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A. TRANSDUCER
A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical variable is
known as transducer. Transducers are classified into five types. They are,
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Applications
It is used to measure:
- Thickness
- Liquid Level
It is used to measure:
- Noise
-Speech and music
Applications
Used to measure Temperature and Radiant Heat
Used in Displacement and Pressure Measurement
Applications
Measures Pressure, Viberations, Position and
Displacement
Measures Sound, Force and Pressure
Applications
Used in Light Meters and Solar Cells
Used to measure Temperature, Radiation and Heatflow
Applications
Measures Liquid Level, Noise, thickness etc
Measures Temperatue, pressure, displacement
Measures Pressure, Viberation, displacement etc
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EMI Basics
Applications
Measures Displacement, Force, Torque
Measures Temperature and Flow
Applications
Used in flow measurement
Applications
Used in pressure
Used in measurements
Applications
Used to measure Displacement, Force,
Pressure and Position
Applications
Used to measure Temperature Radiation and Heat flow
Applications
Used to measure Pressure, Vibration and acceleration
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EMI Basics
2. Operating Range: This factor is considered so that the transducer should be able to function
within the specified range with good resolution. Every transducer should be provided with some
rating within which there will be breakdown in its function.
3. Accuracy: It is one of the most desired characteristic of any transducer. If the transducer
doesn't needs frequent calibration, it must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
Because errors may occur due to the sensitivity of the transducer to other stimulations.
4. Sensitivity: It is also a desired characteristic of a transducer. Every transducer should be
sufficiently sensitive to provide some output that can be sufficient and detectable.
5. Stability and Reliability: The transducer should have high degree of stability during its
function and also storage life. It should also have a high degree of reliability.
6. Usage and Ruggedness: The ruggedness, size and weight of a transducer should be chosen
depending on the application in which it is used.
7. Transient Response and Frequency Response: The transducer should have required time
domain specifications such as, settling time, rise time, peak over shoot and small dynamic error
etc.
8. Loading Effects: The transducers should undergo minimum loading effect so that if can
provide accurate measurement. The parameters of a transducer are that, which characterize the
loading effect is its input and output impedances. lt is considered in order to get minimum
loading effects (Which can be neglected). For minimum loading effect the transducer should
have low output impedance and high input impedance.
9. Electrical Parameters: The type and length of cable required, signal to noise ratio in case the
transducer is used with amplifiers and frequency response limitations should also be considered.
10. Ability to be insensitive to unwanted signals
11. Environmental compatibility.
12. Static Characteristics: The selected transducer should have low hysteresis, high linearity
and high resolution.
C. WORKING OF SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE AND ITS ADVANTAGES
A typical semiconductor strain gauge is formed by the semiconductor technology i.e., the
semiconducting wafers or filaments of length varying from 2 mm to 10 mm and thickness of
0.05 mm are bonded on suitable insulating substrates (for example Teflon). The gold leads are
usually employed for making electrical contacts. The electrodes are formed by vapour
deposition. The strain sensitive elements used by the semiconductor strain gauge are the
semiconductor materials such as silicon and germanium. When the strain is applied to the
By: Tushar Saxena
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EMI Basics
semiconductor element a large of change in resistance occur which can be measured with the
help of a wheatstone bridge. The strain can be measured with high degree of accuracy due to
relatively high change in resistance. A temperature compensated semiconductor strain gauge can
be used to measure small strains of the order of 10-6 i.e., micro-strain. This type of gauge will
have a gauge factor of 130 10% for a semiconductor material of dimension 1 x 0.5 x 0.005
inch having the resistance of 350 .
Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
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The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very high, about 130.
They are useful in measurement of very small strains of the order of 0.01 micro-strains
due to their high gauge factor.
Semiconductor strain gauge exhibits very low hysteresis i.e., less than 0.05%.
The semiconductor strain gauge has much higher output, but it is as stable as a metallic
strain gauge.
It possesses a high frequency response of 1012 Hz.
It has a large fatigue life i.e., 10 x 106 operations can be performed.
They can be manufactured in very small sizes, their lengths ranging from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.
D. RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by, R=l/A where , R = Resistance in , =
Resistivity of the conductor ( - cm), l = Length of the conductor in cm. A = Cross-sectional
area of the metal conductor in cm2. It is clear from the equation (1) that, the electrical resistance
can be varied by varying, Length, Cross-sectional area and Resistivity or combination of these.
Principle A change in resistance of a circuit due to the displacement of an object is the measure
of displacement of that object Method of changing the resistance and the resulting devices are
summarized in the following table.
Method of changing resistance
Length Resistance can be
changed varying the length of the
conductor, (linear and rotary).
Resulting device
Resistance
potentiometers
or
sliding
contact
devices
displacements
Dimensions When a metal Electrical resistance
conductor
is
subjected
to strain gauges.
Mechanical strain, change in
dimensions of the conductor occurs,
that changes the resistance of the
conductor.
Resistivity
When
a
metal Thermistor and RTD.
By: Tushar Saxena
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Use
Used for the
measurement
of
Linear
and
angular.
Used for the
measurement
of
mechanical
strain.
Used
for
the
EMI Basics
temperature
measurement.
E. BOURDON TUBES
The bourdon tubes are available in different shapes like spiral, helical, twisted and C shaped but
all the tubes have non-circular cross-section. Also the materials used and working of all these
types are same. The materials used in the construction of bourdon tubes are brass, steel and
rubber. The working principle of bourdon tube is same as that of diaphragms and bellows i.e.,
the applied pressure is converted into mechanical displacement. The displacement generated by
the above force summing devices can be converted into electrical form by transmitting it to
LVDT. The output voltage generated by LVDT is proportional to displacement and hence applied
pressure.
F. LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFRENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
The operating principle of LVDT depends on mutual inductance. When the primary winding is
supplied with A.C. supply voltage, it generates alternating magnetic field. Due to this magnetic
field an alternating voltage will be induced in the two secondary windings.
Merits
-
Demerits
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EMI Basics
Rugged construction.
Demerits
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M. A 3 digit voltmeter is used to measuring voltage and DVM uses SAR ADC
N. Give the various types of digital voltmeter.
a. Ramp type digital voltmeter
b. Dual ramp digital voltmeter
c. Integrated type digital voltmeter
d. Analog to Digital converter voltmeter.
By: Tushar Saxena
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EMI Basics
parallel A/D
Uses a series of comparators
Each comparator compares Vin to a different reference voltage, starting w/ Vref = 1/2 lsb
Sigma-Delta ADC
Sigma Delta analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are used predominately in lower speed
applications requiring a trade off of speed for resolution by oversampling, followed by filtering
to reduce noise. 24 bit Sigma Delta converters are common in Audio designs, instrumentation
and Sonar. Bandwidths are typically less than 1MHz with a range of 12 to 18 true bits.
By: Tushar Saxena
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EMI Basics
Successive Approximation
Successive-approximation-register (SAR) analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are frequently the
architecture of choice for medium-to-high-resolution applications, typically with sample rates
fewer than 5 mega samples per second (Msps). SAR ADCs most commonly range in resolution
from 8 to 16 bits and provide low power consumption as well as a small form factor. This
combination makes them ideal for a wide variety of applications, such as portable/batterypowered instruments, pen digitizers, industrial controls, and data/signal acquisition
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Sets MSB
Converts MSB to analog using DAC
Compares guess to input
Set bit
Test next bit
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EMI Basics
10
15
Resolution (Bits)
20
25
Type
Speed (relative)
Cost (relative)
Dual Slope
Slow
Med
Flash
Very Fast
High
Successive Appox
Medium Fast
Low
Sigma-Delta
Slow
Low
DAC
There are several ways of making a digital to analog converter. Some of them are given as under.
Binary weighted Resistor DAC
The binary-weighted DAC contains one resistor or current source for each bit of the DAC
connected to a summing point. These precise voltages or currents sum to the correct output
By: Tushar Saxena
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EMI Basics
value. This suffers from poor accuracy because of the high precision required for each individual
voltage or current. Such high-precision resistors and current sources are expensive, so this type
of converter is usually limited to 8-bit resolution or less. It consists of four major components.
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The behavior of the circuit may be analyzed easily by using "Millman's theorem". It state that
"the voltage appearing at any node in a resistive network is equal to the summation of the
current entering the node (assuming the node voltage is zero) divided by the summation of the
conductance connected to the mode".
Advantages
-
As only one resistor is used per it in the resistor network, thus it is an economical and
simple
Fast
Disadvantages / Limitations
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Resistors used in the network have a wide range of values, so it is very difficult to ensure
may be comparable with the input resistance of the amplifier. This results in error.
As the switches represent finite impedance that are connected in series with the weighted
resistors and their magnitudes and variations have to be taken in to account in a D/A
converter design.
Needs large range of resistor values (2000:1 for 12-bit) with high precision in low resistor
values
Needs very small switch resistances
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EMI Basics
In case of weighted resistor DAC requires a wide range of resistance values and switches
Advantages
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critical.
R-2R ladder network are available in monolithic chips,. These are laser trimmed to be
Disadvantages
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