Laminar Flow of a Liquid Rivulet Down a Vertical Solid Surface

ANDRZEJ DONIEC
Institute of Chemical and Process Engineering, Technical University of Lddi, ul. Wdlczariska 175, 90-924 Lddh Poland
Conditions lor an energy minimum of a liquid rivulet flowing down a vertical solid surface have been considered.
The solution of the equation may yield a constant value equal to the maximum rivulet thickness and the curve ~ ( x )
representing the shape of the rivulet cross section (profile). The profile describes the smallest rivulet which may be
forincd for a given system. Composed solutions correspond to wider rivulets, e.g. linite films. Numerical integration has been performed over a wide range of the parameter characterizing the liquid, at contact angles ranging from
5 to 90. The minimum rivulet concept, which makes it possible to describe a finite-width laminar film of minimum
thickness, extends the Nusselt theory.
~~

~~~~~~~~~

On a etudie les conditions dknergie minimum dun ruisseau liquide skcoulant au bas dune surface solide verticale.
La solution de ICquation peut donner une valeur constante igale B Iipaisseur du ruisseau maximum et la courbe z(x)
representant la forme de la section transversale du ruisseau (profil). Le profil dkcrit le plus petit ruisseau qui peut Ctre
forme pour un systkme donne. Les solutions composees. correspondent h des ruisseaux plus larges comme les films
finis. Lintegration numerique a e t i effectuee sur une large gamme du paraniktrc caractkrisant le liquide, a des angles
de contact compris entre 5 et 90. Le concept du ruisseau minimum, qui permet de dkcrire un film laminaire de largeur
finie dkpaisseur minimum, permet de gCnCraliser la thiorie de Nusselt.
Keywords: laminar rivulet downflow, liquid rivulet, minimum rivulet thickness

roblcms related to the tlow of thin liquid films and

rivulets down a solid surface are very interesting due
to their considerable practical importance (Giot, 1983). Especially interesting is the downflow of a uniform liquid film
of minimum thickness on a vertical surface. Such a film also
has importance as a model in describing more complex
processes such as tlow through a packed bed (Yilmaz and
Brauer, 1973). Theoretical studies concerning the downflow
of a laniinar film very often refer to a plane film of indefinite
width which also has indeterminate edges.
A liquid flowing down a vertical surface forms a free surface in contact with a gas phase. Thus, the liquid is comprised of two interfacial surfaces: solid-liquid and liquid-gas.
The liquid-gas surface has a shape resulting from the interaction of forces inside and outside the liquid. The free surface cuts the solid surface at an angle which is the contact
angle. This becomes visible and significantly important as
rivulets.
Towell and Rothfeld (1966) included surface tension and
contact angle in their mathematical consideration of flow of
a liquid rivulet down an inclined surface. Assuming similarity
in calculating the shape of the interface with calcu!ating the
shape of a meniscus, they employed an equation which is
formally identical with the Young-Laplace equation
(Adanison, 1960). They examined two limiting cases: (i) a
rivulet with a small radius of curvature whose cross section
could take on a circle-like shape, and (ii) a wide flat rivulet.
For the shallow and narrow rivulet case (i), its shape depends
only on surface tension while, paradoxically, its width does
not. In both cases the rivulet width is strongly influenced
by contact angle. Thc authors use contact angle in its
geometrical meaning rather than as a physical property of
the three-phase system.
Considering the moment of film break-down, some authors
assume the rivulet cross-section as a segment of a circle
(Bankoff, 1971; Mikielewicz and Moszynski, 1976; Peier
et al., 1977). The circle-shaped rivulet assumption requires
that the contact angle change with changing rivulet dimensions, which are accompanied by increases or decreases of
flow rate. This deprives the contact angle of its feature of
being a property of a three-phase system. In a more complete consideration of the downflow of a film as well as a
I9X

rivulet, the geometry of the system and conditions at points

of three-phase contact may not be ignored. This involves the
need to determe the shape of the cross-section of the liquid
system, i.e. the film or rivulet profile, which is a curve
resulting from the energy balance of the system.
The theory of the laminar downflow of a liquid rivulet,
published by Doniec (1984), takes into account the intluence
of the contact angle on the energy balance. The theory COIIsiders a laminar fully developed symnietrical rivulet which
flows waveless down an ideal uniform solid surface. No hcat
and mass transfer in the system has been assumed. Using
the variational calculus, the principle of minimum energy
has been employed to determine the profile z ( x ) of the
flowing liquid.
The total energy of such a three-phase system consists of
kinetic and interfacial energies. The kinetic energy is determined by a parabolic velocity profile in the rivulet and, for
a fragment of a rivulet segment of differential width and
length Ay, it is equal to

The interfacial energy is the sum of energies at the solidliquid interface and at the free surface of the liquid:

The potential energy of gravity is neglected as it is assumed

to be used to overcome the resistance of the viscous tlow.
Thus, the total energy of the rivulet segment of length Ay
is expressed by the integral upon the wantcd curvc z ( x ) :

2u,,,Ay

si ( W I z 5 + (1 + z * ) * + cos 0) SC

(3)

The system tending to the minimum energy produces the

equilibrium shape (free surface) of the rivulet, for which thc.
volume flow rate of liquid is given by

THE CANADIAN JOURNAL. OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING. VOLUME 69. FEBRUARY. 1991

Thus, \arching for the profile z ( x ) from among all curves

that linh axes 0: and Ox, we choose the one which provides
minimurn energy to the system at a determined liquid flow
rate. This is a so called isoperimetric problem. Therefore,
there 15 an isoperimetric constant X which makes the curve
z ( x ) an extrenial of the functional:

S" H A

= 2a,,.

- W&)dr

AY

)1; (w,z5+ f

i z 7

+ cos e

..............................

(5)

Upon substitution of Equation (5) in to the Euler equation

(Forray. I968),

(I

H; -- - - H . '
rtx

0 ..........................

(6)

we obtain the equation which links the minimum energy with

surface ahape:

--0

..................

(7)

A solution of the above equation is the function z(x)

representing a cross-sectional shape (profile) of half-rivulet

symmetrical about the axis Oz. Coefficients W , and W, are
constants determined by physicochemical parameters of the
system. Unfortunately, the equation cannot be solved analytically. However, the analysis of Equation (7), the left-hand
side of which is the curvature of the searched profile z ( x ) ,
leads to a determination of the vertexes of curve x (x), that
is the point at which the function has its extreme value. It
follows that at x = 0 the curve z(x) has its smallest curvature and the function reaches its maximum value

For the physical conditions under consideration, the following equation for the maximum thickness of a rivulet
flowing down a vertical solid surface applies (Doniec, 1984):

Figure 1 - Liquid rivulet flowing down a vertical wall

For a point corresponding to the maximum thickness 6 of
the rivulet (Figure I), the functionf(z) is equal to zero. Thus,
when z' = 0, the constant solution of Equation (10) has the
form
z(x) = 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solutions of the minimum energy equation

Upon a single integration, Equation (7) assumes the form

It

for any x from the range (0, 0 0 ) . This solution does not correspond to the observed external appearance of the rivulet,
and therefore it does not satisfy the initial condition (z = 0,
x = r ) given in the analysis (Doniec, 1984). However, it
will prove useful in further considerations.
One may expect that the integration of Equation (10) will
provide a general solution

z
This thicknes thus depends only on physicochemical
parameter5 of the system.
The aim of the present work is to study the solutions of
Equation (7) and to draw conclusions from the theory.

(1

0 (x,c)

x E (0.

00)

where C is an arbitrary constant from the set of real

numbers. Then, choosing an appropriate initial condition.
a particular solution can be obtained by determination of the
constant C. Taking as an initial condition the point ( r , O ) .
i.e. the point in which the rivulet profile of width 2r contacts the solid surface, one should select a value of r such
that the integral curve passes through a previously determined
point corresponding to the maximum of the function z (x).
The value of r is strictly determined for a given solution;
however, it is not known. Therefore, another initial condition seems to be more suitable:
x=o,

z = 6 ...........................

(12)

A particular solution obtained for this condition will constitute the profile being searched for.
THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING. VOLUME 69, FEBRUARY, 1991

I99

'I

mm

2
2

10

12

IL

16

I8

20

22

24

10

I2

1L

16

18

20

22

2L

26

mrn

2
26
X , mm

z 6

mm

Figure 2 - Solutions of Equation (10).

The point (0, 6) is an ambiguous point for Equation (10)
because at this point there are two solutions satisfying condition (12). For a full rivulet, due to the assumed symmetry,
the solution consists of two (symmetrical) particular solutions and an ambiguous point. Hence, the integration of the
equation allows the rivulet profile and corresponding width
h = 2r to be determined.

X, mm

Figure 3 - Curves describing rivulet profiles for three values of

M constant.

Integration results and discussion

Since Equation (10) cannot be solved analytically, the
integral curve may be obtained numerically. The result of
integration of Equation (10) depends on the constant values
W , and W2 and on the value 6. The latter, i.e. the maximum
thickness of the rivulet given by Equation (9), can be written
as follows:

The constants W , and W , in Equation (10) are given by

WI

M
................................
15

(14)

respectively. Therefore, it is evident that the three constants

6, WI and W, depend on some value M , two of them being
additionally dependent on the contact angle 0.
The value M is described by physicochemical parameters
of the liquid:

M =

p.' g i
-...............................
'12

(16)

(T

It is constant for a given liquid at a determined temperature.

Thus, M is a parameter which characterizes the liquid. Its
role in the motion of liquid rivulets and films is similar to
that of a capillary constant in the description of static surface phenomena (meniscus, droplets).
To determine the range of M for numerical calculations,
two liquids were chosen whose properties seemed to be close
to the extreme values of M in a practically useful range. These
liquids were diethyl ether and glycerol for which, at the temperature 2OoC, the parameter M takes the following values:
glycerol

1.372

diethyl ether

3.773 . lo4 mm-s

200

Figure 4

Free surface velocity,

u,,,,,,, distribution for glycerol,

On this basis the range of M was defined as lo-' to

4 lo4 mm-5, which contains all values of this parameter
occurring in practice.
The other parameter that was changed in calculations is
the contact angle. For a given liquid and a gaseous phase
a change in the contact angle means a change of the solid
material (base) at a constant temperature. Therefore, per forming the calculations over the whole range of M and for
the range of contact angle from 0" to go", a solution is
obtained which may encompass most wettable systems.
The integration of Equation (10) provides a particular solution which is the curve z(x) describing the profile of a liquid
rivulet flowing down a given solid base. This profile determines the width of the rivulet since the last result of calculations is the value x = r corresponding to z = 0 (Figure 3).
The obtained profile permits calculation of the corresponding
free surface velocity distribution (Figure 4), the volumetric
flow rate Q and the mean linear velocity u,, of the liquid
(Figures 5 and 6), using Equations (2), (17) and ( 1 8):
u,,,,

pg

217

z2 (x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

mm-5

THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING. V O L I J M E 69. FEHKUAKY, 1991

TABLE1

Results of Calculations for Extreme Values of the Parameters M and 0 Characterizing the Range
of Integration of Equation (lo)
M
mm

3.8 . 104
1 . 4 . lo-

0
degree

6
mm

U!,,

Re

mm

mm/s

mmis

5
90
5
90

0.058
0. I76
1.78
5.42

1.97
0.18
60.7
5.58

1.62
7.08
395.1
1699.1

22.3
255.1
5.8
65.4

10
417.5
0.02
I .03

/
21

-2

In

I S

---

mot

M a 1.3720
10 -3rnrn
I

10
10

50

0.01

90

70

8
Figure 5 - Mean linear velocity u,, and maximum rivulet thickness 6 v 5 . contact angle 0 for water ( M constant at constant
temperature).
The corresponding Reynolds number is calculated using the
formula

2 QP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(19)
vr
The reults of calculations for the two extreme values of M
constant are given in Table 1.
Attention should also be paid to some property of the
general \ohtion of Equation (10). It is known that the general
solution is determined in a region limited by the axis Ox, the
segment 06 and the straight line z = 6. In this region there
are particular solutions satisfying the condition z (r) = 0 for
an arbitrary r . Hence, in this region profiles different from
the one calculated for condition (12) may occur. It should
again be noted that Equation (10) has the form
Re

==

= f(z)

.................................

(20)

A graphic representation of all solutions of such an equation can be obtained by translation of the curve for any solution parallel to the axis Ox (Muszyriski and Myszkis, 1984).

-*

x)

a,

8
Figure 6 - Mean linear velocity u,,, and maximum rivulet thickness 6 vs. contact angle 0 for glycerol.
This means that the profiles occurring in the region of particular solutions are identical (Figure 2). At the same time
there is no solution shifted more to the left than that
obtained for condition (1 2).
Therefore, it follows that the calculated protile z(x) is
the only one closest to the axis Oz which limits the crosssectional area of the rivulet. The values determined previously, i.e. the maximum height (thickness) of the rivulet
6, its width b and flow rate Q, characterize the rivulet
flowing down a vertical surface. Under ideal conditions this
is the smallest rivulet which can be formed in a given
three-phase system. In other words, a rivulet of a smaller
thickness or width cannot be formed in the system, and the
flow rate of the liquid cannot be smaller either. This is the
smallest possible continuous flow. Below Q,,, a dropwise
flow is expected. Above it a film will be formed. Thus,
for the physical conditions formulated above, the film profile consists of a rectilinear segment parallel to the axis Ox
with the rivulet profile z(x) shifted to the point r . Therefore, in the film there is a rectangular segment which constitutes a half-cut rivulet shifted to the film edge. The film
thickness may be determined by Equation (9). In this way
the intuitive model of the downflow (Doniec, 1983) is
theoretically justified.

THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, VOLUME 69, FEBRUARY, 1991

20 1

volumetric flow rate of liquid [m3/s]

volumetric flow rate of the minimum rivulet [ m i s ]
half-film or half-rivulet width [ m ]
minimum half-rivulet width [ m ]
= Reynolds number [ -1
u,,,
= mean velocity [ i d s ]
u,,,,, = free surface velocity [m/s]
W, = constant defined by Equation (14) [ m 5 ]
W2 = constant defined by Equation (IS) [ m 1
= length of a rivulet segment [ m ]
Ay
x, y, z = coordinates [ m ]
z
= dz/dx

MOD/F/CAT/ON

USSEL T THEORY

Q,,,,
r
r,,,
Re

=
=
=
=

Greek symbols
6

= viscosity [Pa

0
h
I

p
u

film thickness [ m ]
. s]
= contact angle [degrees]
= isoperimetric constant [ - ]
= density [kg/m]
= surface tension [N/m]

Subscripts
r--

Figure 7

The consequences of modification of Nusselt theory.

The above considerations solve the Nusselt theory taking

into account surface properties of a system at a three-phase
line of contact. Such an approach extends the Nusselt theory
to the case of a finite width (Figure 7).

Conclusions
The integration of the minimum energy equation for
laminar flow of a liquid down a vertical surface provides
one solution in the form of the function of constant z = 6
and a set of solutions in the form of curves z(x).
The profile z(x) satisfying the condition z(0) = 6 is the
minimum rivulet profile, which determines the smallest width
of the rivulet 6 . Translation of the rivulet profile parallel to
the axis Ox creates a new profile consisting of a rectilinear
segment and a curve describing the rivulet profile. T h e profile formed in this way is, under ideal conditions, the protile of a film of any width larger than the rivulet width. The
film thickness is equal to the maximum thickness of the
rivulet. This thickness may be determined irrespective of the
physico-chemical parameters of the system.

Nomenclature
h
C

=
=

Hr
H:

rivulet o r film width [ m ]

= integral constant [ - 1

energy [ J ]
acceleration of gravity [m/s2]
functional [ -1
partial derivative of functional with respect to z [ -1
= partial derivative of functional with respect to z [ -1
= constant characterizing the liquid, defined by Equation (16) [ m - 5 ]

= kinetic

lv
sl
sv

=
=
=

liquid-vapor interface
solid-liquid interface
solid-vapor interface

References
Adamson, A. W., Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, Interscience
Publishers, New York (1960).
Bankoff, S. G., Minimum Thickness of a Draining Liquid Film,
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 14, 2143-2146 (1971).
Doniec, A., The Thickness of a Liquid Film Falling Laniinarly
Down a Vertical Plate, in Thermal Sciences, Proc. 16th
Southeastern Seminar (T.N. Veziroglu, Ed.), Hemisphere Publ.
Corp.. Washington, D.C. (1983), pp. 389-398.
Doniec, A., Laminar Flow of a Liquid Down a Vertical Solid
Surface. Maximum Thickness of Liquid Rivulet, Phys. Chem.
Hydrodynamics 5 , 143-152 (1984).
Forray, M. J., Variational Calculus in Science and Enginccring,
McGraw-Hill. New York (1968).
Giot, M . , Study ofLiquid Flow inFalling Film Devices, Tech.
Film Appl. Oper. Genie Chim. Colloq. Int., lnstitut Franqais
du Pitrole, pp. 25-51, Renil-Malmaison (1983).
Mikielewicz, J. and 3 . R. Moszynski, Minimum Thickness of a
Liquid Film Flowing Vertically Down a Solid Surface, Int. J .
Heat Mass Transfer 19, 771-775 (1976).
Muszynski, J. and A . D. Myszkis, Ordinary Differential Equations (in Polish), PWN, Warszawa (1984).
Peier, W., A. B. Ponter and S. Fabre, Wetting of a Vertical Plate
by a Liquid Flowing through a Vertical Nozzle, Chem. Eng.
Sci. 32, 1491-1497 (1977).
Towell, G. D. and L. B. Rothfeld, Hydrodynamics of Rivulet
Flow, AIChE J. 12. 972-980 (1966).
Yilmaz, T. and H. Brauer, Beschleunigte Strornung von Fliissigkeitsfilmen an ebenen Wanden und in Fullkdrperschichten.
Chemie Ing. Techn. 45, 928-934 (1973).

Manuscript received April 13, 1989; revised manuscript received

March 30, 1990; accepted for publication March 30, 1990.

THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, VOLUME 69. F E B R U A R Y . 1991