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Orogeny
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Orogenyreferstoforcesandevents
leadingtoalargestructuraldeformation
oftheEarth'slithosphere(crustand
uppermostmantle)duetotheinteraction
betweentectonicplates.Orogensor
orogenicbeltsdevelopwhena
continentalplateiscrumpledandis
pushedupwardstoformmountain
ranges,andinvolveagreatrangeof
geologicalprocessescollectivelycalled
orogenesis.[1][2]Theword"orogeny"
comesfromtheGreek(orosfor
"mountain"plusgenesisfor"creation"
or"origin"),[3]anditistheprimary
mechanismbywhichmountainsare
builtoncontinents.Geomorphologyis
thestudyoflandformsandtheprocesses
thatshapethem.

Geologicprovincesoftheworld(USGS)
Shield
Platform

Oceaniccrust:
020Ma

Orogen

2065Ma

Basin

>65Ma

Largeigneousprovince

Contents

Extendedcrust

1Physiography
1.1Orogen(or"orogenic
system")
1.2Orogeniccycle
1.3Erosion
1.4Biology
1.5Relationshipto
mountainbuilding
2Historyoftheconcept
3Seealso
4Notes
5References
6Externallinks

Physiography
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Formationofanorogenis
accomplishedinpartbythe
tectonicprocessesof
subduction,wherea
continentridesforcefully
overanoceanicplate
(noncollisionalorogens),or
convergenceoftwoormore
continents(collisional
orogens).[5]
Orogenyusuallyproduces
longarcuate(fromarcuare,
tobendlikeabow)
structures,knownas
Twoprocessesthatcancontributeto
orogenicbelts.Generally,
anorogen.Top:delaminationby
orogenicbeltsconsistof
intrusionofhotasthenosphere
longparallelstripsofrock
Bottom:Subductionofoceancrust.
exhibitingsimilar
Thetwoprocessesleadtodifferently
characteristicsalongthe
locatedgranites(bubblesindiagram),
lengthofthebelt.Orogenic
providingevidenceastowhich
beltsareassociatedwith
processactuallyoccurred. [4]
subductionzones,which
consumecrust,produce
volcanoes,andbuildislandarcs.Thearcuatestructureisattributed
totherigidityofthedescendingplate,andislandarccuspsare
relatedtotearsinthedescendinglithosphere.[6]Theseislandarcs
maybeaddedtoacontinentduringanorogenicevent.

Subductionofanoceanicplatebya
continentalplatetoforma
noncollisionalorogen.(example:the
Andes)

Continentalcollisionoftwo
continentalplatestoforma
collisionalorogen.However,usually
nocontinentalcrustissubducted,
onlyuplifted.(example:theAlps)

Theprocessesoforogenycantaketensofmillionsofyearsandbuildmountainsfromplainsortheocean
floor.Thetopographicheightoforogenicmountainsisrelatedtotheprincipleofisostasy,[7]thatis,a
balanceofthedownwardgravitationalforceuponanupthrustmountainrange(composedoflight,
continentalcrustmaterial)andthebuoyantupwardforcesexertedbythedenseunderlyingmantle.[8]
Frequently,rockformationsthatundergoorogenyareseverelydeformedandundergometamorphism.
Duringorogeny,deeplyburiedrocksmaybepushedtothesurface.Seabottomandnearshorematerialmay
coversomeoralloftheorogenicarea.Iftheorogenyisduetotwocontinentscolliding,theresulting
mountainscanbeveryhigh(seeHimalayas).
Anorogeniceventmaybestudiedas:(a)atectonicstructuralevent,(b)asageographicalevent,and(c)a
chronologicalevent.Orogenicevents:(a)causedistinctivestructuralphenomenarelatedtotectonicactivity,
(b)affectrocksandcrustinparticularregions,and(c)happenwithinaspecificperiod.

Orogen(or"orogenicsystem")
Anorogenyproducesanorogen,or(mountain)rangeforelandbasinsystem.

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Theforelandbasinformsaheadoftheorogenduemainlytoloadingandresultingflexureofthelithosphere
bythedevelopingmountainbelt.Atypicalforelandbasinissubdividedintoawedgetopbasinabovethe
activeorogenicwedge,theforedeep
immediatelybeyondtheactivefront,a
forebulgehighofflexuraloriginandaback
bulgeareabeyond,althoughnotalloftheseare
presentinallforelandbasinsystems.Thebasin
migrateswiththeorogenicfrontandearly
depositedforelandbasinsedimentsbecome
progressivelyinvolvedinfoldingandthrusting.
TheForelandBasinSystem
Sedimentsdepositedintheforelandbasinare
mainlyderivedfromtheerosionoftheactively
upliftingrocksofthemountainrange,althoughsomesedimentsarederivedfromtheforeland.Thefillof
manysuchbasinsshowsachangeintimefromdeepwatermarine(flyschstyle)throughshallowwaterto
continental(molassestyle)sediments.[9]

Orogeniccycle
Althoughorogenyinvolvesplatetectonics,thetectonicforcesresultinavarietyofassociatedphenomena,
includingmagmatism,metamorphism,crustalmelting,andcrustalthickening.Justwhathappensina
specificorogendependsuponthestrengthandrheologyofthecontinentallithosphere,andhowthese
propertieschangeduringorogenesis.
Inadditiontoorogeny,theorogenonceformedissubjecttootherprocesses,suchassedimentationand
erosion.[2]Thesequenceofrepeatedcyclesofsedimentation,depositionanderosion,followedbyburial
andmetamorphism,andthenbyformationofgraniticbatholithsandtectonicuplifttoformmountain
chains,iscalledtheorogeniccycle.[10][11]Forexample,theCaledonianOrogenyreferstotheSilurianand
DevonianeventsthatresultedfromthecollisionofLaurentiawithEasternAvaloniaandotherformer
fragmentsofGondwana.TheCaledonianOrogenresultedfromtheseeventsandvariousothersthatarepart
ofitspeculiarorogeniccycle.[12]
Insummary,anorogenyisalongliveddeformationalepisodeduringwhichmanygeologicalphenomena
playarole.Theorogenyofanorogenisonlypartoftheorogen'sorogeniccycle.

Erosion
Erosionisasubsequentphaseoftheorogeniccycle.Erosioninevitablyremovesmuchofthemountains,
exposingthecoreormountainroots(metamorphicrocksbroughttothesurfacefromadepthofseveral
kilometres).Suchexhumationmaybehelpedbyisostaticmovementsbalancingoutthebuoyancyofthe
evolvingorogen.Debateexistsabouttheextenttowhicherosionmodifiesthepatternsoftectonic
deformation(seeerosionandtectonics).Thus,thefinalformofthemajorityofoldorogenicbeltsisalong
arcuatestripofcrystallinemetamorphicrockssequentiallybelowyoungersedimentswhicharethrustatop
themanddipawayfromtheorogeniccore.
Anorogenmaybealmostcompletelyerodedaway,andonlyrecognizablebystudying(old)rocksthatbear
tracesoforogenesis.Orogensareusuallylong,thin,arcuatetractsofrockthathaveapronouncedlinear
structureresultinginterranesorblocksofdeformedrocks,separatedgenerallybysuturezonesordipping
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thrustfaults.Thesethrustfaultscarryrelativelythinslicesofrock(whicharecallednappesorthrustsheets,
anddifferfromtectonicplates)fromthecoreoftheshorteningorogenouttowardthemargins,andare
intimatelyassociatedwithfoldsandthedevelopmentofmetamorphism.[13]

Biology
Thestudyoforogeny,coupledwithbiogeography(thestudyofthedistributionandevolutionoffloraand
fauna),[14]geographyandmidoceanridgesinthe1950sand1960s,contributedgreatlytothetheoryof
platetectonics.Evenataveryearlystage,lifeplayedasignificantroleinthecontinuedexistenceofoceans,
byaffectingthecompositionoftheatmosphere.Theexistenceofoceansiscriticaltoseafloorspreading
andsubduction.[15][16]

Relationshiptomountainbuilding
Mountainformationoccursthroughanumberof
mechanisms.[17][18][19]
Mountaincomplexesresultfromirregularsuccessionsof
tectonicresponsesduetoseafloorspreading,shifting
lithosphereplates,transformfaults,andcolliding,
coupledanduncoupledcontinentalmargins.
PeterJConey[20]
Largemodernorogeniesoftenlieonthemarginsofcontinents
theAlleghenian(Appalachian),Laramide,andAndean
orogeniesareexamplesoftheseintheAmericas.Olderinactive
orogenies,suchastheAlgoman,PenokeanandAntler,are
representedbydeformedrocksandsedimentarybasinsfurther
inland.
Areasthatareriftingapart,suchasmidoceanridgesandthe
EastAfricanRift,havemountainsduetothermalbuoyancy
relatedtothehotmantleunderneaththemthisthermal
buoyancyisknownasdynamictopography.Instrikeslip
orogens,suchastheSanAndreasFault,restrainingbendsresult
inregionsoflocalizedcrustalshorteningandmountainbuilding
withoutaplatemarginwideorogeny.Hotspotvolcanism
resultsintheformationofisolatedmountainsandmountain
chainsthatarenotnecessarilyontectonicplateboundaries.

Anexampleofthinskinneddeformation
(thrustfaulting)oftheSevierOrogenyin
Montana.NotethewhiteMadison
Limestonerepeated,withoneexamplein
theforeground(thatpinchesoutwith
distance)andanothertotheupperright
cornerandtopofthepicture.

SierraNevadaMountains(aresultof
delamination)asseenfromthe
InternationalSpaceStation.

Regionscanalsoexperienceupliftasaresultofdelaminationof
thelithosphere,inwhichanunstableportionofcold
lithosphericrootdripsdownintothemantle,decreasingthedensityofthelithosphereandcausingbuoyant
uplift.[21]AnexampleistheSierraNevadainCalifornia.Thisrangeoffaultblockmountains[22]
experiencedrenewedupliftafteradelaminationofthelithospherebeneaththem.[21][23]
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Finally,upliftanderosionrelatedtoepeirogenesis(largescaleverticalmotionsofportionsofcontinents
withoutmuchassociatedfolding,metamorphism,ordeformation)[24]cancreatelocaltopographichighs.
MountRundleontheTransCanadaHighwaybetweenBanff
andCanmoreprovidesaclassicexampleofamountaincutin
dippinglayeredrocks.Millionsofyearsagoacollisioncaused
anorogenyforcinghorizontallayersofanancientoceancrust
tobethrustupatanangleof5060.ThatleftRundlewithone
sweeping,treelinedsmoothface,andonesharp,steepface
wheretheedgeoftheupliftedlayersareexposed.[25]

MountRundle,Banff,Alberta

ThecollisioncausingtheColumbiaOrogenyoccurred
about175millionyearsago,andastheshockwave
movedeastward,itforcedhugemassesofrocktocrack
andslideupoveritsneighbours.Thisisknownasthrust
faultingandwasinstrumentalintheformationofthe
Rockies.Theshockwavebeganpilingupthewestern
ranges,andthenthemainranges,around120million
yearsago.
MountainsinNature
(http://www.mountainnature.com/geology/platetecton
ics.htm)

Historyoftheconcept
Beforethedevelopmentofgeologicconceptsduringthe19thcentury,thepresenceofmarinefossilsin
mountainswasexplainedinChristiancontextsasaresultoftheBiblicalDeluge.Thiswasanextensionof
Neoplatonicthought,whichinfluencedearlyChristianwriters.The13thcenturyDominicanscholarAlbert
theGreatpositedthat,aserosionwasknowntooccur,theremustbesomeprocesswherebynewmountains
andotherlandformswerethrustup,orelsetherewouldeventuallybenolandhesuggestedthatmarine
fossilsinmountainsidesmustoncehavebeenattheseafloor.
OrogenywasusedbyAmanzGressly(1840)andJulesThurmann(1854)asorogenicintermsofthe
creationofmountainelevations,asthetermmountainbuildingwasstillusedtodescribetheprocesses.
EliedeBeaumont(1852)usedtheevocative"JawsofaVise"theorytoexplainorogeny,butwasmore
concernedwiththeheightratherthantheimplicitstructurescreatedbyandcontainedinorogenicbelts.His
theoryessentiallyheldthatmountainswerecreatedbythesqueezingofcertainrocks.
EduardSuess(1875)recognisedtheimportanceofhorizontalmovementofrocks.Theconceptofa
precursorgeosynclineorinitialdownwardwarpingofthesolidearth(Hall,1859)promptedJamesDwight
Dana(1873)toincludetheconceptofcompressioninthetheoriessurroundingmountainbuilding.With
hindsight,wecandiscountDana'sconjecturethatthiscontractionwasduetothecoolingoftheEarth(aka
thecoolingEarththeory).
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ThecoolingEarththeorywasthechiefparadigmformostgeologistsuntilthe1960s.Itwas,inthecontext
oforogeny,fiercelycontestedbyproponentsofverticalmovementsinthecrust(similartotephrotectonics),
orconvectionwithintheasthenosphereormantle.
GustavSteinmann(1906)recogniseddifferentclassesoforogenicbelts,includingtheAlpinetypeorogenic
belt,typifiedbyaflyschandmolassegeometrytothesedimentsophiolitesequences,tholeiiticbasalts,and
anappestylefoldstructure.
Intermsofrecognisingorogenyasanevent,LeopoldvonBuch(1855)recognisedthatorogeniescouldbe
placedintimebybracketingbetweentheyoungestdeformedrockandtheoldestundeformedrock,a
principlewhichisstillinusetoday,thoughcommonlyinvestigatedbygeochronologyusingradiometric
dating.
H.J.Zwart(1967)[26]drewattentiontothemetamorphicdifferencesinorogenicbelts,proposingthree
types,modifiedbyW.S.Pitcherin1979[27]andfurthermodifiedas:
Hercynotype(backarcbasintype)
Shallow,lowpressuremetamorphismthinmetamorphiczones
Metamorphismdependentonincreaseintemperature
Abundantgraniteandmigmatite
Fewophiolites,ultramaficrocksvirtuallyabsent
verywideorogenwithsmallandslowuplift
nappestructuresrare
Alpinotype(oceantrenchstyle)
deep,highpressure,thickmetamorphiczones
metamorphismofmanyfacies,dependentondecreaseinpressure
fewgranitesormigmatites
abundantophioliteswithultramaficrocks
Relativelynarroworogenwithlargeandrapiduplift
Nappestructurespredominant
Cordilleran(arc)type
dominatedbycalcalkalineigneousrocks,andesites,granitebatholiths
generallackofmigmatites,lowgeothermalgradient
lackofophioliteandabyssalsedimentaryrocks(blackshale,chert,etcetera)
lowpressuremetamorphism,moderateuplift
lackofnappes
Theadventofplatetectonicshasexplainedthevastmajorityoforogenicbeltsandtheirfeatures.The
coolingearththeory(principallyadvancedbyDescartes)isdispensedwith,andtephrotectonicstylevertical
movementshavebeenexplainedprimarilybytheprocessofisostasy.

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Someodditiesexist,wheresimplecollisionaltectonicsaremodifiedinatransformplateboundary,suchas
inNewZealand,orwhereislandarcorogenies,forinstanceinNewGuineaoccurawayfromacontinental
backstop.FurthercomplicationssuchasProterozoiccontinentcontinentcollisionalorogens,explicitlythe
MusgraveBlockinAustralia,previouslyinexplicable(seeDennis,1982)arebeingbroughttolightwiththe
adventofseismicimagingtechniqueswhichcanresolvethedeepcruststructureoforogenicbelts.

Seealso
Biogeography
Continentalcollision
Faultmechanics
Guyot
Listoforogenies
Mantleconvection
Mountainbuilding
Tectonicuplift
Epeirogenicmovement

Notes
1. TonyWaltham(2009).FoundationsofEngineeringGeology(http://books.google.com/books?
id=JGtIHJTXaI4C&pg=PA20)(3rded.).Taylor&Francis.p.20.ISBN0415469597.
2. PhilipKeareyKeithA.KlepeisFrederickJ.Vine(2009)."Chapter10:Orogenicbelts".GlobalTectonics
(http://books.google.com/books?id=HYqZntfg25UC&pg=PA287)(3rded.).WileyBlackwell.p.287.ISBN1
405107774.
3. Chambers21stCenturyDictionary(http://books.google.com/?
id=D37Cd3Ad7eIC&pg=PA972&dq=greek+oros+orogeny#v=onepage&q=greek%20oros%20orogeny&f=false).
AlliedPublishers.1999.p.972.ISBN9780550106254.Retrieved27June2012.
4. N.H.WoodcockRobinA.Strachan(2000)."Chapter12:TheCaledonianOrogeny:amultipleplatecollision".
GeologicalHistoryofBritainandIreland(http://books.google.com/?
id=dTkKn8Ufzd4C&pg=PA202&dq=%22origins+for+the+Caledonian+granites%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22o
rigins%20for%20the%20Caledonian%20granites%22&f=false).WileyBlackwell.p.202,Figure12.11.ISBN0
632036567.
5. FrankPress(2003).UnderstandingEarth(http://books.google.com/books?id=P8iEVK1yGKwC&pg=PA468)
(4thed.).Macmillan.pp.468469.ISBN0716796171.
6. GeraldSchubertDonaldLawsonTurcottePeterOlson(2001)."2.5.4Whyareislandarcsarcs?".Mantle
ConvectionintheEarthandPlanets(http://books.google.com/books?id=ij4BaFFpYHAC&pg=PA36).
CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.3536.ISBN0521798361.
7. PAAllen(1997)."Isostasyinzonesofconvergence".EarthSurfaceProcesses(http://books.google.com/books?
id=e5i8cRGRCuwC&pg=PA36).WileyBlackwell.p.36ff.ISBN0632035072.
8. GerardV.MiddletonPeterR.Wilcock(1994)."5.5Isostasy".MechanicsintheEarthandEnvironmental

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8. GerardV.MiddletonPeterR.Wilcock(1994)."5.5Isostasy".MechanicsintheEarthandEnvironmental
Sciences(http://books.google.com/books?id=K4IgLIDbZicC&pg=PA170)(2nded.).CambridgeUniversity
Press.p.170.ISBN0521446694.
9. DeCellesP.G.&GilesK.A.(1996)."Forelandbasinsystems"
(http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geos517/pdfs/decelles_Giles96.pdf).BasinResearch8(2):105123.
doi:10.1046/j.13652117.1996.01491.x(https://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.13652117.1996.01491.x).
10. DavidJohnson(2004)."Theorogeniccycle".ThegeologyofAustralia(http://books.google.com/books?
id=kdJNcKi3SakC&pg=PA48).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.48ff.ISBN0521841216.
11. Inotherwords,orogenyisonlyaphaseinthelifeofanorogen.Fivecharacteristicsoftheorogeniccycleare
listedbyRobertJ.TwissEldridgeM.Moores(1992)."Platetectonicmodelsoforogeniccorezones".Structural
Geology(http://books.google.com/books?id=14fn03iJ2r8C&pg=PA493)(2nded.).Macmillan.p.493.ISBN0
716722526.
12. N.H.WoodcockRobinA.Strachan(2000)."Chapter12:TheCaledonianOrogeny:AMultiplePlateCollision".
citedwork(http://books.google.com/books?id=dTkKn8Ufzd4C&pg=PA187).p.187ff.ISBN0632036567.
13. OlivierMerle(1998)."1.1Nappes,overthrustsandfoldnappes".EmplacementMechanismsofNappesand
ThrustSheets(http://books.google.com/books?id=UJeVXaMhxI8C&pg=PA1).PetrologyandStructuralGeology
9.Springer.p.1ff.ISBN0792348796.
14. Forexample,seePatrickLOsborne(2000).TropicalEcosystemsandEcologicalConcepts
(http://books.google.com/books?id=gA2xfP8hHlEC&pg=PA11).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.11.ISBN0
521645239."Continentaldriftandplatetectonicshelptoexplainboththesimilaritiesandthedifferencesinthe
distributionofplantsandanimalsoverthecontinents"andJohnCBriggs(1987).BiogeographyandPlate
Tectonics(http://books.google.com/books?id=vCNG2e5KYgC&pg=PA131).Elsevier.p.131.ISBN0444
427430."Itwillnotbepossibletoconstructathoroughaccountofthehistoryofthesouthernhemisphere
withouttheevidencefromboththebiologicalandtheearthsciences"
15. PaulD.Lowman(2002)."Chapter7:Geologyandbiology:theinfluenceoflifeonterrestrialgeology".Exploring
Space,ExploringEarth:NewUnderstandingoftheEarthfromSpaceResearch(http://books.google.com/books?
id=BAcG2Z4F41AC&pg=RA1PA286).CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.286287.ISBN0521890624.
16. SeemaSharma(2005)."Atmosphere:origin".EncyclopaediaofClimatology(http://books.google.com/books?
id=9V_Xe8Lfow4C&pg=PA30).AnmolPublicationsPVT.LTD.p.30ff.ISBN8126124423.
17. RichardJ.Huggett(2007).FundamentalsofGeomorphology(http://books.google.com/books?id=QY3
bBTUmKEC&pg=PA104)(2nded.).Routledge.p.104.ISBN0415390842.
18. GerhardEinsele(2000).SedimentaryBasins:Evolution,Facies,andSedimentBudget
(http://books.google.com/books?id=N3nidyNoJUC&pg=PA453)(2nded.).Springer.p.453.ISBN354066193
X."Withoutdenudation,evenrelativelylowupliftratesascharacteristicofepeirogeneticmovements(e.g.
20m/MA)wouldgeneratehighlyelevatedregionsingeologicaltimeperiods."
19. IanDouglasRichardJohnHuggettMikeRobinson(2002).CompanionEncyclopediaofGeography:The
EnvironmentandHumankind(http://books.google.com/books?id=afH8DDAVkUQC&pg=PA33).Taylor&
Francis.p.33.ISBN0415277507.
20. PeterJConey(1970)."TheGeotectonicCycleandtheNewGlobalTectonics"
(http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/81/3/739.abstract?sid=61add08e36a04bc0a14f3cdef8dc6133).
GeologicalSocietyofAmericaBulletin81(3):739748.Bibcode:1970GSAB...81..739C
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970GSAB...81..739C).doi:10.1130/00167606(1970)81[739:TGCATN]2.0.CO2
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(https://dx.doi.org/10.1130%2F00167606%281970%2981%5B739%3ATGCATN%5D2.0.CO%3B2).
21. Lee,C.T.Yin,QRudnick,RLChesley,JTJacobsen,SB(2000)."OsmiumIsotopicEvidenceforMesozoic
RemovalofLithosphericMantleBeneaththeSierraNevada,California"
(http://www.geol.umd.edu/~rudnick/Webpage/Lee_2000_Science.pdf).Science289(5486):19126.
Bibcode:2000Sci...289.1912L(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Sci...289.1912L).
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1912(https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.289.5486.1912).PMID10988067
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10988067).
22. JohnGerrard(1990).MountainEnvironments:AnExaminationofthePhysicalGeographyofMountains
(http://books.google.com/books?id=jHnrVEyMhkQC&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q=&f=false).MITPress.p.9.
ISBN0262071282.
23. Manley,CurtisR.Glazner,AllenF.Farmer,G.Lang(2000)."TimingofVolcanismintheSierraNevadaof
California:EvidenceforPlioceneDelaminationoftheBatholithicRoot?".Geology28(9):811.
Bibcode:2000Geo....28..811M(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Geo....28..811M).doi:10.1130/0091
7613(2000)28<811:TOVITS>2.0.CO2(https://dx.doi.org/10.1130%2F0091
7613%282000%2928%3C811%3ATOVITS%3E2.0.CO%3B2).
24. ArthurHolmesDorisL.Holmes(2004).HolmesPrinciplesofPhysicalGeology
(http://books.google.com/books?id=E6vknq9SfIIC&pg=PT109)(4thed.).Taylor&Francis.p.92.ISBN07487
43812.
25. "TheFormationoftheRockyMountains"(http://www.mountainnature.com/geology/platetectonics.htm),
MountainsinNature,nd,retrieved29January2014
26. Zwart,H.J.,1967.Thedualityoforogenicbelts.Geol.Mijnbouw.46,283309(referredinPitcher1979)
27. W.S.Pitcher,"Thenature,ascentandemplacementofgraniticmagmas",JournaloftheGeologicalSociety1979
v.136p.627662

References
liedeBeaumont,J.B.,1852.NoticesurlesSystmesdeMontagnes("NoteonMountainSystems"),
Bertrand,Paris,1543pp.(EnglishsynopsisinDennis(1982))
Buch,L.Von,1902.GesammelteSchriften,Roth&Eck,Berlin.
Dana,JamesD.(1873)."OnSomeResultsoftheEarth'sContractionFromCooling,Includinga
DiscussionoftheOriginsofMountains,andtheNatureoftheEarth'sInterior".AmericanJournalof
Science5:423443.
Dennis,JohnG.,1982.Orogeny,BenchmarkPapersinGeology,Volume62,HutchinsonRoss
PublishingCompany,NewYorkISBN0879333944
Hall,J.,1859.PalaeontologyofNewYork,inNewYorkNationalSurveyNo.3,Part1,533p.
Suess,Eduard,1875.DieEntstehungDerAlpenlit.TheOriginOfTheAlps,Braumller,Vienna,168
p.
Harms,Brady,Cheney,2006.ExploringtheProterozoicBigSkyOrogenyinSouthwestMontana,
19thannualKecksymposium.
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KevinJones(2003).MountainBuildinginScotland:Science:ALevel3CourseSeries.Open
UniversityWorldwideLtd.ISBN0749258470.providesadetailedhistoryofanumberoforogens,
includingtheCaledonianOregeny,whichlastedfromthelateCambriantotheDevonian,withthe
maincollisionaleventsoccurringduringOrdovicianandSiluriantimes.
TomMcCann,ed.(2008).PrecambrianandPalaeozoic(http://books.google.com/books?
id=BR9FWgu2ps4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=orogeny&f=false).TheGeologyof
CentralEurope1.GeologicalSocietyofLondon.ISBN1862392455.isoneofatwovolume
expositionofthegeologyofcentralEuropewithadiscussionofmajororogens.
SuzanneMahlburgKayVctorA.RamosWilliamR.Dickinson,eds.(2009).Backboneofthe
Americas:ShallowSubduction,PlateauUplift,andRidgeandTerraneCollisionMemoir204
(http://books.google.com/?id=ThpUlnCKwdgC).GeologicalSocietyofAmerica.ISBN081371204
1.EvolutionoftheCordillerasoftheAmericasfromamultidisciplinaryperspectivefroma
symposiumheldinMendoza,Argentina(2006).

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