Fundamentals of Sound

Noise Control Engineering
The Fundamentals
of Sound
Prepared by:
Dennis P. Driscoll, P.E.
Principal Consultant
Associates in Acoustics, Inc.
(303)670-9270
www.esion.com
1
The objective of this section is to provide a review of the fundamental definitions,

terms, symbols and equations used in acoustics.
Fundamentals of Sound - Page 1
DEFINITION OF SOUND
A propagating disturbance through a physical
medium, which becomes sound as we know it
when detected by a microphone or listener.
The propagation sound wave is perceived by the
ear as a pressure wave superimposed upon the
ambient air pressure.
2
When you have a noise source, it puts energy into the air surrounding it. This
energy causes the air molecules to vibrate as the sound wave moves out and away
from the source (Note: for our purposes we can assume the medium is air). The
vibrating air molecules will have pressure variations that fluctuate above and below
atmospheric air pressure. (See illustration on Slide 5)
When the sound wave reaches a human, it causes the ear drum to vibrate. It is the
movement of the ear drum that allows humans to perceive (hear) the pressure
changes around the ambient air pressure. Thus, SOUND is detected.
(So by definition - if a tree falls in the middle of the woods and nobody is there to
hear it (no animals, humans, or artificial ear such as a microphone), it DOES NOT
MAKE A SOUND!! It does, however, create a sound wave or pressure disturbance,
which will dissipate over distance.)
DEFINITION OF NOISE
Noise is defined simply as
unwanted sound.
People often ask what is the difference between NOISE and SOUND. Physically,
there are one in the same. However, what may be sound to one person may also be
noise to another. So when you see the words noise and sound used
interchangeably, by physical definition they are the same thing.
SOUND PROPAGATION
The sound wave is
transmitted through
the medium by
means of a chain
reaction.
As mentioned previously, when a disturbance occurs it puts energy into the air
surrounding it. This energy causes the air molecules to vibrate as the sound wave
moves out and away from the source. As the air molecules vibrate they actually
collide with their neighboring molecules, transferring their energy, which in turn is
transferred to the next molecule, and so on and so on, etc. This process continues
until the energy dissipates, or decays to the point that no more energy exists. So as
you can imagine, this chain reaction is how the sound wave is transmitted away
from a noise source. The more energy put out by the source, the louder the noise
will be and the further it will carry into the distance.
FREQUENCY
The Frequency of a sound is the number of times per second that a disturbance
passes through both its positive and negative excursions around atmospheric
pressure. The number of cycles per second is termed Hertz (Hz).
Air has both mass and elasticity, which allow the sound wave to propagate. As a
molecule is vibrates, it compresses a layer of air surrounding it. This compression
creates a positive pressure above the atmospheric pressure. The elasticity of the air
is the characteristic that will pull the molecule back to its original position, thus
creating what is called a rarefaction, or negative pressure below atmospheric
pressure. See the figure for an illustration of this effect.
The number of times per second (also called cycles) the sound wave passes through
a positive (compression) and negative (rarefaction) excursion around atmospheric
pressure is called its Frequency.
Next, the term Hertz, abbreviated Hz, is used to describe the frequency or cycles per
second. For example, 500 cycles per second may also be referred to as 500 Hz.
PERIOD
Period = the time it takes to complete one cycle.
It is related to the frequency by:
T=1/f seconds
The term Period is symbolized by T. So if you use 500 Hz, the Period or time
to complete one cycle would be:
T = 1/500 = 0.002 seconds
AMPLITUDE
The distance a particle moves from atmospheric pressure is called its Amplitude.
It determines how loud a sound will be.

The magnitude or how far a particle (molecule) is moved above or below
atmospheric pressure is called its Amplitude (See figure). This determines how
loud the sound or noise will be.
WAVELENGTH
The distance between like points on two successive waves is called the Wavelength,
and symbolized by (Greek symbol Lambda).
It is related to the frequency (f) and speed of propagation (c) by:
Wavelength () = c/f = cT (feet)

Each frequency will have a different wavelength. In the equation above, the term
c is the speed of sound in air, which is equal to 1128 ft/s, or 344 meters/second, at
standard temperature and pressure. So the wavelength of 500 Hz would be
determined by going:
= 1128 ft/s / 500 cycles/sec = 2.2 ft/cycle, or simply 2.2 feet
Note we are interested in the wavelength per one cycle, so we can drop the cycle
unit and simply refer to in terms of feet or meters.
WAVELENGTH OF SOUND IN AIR

frequency
wavelength
31.5 Hz
35.8 ft. (11.6 m)
63
17.9 ft (5.8 m)
125
9.0 ft. (2.9 m)
250
4.5 ft (1.5 m)
500
2.2 ft. (0.7 m)
1000
1.1 ft. (.35 m)
2000
6.7 in. (17 cm)
4000
3.4 in. (8.6 cm)
8000
1.7 in. (4.3 cm)

9
This table presents the wavelength for sound in air at each octave-band frequency.
The key point to observe is that low frequencies and long wavelengths and high
frequencies have very short wavelengths. Toward acoustical materials used to
absorb and block (isolate) sound transmission, it is much easier to treat the shorter
wavelengths (absorb and isolate) than the long wavelengths in the low frequencies.
Similarly, environmental or community noise problems typically involve the low
frequency sounds, because these wavelengths can travel much farther than high
frequency wavelengths.
SPEED OF SOUND
The speed at which sound travels depends on
the density and elasticity of the medium.
In the case of fluids and gases, temperature

must also be considered.
10
As mentioned at the start, the medium we are most concerned with is air. However,
there will be times when we may need to consider the wavelengths for other
mediums, such as liquids, gases, or solids.
SPEED OF SOUND
ft/sec
m/sec
Air
1100
360
Lead
4000
1300
Water
4500
1460
Concrete
10,000
3250
Glass
12,000
3900
Wood
14,000
4500
Steel
17,000
5520
Iron
17,000
5520
11
This table presents the speed of sound for a variety of common mediums. Note how
air is a relatively poor transmitter of sound waves when compared to these other
mediums. As you can see in the table, the wavelength on steel is approximately 17
times greater than that of air. This is why sounds can travel great distances in steel
(for example, steel pipe lines) without losing its energy as fast as that in air.
SOUND PRESSURE
The oscillation of the sound wave around
atmospheric pressure.
12
The vibration of air molecules or particles around atmospheric pressure is called the
sound pressure. Keep in mind sound pressure is the EFFECT of a disturbance in air.
SOUND POWER
Sound power is the energy that causes the air
particles to vibrate.
13
The actual CAUSE of a disturbance, and the resulting vibration or chain reaction
effect, is the power, called sound power.
It is important to remember Sound Power is the Cause of a disturbance and Sound
Pressure is the Effect.
The application of sound power and sound pressure is presented later in this section,
which should clear up any confusion that may exist regarding the differences
between these two entities.
SOUND MEASUREMENT
The range of sound powers and sound
pressures is very wide. In order to cover this
wide range while maintaining accuracy, the
logarithmic decibel (dB) scale was selected.
14
The intensity of the faintest sound that the normal person can hear is about
0.0000000000001 watts/m2, while the intensity of the sound produced by a Saturn
rocket at liftoff is greater than 100,000,000 watts/ m2. This is a range of
100,000,000,000,000,000,000. Given this extremely large range in values, there
needed to be a better way to express or represent these numbers. By using
logarithms of these numbers, as compared to a reference value, we can form a new
measurement scale in which an increase of 1.0 represents a tenfold increase in the
ratio (also called a 1.0 bel increase). The application of logarithms is evolved to the
use of 10 subdivisions of a log value, which is the term you may be familiar:
decibels
Decibels is abbreviated to the term dB. The lower case d represents deci, or
1/10th of a bel. The capital B stands for bel, named after Alexander Graham Bell,
inventor of the telephone. Dont ask why there is only one l in bel.
DECIBEL - A dimensionless unit related to

the logarithm of the ratio of a measured
quantity to a reference quantity.
15
As you will see in the next few slides, the dB is a dimensionless quantity, which is
related to an internationally agreed upon reference value.
SOUND POWER LEVEL - The acoustical

power radiated by a source with respect to the
standard reference of 10-12 watts.
Lw = 10 Log (W/Wre)
16
The international reference for power is 10-12 watts. Now because we are
converting a sound power into a Level, or dB, the formula is as shown above. The
term Lw is used to represent the Sound Power Level. The w subscript identifies
the fact this equation deals with power in units of watts.
To demonstrate how this equation works lets look at an example:
Determine the sound power level of a small electric motor that generates 0.1 watts
of sound power:
Lw = 10 Log (W/Wre)
Lw = 10 Log ( 0.1/10-12 )
Lw = 110 dB
The key point here is that even a small amount of sound power (0.1 watts) can
produce a rather large sound power level.
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL - The sound

pressure measured at a certain distance from a
source with respect to the standard reference
of 20 x 10-6 Pa.
Lp= 10 Log (P/Pre)2
Which equals:
Lp= 20 Log (P/Pre)
17
To convert the sound pressure into a decibel value, again logarithms are used. As
with sound power, the sound pressure also has its own internationally accepted
reference value, which is 20 X 10-6 Pascals (Pa). Now sound power varies
proportionally to the square of sound pressure: (watts) (pressure)2
Therefore, through application of log algebra, the squared value can be carried to
the front of the equation, which results in 20 log (20 comes from 2 X 10).
Remember - Lp is the effect of a disturbance or the sound we hear, and Lw is the
cause (power) of the disturbance that puts the air molecules into motion. The
microphone on all sound level meters can only measure Lp and there is no direct
way to measure Lw.
18
Note the large range in sound pressure levels. To make these numbers more usable,
they were converted to decibels using log ratios to a standard reference value.
The relationship between sound pressure level

and sound power level is expressed as :
L p= L w + K
Lw = Sound Power Level (cause)
Lp = Sound Pressure Level (effect)
K = constant, depending on environment
19
Lp and Lw are related by the equation shown above. The K factor is a constant
based upon the acoustics of the environment. The best way to explain the
differences is to consider an analogy:
Say we put a 100 watt light bulb in the center of a small room that is completed
painted with flat black paint. The illumination in the room will seem rather dim or
dull when compared to the identical set-up in a second room that is pointed with
glossy white paint. As you can imagine the white room will be significantly
brighter.
The same thing happens with sound. If you have a machine with a Lw = 90 dB and
place it in a small room with a concrete floor, ceiling and brick walls, the sound
pressure level, Lp (that we hear) could be as much as 110 dB due to the reflection
and build-up of sound inside the room. Conversely, if we take the same machine
and place it on a pad outside, the Lp may only be on the order of 92 dB. Note the
sound power is identical in both scenarios, but the result or effect is dramatically
different. This is due to the environment (K factor) that combines with the sound
power level to produce a specific sound pressure level. Note - The Room Acoustics
section will expand on all the variables that comprise this K factor.
There are three ways to add decibels

together:
Equation Method
Table Method
Spreadsheet Method
20
In many practical situations it is necessary to determine the combined effect of

several noise sources. However, since sound levels are logarithmic quantities, they
cannot be combined by simply adding or subtracting the individual levels.
EQUATION METHOD (Most accurate)
Lp (total) = 10 Log (10Lp1/10 + 10Lp2/10 + )

Where,
Lp1 = Sound Level of 1st source,
Lp2 = Sound Level of 2nd source,
etc.
21
The actual acoustic intensities represented by the logarithmic expressions must be

determined by taking antilogs of the level readings. The intensities can be added
together and the new level is determined from the logarithm.
In the equation method, the anti-log of each sound level is first calculated. To get
the anti-log: the value of 10 is raised to the power of each individual sound level
divided by 10, then all resultant values are arithmetically added together. Their
logarithm is calculated, and multiplied by 10 to obtain the total sound pressure level
(Lp).
EXERCISE:
Add 85 dB + 87 dB + 90 dB + 71 dB using
the equation method.
Use the equation:

Lp (total) = 10 Log (10Lp1/10 + 10Lp2/10 + )
and a pocket calculator (need a log function
on the calculator).
22
In the equation:
Lp (total) = 10 Log (10Lp1/10 + 10Lp2/10 + )
the value for Lp1 is 85, for Lp2 is 87, for Lp3 is 90 and Lp4 is 71, so: (use your
calculator to practice using the equation method)
Lp (total) = 10 Log (1085/10 + 1087/10 + 1090/10 + 1071/10 ), dB
Lp (total) = 10 Log (108.5 + 108.7 + 109.0 + 107.1 ), dB
Lp (total) = 10 log (1,830,004,254), dB
Lp (total) = 10 (9.262) = 92.6 dB
Note - rounded to nearest 10th.
TABLE METHOD
(Less accurate, but
easier)
Example: Add 90 dB
+ 95 dB + 88 dB
95
90
88
23
Recommended Steps:
Step 1 - list all sound levels in a column from the highest value to lowest (as shown
in the slide above).
Step 2 - start at the top of the column and take the first two values, which are 95 and
90 dB. Subtract 90 from 95 to get a numerical difference of 5.
Step 3 - use the table to determine the amount that needs to be added to the higher
value. For example, with a difference between the two sound levels of 5 - you
would add 1.2 to the higher value (95): so 95 + 1.2 = 96.2 dB
Step 4 - now take 96.2 and the next value in the column, which is 88, and determine
the numerical difference: 96.2 - 88 = 8.2
Step 5 - again go to the table and look up how much to add to the higher value with
a difference of 8.2: add 0.6 so 96.2 + 0.6 = 96.8 dB
The resultant sound level from all three values (noise sources) will be 96.8 dB.
So keep in mind, when you add more equipment to a room, the sound level from the
new equipment will add to the existing ambient or background level of the room.
The Spreadsheet Method:
Add 85 dB + 87 dB + 90 dB + 71 dB using
the Spreadsheet Method.
Note: Use the Calculation Aid Decibel

Addition Excel spreadsheet
24
dB ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

This program adds or subtracts dB levels.
Enter dB levels to be added:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
85
87
71
(antilog Lp/10)
3.16E+08
5.01E+08
1.26E+07
89.19 dB
Enter dB levels to be subtracted:
minus
93
90
89.98 dB
(antilog Lp/10)
2.00E+09
1.00E+09
25
Note this spreadsheet will be provided to you during the course.
HUMAN HEARING
The human ear
responds to a
wider range of
frequencies (20 20,000 Hz). It is
most sensitive
around 3000 Hz,
and least sensitive
in the lower
frequencies.
26
The ability of humans to hear sound is bounded by 20 - 20,000 Hz. In other words,
if a sound is at 21,000 Hz, it will not be heard by the human ear. Similarly, if a
sound is at 15 Hz, it will not be heard by a human listener.
WEIGHTING CURVES
Sound Pressure Level becomes SOUND
LEVEL when a weighting has been applied.
The weighting networks are useful to
compare sound levels to how the human ear
hears and is effected by continuous exposure.
27
When a weighting network is applied to a sound pressure level, we no longer have a

pure pressure relationship, but instead have a relative level to human listeners. So
when you see the term sound level it implies the true sound pressure level has
been corrected to specific weighting network. The primary weighting network for
industrial noise is the A-weighted network.
WEIGHTING CURVES (contd)
28
The A-weighted sound level provides a single number rating that correlates
reasonably well with human hearing-damage risk due to exposure to continuous
sound.
Humans are more sensitive to middle frequency sounds (500 - 4,000 Hz) than they
are to low or very high frequency sounds. The A-weighted chart shown here lists
the correction values to be subtracted from, and in a few instances added to, the
pure or true sound pressure level for each octave-band. For example, in the chart a
pure-tone sound pressure level of 100 dB at 250 Hz will actually be heard by a
human listener as 83.9 dBA at 250 Hz (100 - 16.1 = 83.9 dBA). It is critical to note
that when the specific A-weighted correction value is subtracted from the sound
pressure level, in dB, the result is then expressed in units of dBA. So the A that
follows the dB means it is an A-weighted value.
Because A-weighted sound levels correlate well with human hearing and its
hazardous effects, this is why all noise regulations use the A-weighted values or
dBA.
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
Most industrial noise is made up of a very
large number of individual frequency
components.
It is important to characterize noise in terms

of its frequency content in order to control it.
29
Toward noise control measurements, it is important to use a sound level meter that
has an Octave-band filter. This instrument set-up will allow the surveyor to not
only measure the overall dBA values, but also the individual octave-band frequency
data.
Filters in a sound
level meter are used
to bread down the
noise into smaller
frequency ranges.
The OCTAVE
BAND and THIRDOCTAVE BAND
filters are most
commonly used.
30
The data obtained with an octave-band or 1/3 octave-band filter is useful toward (1)
identifying the origin of the noise source, and (2) selection of the appropriate noise
control products and materials. These two items will be explained in detail in the
Principles of Noise Control and Room Acoustics sections of this training material.
The chart shown here presents the frequency ranges for both octave-band and 1/3
octave-bands. Note: the center band frequency (fc) is the actual name used to
describe a frequency range. For example, an fc at 500 Hz will take into account all
sound pressure levels occurring from 355 - 710 Hz, using the octave-band ranges.
In other words, if a pure-tone is occurring at 660 Hz, it will appear on the sound
level meter in the 500 Hz octave-band setting or mode of the instrument. (Note:
some textbooks refer to octave-bands as 1/1 octave-bands - just remember they are
the same thing.)
1/3 octave-bands are used whenever the surveyor desires more detailed information.
In reality 1/3 octave-band measurements simply divide the full octave-band data
into thirds (three data points). So if you would logarithmically add all three 1/3
octave-band readings together - it must equal the value measured with the full
octave-band setting.

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Noise Control Engineering

The objective of this section is to provide a review of the fundamental definitions,