids
None
Total Solids
None
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MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION
Silica (SiO2)
*Chlorides (Cl -)
Ammonia (NH3)
10 mg/L as Cl-
**Phosphate (PO4 - -)
3,000 mg/L as is
200 mg/L
10 mg/L
60 mg/L
pH
6.0 to 7.5
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TOTAL DISSOLVED
SOLIDS (TDS)
SILICA
TOTAL
HARDNESS
TOTAL
ALKALINITY
TURBIDITY
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(psig) (barg)
150
10
220
15
45
300
20
200
11
40
450
30
155
30
600
40
125
25
0.5
750
50
100
20
0.5
900
60
80
0.8
15
0.5
1200
80
0.03
0.1
1500
100
0.01
0.1
2000
140
0.005
0.5
0.1
NOTE:
20% dilution from condensed heating steam in the deaerator or hot lime softener
Boiler blowdown rate of 10% for operating pressure up to 60 barg (900 psig)
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TOTAL DISSOLVED
SOLIDS
SILICA
(ppm)
(ppm)
ALKALINITY
TOTAL
(ppm)
(ppm)
150
10
1750
125
350
175
300
20
1500
90
300
150
450
30
1250
50
250
125
600
40
1000
35
200
100
750
50
750
20
150
75
900
60
625
125
60
1200
80
500
2.5
100
1500
100
350
1.0
75
2000
140
250
0.5
50
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GLOSSARY
alkalinity
anions
anion exchanger
attemperating
biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD)
biocide
blowdown
calcium and magnesium
hardness
cations
caustic or caustic soda
caustic embrittlement
coagulation
desuperheating
dissolved solids
filtration
hardness
ion
jockey pump
makeup water
nephelometric turbidity unit
(NTU)
organics
pH
potable water
raw water
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
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suspended solids
total hardness
turbidity
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REFERENCES
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-A-103
SAES-A-104
SAES-A-110
SAES-B-007A
SAES-S-040
SADP-S-040
SADP-Section IV
Firefighting Facilities
BP11-1-1
BP11-2-1
BP11-4-1
BP11-4-2
BP11-5-1
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