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By taking a major cost from the process and turning into a profitable revenue stream, recovery can improve
the bottom line of a treatment facility, generating tens of billions in value worldwide. As such, recovery
technologies can be fertile hunting grounds for executives and investors looking for opportunities in the
hydrocosm.
sludge is pulled from the tank and treated by: 1) dewatering or thickening, which reduces the water content
of the sludge through centrifugal treatment or filter pressing; and/or 2) digestion, which breaks down the
organic matter using bacteria resulting in the formation of methane gas, which can be used for energy
production. The composition of untreated sewage sludge varies from treatment plant to treatment plant and
from country to country, but can be composed of 6% dry solids (which means about 94% of the sludge is
water). The dry solids typically have the following characteristics:3
Volatile solids (material that can be burned off when ignited at about 500 C) mostly organic
(carbon-based) compounds comprising about 65% of the total dry solids
Total nitrogen (organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate, and nitrite) typically 2.5% of total dry
solids
Phosphorous as phosphorus pentoxide (PO5) typically about 1.6% of total dry solids
Potassium as potassium carbonate (K2CO3) typically about 0.4% of total dry solids
Grease and fats ranging anywhere from 6% to 35% of total dry solids
Silica, also known as silicon dioxide (SiO2) about 15% to 20% of total dry solids
Heavy metals can include arsenic, iron, lead, mercury, and zinc, with concentrations ranging widely
from 6 mg of mercury per kg of dry solids (0.6%) to 17,000 mg of iron per kg of dry solids
The challenge with sewage sludge is that all of these compounds can be present in the mixture. Organic
compounds, phosphorus- and nitrogen-based compounds, as well as inorganic compounds are viewed as
valuable components in sludge, which many new technologies are trying to extract/recover. However, the
amount of any compound present in the sludge mixture is dependent on the source of the wastewater, as well
as the type of treatment processes employed and the chemicals used in treatment, and this variability affects
the market opportunity for various recovery technologies. In the case of phosphorus, on average there is
about 10 milligrams of phosphorus per liter of wastewater with effluent standards typically requiring less
than 1 mg/L. For instance, with a total world wastewater volume of 171.3 km2, and a market value of
phosphorus as struvite of $400 per kg, the potential market for phosphorus recovery is about $685 million
annually. However, the actual market opportunity for any given wastewater treatment plant will vary with
the concentration of phosphorus in the wastewater stream as well as the percent recovery achieved, which
can also be affected by the type of phosphorus compounds, as well as the other components of the stream.
Sludge Production Volumes Will Continue to Grow with Increasing Population and Country Wealth
Sludge production volume is important both because the sludge needs to be treated and disposed of, which
adds cost to the overall wastewater treatment process, and of course because sludge production volumes
define the total opportunity for wastewater recovery. The volume of sludge produced can vary for many
reasons, but tends to correlate primarily with population and wealth.
Data from municipal wastewater treatment plants shows a direct correlation between sewage sludge
production and population, averaging about 60 grams of sludge per person per day (see Figure 1).4 Not
surprisingly, as populations continue to grow, the volume of sludge produced annually will rise as well.
However, sludge production also depends on the wealth of the country. Many high-income countries such as
the U.S., Finland, Germany, Hungary, Japan, and the Netherlands provide 100% treatment, meaning that no
untreated sewage is discharged to rivers, lakes, or seas. As a result of these higher standards of treatment,
sludge production volumes are high in these countries. For example, Denmark produces 99 grams of sewage
sludge per person per day, compared to low-income or even middle-income countries, such as China, which
generates only 6.2 grams per person per day of sludge in large part because 30% of the population has no
wastewater treatment. And of course, for countries that are lacking basic wastewater treatment facilities for
the majority of the population such as Ethiopia and Columbia little or no wastewater treatment facilities
means little or no sludge produced.
Fig. 1:
Country type
Annual sludge
production (dry metric
ton)
Population
Sewage sludge
production rate (in
grams per person per
day)
Austria
High income
196,000
8,210,281
65.4
Australia
High income
360,000
21,007,310
47.0
Belgium
High income
113,000
10,414,336
29.7
Brazil
Middle income
372,000
188,078,000
5.4
Canada
High income
550,000
33,100,000
45.5
China
Middle income
2,996,000
1,313,974,000
6.2
Czech Republic
High income
200,000
10,235,000
53.5
Denmark
High income
200,000
5,500,510
99.6
Finland
High income
150,000
5,231,000
78.6
France
High income
878,000
64,057,792
37.6
Germany
High income
2,000,000
82,422,000
66.5
Hungary
High income
120,000
9,981,000
32.9
Ireland
High income
100,000
4,203,200
65.2
Italy
High income
1,000,000
58,134,000
47.1
Japan
High income
2,000,000
127,464,000
43.0
Jordan
Middle income
14,000
3,400,000
11.3
Netherlands
High income
1,500,000
16,491,000
249.2
Norway
High income
86,500
4,611,000
51.4
Portugal
High income
236,700
10,606,000
61.1
Russia
Middle income
3,000,000
140,702,096
58.4
Slovakia
High income
55,000
5,439,000
27.7
Slovenia
High income
57,000
2,010,000
77.7
Spain
High income
1,069,000
40,525,002
72.3
Turkey
Middle income
580,000
70,414,000
22.6
United Kingdom
High income
1,500,000
60,609,000
67.8
United States
High income
6,514,000
298,444,000
59.8
Thus, sludge volumes will grow as countries grow in population and become wealthier. For example, if Brazil
and China, which are both middle-income countries, were to attain the same level of wastewater service
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coverage as high-income countries, the annual sludge production could theoretically increase from 372,000
metric tons to over 4 million metric tons per year for Brazil and from 2.9 million metric tons per year to 28.4
million metric tons per year for China. As a result of this growth, sludge management will continue to be a
growing concern for countries around the world. We estimate that the annual global volume of sewage sludge
is about 46 billion metric tons, representing a total treatment and disposal cost of about $17 billion and
current population and GDP growth trends suggest it could reach a volume of 54 billion metric tons and
disposal costs of $31 billion in 2020.
Current Sludge Disposal Options All Have Their Drawbacks
Sewage sludge must be treated before its disposed. Treatment includes removal of moisture from solids via
thickening, conditioning, dewatering, and drying and stabilization of the organic material through composting
or digestion. The remaining product is typically called biosolids, which can be disposed of one of three
ways: landfilling, incineration, or recycling to the soil (see Figure 2).
Fig. 2: Sludge Disposal Practices in the United States and the European Union Are Heavily Focused on
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Agricultural Land Application.
Fig. 2-1: Current sludge disposal practices in the
United States
2%
13%
28%
46%
21%
55%
15%
20%
Agriculture
Incineration
Landfill
Surface disposal
Agriculture
Landfill
Incineration
Other
Wastewater treatment facilities must take all of these factors into consideration when determining the best
disposal option for its treated sludge. Reducing disposal costs such as transportation, tipping fees, or energy
fees is a goal for all wastewater treatment facilities. As energy and fuel prices climb, treatment plants will be
looking for ways to reduce sludge disposal costs, and resource recovery technologies can do just that by
reducing sludge volume while providing a valuable end product that can offset some of the plants operating
costs.
End product
Beneficial use
Companies
Anaerobic digestion
Utilizes microbes to
breakdown sewage
Biogas
Thermal or electrical
energy
Thermal hydrolysis
Biogas
Thermal or electrical
energy
Ultrasonic cavitation
Biogas
Thermal or electrical
energy
Mechanical/chemical
disintegration
Biogas
Thermal or electrical
energy
Biogest, MicroSludge,
Eco-Solids
Ozonation
Biogas
Thermal or electrical
energy
Praxair, ITT-Wedeco
Gasification
Syngas
KOPF, PrimeEnergy,
EBARA, Nexterra
Biodiesel/oil
Enertech, Splainex, US
Centrifuge
Supercritical water
oxidation
Thermal heat;
phosphorus
Producing electricity
directly from wastewater
or sludge
Electricity
Thermal or electrical
energy
Grease to biodiesel
Biodiesel
Heating, engine
combustion
Crystallization
Chemical precipitation of
phosphorus using a seed
material
Struvite or calcium
phosphate
Fertilizer
Physical-chemical
technologies
Precipitation,
incineration or separation
of phosphorus from
sludge
Phosphorus compounds
including struvite,
phosphoric acid or iron
phosphate
Fertilizer
Kemira, Seaborne
Vitrification
Combustion of sludge to
form a building material
Glass
Construction materials
Minergy (formerly)
Thermal solidification
Building materials
Construction materials
None
Thermal hydrolysis.
Thermal hydrolysis technologies are designed to work with anaerobic digesters to enhance biogas
production. The process destroys microbial cell walls in the sludge, releasing a more easily digestible
organic compound by heating sludge to a high temperature, about 150 C to 180 C, and high
pressure, between 6 bar and 10 bar, for a period of 30 minutes to 60 minutes. Thermal hydrolysis
processes from companies such as Veolia Water, and Cambi can produce about 1.5 times more biogas
than conventional anaerobic digestion.
Ultrasonic cavitation.
Like thermal hydrolysis, ultrasonic cavitation is a complimentary technology to anaerobic digestion
that enhances cell destruction to boost yields. The process uses acoustical frequencies, ranging from
20 kHz to about 100 kHz, to create microscopically small cavities filled with water vapor or gas.
These bubbles implode, a process known as cavitation, producing powerful shear forces that break
up cellular matter, resulting in increased biogas production of up to 50%. Ultrawaves has licensed its
ultrasonic technology to companies such as Eimco Water Technologies, Kotobuki, and Royce Water
Technologies.
Ozonation.
Ozone technology is already used at treatment facilities around the world because the ozone gas
generated acts as an effective oxidant as well as disinfectant. However, another valuable use for
ozone is for lysing cellular matter in sewage sludge. The use of ozone to enhance anaerobic digestion
biogas production is still relatively new and under evaluation, but companies such as Praxair and
ITT-Wedeco have preliminary results indicating yield improvements of up to 40%.
Gasification.
Unlike the above processes, which enhance biogas production, gasification produces a different
energy product from sludge syngas. Gasification takes place in two steps. In the first step, sludge is
heated to about 600 C in the absence of air to form a carbon-rich substance called char. The char is
then heated in the presence of oxygen or air, and water, producing syngas. Gasification is employed
around the world for treatment of a wide variety of materials, including coal, biomass, and municipal
solid waste (MSW). Examples of companies providing gasification technologies for sewage sludge
applications include KOPF, PrimeEnergy, and EBARA.
Pyrolysis.
The conversion of sewage sludge to oil relies on pyrolysis, which is the conversion of sludge to char
in the absence of air. The char vaporizes at elevated temperatures, 425 C to 538 C, and rapid
cooling and condensation of the vapor results in the oil that can be used as a fuel in boilers or
combusted in an engine to produce electricity. Pyrolysis can also operate at temperatures below 325
C, producing not oil, but rather a char that can be burned as fuel, with an energy density of 13,960
kJ/kg, roughly the same value as lignite coal. Pyrolysis technologies can process a wide range of
inputs, including municipal solid waste, process manure, and agricultural waste, but companies
providing pyrolysis technologies for sewage sludge treatment include Enertech, Splainex, and US
Centrifuge.
Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) operates by heating water to 374 C and pressurizing it to 221
bars to create a phase of water called supercritical water, which exhibits characteristics of both a
liquid and a gas. Sludge in supercritical water oxidizes rapidly in the presence of oxygen, converting
all carbon present in the sludge to carbon dioxide and nitrogen compounds into nitrogen (N2). When
the pressure is then lowered to less than 10 bars, the carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and any residual
oxygen can be removed from the waste stream, leaving an inert material that can be landfilled or
treated further for recovery of phosphorus. Depending on the size of the SCWO unit, the process can
produce waste heat for recovery, potentially as electricity. However, smaller plants will only have the
option to recover low-grade heat, which can be used for heating options in earlier treatment
processes or for district heating. Companies providing SCWO technologies include Veolia Water,
SCFI, and Feralco.
Chemical and Material Recovery Technologies Are Still in the Early Stages of Development
The concept of recovering phosphorus or other useful chemicals and materials from sludge is newer than
energy recovery, and technologies in this area are still in the early stages of development. Methods for
recovering valuable products from sludge include:
Crystallization.
Crystallization processes typically use a seed material, such as sand, to encourage crystals of
phosphorus-containing materials to develop in the sludge, where they can be collected. Activated
sludge is sent to a reactor filled with the seed material, and a chemical such as lime calcium oxide
(CaO) is added to adjust the pH and to create optimal conditions for precipitation of calcium
phosphate (CaPO4). Over time, calcium phosphate pellets form, and as they increase in size and
weight, the larger, denser pellets sink to the bottom of the reactor, where they can be pulled off and
used as a fertilizer raw material.
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Depending on the seed material, chemical addition may not be needed. One seed material under
development is tobermorite, which is composed of calcium silicate hydrates (CaSiO5xH2O), that
stimulates precipitation of calcium phosphate while also increasing the reactor pH. Another variation
of the crystallization process is to use magnesium chloride (MgCl2), which is added to the activated
sludge and pumped into a fluidized bed reactor, forming crystals of struvite ammonium magnesium
phosphate ((NH4)MgPO4) that can be resold as fertilizer. Companies providing crystallization
technologies include DHV Water, Ostara Nutrient Recovery Technologies, and Unitika.
Physical-chemical technologies.
Many emerging technologies are turning to physical-chemical means to dissolve phosphorus and
then separating it from heavy metals or other sludge components via precipitation. Some
technologies utilize only chemicals to dissolve and precipitate phosphorus, while others turn to
incineration or ion exchange. The final product which can be struvite, phosphoric acid (H3PO4), or
iron (III) phosphate (FePO4) depends on the chemical used in the precipitation step. Companies
offering physical-chemical technologies for phosphorus recovery include Kemira and Seaborne.
Vitrification.
Vitrification can turn sewage sludge into construction materials by injecting the sludge along with air
into a chamber where it combusts, releasing a significant amount of heat energy, and raising the
temperature to about 1,300 C to 1,500 C. The sludge melts at these temperatures into molten glass as
the organic materials combust, leaving behind silica and other inorganic materials. The gases (combustion
products) are exhausted from the melting unit to a heat recovery system, and the glass is drained into a
quenching tank. Only one company has sold a vitrification system, Minergy, but the firm recently went
through reorganization and no longer sells this system.
Thermal solidification.
Thermal solidification uses ash from sewage sludge incineration to create building materials such as
artificial lightweight aggregates, brick, slag, ceramic, glass, and interlocking tile, by melting and
solidifying the ash in a process analogous to sludge vitrification. Currently, there are no companies
selling thermal solidification systems, and the process remains very energy intensive.
Landscape Conclusions
From our review of sewage sludge characteristics, treatment, and disposal, we conclude the following:
Sludge production volumes will continue to grow with increasing population and country wealth.
There are a variety of technologies available to extract value from sludge in the form of energy,
nutrients, or building materials.
Source: Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th Edition, Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.
Source: An Economic Evaluation of Phosphorus Recovery as Struvite from Digester Supernatant, L.Shu,
P.Schneider, V. Jegatheesan, and J. Johnson, Bioresource Technology, vol. 97, 2006.
2
Source: Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th Edition, Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.
11
Industries either treat wastewater on-site or discharge it to a municipal wastewater facility for treatment.
Its estimated that about 80% of all industrial wastewater is eventually treated at a publically owned
wastewater treatment facility.
4
Sources:
State of Science Report: Energy and Resource Recovery from Sludge, Y. Kalogo and H. Monteith, Global Water
Research Coalition, 2008.
Global Atlas of Excreta, Wastewater, Sludge, and Biosolids Management: Moving Forward the Sustainable and
Welcome Uses of a Global Resource, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), 2008.
Source: Global Atlas of Excreta, Wastewater, Sludge, and Biosolids Management: Moving Forward the
Sustainable and Welcome Uses of a Global Resource, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHabitat), 2008.
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