Field and Wave Electromagnetics (II)

Review
Assistant Professor: Yi-Pai Huang

Department of Photonics
and
Display Institute

Outlines
Vector Analysis
- Orthogonal coordinate systems
- Vector Calculus
- Gausss Law and Helmholtzs Theorem

Static Electric Fields

- Postulates of Electrostatics
- Coulomb's law and Gausss Law
- Principle of superposition
- Electric potential
- Conductor and Dielectrics
- Boundary Conditions for E-fields

Coordinate Systems
Cylindrical coordinates

Spherical coordinates

Coordinate Systems

Gradient
V2=V1+dV

P3
P2
dl

dn

V1

P1

1.

V
V
V
+ a y
+ a z
z
x
y
V
V
V
= au1
+ au 2
+ au 3
h1u1
h2 u2
h3u3

V = a x

dV = V d l

V: The vector having the magnitude and direction of the

maximum space rate of change!

2.

V: Perpendicular to the constant potential surface, pointing

from lower to higher potential surface.

3.

dV : Potential variation per unit with a displacement vector

that can clearly describe the magnitude(variation) of V form P1
to P3
5

Divergence

Physics meaning:
1. Net outward flux of A per unit volume as

2.

A > 0(@ P) P is positive source, such as positive charge

3.

A < 0(@ P) P is negative source, such as negative charge

Divergence Theorem:

+Q

A > 0

A = 0

-Q

A < 0
6

Curl

Eg: H = J
z

y
(1) The maximum net circulation of A per unit area
(2) The unit area tends to zero
(3) a vector, whose direction is the normal direction of the area

Stokes Theorem:

The surface integral of A

over an open surface

||
The close line integral of A along
the contour bounding the surface
7

Two Null Identities

Identities - I

( V ) = 0
+++++++
+
- - - - - - -

(1) If a vector field is curl-free (irrotational or conservative),

then it can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field.
(2) Therefore: E = 0 E = V
(3) Why static electric field (E) is curl free ?
The work for a static E-field with a close loop is zero!!

Identities - II

( A ) = 0

N
S
N
S

(1) If a vector field is divergence-free (Solenodial field), then it

can be expressed as the curl of a vector field.
(2) Therefore: B = 0 B = A
(3) Why static magnetic flux density (B) is divergence free?
Theres no magnetic flow source.
magnetic line always close upon themselves .
8

Helmholtzs Theorem

F = V + A
From physics point of view

(1) A vector field is from the field sources.

(2) Field source has flow source ( F ) and vortex source ( F )
a vector field can be determined by the sum of flow
source(gradient) and vortex source (curl).
From math point of view

F = Fi +Fs
F i = V
F s = A

Once
Oncewe
weknow
knowthe
thedivergence
divergence
and
andcurl
curlof
ofaafield,
field,we
wecan
can
determine
determinethe
thevector
vectorof
ofthe
thefield
field

F = V + A
9

Gausss Law to Columbs Law

Differential Form

E =

E = 0

Integral Form

E ds =
s

Q
0

E dl = 0

Q
dv =
v
0
0

Edv = E ds =
v

( E )ds = E dl = 0

Gausss Law: The total outward flux of the electric field Intensity over
any close surface in free space is equal to the total charge enclosed
in the surface divided by 0
From Gausss law, we can determine the Columbs law
2

E
d
s
a
E
a
ds
R
ER =
4
R
R
R

E = a R E R =

q
0

q
( Columb' s Law )
2
40 R
Point charge q at origin
10

Point Charge and Discrete Charges

Charge not at origin

Electric dipole

See text book p.83

E=

p 1
( a R 2 cos + a sin ); (* p = qd )
40 R 3

Why the E-field of dipole is decrease faster than a point charge?

+q and q has very similar E-field, but opposite direction.
Thus reduce the total E-field
11

Principle of Superposition
The
TheE-field
E-fieldcausing
causingby
bythe
thecharges
chargescan
canbe
bederived
derivedfrom
fromintegration
integration

12

Gausss Law and The Applications

The Gausss law can solve the question easily

The most key point is how to select the Gausss surface
The symmertry of Gausss surface should be identical to
the E-filed
13

Electric Potential

+++++++

V0

- - - - - - -

(1) Electrical potential: how much works it would take to carry a small charge
from one place to another?
(2) The minus of E-field means with opposite to the E-field, the E-potential
increase.
(3) Due to V is normal to the equal potential surface, E-field is also
perpendicular to the equal potential surface.

14

Electrical Potential Due to Discrete Point Charges

15

Conductors in the Static E-field

For a conductor in a static E-field, it must has following characteristics:
(1) E-field in the conductor = 0
If E-field 0, the free electrons will be moved, than thats not the static E-field

(2) The charge distribution in the conductor = 0

Due to the E-field=0, from Gausss law, the net charge will also = 0

(3) The distribution of charges are only on the surface of the conductor
The charges in the conductor=0, thus the charges can only be distribute on the surface

(4) The potential(V) are a constant at the surface and inside the conductor
Vector E = -V, with E=0, V=constant

(5) The E-filed must be normal to the surface of conductor

The surface V=constant (equal potential surface)
thus E = -V will be normal to the surface

16

Boundary Condition of Conductor

The potential(V) are a constant at the surface and inside the conductor
Vector E = -V, with E=0, V=constant

The E-filed must be normal to the surface of conductor

The surface V=constant (equal potential surface)
thus E = -V will be normal to the surface

17

Polarized Dielectrics
Microcosmic :
(1) Without E-field, the direction of polarization P are random
(2) The distance between + and charge will be increased with
applying a E-field, and the direction of P are the same as
external E-field. This phenomenon was called polarization
General view :
Can be replaced by an equivalent polarization surface and volume density

ps = P a n

- Equivalent polarization surface density

pv = P

- Equivalent polarization volume density

- + 0
-+ -+
-+

Total charge of polarized dielectrics :

ps

0
0

pv
ps

ds + pv dv = P a n ds Pdv =0
v

Surface and volume has opposite E-filed direction

18

Electric Flux Density

ps

0
0

v + pv

( 0 E + P ) = v
Assume D = v
D = 0 E + P D ds = Q
s

D :Electric flux density or electric displacement

when the dielectric medium is linear, homogeneous and isotropic

P = 0 e E ; e : electric susceptibility

19

Dielectric Strength

Dielectric Strength:
The maximum E-field that may not causing the dielectric breakdown
Q: What will happen if it has dielectric breakdown?
Will induce huge current and damage the material

20

Boundary Conditions for E-fields

an 2

Normal component

The normal component of E-field at

boundary is discontinuous, the amount
of discontinuity being equal to the
surface charge density

The tangential component of E-field at

boundary is continuous

Tangential components

21

Boundary Conditions for E-fields - Example

Ex: The boundary is charge free,
please calculate the E-filed at P2
For tangential components:

For normal components:

22

Outlines

Static Electric Fields

- Capacitance
- Electrostatic shielding
- Electrostatic Energy and Force

23

Capacitance
Q=CV
Capacitance (C)
(1) Two conductor system
(2) Related to shape and
(3) unit: Coulomb/Volt or Farad
From potential equation:
2
W
= V2 V1 = E dl
1
q

From Gausss Law:

E ds =
s

C=

Find E-field

Q
Get the C value
V

24

Capacitance

25

Electrostatic shielding
Conductor 2
Conductor 2
Conductor 3
Conductor 1

V1=0

Conductor 3

Q
Conductor 1

V1=0

For V2 = 0
Q1 = C10 V1 + C12 V1 + C13 ( V1 V3 )
and V1 = V2 = 0
C13 = 0 Electrostatic Shielding

26

Electrostatic Energy
In an E-field, the work required to bring a unit positive charge from infinity

Q1

R12

Q2

27

Electrostatic Force
With fixed charges

dl

With fixed potential

+++++++

Fixed charge
3

C1

+++++

C2

C1

V
- - - - - - -

dl

++

C2

- - - - - - -

dW = F Q dl
dW = dWe = (W e ) dl = F Q dl
F Q = (W e )
Q: Why FQ and FV has opposite sign?

dWs = Vk dQ k (For keeping same V )

k

dW = F v dl
1
1
dWe = Vk dQ k = dWs
2 k
2
dW + dWe = dWs
dW = dWe = (W e ) dl = F v dl
F v = W e

FQ : Internal decreasing energy

FV : External increasing energy
28

Outlines

Solutions of Electrostatic Problems

- Poissons and Laplaces Equations
- Uniqueness Theorem
- Method of Images
(1) Point charge and grounded plane conductor
(2) Line charge and parallel conducting cylinder
(3) Point charge and conducting sphere
(4) Charged sphere and grounded plane

- Boundary Value Problems

(1) Cartesian
(2) Cylindrical
(3) Spherical

29

Solutions of Electrostatic Problems

(1) Has electron distribution

utilize Coulombs law for E-field
(2) Has electron distribution, derive the V function
utilize E=-V for E-field
(3) Utilize differential equation and boundary condition of V
Poisson and Laplace
(4) For conductor has special geometrical shape
Method of image

30

Poissons and Laplaces Equations

In a homogeneous medium

V =

Poissons Equation

For no free charge in the homogeneous medium

2V = 0

Laplaces Equation

The divergence of gradient

2 =

Laplacian operator

31

Example : Poissons and Laplaces Equations

(a) The potential at any point
between the plates?
(b) The surface charge density
on the plates?

+
V0
-

+++++++
d

E
- - - - - - -

(3) Utilize differential equation

and boundary condition of V

32

Uniqueness Theorem
A solution of Poisson's equation that satisfies the given
Boundary Condition is a unique solution.
Proof:
If has 2 solutions, for same B.C., it will has 2 different V

2V1 =

Q2

and 2V2 =

Define Vd = V1 V2

and

Q3

Q1

2Vd = 0 for a given B.C.

From vector product rule ( fA) = f ( A) + A (f ) ; If f = Vd and A = Vd

Conductor
Boundary

(Vd Vd

1
1
and
S

)
0
R3
R2

( For R )
33

Method of Images
Using Poissons or Laplaces equation to solve most of the problem
Some has boundary conditions are very difficult to be satisfied.
Using [ Method of image] to replace the bounding surface.

Method of image has more effective function for:

(1) Point charge and grounded plane conductor

(2) Line charge and parallel conducting cylinder

(3) Point charge and conducting sphere

(4) Charged sphere and grounded plane

34

Point Charge and Grounded Plane Conductor

Q: Please derive the V(x,y) and E(x,y) of y>0
Solutions:
(1) Find the Laplaces equation and B.C. of V(x,y)
(2) Find the

s of plane conductor, and use coulomb's law

(3) Use method of image

Q(0,d,0)
d

(1) Find the Laplaces equation and B.C. of V(x,y)

x
0

Too hard to find the solution that

can satisfy the four conditions

(2) Find the s of plane conductor, and use coulomb's law

How can we know the distribution of surface charge?

35

Point Charge and Grounded Plane Conductor

(3) Use method of image
; at y > 0

Q: Try to find the surface charge and total charge on the plane conductor.
Hint - surface ( x, z ) = 0 En

; Qtotal ( x, z ) = surface ( x, z )ds

s

* Refer to Prof. Chens EM-I document

Note:
(a) The results only can represent the region y>0
(b) For the y<0 area V=0 and E=0
(c) For utilizing method of image the plane conductor has to be eliminate

36

Line Charge and Parallel Conducting Cylinder

Q: Please derive the imaged line charge place di
Step1:
Assume i = l

di

From Gausss law:

Reference point of V=0

(MOPi = MOP OMPi = OPM )

a2
di =
d

di=Inverse point

37

Line Charge and Parallel Conducting Cylinder

x-b

x+b

Equipotential lines

Map to the Line charge and

parallel conducting cylinder

38

Point Charge and Conducting Sphere

If Grounded; Has VG=constant

Qs same as image charge(Qi)

Qs total = s ds =
s

a
d

s a 2 sin dd = Q = Qi

If not grounded
Q=-Qi=a/d*Q at R=0
Qi=-a/d*Q at R=a2/d
Q at d
39

Charged Sphere and Grounded Plane

Q: Please derive the potential between charged sphere
and grounded plane

Q
a

(1) Assume a equivalent charge Q0

(2) From Point Charge and Grounded Plane Conductor find Q0

(3) From Point Charge and Conducting Sphere find Q1 and d1=a/2c
(4) So does Q1, Q2, -Q2, and ......

Q0 Q1 Q2 .

. -Q -Q -Q
1
2
0

a2
2c

a2
2c

a2

a2

2
4 0 a 1 + +
+
.....

1 2

2c (

a2
)
2C

2c (

a2
)
2C

c
40

Boundary Value Problems

Method of image Simple geometric boundary + Free charge
Laplaces equation Electro-potential was fixed on the conductor and
without free charge.
With a given V(x,y,z) at the boundary, how to use Laplaces equation to solve
the V at the whole region?
For the boundary parallel to the coordinate surface of the orthogonal system
Utilize Method of separation of variables
Due to the different shape of the boundary, the solutions can be divided into:

Cartesian Coordinates

Cylindrical Coordinates

Spherical Coordinates

41

Cartesian Coordinates
d 2V d 2V d 2V
V=
+ 2 + 2 =0
2
dx
dy
dz
2

V = X ( x )Y ( y )Z ( z ) Method of separation of variables

1 d 2 X 1 d 2Y 1 d 2 Z
d2X
d 2Y
d 2Z
YZ
+ XZ 2 + XY
=0
+
+
=0
2
2
2
2
2
dz
X dx
Y dy
Z dz
dx
dy
d 1 d2X
1 d2X
[
]=0
= k x2
2
2
dx X dx
X dx

d 2Z
d2X
d 2Y
2
2
+ kx X = 0 ;
+ k xY = 0 ;
+ k x2 Z = 0
2
2
2
dx
dy
dz
and k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = 0
d2X
+ k x2 X = 0
2
dx

Possible solutions:
( 1 )k x = 0 : X ( x ) = Ax + B
( 2 )k x = Re al : X ( x ) = A cos k x x + B sin k x x
( 3 )k x = Imaginary : X ( x ) = Ae k x x + Be k x x or A' cosh k x x + B' sinh k x x
42

Cartesian Coordinates

43

Example: Cartesian Coordinates

44

Example: Cartesian Coordinates

45

Outlines

Steady Electric Current

- Electromotive Force
- Equation of Continuity
- Joules Law
- Boundary Condition for Current Density
- Resistance Calculation

46

Electromotive Force

E dl =
c

J dl = 0

What does this equation mean?

J=0 a steady current cannot be maintained in the same

direction in a closed circuit by an electrostaic field

Electromotive Force V =

E
1

dl = E dl
1

+++

- -

+
+
+
+

Ei
E

In a battery source, with external E-field, the line

integration from negative to positive electrode.

E dl =
c

E dl + E dl = 0

Inside
the source

outside
the source

V = E dl
2

47

Kirchhoffs voltage law

J = ( E + Ei )

++

Here, includes the external and internal conductivity

V = ( E + Ei ) d l =
c

Ei

J dl

l
1 I
dl = I
= IR
c S
S

Kirchhoffs voltage law:

V = R I
j

Around a closed path in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the

emfs (voltage rises) is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops
across the resistance.

48

Equation of Continuity and Kirchhofs Current Law

From the principle of conservation of charge Charge cannot be created or destroyed
The variation rate of charge equals to the current

dQ
d
I = J ds =
= dv
s
dt
dt v

I
Q

From divergence theorem

dv
v t

J d s = Jdv =
s

Volume V

Equation of Continuity: J =
For a steady current J = 0

Kirchhofs Current Law:

I
j

( A / m3 )

J ds = 0
s

=0

The algebraic sum of all the currents flowing out of

a junction in an electric circuit is zero
(* With idea current source)

49

Relaxation Time
J = E =

v
t

Equation of continuity

v
In the homogeneous media

v + v = 0
t

E =

v ( t ) = v0e

= v0e

Relaxation time: =

cu =

Initial charge density

( v0 : v ( t ) @ t = 0 )

Coulomb
)
Volt m = 1.52 10 19 (sec)
Ampere
)
= 5.8 10 7 (
Volt m

0 = 8.85 10 12 (

An ideal conductor ~0 inside =0 and E=0

An idea insulator ~ charge doesnt move
50

Application of Relaxation Time

=

VB = V2 ( V2 V1 )e

l
1

S
S
C =
d
R=

t
RC

RC delay in TFT array circuit

TFT
Clc

TFT
Cst

TFT

Clc

Cst

TFT

Clc

Cst

Clc

Cst

51

Boundary Conditions for Current Density

With static E-field and charge Q
Differential Form

D =
D
= 0

Integral Form

D ds = Q
s

D dl = 0

With steady current density

Differential Form

J = 0
J

=0

Integral Form

J ds = 0
s

J dl = 0
c

From J = 0 J 1 n = J 2 n
From

=0

J 1t
J 2t

1
2

52

Boundary Conditions for Current Density

Discussion (1) :
In a homogenous conductive material:

J = 0 J =
J = 0 2 = 0

Use same methods in

CH4, can solve J

Discussion (2) :
The surface charge between
two different conductor

Media 2 is a conductor D2=0

J 1n = J 2 n 1 E 1n = 2 E 2 n

D 1n = 1 E1n = s

D 1n D 2 n = s 1 E1n 2 E 2 n = s

Media 2 is a conductor 2>> 1

s = ( 1 2 1 )E1n
2

For different conductor (21),

the surface charge was induced for
generating different E-field

s = 1 E 1 n = D1 n

+
+
+

J1

J2

E1

E2

53

Field and Wave Electromagnetics (II)

Review
Assistant Professor: Yi-Pai Huang

Department of Photonics
and
Display Institute

Outlines

Static Magnetic Fields

- Fundamental Postulates of Magnetostatic
- Vector Magnetic Potential
- The Biot-Savart Law
- Magnetic Dipole
- Magnetization and Equivalent Current Densities
- Magnetic Circuit
- Behavior of Magnetic Materials
- Boundary Conditions for Magnetic Fields

Fundamental Postulates of Magnetostatic in Free Space

B = 0
B = 0 J

( B ) dv = B ds = 0
v

0 = 4 10 7

( B ) = ( 0 J ) = 0 J = 0

The law of conservation

of magnetic flux

( B ) ds = J ds
0 s

B dl = I
c

(H / m)

Same as steady current

Differential
Form

Integral
Form

Amperes circuital law

The circulation of the magnetic flux density in

free space around any closed path is equal to
0 times the total current flowing through the
surface bounded by the path

B = 0
B = 0 J

Bds = 0
B dl = I
s

The Biot-Savart Law and Applications

Jdv' = JSdl' = Idl'
A=

1
0I
dl'
4 C' R

dl'
I dl' 0 I
)
B = A = 0
(

R
4 C' R 4 C'
I 1
1

B = 0 dl'+ ( ) dl'
4 C' R
R

=0

1
= ( x x' ) 2 + ( y y' ) 2 + ( z z' ) 2
R

1 / 2

1
R
1
= 3 = a R 2
R
R
R

0 I dl'R
0 I dl'a R
B=
dB =
4 C' R 2
4 R 3

The Biot-Savart Law

Determine B by a current I in a close path C

From a current element I and dL, the magnetic flux density can be found
4

Example 6-4(1)
Find B at point p
Solution (A) : From B = A

Example 6-4(2)
Solution (B) : From the Biot-Savart Law

Magnetic Dipole
Find the magnetic flux density at a distant point of a small
circular loop of radius b that carries current I

Solution (A) : From B = A

Magnetic Dipole - Discussion

Magnetic dipole

Electric dipole

Why M-dipole and E-dipole

has similar equation, but
different line plot?

Electric dipole

Magnetic dipole

Magnetization and Equivalent Current Densities

(1) Knowing M calculate B :
J m = 'M

J ms = M a

'
n

A=

M a'n
0 ' M
dv
'

s' R ds'
4 v' R

B = A

(2) With a uniform M:

J m = 'M = 0
inside net current = 0
J ms = M a'n

Surface current can be found

(3) With M has space verification:

J m = 'M 0

Has inside net current

Magnetic Field Intensity and Relative Permeability

Analogous relation between E and B

Magnetic field intensity:

Amperes circuital law

Relative permeability:

Absolute permeability:

10

Magnetic Circuit

Assume the leakage flux =0

Hg
Hf

>> 1
0

The magnetic field intensity in the air gap is much

stronger than that in the ferromagnetic core

11

Magnetic Recoding Disk (Hard Disk)

Magnetic flux F

(100GB)

(1.44MB)

ZIP
(650MB)

Micro drive
(1GB)

disk motion

Utilize the current control to write or erase the

signal on the disk.

Another read-head with different current

direction control can sense the difference of

reluctance, than can be judged as 1 or 0.
The higher recoding density disk have to use

more sensitive read-head technology.

12

Kirchhoffs Law in Magnetic Circuit and Real Case Solution

N I =
j

B = 0

= Vmi
i

=0

Around a closed path in a magnetic circuit the algebaric

sum of ampere-turns is equal to the algebraic sum of the
products of the reluctances and fluxes
The magnetic fluxes flowing Out = In

In real case, its very hard to find the very precise solution of magnetic circuit:
(1) Has flux leakage

(2) Has fringing effect

(2) B and H curve is not linear

B f + 0

lf
lg

Hf =

0
lg

NI 0

13

Behavior of Magnetic Materials

(1) Diamagnetic (): r<1, m is a very small negative number
(2) Paramagnetic (): r>1, m is a very small positive number
(3) Ferromagnetic ():r>>1, m is a very large positive number

14

Boundary Conditions for Magnetic Fields

For h 0

abcda

d l = H 1 w + H 2 (w) = J sn w

H 1t H 2t = J sn

The free surface current perpendicular

to the close path C

a n 2 ( H 1t H 2t ) = J s

when the conductivity is finite, free surface

current does not exist. For almost all physical
media (except superconductor),H1t=H2t

15

Example 6-12

H 2 = H 2t + H 2n
2

= H 1 sin 2 1 + 1 cos 1
2

16

Outlines

Static Magnetic Fields

- Inductance and Inductor
- Magnetic Energy
- Magnetic Forces and Torques ( Hall effect)

17

Inductance and Inductor

Mutual inductance (unit: H , Henry)

L12 is the magnetic flux linkage with one

circuit per unit current in another

The magnetic flux linkage with one circuit

per unit current in the loop itself.
18

Magnetic Energy
Work Saved as Magnetic Energy

Case1 Single Close Loop

L1
i1

Magnetic Energy
Case2 Dual Close Loop

C1

C2

Step 1 : Set i2=0, i1 increase 0 I1

1
In C1 W1 = I 1 1
In C2 W2 = 0
2

Case3 N Close Loop

1 N N
1 N
Wm = L jk I j I k = I k k
2 j =1 k =1
2 k =1
N

Step 2 : Keep i1 = I1, i2 increae 0I2

I2
1
W21 = V21 I 1 dt = L21 I 1 di2 =L21 I 1 I 2
W22 = L2 I 22
0
2

1
1
L2 I 12 + L2 I 1 I 2 + L2 I 22
2
2
1 2 2
1 2
W2 = L jk I j I k = I k k
2 j =1 k =1
2 k =1

k = L jk I j
j =1

Case4 Single inductor

W2 = W1 + W21 + W22 =

Wm =

1 2
LI
2
19

Magnetic Forces and Torques Hall Effect

A conductive material in an uniform magnetic field: B = a z B0
A uniform current flow in y-direction: J = a y J 0 = Nq u
The force for carrier movement:
F m = q u B = qu0 a y a z B0 = qu0 B0 a x = qu0 B0 ( a x )
N- type

+
-

The carrier will move until:

F Eh = F m E h = u B

This effect are so called Hall Effect

E h = a x u0 B0

Hall Field

Vh = E hdx =u0 B0 d
d

Rh =

Ex
1
=
J y Bz Nq

N- type semi-conductor Carrier is -q

Hall Voltage

Hall Coefficient

20

Magnetic Forces and Torques Force

The force for the line

N carrier in a unit volume

dl

F m = qu B

d F m = NqS d l u B = NqS u d l B = Id l B

dl
In a magnetic file B

F m = I d l B F 21 = I 1 d l B 21
c

Where

B 21 =

C1

C2

c1

0 I2
4

d l 2 a R 21
c 2 R212

I1

I2

Ampheres law of force

Because d l1 (d l 2 a R 21 ) d l 2 (d l1 a R12 )
Does F 21 = F 12 ?

21

Magnetic Forces and Torques Force

Does F 21 = F 12 ?

C1

Because d l1 (d l 2 a R 21 ) d l 2 (d l1 a R12 )

I1

C2

I2

22

Magnetic Forces and Torques Torques

B

dT = r 1 d F 1 + r 2 d F 2
= a x b cos + a y b sin a z dF + a x b cos a y b sin ( a z dF )

[(

= a x 2b sin dF

] [(

B||

d T = a x (dF )2b sin = a x I d l B|| sin 2b sin where d l = bd

= a x 2 Ib 2 B|| sin 2 d

T = dT =a x 2 Ib 2 B|| sin 2 d = a x I ( b 2 ) B||

0

m = a n I ( b 2 ) = a n IS

T = mB
23

Outlines

Time-Varying Fields and Maxwells Equation

- Faradays law of electromagnetic Induction
- Maxwell Equation
- Potential Function
- Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions
- Wave Equations and Their Solutions
- Time-Harmonic Fields

24

Faradays law of electromagnetic Induction

in 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that a current was induced in a conducting

loop when the magnetic flux linking the loop changed!
Maxwell than from the experiment determine the fundamental postulate: E =

B
t

B
ds
s t

From Stokes theorem : ( E ) d s = E d l =

s

In the following will discuss:

(1) A stationary circuit in a time-varying M-field
(2) A moving conductor in a static M-field
(3) A moving circuit in a time-varying M-field
25

A stationary circuit in a time-varying M-field

E dl =
C

d
Bds

s
dt

V = E d l emf induced in circuit with contour C

C

= B d s Magnetic flux crossing surface S

s

V =

d
dt

(Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction)

Discussion :
(1) The emf of a close path = - (magnetic flux increasing rate)
(2) - means the emf induce a negative current to compensate the
variation of magnetic flux, its so called Lenzs Law

26

A moving conductor in a static M-field

F m = qu B

Balanced until FE = Fm

If the observer has same speed u with the conductor

Ei =

Fm
= uB
q
2

V21 = E i d l = ( u B ) d l
1

V' = ( u B ) d l

(Flux-cutting emf or motional emf)

27

A moving circuit in a time-varying M-field

A charge q moves in a E-filed(E) and M-field(B) with speed u
The electromagnetic force is:

For the observer moving with the charge, the force on

the q can be seemed as affected by a new E-field (E)

The induced emf will be: (Faradays Law of A moving circuit in a time-varying M-field)

The induction emf of

the moving coordinate

The transformer emf

of the varying M-field

The motional emf of

the moving conductor

28

A moving circuit in a time-varying M-field

Can the induction emf be re-write into a simpler form like:
V =

d
dt

(Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction)

tn ~0
with n>2

From divergence theorem:

Where (

)
A B C = B C A
B dl u = dl u B

Faradays Law can be applied on stationary or moving close circuit

29

Maxwell Equation
E =

B
t

H = J

The 4 basic formula

of EM wave

The equation of
continuity

D =

J =

J = 0 Steady current

B = 0
The formula failed when the
current is not a steady current

( H ) = 0 = J

1864, Maxwell propose a Displacement current density to solve this problem

( H ) = 0 = J +
H = J +

D
t

D
= (J +
)
t
t

Even without current, the time-varying E-file will also induce M-field

E =

Maxwell Equation:

B
t

H = J +

D
t

D =
B = 0
30

Integration Form of Maxwell Equation

B
E =
t
D
H = J +
t
D =
B = 0

B
d
ds =
s t
dt

( E ) ds = E d l =
s

Integral form

( H ) ds = H d l = ( J +
s

D
D
ds
) ds = I +
s
t
t

( D) dv = D ds = dv = Q
( B) dv = B ds = 0
v

31

Electromagnetic Boundary Condition

For E

abcda
h 0

E =

E d l = E1 w + E 2 ( w )

B
= w(E1t E 2 t ) = s
ds = 0
h 0 t

H = J +

B = 0

For H

D
t

D =

E1 t = E 2 t

abcda
h 0

B
t

D
ds = J sn w
h 0 t

H dl = H 1 w + H 2 ( w ) = w( H 1t H 2t ) = J sn w + s

H 1t H 2t = J sn
For D

For B

D ds =(D a
s

n2

+ D 2 a n1 )S

B ds =(B a
s

n2

+ B 2 a n1 )S

= a n 2 ( D1 D 2 )S = S

= a n 2 ( B 1 B 2 ) S = 0

a n 2 ( D1 D 2 ) =

B 1n = B 2 n
32

Electromagnetic Boundary Condition

E1 t = E 2 t
Across an interface Et is continuous

H 1t H 2 t = J sn
Across an interface with a surface current Ht is discontinuous
a n 2 ( D1 D 2 ) =

Across an interface with a surface charge Dn is discontinuous

B 1n = B 2 n

Across an interface Bn is continuous

Same as static E- and M-field : because h0
Special cases:
(1) Two lossless linear media
(2) Between a dielectric and a perfect conductor
33

Special Cases
(1) Two lossless linear media

(2) Between a dielectric and a perfect conductor

Medium 1: Dielectric
Medium 2: Perfect conductor

34

Wave Equation in Source Free Region

Source-free : v=0, J=0 and in a material with=0
E =
H =

( E ) =

H
t

E
t

E = 0
H = 0

E
( H ) = 2
t
t
2

0
( E ) = ( E ) 2 E

2E
1
E = 2 , u =
t

Homogeneous wave equation:

1 2E
2
E 2 2 = 0
u t

1 2H
2
H 2
=0
u t 2

Represent the EM wave

propagate form in the simple
material without source

35

Solution for Wave Equations

A point charge (t) at (0,0), find the solution of scalar from V and vector form A
Use spherical coordinate:

1
2V
2 V
(R
) 2 = 0
2
R R
R
t
2U
2U

2 = 0
2
R
t

Set V( R , t ) =

1
U( R , t )
R

f (t R ) or f (t + R ) could be the solutions

In physics, only the positive t has meaning, wave propagate to +R direction

U( R , t ) = f (t R ) = f ( x )

u=

The velocity of EM wave propagation

From the point charge V and A:

V( R , t ) =

1
4 v '

A( R , t ) =

4 v '

v (t
R
J(t
R

R
)
u dv'

R
)
u dv'

Retarded scalar potential

Retarded vector potential

At the position R, the effect of V and A will be delayed t=R/u

36

Time-Harmonic Fields RLC Circuit

e( t ) = E cos t , Find i ( t ) = ?

1
di
L + Ri + idt = e( t )
dt
C
If assume i ( t ) = I cos( t + )

I : Intensity
: Angular frequency
: Phase

e( t ) = e [( Ee j 0 )e jt ] = e( E s e jt )
i ( t ) = e [( Ie j )e jt ] = e( I s e jt )

di
= e ( j I s e j t )
dt
I s j t
idt
e
(
e )
=

di
1
+ Ri + idt
dt
C

= L e( jI se jt ) + R e(I se jt ) +

1
[ R + j ( L
)] I s = E s
C

I
1
e( s e jt ) = e(Es e jt )
C
j

A much simpler form

37

Time-Harmonic Fields

E( x, y , z , t ) = e[E( x, y , z )e jt ]

Time Harmonic
Maxwell equation

E =

H
= j H
t

H = J +

H( x, y , z , t ) = e[H( x, y , z )e jt ]

E
= J + j E
t

E = /
Time Harmonic
Maxwell equation
for potentials

2V
V 2 = 2 V k 2 V = v
t

H = 0

2 A
A 2 = 2 A k 2 A = J
t
2

Lorentz gauge

V
= A + jV = 0
A +
t

k = =

( Wave number )
u

Phasor solutions of non-homogeneous Helmholtzs equation

v e jkR
1
V( R ) =
dv'
4 v ' R

Je jkR
A( R ) =
dv'
4 v ' R
38

Time-Harmonic Fields
Source free field in simple medium

H
= j H
E =
t

2V k 2V =

v
=0

2 A k 2 A = J = 0

E
H = J +
= j E
t
E = / = 0
H = 0
Conducting medium

0 J = E
H = ( + j )E = j( +
c = +

= ' j' '

j

)E = j c E
j

All equation can be fitted by change

Conductive current
' '
=
=
= tan c
' Displacement current

>> : Good conductor

<< : Good insulator

c : Loss angle
39

Review
Divergence Theorem:

Stokes Theorem:

Coulombs Law

Gausss Law
Differential Form

Integral Form

E =
0

Q
s E ds = 0

E = 0

E dl = 0

E = a R E R =

q
4 0 R 2

40

Review
Electrostatic field

Electric Potential

Electrical Potential of a Point Charges

V(a)
q R
a

Electric Displacement

Boundary Condition
Conductor and free space:

Two dielectric material:

41

Review
How to calculate C:
2
W
= V2 V1 = E dl
1
q

From Gausss Law:

E ds =
s

Find E-field

In a homogeneous medium

V =

Poissons Equation

No free charge in the homogeneous medium

2V = 0

Laplaces Equation

Q
C=
Get the C value
V
Method of image

Boundary parallel to the coordinate surface

Method of separation of variables

1 d2X 1 d2Y 1 d2Z
V = X( x)Y( y )Z( z )
+
+
=0
X dx 2 Y dy 2 Z dz 2
42

Review
In steady current system

V12 = El

I = J ds = JS

S
+

J
V12

l
R=
S

Kirchhoffs voltage law:

Differential Form

D =
D
= 0

V = R I
j

Equation of Continuity: J =

Kirchhofs Current Law:

( )

With static E-field and charge Q

Ij = 0
j

D ds = Q
s

D dl = 0

With steady current density

Differential Form

( A / m3 )

Integral Form

J = 0
J

=0

Integral Form

J ds = 0
s

J dl = 0
c

43

Review
Differential
Form

B = 0
B = 0 J

Magnetic Potential

Integral
Form

B = A

Bds = 0
B dl = I
s

Analogous relation between E and B

0
J
A=
dv'

v
'
4 R

Biot-Savart Law
0 I dl'R
0 I dl'a R
B=
dB =
4 R 3
4 C' R 2

Analogous relation between magnetic and electric circuit

44

Review
Inductance

Ampheres law of force

N
L= =
I
I

C1

C2

I1

Magnetic energy
1 N N
1 N
Wm = L jk I j I k = I k k
2 j =1 k =1
2 k =1

I2

k = L jk I j
j =1

Magnetic torques
Hall Effect

F Eh = F m E h = u B

T = mB

B||

m = a n I ( b 2 ) = a n IS

+
-

N- type semi-conductor Carrier is -q

45

Review
V =

d
dt

(Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction)

E =

Maxwell Equation:

B
t

H = J +

D
t

E1 t = E 2 t
H 1t H 2 t = J sn

D =

a n 2 ( D1 D 2 ) =

B = 0

B1 = B 2

Potential Functions
A
E = V
t
Nonhomogeneous wave equation:

2 A
A 2 = J
t
2V

2
V 2 = v
t

The velocity of EM wave propagation

1
u=

Boundary Conditions

Time-Harmonic Fields

E( x, y , z , t ) = e[E( x, y , z )e jt ]
H( x, y , z , t ) = e[H( x, y , z )e jt ]
E =

H
= j H
t

H = J +

E
= J + j E
t

E = /
H = 0

46

Appendix : Coulumbs Story

(W.Gilbert,1544~1603)

(S.Gray,1670~1736)(B.Franklin,1706~1790)
1752

(Joseph Priestley,1733~1804)
1766
(1)
(Cavendish,1731~1810)

(C.A.Coulomb,1736~1806)

1781
1785

Ref: http://memo.cgu.edu.tw/yun-ju/CGUWeb/SciKnow/PhyStory/Coulomb.htm

47

Appendix History of Ohms Law

contact
electricity
=m (1+x/r)xr
m

X=a/(b+x)X (I) a (V) x

(Rext) b (Rint)
30

Pouillet

16British Royal Society

Coply

()British Association for the

Advancement of Science

Ref: http://book.tngs.tn.edu.tw/database/scientieic/content/1976/00090081/0008.htm

48

Appendix TFT Array Circuit and Structure

49