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EMI Basics

A. TRANSDUCER
A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical variable is
known as transducer. Transducers are classified into five types. They are,
-

Classification on the basis of transduction principle used.


Active and passive transducers
Analog and digital transducers
Primary and secondary transducers
Transducers and inverse transducers.

Classification on the Basis of Transduction Principle Used


This classification is done depending on the transduction principle i.e., how the input variable is
being converted into capacitance, resistance and inductance values. (These are named as
capacitive transducer, resistive transducer and inductive transducer respectively).
Examples of Capacitive Transducer
1. Dielectric gauge
2. Capacitor Microphone
Examples of Resistive Transducer
1. Resistance Thermometer
2. Potentiometer Device
Examples of Inductive Transducer
1. Reluctance Pickup
2. Magnetostriction Gauge

Applications
It is used to measure:
- Thickness
- Liquid Level
It is used to measure:
- Noise
-Speech and music
Applications
Used to measure Temperature and Radiant Heat
Used in Displacement and Pressure Measurement
Applications
Measures Pressure, Viberations, Position and
Displacement
Measures Sound, Force and Pressure

Active and Passive Transducers


The transducer which does not requires any external excitation to provide their outputs are
referred as active transducer. The transducer which requires an external excitation to provide
their output is referred as passive transducer.
Examples of Active transducer
1. Photo Voltaic Cell
2. Thermocouple
Examples of Passive transducer
1. Capacitive Transducer
2. Resistive Transducer
3. Inductive Transducer

By: Tushar Saxena

Applications
Used in Light Meters and Solar Cells
Used to measure Temperature, Radiation and Heatflow
Applications
Measures Liquid Level, Noise, thickness etc
Measures Temperatue, pressure, displacement
Measures Pressure, Viberation, displacement etc

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EMI Basics

Analog and Digital Transducers


The transducer which produces their outputs in analog form or a form which is a continuous
function of time is referred as analog transducer. The transducer which produces their outputs in
digital form or a form of pulses is referred as digital transducers.
Examples of Analog Transducer
1. Strain Gauge
2. Thermistor
Examples of Digital Transducer
1. Turbine meter

Applications
Measures Displacement, Force, Torque
Measures Temperature and Flow
Applications
Used in flow measurement

Primary and Secondary Transducers


The transducer which sends the measurement and converts them into another variables (like
displacement, strain etc.) and whose output forms the input of another transducer is called as
primary transducer. The transducer which converts the output of first transducer into an electrical
output called secondary transducer.
Examples of Primary Transducer
1. Bourdon tube
2. Strain gauge
Examples of Secondary Transducer
1. LVDT

Applications
Used in pressure
Used in measurements
Applications
Used to measure Displacement, Force,
Pressure and Position

Transducers and Inverse Transducers


A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical variable is
known as transducer. A measuring device which measures and converts an electrical variable into
nonelectrical variable is known as inverse transducer.
Example of Transducer
1. Thermocouple
Example of Inverse Transducers
1. Piezo-electric crystal

Applications
Used to measure Temperature Radiation and Heat flow
Applications
Used to measure Pressure, Vibration and acceleration

B. PARAMETERS CONSIDERED IN SELECTING A TRANSDUCER


Parameters to be considered in the selection of a transducer for a particular application are.
1. Operating Principle: Basically the transducers are selected based on their operating principle.
Examples of operating principles used by the transducers are resistive, capacitive, piezoelectric,
inductive, up to electronic principle etc.
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EMI Basics

2. Operating Range: This factor is considered so that the transducer should be able to function
within the specified range with good resolution. Every transducer should be provided with some
rating within which there will be breakdown in its function.
3. Accuracy: It is one of the most desired characteristic of any transducer. If the transducer
doesn't needs frequent calibration, it must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
Because errors may occur due to the sensitivity of the transducer to other stimulations.
4. Sensitivity: It is also a desired characteristic of a transducer. Every transducer should be
sufficiently sensitive to provide some output that can be sufficient and detectable.
5. Stability and Reliability: The transducer should have high degree of stability during its
function and also storage life. It should also have a high degree of reliability.
6. Usage and Ruggedness: The ruggedness, size and weight of a transducer should be chosen
depending on the application in which it is used.
7. Transient Response and Frequency Response: The transducer should have required time
domain specifications such as, settling time, rise time, peak over shoot and small dynamic error
etc.
8. Loading Effects: The transducers should undergo minimum loading effect so that if can
provide accurate measurement. The parameters of a transducer are that, which characterize the
loading effect is its input and output impedances. lt is considered in order to get minimum
loading effects (Which can be neglected). For minimum loading effect the transducer should
have low output impedance and high input impedance.
9. Electrical Parameters: The type and length of cable required, signal to noise ratio in case the
transducer is used with amplifiers and frequency response limitations should also be considered.
10. Ability to be insensitive to unwanted signals
11. Environmental compatibility.
12. Static Characteristics: The selected transducer should have low hysteresis, high linearity
and high resolution.
C. WORKING OF SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE AND ITS ADVANTAGES
A typical semiconductor strain gauge is formed by the semiconductor technology i.e., the
semiconducting wafers or filaments of length varying from 2 mm to 10 mm and thickness of
0.05 mm are bonded on suitable insulating substrates (for example Teflon). The gold leads are
usually employed for making electrical contacts. The electrodes are formed by vapour
deposition. The strain sensitive elements used by the semiconductor strain gauge are the
semiconductor materials such as silicon and germanium. When the strain is applied to the
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EMI Basics

semiconductor element a large of change in resistance occur which can be measured with the
help of a wheatstone bridge. The strain can be measured with high degree of accuracy due to
relatively high change in resistance. A temperature compensated semiconductor strain gauge can
be used to measure small strains of the order of 10-6 i.e., micro-strain. This type of gauge will
have a gauge factor of 130 10% for a semiconductor material of dimension 1 x 0.5 x 0.005
inch having the resistance of 350 .
Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
-

The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very high, about 130.
They are useful in measurement of very small strains of the order of 0.01 micro-strains
due to their high gauge factor.
Semiconductor strain gauge exhibits very low hysteresis i.e., less than 0.05%.
The semiconductor strain gauge has much higher output, but it is as stable as a metallic
strain gauge.
It possesses a high frequency response of 1012 Hz.
It has a large fatigue life i.e., 10 x 106 operations can be performed.
They can be manufactured in very small sizes, their lengths ranging from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.

D. RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by, R=l/A where , R = Resistance in , =
Resistivity of the conductor ( - cm), l = Length of the conductor in cm. A = Cross-sectional
area of the metal conductor in cm2. It is clear from the equation (1) that, the electrical resistance
can be varied by varying, Length, Cross-sectional area and Resistivity or combination of these.
Principle A change in resistance of a circuit due to the displacement of an object is the measure
of displacement of that object Method of changing the resistance and the resulting devices are
summarized in the following table.
Method of changing resistance
Length Resistance can be
changed varying the length of the
conductor, (linear and rotary).

Resulting device
Resistance
potentiometers
or
sliding
contact
devices
displacements
Dimensions When a metal Electrical resistance
conductor
is
subjected
to strain gauges.
Mechanical strain, change in
dimensions of the conductor occurs,
that changes the resistance of the
conductor.
Resistivity
When
a
metal Thermistor and RTD.
By: Tushar Saxena

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Use
Used for the
measurement
of
Linear
and
angular.
Used for the
measurement
of
mechanical
strain.
Used

for

the

EMI Basics

conductor is subjected to a change


in temperature and change in
resistivity occurs which changes
resistance of the conductor

temperature
measurement.

E. BOURDON TUBES
The bourdon tubes are available in different shapes like spiral, helical, twisted and C shaped but
all the tubes have non-circular cross-section. Also the materials used and working of all these
types are same. The materials used in the construction of bourdon tubes are brass, steel and
rubber. The working principle of bourdon tube is same as that of diaphragms and bellows i.e.,
the applied pressure is converted into mechanical displacement. The displacement generated by
the above force summing devices can be converted into electrical form by transmitting it to
LVDT. The output voltage generated by LVDT is proportional to displacement and hence applied
pressure.
F. LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFRENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
The operating principle of LVDT depends on mutual inductance. When the primary winding is
supplied with A.C. supply voltage, it generates alternating magnetic field. Due to this magnetic
field an alternating voltage will be induced in the two secondary windings.
Merits
-

LVDT has good linearity i.e.. it produces linear output voltages.


It can measure displacements of very high range usually from 1.25mm to 250mm.
It has high sensitivity.
Since it produces high output, it does not require amplifier devices.
It has low hysteresis.
It consume less power (about < 1w)

Demerits
-

It is sensitive to stray magnetic fields.


Performance of LVDT is affected by variations in temperature.
It has limited dynamic response.
To provide high differential output, it requires large displacements.

G. PRESSURE IS MEASURED USING PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER


Merits
-

Provides electrical output.


This transducer does not require any external power supply.
Size in small.

By: Tushar Saxena

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EMI Basics

Rugged construction.

Demerits
-

It cannot be used for static pressure measurements.


The response will get affected by the variations in temperature.
In some cases it requires signal conditioning circuitry which is complex.
Cost is high.

H. Mention any two types of electronic voltmeter.


1. Direct coupled electronic DC voltmeter.
2. Chopper stabilized electronic DC voltmeter.
I. Different methods available for measuring RF power?
i. Voltage and current method
ii. photometric comparison method
iii. Bolometer
iv. Calorimetric measurement
v. Directional wattmeter
J. What are the difference between AC and DC electronic voltmeter?
- Electronic AC voltmeters differ from their DC counterpart only in that Ac voltage must
be converted to DC before being applied to the meter movement.
- Meter scale in the AC voltmeter is calibrated in terms of the RMS value of a waveform
instead of the average value.
- DC voltmeter has high sensitivity than AC voltmeter.
K. Advantages of electronic voltmeter?
a. Negligible loading effect.
b. High accuracy
c. Cheap and rugged
d. Can measure very low voltages
L.
-

How are the digital voltmeter classified?


Ramp type DVM
Integrating DVM
Continuous-balance DVM
Successive-approximation DVM

M. A 3 digit voltmeter is used to measuring voltage and DVM uses SAR ADC
N. Give the various types of digital voltmeter.
a. Ramp type digital voltmeter
b. Dual ramp digital voltmeter
c. Integrated type digital voltmeter
d. Analog to Digital converter voltmeter.
By: Tushar Saxena

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EMI Basics

O. Enumerate the advantage of digital meter over the analog meter.


The advantage of digital meter over analog meter is that the output is in digital form so easy to
process. Also less power consumption than analog instruments. Readings are clearly indicated in
decimal number. The resolution of digital instrument is more.
P. Blood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly
basic.
Q. ADC and DAC
Types of ADCs
Flash ADC
Flash analog-to-digital converters, also known as parallel ADCs, are the fastest way to convert an
analog signal to a digital signal. They are suitable for applications requiring very large
bandwidths. However, flash converters consume a lot of power, have relatively low resolution,
and can be quite expensive. This limits them to high frequency applications that typically cannot
be addressed any other way. Examples include data acquisition, satellite communication, radar
processing, sampling oscilloscopes, and high density disk drives.
-

parallel A/D
Uses a series of comparators
Each comparator compares Vin to a different reference voltage, starting w/ Vref = 1/2 lsb

Sigma-Delta ADC
Sigma Delta analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are used predominately in lower speed
applications requiring a trade off of speed for resolution by oversampling, followed by filtering
to reduce noise. 24 bit Sigma Delta converters are common in Audio designs, instrumentation
and Sonar. Bandwidths are typically less than 1MHz with a range of 12 to 18 true bits.
By: Tushar Saxena

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EMI Basics

Oversampled input signal goes in the integrator


Output of integration is compared to GND
Iterates to produce a serial bitstream
Output is serial bit stream with # of 1s proportional to Vin

Dual Slope converter


-

The sampled signal charges a capacitor for a fixed amount of time


By integrating over time, noise integrates out of the conversion.
Then the ADC discharges the capacitor at a fixed rate while a counter counts the ADC's
output bits. A longer discharge time results in a higher count.

Successive Approximation
Successive-approximation-register (SAR) analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are frequently the
architecture of choice for medium-to-high-resolution applications, typically with sample rates
fewer than 5 mega samples per second (Msps). SAR ADCs most commonly range in resolution
from 8 to 16 bits and provide low power consumption as well as a small form factor. This
combination makes them ideal for a wide variety of applications, such as portable/batterypowered instruments, pen digitizers, industrial controls, and data/signal acquisition
-

Sets MSB
Converts MSB to analog using DAC
Compares guess to input
Set bit
Test next bit

By: Tushar Saxena

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EMI Basics

ADC Resolution Comparison


Dual Slope
Flash
Successive Approx
Sigma-Delta
0

10
15
Resolution (Bits)

20

25

Type

Speed (relative)

Cost (relative)

Dual Slope

Slow

Med

Flash

Very Fast

High

Successive Appox

Medium Fast

Low

Sigma-Delta

Slow

Low

DAC
There are several ways of making a digital to analog converter. Some of them are given as under.
Binary weighted Resistor DAC
The binary-weighted DAC contains one resistor or current source for each bit of the DAC
connected to a summing point. These precise voltages or currents sum to the correct output
By: Tushar Saxena

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EMI Basics

value. This suffers from poor accuracy because of the high precision required for each individual
voltage or current. Such high-precision resistors and current sources are expensive, so this type
of converter is usually limited to 8-bit resolution or less. It consists of four major components.
-

n switches one for each bit applied to the input


a weighted resistor ladder network, where the resistance are inversely proportional to the

numerical significance of the corresponding binary digital


a reference voltage Vref and
a summing amplifier that adds the current flowing in the resistive network to develop a
signal that is proportional to the digital input.

The behavior of the circuit may be analyzed easily by using "Millman's theorem". It state that
"the voltage appearing at any node in a resistive network is equal to the summation of the
current entering the node (assuming the node voltage is zero) divided by the summation of the
conductance connected to the mode".
Advantages
-

As only one resistor is used per it in the resistor network, thus it is an economical and

simple
Fast

Disadvantages / Limitations
-

Resistors used in the network have a wide range of values, so it is very difficult to ensure

the absolute accuracy and stability of all the resistors.


It is very difficult to match the temperature coefficients of all the resistors. This factor is

specially important in D/A converters operation over a wide temperature range.


When n is so large, the resistance corresponding to LBS can assume a large value, which

may be comparable with the input resistance of the amplifier. This results in error.
As the switches represent finite impedance that are connected in series with the weighted
resistors and their magnitudes and variations have to be taken in to account in a D/A

converter design.
Needs large range of resistor values (2000:1 for 12-bit) with high precision in low resistor

values
Needs very small switch resistances

R-2R Ladder Network


By: Tushar Saxena

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EMI Basics

In case of weighted resistor DAC requires a wide range of resistance values and switches

for each bit position if high accuracy conversion is required.


A digital to analog converter with an R-2R ladder network eliminates these complications

at the expense of an additional resistor for each bit.


The operation of R-2R ladder DAC is easily explained considering the weights of the

different bits one at a time.


This can be followed by superposition to construct analog output corresponding any
digital input word.

Advantages
-

Only two values of resistors are used; R and 2R.


The actual value used for R is relatively less important as long as extremely large values,
where stray capacitance enters the picture, are not employs only ratio of resistor values is

critical.
R-2R ladder network are available in monolithic chips,. These are laser trimmed to be

within 0.01% of the desired ratios.


The staircase voltage is more likely to be monotonic as the effect of the MSB resistor is
not many times grater than that for LSB resistor.

Disadvantages
-

Lower conversion speed than binary weighted DAC.

By: Tushar Saxena

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