Department of Mathematics, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University

Monsoon Semester 2014-15

MAT 101 Calculus I

Lecture Notes Amber Habib November 28

Review of Key Concepts from Previous Lectures

1. Substitution Method (Notes of Nov 24)
2. Integration by Parts (Nov 26)

Reduction Formulas

Using integration by parts, we can iteratively reduce powers in the integrand till we reach
a situation where we have eliminated them. Formulas describing such iteration are called
reduction formulas. We give an example below.
Z
Z
n
n1
sin x dx
=
sin
x dx}
| {z x} sin
| {z
f

dg

n1

cos x)
|sin {z x} (
| {z }
f

=
=

( cos x) (n 1) sinn2 x cos x dx

| {z } |
{z
}

cos x sinn1 x + (n 1)
n1

cos x sin

Z
Z

x + (n 1)

df

cos2 x sinn2 x dx
n2

sin

Z
x dx (n 1)

sinn x dx

=
Z
n

sin x dx

n1

cos x sin

sinn2 x dx

sinn2 x dx

x + (n 1)

=
Z

sin x dx

1
n1
cos x sinn1 x +
n
n

This reduction formula allows us to obtain the integral of any sinn x in terms of the
integral of sinn2 x, then in terms of sinn4 x and so on, till we reach a power of 0 or 1.
Example 2.1
Z

Z
cos x sin3 x 3
+
sin2 x dx
4
4


Z
cos x sin3 x 3
cos x sin x 1
=
+

+
1 dx
4
4
2
2
cos x sin3 x 3
3
=
cos x sin x + x + C
4
8
8

sin4 x dx =

Example 2.2 Let us apply this reduction formula to definite integrals over [0, /2]. We
get
Z /2
Z
/2 n 1 Z /2
1
n 1 /2 n2
n
n2
n1 
sin x dx = cos x sin
sin
x dx =
sin
x dx
x +
n
n
n
0
0
0
0
For example,
Z

/2

In general,
Z /2

3
sin x dx =
4
4

/2

3 1
sin x dx =
4 2
2

x dx =

2n 1 2n 3
1

2n
2n 2
2

sin2n+1 x dx =

2n
2n 2
2

2n + 1 2n 1
3

2n

sin
0
/2

/2

1 dx =
0

/2

1 dx =
0

(2n 1)(2n 3) 1
(2n)(2n 2) 2 2

/2

sin x dx =
0

31

42 2

(2n)(2n 2) 2
(2n + 1)(2n 1) 3
2

Similar reduction formulas can be obtained for integrands like cosn x, (ln x)n , xn ex , (x2 +
a2 )n , secn x, etc.

Partial Fractions

The technique of partial fractions allows us to integrate rational functions, i.e. functions
p(x)
of the form
where p(x) and q(x) are integrals. This material is covered in Section
q(x)
6.3 of Stewart. However, we will only consider the situation when q(x) is a quadratic.
The notes below expand the rather brief comments in the lecture.
The theory for quadratic denominators is based on the following special cases:
Example 3.1
Z
x2
And so:
Z

dx
1
= 2
2
2
x +a
a

1
dx = arctan x + C
+1

dx
1
=
2
(x/a) + 1
a

x
dy
1
1
=
arctan
y
+
C
=
arctan
+C
y2 + 1
a
a
a
2

Example 3.2
Z

x
1
dx = ln(x2 + 1) + C
x2 + 1
2

And so:
 2

Z
Z
Z
x dx
1
(x/a) dx
y dy
1
1
x + a2
2
=
=
= ln(y + 1) + C = ln
+C
x2 + a2
a
(x/a)2 + 1
y2 + 1
2
2
a2
2

Z
Example 3.3 Consider an integral of the form

Ax + B
dx. We first decompose
(x + )(x + )

the integrand using partial fractions:

Ax + B
C
D
=
+
(x + )(x + )
x+ x+
To find appropriate C, D we cross multiply:
Ax + B = C(x + ) + D(x + )
We can solve this for C, D either by matching the coefficients of the constant and linear
terms, or by putting in values of x. Once C, D are obtained, we can integrate:
Z
Ax + B
dx = ln[(x + )C (x + )D ] + E
(x + )(x + )
Z
x
For example, consider
dx. We first obtain the partial fractions decom(x + 1)(x + 2)
position:
x
C
D
=
+
(x + 1)(x + 2)
x+1 x+2

Hence
Z

x
dx =
(x + 1)(x + 2)

Z 

x = C(x + 2) + D(x + 1)

x = (2C + D) + (C + D)x

2C + D = 0 & C + D = 1

C = 1 & D = 2




1
2
(x + 2)2
+
dx = ln
+E
x+1 x+2
x+1
2

p(x)
where q(x) is a quadratic. If deg p(x)
q(x)
deg q(x), we divide p(x) by q(x) to get p(x) = h(x)q(x) + r(x) with deg r(x) 1. Then
Z
Z
Z
r(x)
p(x)
dx = h(x) dx +
dx
q(x)
q(x)

Finally, consider any rational function

The first integral in the LHS is of a polynomial, hence very easy. The second is of a
rational function with linear numerator and quadratic denominator, like all the special
cases considered above.
If the quadratic denominator has linear factors we apply the process of Example 3.3.
If the quadratic denominator does not have linear factors, we apply completion of squares
to get into one of the forms of Examples 3.1 and 3.2.
Z
1
Example 3.4 Consider
dx. The discriminant of the denominator is 22
2
x + 2x + 5
4 5 = 16 < 0 hence it does not have linear factors. We use completion of squares to
express the denominator as x2 + 2x + 1 + 4 = (x + 1)2 + 4 = (x + 1)2 + 22 . Therefore,


Z
Z
1
1
1
x+1
dx =
dx = arctan
+C
x2 + 2x + 5
(x + 1)2 + 22
2
2
2

Improper Integrals

We discussed what Stewart calls Type I improper integrals. See pages 345348 for the
definition and examples, and page 351 for the Comparison Theorem.

References
1. Stewart, Essential Calculus, Sections 6.1, 6.3 and 6.6.

Exercises
Stewart, Sec 6.1: 33, 35, 37
Stewart, Sec 6.3: 9, 12, 15, 16, 28, 35
Stewart, Sec 6.6: 5, 11, 20, 22, 41, 42