Chapter 2

Membranes and
cell organelles
Figure 2.1 This image shows
a transverse section of a mouse
tail. Look at the incredible range
of different kinds of cells present:
cartilage, connective tissue, nerve,
muscle, epithelial cells and others.
The nucleus of each cell contains
the same DNA. Although some
proteins are made by all cells,
others are different and give each
kind of cell its uniqueness. These
are eukaryotic cells and all share
the characteristic of an internal
structure of membranous chambers
called organelles. In this chapter we
consider the structures and functions
of organelles. We also consider the
transport of material within cells
and the passage of material across
plasma membranes.

Key knowledge
This chapter is designed to enable students to:
understand the extent of the plasma membrane in forming a series of
membranous channels for the packaging and transport of biomolecules
throughout eukaryote cells
enhance their knowledge and understanding of the structures and
functions of cell organelles
distinguish the different ways in which biomolecules enter or leave cells
develop their knowledge and understanding of connections between cells
extend their understanding of apoptosis.

Life or death for a cell?

Groups of similar cells form tissues and groups of tissues come together to
form organs. The death of cells is a natural feature of healthy tissue. This
programmed cell death was first noted in 1972 by Andrew Wyllie and is called
apoptosis (from Greek, meaning shedding of leaves in autumn).
In fully formed tissue, cell death and cell reproduction are generally balanced. If this balance is not regulated, an uncontrolled increase in cells can
occur and a tumour develops. If a tumour continues to grow and invades healthy
tissue, it is said to be malignant. A malignant tumour is called cancer. Too little
apoptosis can lead to cancer and too much can cause degenerative diseases such
as Alzheimer disease.

Unit: 4
AOS: 1
Topic: 4

See more
Apoptosis

Concept: 3

Unknown primary (5%)

Breast (26%)

Other (19%)

Pancreas (2%)
Cervix (4%)
Ovary (4%)
Colorectal (15%)

FIGURE 2.2 The frequencies of

Uterus (4%)

different types of cancer in adult

females

Non-Hodgkins lymphoma (4%)

FIGURE 2.3 Mouse fibroblast cells.

Fibroblasts are common in areolar
tissue, a connective tissue found
below the skin, around blood vessels
and nerves, and filling the spaces
between organs. When images of
Bim proteins (stained red) and Bcl-2
proteins (stained green) within a cell
are superimposed, a yellow colour
results. This indicates that the two
proteins, which are both associated
with programmed cell death
(apoptosis), are bound to the same
membranes within the cytoplasm of
the cell.

10 m

36

Lung (7%)

Melanoma of skin (10%)

Cancer is the second highest cause of death after heart disease in Australia and
breast cancer is the most common cause affecting adult females (see figure 2.2).
Although there has been improvement in the treatment of cancers in recent years,
30 per cent of women diagnosed with breast cancer die from it. Researchers in
the Cancer Division at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research
(WEHI) in Melbourne are investigating how breast cancer develops. This involves
identifying regulator proteins within cells and investigating the interactions of
these proteins that ultimately decide whether a cell lives or dies. Special stains,
such as those used on the cells in figure 2.3, assist in pinpointing the positions
of regulator proteins within cells. Other experiments are aimed at establishing
the physiological roles of these proteins. If we have better information about
the control and development of cancers, there is an increased chance that better
treatments can be developed.
Read about Sue Macaulays work as a radiographer with St Vincents
BreastScreen service, on page 39.

10 m

10 m

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 2

5_61_89158_NOB_BK2_4E_02.indd 36

26/03/13 9:33 AM

Key ideas
The cell is the basic unit of structure in living organisms.
Programmed cell death and reproduction of new cells are balanced in
fully formed tissues.

Quick-check
1 Why are cells known as the basic building blocks of living
organisms?
2 How might an examination of cells help diagnose disease?

Apoptosis
Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is self-destruction
by cells for the good of the whole organism. What is
the difference between this type of cell death and the
type that we call necrosis? Necrosis occurs if a cell
is seriously damaged by some mechanical or chemical
trauma and this causes general damage to the plasma
membrane of the cell; the plasma membrane can no
longer control what enters or leaves the cell, the cell
swells then bursts and the contents spread out over
nearby cells, causing inflammation of those tissues.
In apoptosis, cells respond to signals. There are two
main pathways of signals that initiate apoptosis: the
mitochondrial pathway and the death receptor pathway.
Signals from inside a cell the mitochondrial
pathway
If serious damage occurs inside a cell, such as severe
DNA damage or malfunction of an oxidative enzyme,
proteins on the surface of mitochondria are activated
and the mitochondrial membrane breaks. This starts
a series of events in the cell, including the action of
caspases (special enzymes that cleave specific proteins
at the amino acid aspartite), which enter the nuclear
pores and break DNA into small pieces. Events after
this are similar to those described at right for signals
from outside a cell.
Another situation in which a cell may initiate death
itself is if a cell is infected with a virus. The cell identifies the infection and kills itself before the virus has
had time to replicate and spread to other cells.

Signals from outside a cell

the death receptor pathway
Why would a perfectly healthy cell receive a message to self-destruct? There are different reasons. The
signal that a cell may receive could be:
You havent developed fully. This occurs in the
embryonic brain when billions of cells are formed
but some fail to be incorporated accurately into the
brain network. These stray cells die by apoptosis.
There are more of you than are needed. It costs
an organism energy and materials to keep unneeded
cells alive. Some immune system cells are produced
in larger numbers than required. These excess cells
die by apoptosis.
(a)

Figure 2.4 (a) Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of

lymphocytes undergoing apoptosis. Note the small bumps,
also called blebs, on the lymphocyte surfaces.

Membranes and cell organelles

37

 You have outlived your usefulness. Fingers and toes

(digits) develop within pads of cells (as illustrated in
Nature of Biology, Book 1, Fourth Edition, page39,
and on page 52 of this chapter). Cells remaining
between the digits are no longer required. Also,
after you recover from a disease, your body no
longer requires all the T and B cells that have been
produced. Cells no longer useful to an organism die
by apoptosis.
Cell membranes have death receptors that receive
the messages referred to above. When such a message
is received, a cascade of events occurs.
1. Many different caspases are activated within the
cell and, at the same time, a message goes out to
phagocytes in the area.
2. All cells that have received the death signal begin
to shrink and develop small bumps (blebs) on their
surface (see figure 2.4a).
3. Caspases enter through the nuclear membrane
pores, the DNA and proteins in the nucleus are
degraded, and mitochondria break down.
4. Organelles other than the nucleus and mitochondria
are generally preserved as the cell breaks into small
membrane-enclosed fragments.
5. The small fragments bind to receptors on phagocytic cells that have responded to messages from
the dying cell. These phagocytes then engulf the
fragments. They also secrete cytokines, which are
compounds that inhibit inflammation, so that surrounding cells are not damaged in the way that
neighbouring cells can be with necrosis.
The process is summarised in figure 2.4b.
Disease and apoptosis
Apoptosis is an essential feature of development. We
have noted that a healthy state relies on a balance
between cell production and cell loss in an organism.
An increasing number of diseases are now known to
be caused by a defect in apoptosis; for example:
too much apoptosis can lead to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer and Huntingtons diseases
too little apoptosis can lead to the production of
cancers and autoimmune diseases.
Refer also to page 404 in chapter 11. You will need to
understand apoptosis for your studies later in the year.

Death signals
instruct cell to die

(b)

Death signal
receptors

Signal recognised
and self-destruct
program activated

Apoptotic
cell

Caspase enzymes activated

Contact with neighbour cells lost
DNA and proteins fragmented
Cell fragments packaged

Figure 2.4 (b) Summary of the stages of apoptosis

38

Nature of biology book 2

Phagocytosis of parts
Cytokines secreted
Components recycled
Organelles recycled

BIOLOGY IN THE WORKPLACE

Sue Macaulay chief radiographer, St Vincents BreastScreen
In 2011 in Victoria, 207655 people were screened
for breast cancer. Of these, 44
710 were seen by
St Vincents BreastScreen service.
I decided on a career in radiology after working at a
private radiology practice for my Year 10 work experience placement and I qualified with a Diploma of
Applied Science and Medical Radiations at RMIT in
1983 (now a degree course at Monash University and
RMIT). The course involves theoretical and clinical
components at a rural, metropolitan, private or public
practice. Gaining supervised, practical experience in
the field is important because it helps students to decide
if radiography is something they really want to do.
My third-year clinicals were undertaken at St
Vincents Public Hospital where I was lucky to secure
a position after completing my diploma. St Vincents
offers a wide range of modalities, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), angiography (imaging
blood vessels), ultrasound, general radiography, and
mammography (breast imaging). Because most women
prefer it, mammograms are done mainly by women.
I became the chief radiographer when St Vincents
BreastScreen was established in the early 1990s and
it now incorporates eight satellite metropolitan and
rural screening services. BreastScreen is a free service, from screening to diagnosis. Women in the
target 5069-year age group are identified through
the electoral roll and actively recruited for the program. However, women over 40 can also access the
early-detection service. People may be advised to have
a mammogram if there is a family history of breast
cancer or to investigate causes of pain, lumps or nipple
discharge. These may be symptoms of breast cancer or
may have benign causes, such as cysts. Mammography
is used to determine the cause of symptoms and assist
with diagnosis. The breast is positioned on an imaging
cassette and a perspex plate is then lowered to firmly
compress the breast. Compression is required to spread
all the breast tissue out to avoid structures overlying
one another and also to reduce radiation exposure.
BreastScreen differs from diagnostic mammography in that the radiographer takes two projections
of each breast and checks that the films are technically adequate, ensuring all the tissue is shown and
the patient has not moved and distorted the image.
Films are read by two independent radiologists, and
the results are sent to the client within two weeks of
their screening. Those given the all-clear are advised
to have another examination in two years.
Clients needing further assessment are asked by
a counsellor to return for further examination. This
usually includes more X-rays and, depending on the

Figure 2.5 Sue Macaulay and the BreastScreen equipment

results, an ultrasound, physical examination or biopsy
may be required. A fine-needle biopsy is undertaken to
obtain cells, or a core biopsy is used to extract tissue.
These are carried out with ultrasound or X-ray guidance. If a lesion cannot be seen under ultrasound, then
X-ray guidance is used with a prone stereotactic biopsy
table. The radiographer takes a series of pictures from
different angles and the images are acquired digitally
and fed into a computer for determination of the exact
position of the lesion. This digital radiography is very
expensive and is a new technique in Australia.
BreastScreen Victoria has established a Radiographer Training Centre at Monash BreastScreen. This
allows qualified radiographers to train for their
Certificate of Competency in Mammography (CCPM).
This certificate is required to work in the BreastScreen
program. I oversee quality assurance for all of
St Vincents BreastScreen sites to ensure that a high
mammography is being produced. I also
quality of
work at Monash University teaching first-year students
positioning for general radiography. I also
look after the radiographic aspects of the two mobile
BreastScreen Victoria vans, which take the service to
women in isolated communities.
For me, radiography has provided lots of challenges. With BreastScreen in particular, I very much
feel part of a team, where radiologists, surgeons,
radiographers, counsellors, pathologists and clerical
staff work together to bring a free and highly specialised service to women in Victoria. It is exciting to be
involved in bringing developing digital technology to
mammography.

Membranes and cell organelles

39

Key ideas
Signals initiating apoptosis may come from either inside or outside a
cell.
A defect in apoptosis can lead to a disease, such as Alzheimer
disease, cancer and autoimmune diseases.

Quick-check
3 List three possible death signals a cell might receive to initiate
apoptosis.

Looking at eukaryotic cells

Unit: 3
AOS: 1
Topic: 1
Concept: 2

See more
Living
organisms are
made of cells

Examining cells using various microscopes can reveal a great deal about their
internal environment. You will have learned about and perhaps used a number
of different types of microscopes in your previous studies, including various
light microscopes (such as figure 2.6) and electron microscopes. We have also
outlined the capabilities of the synchrotron (see pages 35). In this chapter, we
consider structures that, for the most part, require confocal and electron microscopes for observation. Typical sizes of cells and some parts are shown on a
logarithmic scale in figure 2.7 (page 41).

Figure 2.6 A scientist using a

confocal microscope. Note how the
vertical segment of the microscope
can be rotated away from the stage
to make it easier to position the
specimen on the stage.

Compartments within cells

Each living cell is a small compartment with an outer boundary: the plasma
membrane. Within this one compartment that makes up a living eukaryotic
cell is a fluid, called cytosol, that consists mainly of water containing many
dissolved substances (see table 2.1, page 41). There is a labyrinth of membranes within the cytosol that, in effect, create large numbers of smaller,
functionally distinct compartments within the cell itself (see table 2.2).
These membrane-bound compartments are called organelles (figure 2.8,
page 42).

40

Nature of biology book 2

Figure 2.7 Typical sizes of

Plasma
membrane
Ribosome

Electron
microscope
Animal cell

Light
microscope

Molecules

Mitochondrion

0.0001 mm

0.001 mm

0.01 mm

0.1 mm

1 mm

10 mm

Frog egg

100 mm

Human
vision

1 mm

cells and some of their parts,

shown against a logarithmic
scale. A logarithmic scale is one
in which each unit of measure
is one-tenth of the preceding
unit. In this example, on the
left-hand side, 1 mm is the first
measure, the next is 100 m,
which is one-tenth of 1 mm, and
so on along the scale.

Unit: 3
AOS: 1
Topic: 1
Concept: 3

See more
Different
shaped
bacteria

Organelles are held in place by a network of fine protein filaments within

a cell, collectively known as the cytoskeleton (see page 55). Prokaryotic cells
such as bacteria lack these internal membranes.
In the following sections, we examine the plasma membrane and cell organelles of eukaryotes and discuss their functions.

Table 2.1 Relative volumes of the major compartments within a liver cell
Intracellular compartment

Cytoplasm = cytosol + organelles

except the nucleus
Protoplasm = cytosol + all
organelles

Percentage of total cell volume

Cytosol

54

Mitochondria

22

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleus

Lysosomes, peroxisomes, endosomes

Table 2.2 Relative amounts of membrane associated with some of the organelles in two
different kinds of cell

Percentage of total cell membrane

Membrane type

Liver cell

Pancreatic cell

Plasma membrane

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

35

60

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

16

less than 1

Golgi complex membrane

10

Mitochondria
Outer membrane
Inner membrane

7
32

4
17

Nucleus inner membrane

0.2

0.7

Volume of cell (approx.)

5000 m3

1000 m3

Area of cell membranes (approx.)

110000 m2

13000 m2

Membranes and cell organelles

41

Cytosol
Protein
filament
Endosome

Unit: 3
AOS: 1
Topic: 1
Concept: 4

Plasma
membrane

Do more
Build an
animal cell

Nucleus
Mitochondrion

Ribosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Lysosome
Centriole

Figure 2.8 The outer plasma

Peroxisome

membrane of a typical animal cell

contains a network of inner membranes
that create smaller compartments
within the cell, known as organelles.
We will discuss the plasma membrane
and the organelles labelled in red in
the following sections.

Protein
microtubule
Golgi apparatus
Vesicle

The plasma membrane boundary

Some cells also have a cellulose
cell wall exterior to the plasma
membrane (refer to page 45).

Unit: 3
AOS: 1
Topic: 6
Concept: 4

The boundary of all living cells is a plasma membrane that controls the entry of
dissolved substances into and out of the cell. A plasma membrane is an ultra-thin
and pliable layer with an average thickness of less than 0.01 m (0.000 01 mm).
A plasma membrane is too thin to be resolved with a light microscope but it can
be seen using an electron microscope (see figure 2.9 below, image at top right).
A plasma membrane comprises a phospholipid bilayer into which proteins
and glycoproteins protrude (see figure 2.9). Some of the proteins embedded in
this layer form channels that allow certain substances to pass across the membrane in either direction. This is known as the fluid mosaic model.

Do more
Movement
across
membranes

Outside cell
Glycolipid
Phospholipid
bilayer
Membrane
glycoprotein

Figure 2.9 The plasma membrane

of all cells has the same basic structure.
Note the phospholipid bilayer.
Proteins penetrate into or through the
phospholipid bilayer and carbohydrate
chains bond to many of these. A few
carbohydrate chains bond directly to
the outer phospholipid layer. Note the
pores in the nuclear membrane.

42

Nature of biology book 2

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Recognising cells: self or non-self

Odd fact
The first donor transplants
of kidneys, and later, hearts
failed because the immune
system of the recipients
recognised the transplanted
organs as non-self and
reacted, causing them to be
rejected. Drugs were developed
to suppress the bodys normal
immune reaction.

You may wish to revise the

topic of movement across cell
membranes by reading
Nature of Biology, Book 1,
Fourth Edition, pages 303.
Partially permeable is also known
as selectively or differentially permeable or semi-permeable.

All cells must be able to take in and expel various substances in order to survive, grow and reproduce. Generally these substances are in solution but, in
some cases, they may be tiny solid particles.
Because a plasma membrane allows only some dissolved materials to cross
it, the membrane is said to be a partially permeable boundary. Dissolved substances that are able to cross a plasma membrane from outside a cell to the
inside or from inside to the outside do so by various processes, including
diffusion and active transport.

Diffusion is the net movement of a substance, typically in a solution, from a

One special case of diffusion

is known as osmosis. The
process of osmosis occurs
when a net movement of
water molecules occurs
by diffusion across a cell
membrane either into or out
of a cell.

Unit: 3
Topic: 6

Crossing the membrane

Free passage

Odd fact

AOS: 1

On its outer surface, a plasma membrane has substances, often called antigens,
that label or identify a cell as belonging to one particular organism. Antigens
usually consist of proteins combined with carbohydrates. When various mammals of the same species are compared, the antigens on their plasma membranes are found to differ.
If cells from one organism are introduced into the body of a different
organism from the same species, the immune system of the recipient recognises
the introduced cells as foreign or non-self. The immune system responds
with chemical and cellular attacks that kill the non-self cells. The immune
system does not normally attack its own cells because it recognises these cells
as self. This ability to recognise foreign cells and attack them is an important
defence mechanism against bacterial infection.

Practice
VCAA exam
questions

region of high concentration of the substance to a region of low concentration

(see figure 2.10a, page 44). The process of diffusion does not require energy.
At all times, molecules are in random movement. If a substance is more concentrated outside the cell than inside, molecules move from outside to inside
the cell. Diffusion stops at the stage when the concentration of substance X is
equal on the two sides of the membrane.
Substances that can dissolve readily in water are termed hydrophilic, or
water-loving. Some substances that have low water solubility or do not dissolve in water are able to dissolve in or mix uniformly with lipid. These substances are termed lipophilic (sometimes called hydrophobic). Examples of
lipophilic substances include alcohol and ether. Lipophilic substances can cross
plasma membrane boundaries readily.
Channel mediated
Some substances that are unable to carry out simple diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer gain free passage across a membrane with the assistance of
protein channels (see figure 2.10b). Molecules move from a high concentration
to a low concentration without requiring energy.
Carrier mediated
Sometimes a protein channel alone is insufficient and a carrier molecule is
required to move molecules down the concentration gradient through a protein
channel (see figure 2.10c). When a specific carrier molecule is required, this
kind of movement is also called facilitated diffusion.
Movement of substances by facilitated diffusion mainly involves substances
that cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane by dissolving in the phospholipid
bilayer of the membrane. For example, the movement of glucose molecules across
the plasma membrane of red blood cells involves a specific carrier molecule.
All three methods of passive transport (figure 2.10ac) result in molecules
moving from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
without the expenditure of energy.

Membranes and cell organelles

43

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Outside
cell

Outside
cell

Phospholipid
bilayer
Energy

Concentration
gradient in all
the cases shown

Inside
cell

Inside
cell
(a) Simple
diffusion

(b) Channel
mediated

(c) Carrier
mediated

FREE PASSAGE NO ENERGY REQUIRED

(d) Active
transport

ENERGY REQUIRED

Figure 2.10 Transport of molecules across membranes: (ac) Three ways in which molecules move from a region of high
concentration, across a plasma membrane, to a region of low concentration without the expenditure of energy. (d) Movement of
molecules from a region of low concentration across a plasma membrane to a region of high concentration requires the expenditure
of energy. Note the movement of molecules against the concentration gradient.

Odd fact

Paid passage: active transport

When bulk material is taken into

a cell as a solid, the process
is termed phagocytosis (from
the Greek phagos = eating,
and cyto = cell). When bulk
material is taken into a cell as
a fluid, the process is termed
pinocytosis (pinos = drinking).

Active transport is the net movement of dissolved substances into or out of cells
against a concentration gradient (see figure 2.10d). Because the net movement
is against a concentration gradient, active transport is an energy-requiring process. The process involves a carrier protein for each substance that is actively
transported.
Active transport enables cells to maintain stable internal conditions in spite
of extreme variation in the external surroundings.

Figure 2.11 (a) Endocytosis (bulk

transport into cells) occurs when part
of the plasma membrane forms around a
particle to form a vesicle, which moves
into the cytosol. (b) Exocytosis (bulk
transport out of cells) occurs when
vesicles within the cytosol fuse with
the plasma membrane and vesicle
contents are released from the cell.
(a)

Solid particles can be taken into a cell. For example, one kind of white blood
cell is able to engulf a disease-causing bacterial cell and enclose it within a
lysosome sac where it is destroyed. Unicellular protists, such as Amoeba and
Paramecium, obtain their energy for living in the form of relatively large food
particles that they engulf and enclose within a sac where the food is digested.
The process of bulk transport of material into a cell is known as endocytosis
(see figure 2.11a).

Bulk transport

Lipid bilayer

(b)
Outside cell

Outside cell

Lipid
bilayer
Cytosol

Cytosol
Lysosome

44

Nature of biology book 2

Bulk transport out of cells (such as the export of material from the Golgi
complex, see pages 4950) is called exocytosis. In exocytosis, vesicles formed
within a cell fuse with the plasma membrane before the contents of the vesicles
are released from the cell (see figure 2.11b). If the released material is a product
of the cell (such as the contents of a Golgi vesicle), then secreted from the
cell is a phrase generally used. If the released material is a waste product after
digestion of some matter taken into the cell, voided from the cell is generally
more appropriate.

Plants have cell walls

The plasma membrane forms the exterior of animal cells.
However, in plants, fungi and bacteria, another structure a
rigid cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The cells
of organisms in the Kingdom Animalia do not have a cell wall.
The original or primary cell wall of a plant cell is made
of cellulose. In some flowering plants, the primary cell wall
in certain tissues becomes thickened and strengthened by
the addition of lignin to form secondary cell walls (see
figure2.12). This process provides great elastic strength and
support, allowing certain plants to develop as woody shrubs
or trees.

Layers of
secondary
cell walls

Primary
cell wall

Figure 2.12 The primary cell wall of a plant cell is made of

Adjacent
cells

cellulose. The layers of microfibrils in the secondary walls are laid down
in different directions and give extra strength and support to a plant.

Key ideas
Each eukaryotic cell contains many membranous structures, called
organelles, suspended in the cytosol.
Every living cell has a plasma membrane boundary.
There are several different ways in which materials cross plasma
membranes to enter cells.
Cell walls lie outside the plasma membranes of plant, fungal and
prokaryotic cells.

Quick-check
Nucleus

4 Make a labelled sketch of a typical plasma membrane.

5 List the different ways in which materials cross plasma membranes.
For each way, indicate whether it is energy-requiring.
6 Many plant cells have secondary cell walls as well as primary cell
walls. Of what advantage is this to a plant?

Organelle 1: nucleus control centre

Cells have a complex internal organisation and are able to carry out many functions. The control centre of the cells of animals, plants, algae and fungi is the
nucleus. The nucleus in these cells forms a distinct spherical structure that
is enclosed within a double membrane, known as the nuclear envelope (see
figure2.13). Cells that have a membrane-bound nucleus are called eukaryote cells.

Membranes and cell organelles

45

Refer to Nature of Biology,

Book 1, Fourth Edition,
page 27 for more information
about prokaryotes such as
bacteria.

Cells of organisms from the Kingdom Monera, such as bacteria, contain the
genetic material (deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)), but it is not enclosed within a
distinct nucleus. Cells that lack a nuclear envelope are called prokaryote cells.
A light microscope view reveals that the nucleus contains many granules that
are made of the genetic material (DNA). The DNA is usually dispersed within
the nucleus. During the process of cell reproduction, however, the DNA granules become organised into a number of rod-shaped chromosomes.
The nucleus also contains one or more large inclusions known as nucleoli,
which are an aggregation of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules.

Figure 2.13 Coloured freeze

fracture transmission electron
micrograph (TEM) of part of the
nuclear membrane of a liver cell. The
inner membrane (top blue) and the
outer membrane (brown) are both
visible. The rounded pores on the
membrane allow large molecules to
exit the nucleus and move into the
cytosol.

Key ideas
Nucleoli contain the nucleic acid RNA.
The nucleus contains the nucleic acid DNA, which is the genetic
material within a cell.
The nucleus of eukaryote cells is enclosed within a nuclear envelope.

Quick-check
7 State whether the following are true or false and briefly explain
your answers.
a A nucleus from a plant cell is expected to have a double nuclear
membrane.
b Chromosomes are always visible in a eukaryotic cell.
8 Suggest why the nucleus is sometimes called the control centre of
a cell.

46

Nature of biology book 2

Mitochondrion

Organelle 2: mitochondrion
energy-supplying organelle
Living cells use energy all the time. The usable energy supply for cells is chemical energy present in a compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
(see figure 2.14). The ATP supplies in living cells are continually being used up
and must be replaced.
NH 2
C

O
HO

P O

P O

P O

Triphosphate

The role of mitochondria

in respiration is discussed in
chapter 3, pages 867.

Odd fact
Many biologists agree
with the hypothesis that,
thousands of millions of
years ago, mitochondria were
free-living organisms, like
bacteria. This hypothesis
suggests that these organisms
became associated with larger
cells to form a mutually
beneficial arrangement. This
idea is supported by the fact
that mitochondria contain
small amounts of the genetic
material DNA. The size of
a mitochondrion is about
1.5m by 0.5 m. This is
similar to the dimensions of a
typical bacterial cell.

HC

C
N

Adenine

CH 2
C
H

Figure 2.14 Chemical structure of

adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which
has three phosphate groups and so
is adenosine tri(= 3) phosphate

N
CH
N

O
H

OH

OH

D-ribose
Adenosine

ATP is produced during cellular respiration (or simply respiration). In

itochondria
eukaryote cells, most of this process occurs in organelles known as m
(singular: mitochondrion), which form part of the cytoplasm. Mitochondria
cannot be resolved using a light microscope but can be seen with an electron
microscope (see figure 2.15). Each mitochondrion has an outer membrane and a
highly folded inner membrane. ATP is produced by reactions that occur on the
inner folded membranes. Prokaryote cells lack mitochondria.
(a)

(b)
Outer
membrane

Inner
membrane

Figure 2.15 (a) Transmission electron micrograph (x 50 000) of mitochondria

(circular structures), the organelles responsible for producing ATP by cellular respiration
(b)Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a section through a mitochondrion (pink) from
the cytoplasm of an epithelial cell. Which is more highly folded the outer membrane or
the inner membrane? Mitochondria also contain circular molecules of DNA.

Membranes and cell organelles

47

Ribosomes

Organelle 3: ribosomes protein factories

Living cells make proteins by linking amino acid building blocks into long
chains. For example:
human red blood cells manufacture haemoglobin, an oxygen-transporting
protein
pancreas cells manufacture insulin, a small protein that is an important
hormone
liver cells manufacture many protein enzymes, such as catalase
stomach cells produce digestive enzymes, such as pepsin
muscle cells manufacture the contractile proteins actin and myosin.
Ribosomes are the organelles where protein production occurs. These organelles, which are part of the cytoplasm, can be seen only through an electron
microscope (see figure 2.16).

Figure 2.16 Scanning electron

micrograph of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum in a pancreatic cell.
The very small bumps on the
endoplasmic reticulum membranes
are ribosomes, the sites of protein
synthesis. The endoplasmic reticulum
provides a series of channels for
transporting the protein produced by
ribosomes to other parts of the cell.

Ribosomes are not enclosed by a membrane. Although many ribosomes are

attached to membranous internal channels within the cell (the endoplasmic
reticulum, discussed later), they are also found in the cytosol.
The proteins produced by ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum are
transported to other parts of the cell and many are transported away from the
cell. Proteins made by free ribosomes unattached to endoplasmic reticulum
are for local use within the cell. Mitochondria and chloroplasts also contain free
ribosomes.
Chemical testing shows that ribosomes are composed of protein and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) comes from the nucleolus in
the cell. Particular parts of the DNA carry the genetic code necessary for the
formation of ribosomal and other RNAs.

48

Nature of biology book 2

Key ideas
Living cells use energy all the time, principally as chemical energy
present in ATP.
Mitochondria are the major sites of ATP production in eukaryotic
cells.
Mitochondria contain small amounts of DNA.
Ribosomes are tiny organelles where proteins are produced.
Ribosomes are made of rRNA and protein.

Quick-check
9 Of what advantage is a folded inner membrane in mitochondria?
10 What is the source of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?
11 Some ribosomes are free in cytosol; some are attached to
endoplasmic reticulum. What is the significance of this difference?

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Organelles 4 and 5: endoplasmic reticulum

and Golgi complex
We saw earlier that the proteins made by some cells are kept inside those cells.
Examples are contractile proteins made by muscle cells and the haemoglobins
made by red blood cells. Other cells produce proteins that are released for use
outside the cells. For example, the digestive enzyme pepsin is produced by cells
lining the stomach and released into the stomach cavity; the protein hormone
insulin is made by pancreatic cells and released into the bloodstream.
Transport of substances within cells occurs through a system of channels
known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Figure 2.17 shows this system of
channels in a cell (see also figure 2.16, page 48). The channel walls are formed
by membranes.

Figure 2.17 Transmission

electron micrograph (TEM) of rough
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the
thin channels coloured green
in the centre. What are the tiny
dots attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum?

Membranes and cell organelles

49

A structure known as the Golgi complex is prominent in cells that shift proteins out of cells. This structure consists of several layers of membranes (see
figure 2.18). The Golgi complex is also called the Golgi apparatus.
The proteins produced by ribosomes that are destined for secretion diffuse
from the site of their production into the membranous chambers formed by
the layers of endoplasmic reticulum. They are then packaged into membranous
vesicles and transported to the Golgi complex where they may be concentrated
(see figure 2.19).

Golgi
complex

Figure 2.18 Transmission

electron micrograph (TEM) of a
Golgi complex (flattened disc-like
structure, coloured orange). This
organelle is a delivery system for the
proteins passing in and out of the
cell and is named after Camillo Golgi
who first identified it in 1898.

In the Golgi complex, the proteins are packaged into secretory vesicles and
may be stored in the cytosol before they eventually fuse with the plasma membrane. The protein is then discharged from the cell by exocytosis into the surrounding tissue fluid. The protein may be taken up by other cells close by or may
pass into the bloodstream where it is transported to other tissues around the body.

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Secretory
vesicle
Membrane
fusion
occurring

Ribosomes

Transition
vesicle
Golgi
complex

Figure 2.19 The secretory

pathway for proteins made at
ribosomes. They are packaged by
the endoplasmic reticulum and
transported to the Golgi complex
where they may be concentrated.
Secretory vesicles formed by the
Golgi complex eventually fuse with
the plasma membrane and the
protein contents are discharged from
the cell.

50

Nature of biology book 2

Cytoplasm
of cell

Discharge by
exocytosis;
for example,
a hormone

Key ideas
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membrane-bound
channels.
The ER functions in the transport of substances within a cell.
The Golgi complex packages substances into vesicles for export.

Quick-check
12 Name three substances that would be produced at the surface of the
ER of a cell and transported for use outside the cell.

Organelle 6: lysosomes controlled

destruction
Animal cells have sac-like structures surrounded by a membrane and filled
with a fluid containing dissolved digestive enzymes. These fluid-filled sacs are
known as lysosomes and they are part of the cytoplasm (see figure 2.20).

Lysosomes

Figure 2.20 Coloured highresolution scanning electron

micrograph (SEM) of two lysosomes
(green) in a pancreatic cell. The
material in each lysosome is
probably undigested material. Note
the membranes of endoplasmic
reticulum nearby (pink) with
ribosomes (the tiny knobs) on the
surface.

Membranes and cell organelles

51

Chicken

Duck
Foot
bud

1.

2.

3.

Lysosomes use their enzymes to destroy unwanted cell parts or damaged

olecules from within or outside the cell. The unwanted material is enclosed
m
by a lysosome membrane and is digested. This process of controlled selfdestruction of cells is important in development; lysosomes appear to play a
role in the controlled death of zones of cells in the embryonic human hand
so that the fingers become separated (see Nature of Biology, Book 1, Fourth
Edition, page 39). A similar event occurs in a developing chick embryo (see
figure 2.21).
Lysosomes produce enzymes that digest substances that are no longer needed
within cells. Defects may occur in the enzymes found within lysosomes. When
this happens, the substance may accumulate in the lysosomes and the cells can
no longer function normally. Diseases resulting from these errors in lysosome
enzymes include Tay Sachs disease, in which abnormal accumulation of lipids
occurs, and Hurler syndrome, in which abnormal accumulation of complex
carbohydrates occurs.
Small organelles that have some similarity with lysosomes and occur in
eukaryotic cells are peroxisomes and endosomes.

Peroxisomes

Separate
toes

Webbing
between
toes

Figure 2.21 In a chicken

embryo, cell death brought about by
lysosomes produces separate digits.
Blue areas are regions where cell
death occurs. In contrast, in a duck
embryo, cells between the digits do
not die but are retained as webbing.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a product of many biochemical processes within

cells. If allowed to accumulate, it is a poisonous substance. Peroxisomes are small
membrane-bound organelles rich in the enzymes catalase and urate oxidase. The
accumulation of hydrogen peroxide is prevented by the action of catalase.
2H2O2catalase2H2O+O2
Peroxisomes detoxify various toxic materials that enter the bloodstream.
For example, about 25 per cent of any alcohol consumed is detoxified through
oxidation to acetaldehyde. Peroxisomes in different types of cells may contain
different sets of enzymes. Both plant and animal cells have peroxisomes.

Endosomes
Endosomes are membrane-bound organelles found in animal cells. When material enters a cell by endocytosis, endosomes pass on the newly ingested material
to lysosomes for digestion.

Key ideas
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs containing dissolved digestive
enzymes.
Lysosomes can digest material brought into their sacs.
Peroxisomes contain enzymes that destroy toxic materials.
Endosomes, found in animal cells, pass on material to lysosomes for
digestion.

Quick-check
13 Lysosomes are sometimes called suicide bags. Suggest why this
name is given.
14 How is the hydrogen peroxide produced in cellular metabolism
detoxified?
15 What is the function of endosomes?

52

Nature of biology book 2

Plant cell organelle: chloroplasts

sunlight trappers

Chloroplast

Hundreds of millions of years ago, some bacteria and all algae and then land
plants developed the ability to capture the radiant energy of sunlight and transform it to chemical energy present in organic molecules, such as sugars. The
organelles present in some cells of plants and algae that carry out this function
are known as chloroplasts (see figure 2.22). The complex process of converting
sunlight energy to chemical energy present in sugar is known as photosynthesis.
The boundary of each chloroplast is a double membrane (inner and outer).
The inner membrane extends to form a system of membranous sacs called
lamella or thylakoids. When several of these stack together they form grana.
Chlorophyll is located in the grana and it is here that the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis occur (see chapter 3, page 77). The stroma, the
semi-fluid substance between the grana, contains the enzymes necessary for the
light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.

(a)
(b)

Inner
membrane

Grana

Figure 2.22

Outer
membrane

Photosynthesis is discussed
further in chapter 3,
pages7481.

Stroma

(a) Transmission electron

micrograph (TEM) of
chloroplasts from the leaf
of a pea plant (b) A threedimensional representation of a
chloroplast

Prokaryote cells do not have chloroplasts. Some kinds of bacteria, however,

possess pigments that enable them to capture the radiant energy of sunlight
and use that energy to make sugars from simple inorganic material. These are
known as photosynthetic bacteria.
The length of a typical chloroplast is 5 to 10 m. In comparison, the length of
a mitochondrion is about 1.5 m. In 1908, the Russian scientist Mereschkowsky
suggested that chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria that later took up

residence in eukaryote cells. Some evidence in support of this suggestion comes

from the fact that a single chloroplast is very similar to a photosynthetic bacterial
cell.
Chloroplasts also contain molecules of DNA, free ribosomes, starch grains
and lipid droplets.

Key ideas
Chloroplasts are relatively large organelles found in photosynthetic
cells of plants and algae.
Chloroplasts have an external membrane and layers of folded internal
membranes.
Chlorophyll is located inside the grana of chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts can capture the radiant energy of sunlight and convert it
to chemical energy in sugars.

Quick-check
16 What is the function of chlorophyll?
17 What are (a) thylakoids, (b) grana and (c) stroma?

Membranes and cell organelles

53

Putting the organelles together

The cell is both a unit of structure and a unit of function. Organelles within one
cell do not act in isolation but interact with each other. The normal functioning
of each kind of cell depends on the combined actions of its various organelles,
including plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi complex and peroxisomes.
Consider the membranous compartments within a cell that produce a specific
protein for use outside the cell. Table 2.3 identifies the parts of a cell involved
in this process.
Figure 2.23 shows the typical structure and organelles of an animal and a
plant cell, as discussed in the previous pages and in table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Parts of a cell involved in producing a specific protein

Structure

Function

plasma membrane

Structure that controls the entry of raw materials, such as amino acids, into the cell

nucleus

Organelle that has coded instructions for making the protein

ribosome

Organelle where amino acids are linked, according to instructions, to build the protein

mitochondrion

Organelle where ATP is formed; provides an energy source for the protein-manufacturing
activity

endoplasmic reticulum

Channels through which the newly made protein is moved within the cell

Golgi complex

Organelle that packages the protein into vesicles for transport across the plasma membrane
and out of the cell

peroxisome

Organelle that detoxifies H2O2 produced in many metabolic reactions

(a)

(b)
Protein
Cytosol filament

Nucleus
Endosome

Nuclear
envelope

Plasma
membrane
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
Ribosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum

Lysosome
Golgi
apparatus
Vesicle
Peroxisome

Lysosome
Centriole
Peroxisome
Protein
microtubule
Golgi apparatus
Vesicle

Figure 2.23 The structures and organelles of (a) an animal cell and (b) a plant cell

54

Nature of biology book 2

Nucleolus

Cytosol
Mitochondrion

Ribosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Plasma
membrane
Cell wall
Microtubule
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Filament

The cell skeleton

Each cell has an internal framework of protein microtubules, microfilaments
and intermediate filaments (see figure 2.24). These supply strength and support
for the cell. This supporting structure is called the cytoskeleton.
25 nm

(a) Microtubule

710 nm

6 nm

(b) Microfilament

(c) Intermediate
filament

Figure 2.24 Three structures that

make up the cytoskeleton of a cell
Microtubules are hollow and are made of sub-units of the protein tubulin
(see figure 1.24, page 21). Microfilaments are solid, thinner and more flexible
than microtubules. They are made of actin. Intermediate filaments are made
of a variety of proteins, depending on the particular cell, and are very tough.
They often tie into the cytoskeleton of other cells (refer to the following section
Connections between cells).
These three structures combine to assist in:
maintaining the shape of a cell
providing a support structure for other components within a cell
movement of materials within a cell
movement of the cell itself if required.
You will recall from your earlier studies of mitosis that microtubules play an
important role in the movement of chromosomes during reproduction of cells.

Connections between cells:

animal cells
Odd fact
Occluding junctions between
brain cells and brain capillary
cells prevent the passage
of some materials, such as
certain drugs, from the blood
into the brain.

Although some cells, such as blood cells, are free to move as individuals around
the body, most cells remain as members of a group. What connections, if any,
exist between such cells? What holds the cells of epithelial tissue together so
that they form an integral layer even when the body moves around and pressure
may be placed on different groups of cells? Do they communicate with each
other in any way?
There are three different types of junctions in animal cells: occluding,
communicating and anchoring junctions (see figure 2.25, page 56).

Occluding junctions
Occluding junctions involve cell membranes coming together in contact with
each other (figure 2.25). There is no movement of material between cells.

Membranes and cell organelles

55

Figure 2.25 Diagram of the three

types of intercellular junctions found
in epithelial cells

Cell 2

Cell 1

Solute molecules

Anchoring
junctions

Occluding
junction

Membrane
protein
Cytoplasm
Intercellular
space
Lipid bilayer

Communicating
junction

Extracellular
space

Intercellular gap
of 15 nm

Nonjunctional
membrane
proteins

Cytoplasm

Pipeline between
adjacent cells

Cell 1

Cell 2

Plasma
membrane

Plasma
membrane

Communicating junctions

Figure 2.26 Communicating

junction of animal cells. Note the
pore formed by protein molecules
aligned as if on the circumference
of a circle.

56

Nature of biology book 2

Communicating junctions are also called gap junctions. They consist of proteinlined pores in the membranes of adjacent cells. The proteins are aligned rather
like a series of rods in a circle with a gap down the centre (see figure 2.26)
Communicating junctions permit the passage of salt ions, sugars, amino
acids and other small molecules as well as electrical signals from one cell to
another. One example of electrical signals is the control of the beating of the
heart. A small area of your heart, called the pacemaker, receives an electrical
impulse. This electrical impulse is transmitted to all cells of the heart through
communication junctions so that the cells of the heart beat as one.

Anchoring junctions
Anchoring junctions are the most common form of junction between epithelial
cells in areas such as the skin or uterus. They are also called desmosomes. Dense
plaques of protein exist at the junction between two cells (see figure2.27). Fine
fibrils extend from each side of these plaques and into the cytosol of the two
cells involved. These are intermediate filaments (as represented in figure 2.24c,
page 55), which use the plaques as anchoring sites. This structure has great
tensile strength and acts throughout a group of cells because of the connections
from one cell to another.

Figure 2.27 Transmission

electron micrograph (TEM) showing
the most common type of junction,
called desmosomes (green), between
two epithelial cells. Dense plaques
(red) are at the junction, lying
immediately beneath the membranes.
Fine fibrils (red) extend from plaques
into the cell cytoplasm on each side
of the junction.

Connections between cells:

plant cells
Plants have rigid cell walls. In addition, the primary walls of adjacent cells are
held together tightly by a layer of pectin, a sticky polysaccharide. Hence, plant
cells have no need for a structure such as the anchoring junctions of animal
cells.
Secondary walls are laid down in each cell on the cytosol side of the primary
wall so that the structure across two cells is relatively wide, at least 0.1 m
thick. The junctions that exist in plant cells to allow communication between
adjacent cells in spite of the thick wall are plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) (see figure 2.28, page 58).
Because of the way in which plant cell walls are built up, the gap or pore
between two cells is lined with plasma membrane so that the plasma membrane
of the two cells is continuous. A structure that bridges the gap is also
continuous with the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of each cell.

Membranes and cell organelles

57

Cytoplasm
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Desmotubule

Cytosol
Cell walls
of adjacent
plant cells

Plasmodesmata
Plasma membrane lining
plasmodesma, connecting
two adjacent cells

100 nm

Figure 2.28 Plasmodesmata, the junctions between plant cells. Note the relative
thickness of the section containing the walls of two plant cells, the continuation of the
cell membrane from one cell to another and the connections between smooth endoplasmic
reticulum of adjacent cells.
Plasmodesmata exist in virtually all plants and hence cell-to-cell communi
cation can occur between large numbers of cells that are, in effect, connected
via their cytoplasm.
We have considered the connections between plant cells through which
material can move from one cell to another. Some animal cells have the same
characteristic. Cells do connect with each other and the transfer of material and
messages can occur through some of these connections. How important is such
a feature in the overall functioning of an organism? Cell communication and
cell signalling are considered in greater detail in chapters 5 and 6.

Key ideas
Organelles interact to facilitate the production of proteins and the
transport of these and other compounds throughout a cell.
Cells have an internal support system called the cytoskeleton.
In multicellular animals, some cells have connections that allow
communication with adjacent cells.
In multicellular plants, all cells have connections that allow
communication with adjacent cells.

Quick-check
18 Name the different structures that make up the cytoskeleton of a
cell.
19 List the three types of connections possible between two animal
cells and name a characteristic of each.
20 What are the connections between two plant cells called?

58

Nature of biology book 2

PERSONAL STORY
Mary thalassaemia minor
I am a secondary school teacher of VCE Biology,
Mathematics and Science. When I was a university
student in the second year of my course studying
Genetics, we considered the disorder thalassaemia,
the gene responsible and its physical symptoms. I had
been experiencing lethargy, faintness and headaches
and, given my GreekCypriot background, my doctor
suggested a blood test. I was diagnosed as a carrier
of thalassaemia; that is, one of my two alleles for the
thalassaemia gene was defective and I had what is
called thalassaemia minor (thal-minor). People from
countries around the Mediterranean have a higher
chance of carrying a defective allele for thalassaemia
than those from other regions.
An individual who has inherited a defective thal
assaemia allele from each parent has thal-major and,
although treatment is available, they generally have a
reduced quality of life and life expectancy. My blood
test results showed a low haemoglobin count and some
unusual-shaped red blood cells. The unusual-shaped
red blood cells have a lower oxygen-carrying capacity
than normal red blood cells. This would explain why
I had low oxygen levels and why I was always tired.
I was also diagnosed as having mild anaemia and
was prescribed iron tablets. I took these but later
concentrated on eating a healthy diet that included
high-iron foods, such as red meat, which is generally
sufficient to prevent anaemia in a person with thalminor. Much more is known now about thalassaemia
and its optimal treatment.
Many members of my family have been tested and
diagnosed with thal-minor. A cousin and spouse each
tested positive to thal-minor. Knowing this meant that
they were aware of the chance of having a child with
thal-major and could consider all options and plan
accordingly rather than be faced with the unexpected.
Given that my parents were both carriers of a
defective allele, each child of theirs had a 25 per
cent chance of having thalassaemia major. We consider ourselves lucky that the odds were in our favour.
Naturally I had some concern about being thal-minor.
My partner was tested and luckily he was not a carrier. This made our decision to have children easier
as there was no chance of having a thal-major baby.
Each pregnancy had a fifty per cent risk of a thalminor baby. This is really of little concern because
mild anaemia that may be present can be readily controlled by careful diet.

I have two beautiful children, Stephen and Andrea,

who are both healthy. However, I had some concern
about their energy levels and therefore their iron and
haemoglobin levels, especially my daughter who had
a pale complexion and often tired easily. Some doctors
suggest that testing of children for thalassaemia status
can be delayed until they are thinking of starting a
family. We chose to have the children tested to see
if they had inherited the defective allele. We believed
that, if they did prove to be thal-minor, they would
over time come to a better understanding of what it
meant, I would have immediate information about
whether they needed a higher than average intake of
iron, and we could discuss options that might arise. In
the future, the options could include testing of carrier
status of a partner before starting a family.
I am pleased to be able to share with students my
experiences and the knowledge that living with a
genetic disorder, or knowing that you can pass on a
defective allele to a child, does not have to control
a persons life, especially if they are informed and
aware.

Figure 2.29 Mary and her children, Andrea and Stephen

Membranes and cell organelles

59

BIOCHALLENGE
A
A
B
C

1 This image shows a portion of a cell

and some of its organelles.
a Name the structures labelled A, B,
C and D.
b Name the material in which
organelles are suspended.
c Name the compound found in
structure C.
d Where else in a cell would you find
the compound found in structure C?

2 This image shows plasmodesmata

connections between two cells. A
number of cell organelles are also
visible.
a Is this an image of animal or plant
tissue?
b Name the structures labelled A, B,
C, D and E.
c What is the function of structure F?
d What is the function of
plasmodesmata?
Explain their importance.

A
B

F
E

D
B

60

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 2

3 This image shows a portion of a cell

and some of its organelles.
a Name the structures labelled A and B.
b Name the structure labelled C.
What is its function?
c Structures C and D are the
same kind of organelle yet their
appearance is quite different.
Explain why they look so different
from each other.

CHAPTER REVIEW
Key words
active transport
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
antigens
apoptosis
cancer
cellular respiration
chloroplasts
chromosomes
cytoskeleton
cytosol
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
desmosomes
diffusion
endocytosis
endoplasmic reticulum

eukaryote
exocytosis
Golgi apparatus
Golgi complex
grana
hydrophilic
lamella
lipophilic
lysosomes
mitochondria
nuclear envelope
nucleus
organelles
osmosis
partially permeable

phagocytosis
photosynthesis
pinocytosis
plasma membrane
plasmodesmata
primary cell wall
prokaryote
protein filaments
proteins
ribosomes
secondary cell walls
stroma
thylakoids

Questions

Figure 2.30 Transmission

electron micrograph of a plasma cell

Fold of inner
membrane

Holes in
membrane

Stalked
particle
Inner membrane
Outer membrane

Figure 2.31 Internal membrane

of mitochondria

1 Making connections between concepts Use at least six of the key words
from this chapter to construct a concept map.
2 Analysing information and drawing conclusions Figure 2.30 is a coloured transmission electron micrograph of a plasma cell. One function of
plasma cells is to secrete antibodies during an immune response. Note the
extensive network of endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
a Explain whether you would expect the ER to be rough or smooth.
b Given the function of plasma cells, what other organelle would you
expect to be rather prominent in parts of this cell?
c What is the darkly stained material in the nucleus?
3 Making connections between concepts Mitochondria and chloroplasts
both contain circular molecules of DNA and free ribosomes. What conclusions can reasonably be made on the basis of the presence of such
structures?
4 Applying knowledge and understanding Examine table 2.2 on page41.
a What is the difference in structure between rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum?
b Which kind of cell shown in the table has the greater percentage of rough
endoplasmic reticulum? Which has the greater percentage of smooth
endoplasmic reticulum?
c As a result of this difference, what would you conclude about the fate of
the majority of protein produced by each cell? Explain your conclusion.
5 Analysing information and drawing conclusions The folded internal
membranes of mitochondria have many stalked particles on their innermost
surfaces (see figure 2.31). Given the function of mitochondria and where
most of the reactions occur, of what advantage might the presence of these
particles be for the production of ATP in the organelle?
6 Analysing information and drawing conclusions In figure 2.31, you
may have noted the holes in the folds of the inner membrane of mitochondria. Explain a possible function for these holes.

Membranes and cell organelles

61

7 Applying knowledge and understanding Examine figure 2.32, which is

a coloured, high-resolution scanning electron micrograph of a portion of
cell.
a Explain whether you can distinguish if the cell involved came from an
animal or a plant.
b What is the name of the structure shown?
c What is its function?

Figure 2.32 Coloured, highresolution scanning electron

micrograph of a portion of cell

8 Analysing information and drawing conclusions Figure 2.33 shows a

portion of an animal cell.
a From what part of the cell has the structure been taken?
b Name the kinds of organic molecules labelles X and Y and Z.
c Explain the function of the structure labelled W.

W
X

Figure 2.33
9 Analysing information and applying knowledge and understanding Fats
are generally transported in the blood in the form of small particles, called
chylomicrons. Examine the three examples given in figure 2.34. Note the

62

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 2

compounds that make up these particles. Explain why the components of

the particles aggregate in the way they do, ending up as spherical.

Figure 2.34
Phospholipid (4%)

Phospholipid (20%)

Phospholipid (30%)

Triacylglycerol (90%)

Triacylglycerol (10%)

Triacylglycerol (5%)

Cholesterol (5%)

Cholesterol (45%)

Cholesterol (20%)

Protein (1%)

Protein (25%)

Protein (45%)

(a) Chylomicron

(b) Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

(c) High-density lipoprotein (HDL)

10 Applying knowledge and understanding Examine figure 2.35, which

shows a coloured scanning electron micrograph of a portion of cell.
a Name structure X and state its function.
b Given the density of the X structures, what could you reasonably deduce
about the metabolic rate of this cell?
c Name structure Y and state its function.
Use the Cytoskeleton weblink for this chapter in your
11
eBookPLUS. Select Cell biology at the left-hand side. Scroll
down and click on The cytoskeleton. Then select Microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
a What is the role of the cytoskeleton?
b iWhat is the main protein found in microfilaments? Name two
properties of this protein.
iiWhich protein is associated with muscle contraction?
c i Which protein is found in microtubules?
iiName two functions of microtubules.
Use the Cell structure animation weblink for this chapter
12
in your eBookPLUS. Select the option Cell Structure.
a Explore the animations to test your knowledge and understanding of the
structural characteristics of prokaryotic, animal and plant cells.
b Design two cells, one animal and one plant.Use these two designed cells
to test the knowledge of your biology practical work partner.

Figure 2.35 Scanning electron

micrograph of part of a cell

Membranes and cell organelles

63