Alongi Math 291-1 Notes Part 2

80
CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Subtracting 3/5 of the left- and right-hand sides of equation 2 from those of equation 3,
8
2y
7z =
16
< x
5y + 10z =
20
:
2z =
6
Multiplying each side of equation 3 by 1/2,
8
2y
< x
5y
:
7z
+ 10z
z
=
=
=
16
20
3
Subtracting 10 times each side equation 3 from the respective side of equation 2, and adding 7 times
each side of equation 3 to the respective side of equation 1,
8
2y
=
5
< x
5y
=
10
:
z =
3
Multiplying each side of equation 2 by 1/5,
8
2y
< x
y
:
=
=
=
5
2
3
Adding twice each side of equation 2 to the respective side

8
=
< x
y
=
:
z =
of equation 1,
1
2
3
Thus, the solution set is {(1, 2, 3)}.

Geometrically each of the three equations in this linear system represents a plane in space. The
solution set of the system corresponds to the intersection of these three planes. See Figure 3.1.9. N
Example 3.1.10. Solve the system
8
< x
2x + y
:
x + y
+ 2z
+ 5z
+ 3z
= 1
= 5
= 4
Solution. Subtracting twice each side of the first equation from the corresponding side of the second
equation, and subtracting each side of the first equation from the corresponding side of the third
equation,
8
+ 2z = 1
< x
y + z = 3
:
y + z = 3
81
3.1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

x
-2
0
2
3
2
z
1
0
-1
-2
0
2
Figure 3.2: Example 3.1.10
Subtracting the sides of the second equation from the corresponding sides of the third equation,
8
+ 2z = 1
< x
y + z = 3
:
0 = 0
No matter the values of x, y and z, it is always true that 0 = 0. So, the third equation does not
provide any useful information about solutions, and we discard it.
x
+ 2z = 1
y + z = 3
Solving for x and y in terms of z,
def
Define t = z. Then
x = 1 2z
y = 3 z
8
< x = 1 2t
y = 3 t
:
z =
t
These equations are parametric equations of a line in space. Thus, the solution set corresponds to
the line with these parametric equations. Therefore, the solution set of this linear system is
{(1
2t, 3
t, t) : t 2 R}
Geometrically the planes represented by the three equations in this linear system intersect in a line.
See Figure 3.1.10.
N
8
< x
2x + y
:
x + y
+ 2z
+ 5z
+ 3z
= 1
= 5
= 5
82

7
8
9
10
-3.0
-3.5
-4.0
-4.5
10
-5.0
9
8
7
Solution. Subtracting twice each side of the first equation from corresponding sides of the second
equation, and subtracting each side of the first equation from the sides of the third equation,
8
+ 2z = 1
< x
y + z = 3
:
y + z = 4
Subtracting the sides of the second equation from the corresponding sides of the third equation,
8
+ 2z = 1
< x
y + z = 3
:
0 = 1
Because 0 6= 1 for all (x, y, z), there is no (x, y, z) that satisfies all three equations. Therefore, the
solution set of this linear system is the empty set.1 Geometrically the planes represented by the
three equations in this linear system do not intersect. See Figure 3.1.11.
N
Definition 3.1.12. A linear system is consistent if the system has at least one solution. Otherwise, the system is inconsistent.
For example, the linear systems in Examples 3.1.9 and 3.1.10 are consistent, and the linear system in Example 3.1.11 is inconsistent. Given a linear system, there are two fundamental questions:
Is the system consistent?
If the system is consistent, then does the system have a unique (one and only one) solution?
Terms
linear equation
system of m linear equations in n variables
1 The empty set is the set with no elements, denoted denoted {} or ;. Do not denote the empty set by {;} because
the set {;} has one element, namely ;.
83
3.1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

coefficients of a linear system
solution of a linear system
solution set of a linear system

equivalent linear systems
consistent linear system
inconsistent linear system

Concept
Given a linear system, there are two fundamental questions:
Is the system consistent?

If the system is consistent, then does the system have a unique solution?
Skill
Solve systems of linear equations by applying two operations to the equations in the system:
multiplying both sides of an equation by a nonzero scalar, and/or

adding or subtracting the left- and right-hand sides of one equation to/from the left- and
right-hand sides, respectively, of another equation.
Exercises
1. Determine whether each system of linear equations is consistent or inconsistent, and solve the
linear system.
x + 2y = 1
(a)
2x + 3y = 1
2x + 4y = 3
(b)
3x + 6y = 2
8
< x + 2y + 3z = 1
x + 3y + 4z = 3
(c)
:
x + 4y + 5z = 4
8
< x + 2y + 3z = 1
3x + 2y + z = 1
(d)
:
7x + 2y
3z = 1
2. Consider the linear system
where k is a real number.
8
< x + y
3x
5y
:
x
2y
z
+ 13z
+ 5z
=
=
=
2
18
k
84

(a) For which value(s) of k is this system consistent?
(b) For each value of k you found in part (a), how many solutions does the system have?
(c) Find the solution set of the system for each value of k.
3. Linear systems are easier to solve when they are in triangular form. That is, all coefficients
above or below the diagonal are zero. Solve the upper-triangular system
8
x3 + 4x4 =
3
>
> x1 + 2x2
<
x2 + 3x3 + 7x4 =
5
x
+
2x
=
2
>
3
4
>
:
x4 =
0
using back substitution.
4. Find a polynomial of degree 2 whose graph contains the points (1, 1), (2, 3) and (3, 13).
5. Find a system of linear equations with three unknowns whose solution set is the line containing
the points (1, 1, 1) and (3, 5, 0).
6. Provide a examples to show that the conclusion of Theorem 3.1.8(i) may be true or false if
c = 0.
7. Prove Theorem 3.1.8(ii).
3.2
Matrices, Row Reduction and Echelon Forms
Objectives
Relate matrices to systems of linear equations.
Develop elementary row operations and row reduction to echelon and reduced echelon forms.
3.2.1
Matrices
Definition 3.2.1. Let m and n be positive integers. An m n matrix A with entries in F is an

ordered n-tuple of vectors a1 , . . . , an in Fm , denoted
A = a1 an
The columns of A are the vectors a1 , . . . , an . The entries of A are the components of a1 , . . . , an .
The size of A is m n.
Example 3.2.2.
is a 2 3 matrix.
1
4
2
5
3
6
85
3.2. MATRICES, ROW REDUCTION AND ECHELON FORMS

Example 3.2.3. A coordinate vector in Fm is an m 1 matrix.
Denote the set of m n matrices with entries in F by Fmn .
Definition 3.2.4. Matrices A and B are equal, denoted A = B, if A and B have the same size,
and the corresponding columns of A and B are equal.
Consider
def
A =
a1
an
Denote the i-th component of the j-th column aj by ai,j . Then

2
3
a1,j
6 .. 7
6 . 7
6
7
7
aj = 6
6 ai,j 7
6 . 7
4 .. 5
am,j
In this notation we have
A=
a1
More concisely we may write
an
a1,1
6 ..
6
6 .
=6
6 ai,1
6 .
4 ..
am,1
..
.
..
.
a1,j
..
.
am,j
ai,j
..
.
..
.
..
.
A = [ai,j ]
when the size of A is unambiguous.

Definition 3.2.5. A row vector is a 1 n matrix.
Definition 3.2.6. The rows of an m n matrix

2
a1,1
def 6
..
A = 4 ...
.
am,1
are the row vectors

for i = 1, . . . , m.
ai,1
Definition 3.2.7. The coefficient matrix of

8
a1,1 x1 +
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
ai,1 x1 +
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
am,1 x1 +
3
a1,n
.. 7
. 5
am,n
ai,n
the linear system

+
a1,n xn
ai,n xn
+ am,n xn
=
..
.
=
..
.
b1
bi
= bm
3
a1,n
.. 7
. 7
7
ai,n 7
7
.. 7
. 5
am,n
86
is the m n matrix
..
.
a1,1
6 ..
A=4 .
am,1
3
a1,n
.. 7
. 5
am,n
The rows of the coefficient matrix correspond to the equations in the linear system. The columns
of the coefficient matrix correspond to the variables of the linear system.
Definition 3.2.8. The augmented matrix of
8
>
> a1,1 x1 +
>
>
>
>
<
ai,1 x1 +
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
am,1 x1 +
is the m (n + 1) matrix
the linear system

+
a1,n xn
ai,n xn
+ am,n xn
..
.
a1,1
6
A = 4 ...
am,1
a1,n
..
.
am,n
=
..
.
=
..
.
b1
bi
= bm
3
b1
.. 7
. 5
bm
Like the rows of the coefficient matrix, the rows of the augmented matrix correspond to the
equations in the linear system. However, unlike the columns of the coefficient matrix, the columns
of the augmented matrix do not all correspond to the variables of the linear system. The rightmost
column of the augmented matrix does not correspond to a variable.
Example 3.2.9. Consider the linear system
8
< x
2x + y
:
x + y
+ 2z
+ 5z
+ 3z
= 1
= 5
= 5
The coefficient matrix of this system is
1
4 2
1
The augmented matrix of this system is

2
1
4 2
1
3.2.2
3
2
5 5
3
0
1
1
0
1
1
2
5
3
3
1
5 5
5
Elementary Row Operations
In Section 3.1 we introduced a method for solving a linear system using two operations:
87
multiplying both sides of an equation by a nonzero scalar.

adding/subtracting the left- and right-hand sides of one equation to/from the left- and righthand sides, respectively, of another equation.
These operations have analogues in the context of matrices called elementary row operations.
Definition 3.2.10. The elementary row operations on matrices are:
(i) interchange two rows,
(ii) multiply a row by a nonzero scalar, and
(iii) add one row to, or subtract one row from, another.
Each elementary row operation is reversible.
(i) To reverse a row interchange, interchange the rows again.
(ii) To reverse multiplication of a row by a nonzero scalar c, multiply the row by 1/c.
(iii) To reverse addition of the i-th row to the k-th row, subtract the i-th row from the k-th row.
To reverse subtraction of the i-th row from the k-th row, add the i-th row to the k-th row.
Adding (or subtracting) a multiple of one row to (or from) another is the same as applying three
elementary row operations in sequence. Let c be a nonzero scalar. To add c times row i to row k:
Multiply row i by c,
Add row i to row k, and
Multiply row i by 1/c.
Definition 3.2.11. Two matrices A and B are row equivalent, denoted A B, if there is a
sequence of elementary row operations that transforms A into B.
Because of the correspondence between elementary row operations and the operations we used to
solve systems of the linear equations, the following theorem is self-evident.
Theorem 3.2.12. The augmented matrices of two linear systems are row equivalent if and only if
the linear systems are equivalent.
3.2.3
Echelon Form
Definition 3.2.13. A leading entry in a row of a matrix is the first nonzero entry in the row.
Definition 3.2.14. A matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) if
1. All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
2. Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row above
it.
3. All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros.
88
Definition 3.2.15. A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a

leading 1 in any echelon form of A. A pivot column of A is a column of A that contains a pivot
position.
A matrix has at most one pivot position in each row and at most one pivot position in each
column. Thus, the number of pivot positions in an m n matrix is at most the minimum of m and
n.
Considering the vast number of dierent elementary row operations that one can perform on a
matrix, it is somewhat surprising that elementary row operations do not change the pivot positions
of a matrix.
Theorem 3.2.16. Row equivalent matrices have the same pivot positions.
Proof. Let n be a positive integer. We must prove that for all positive integers m, if A is an m n
matrix with entries in F, and a matrix B is in echelon form and is row equivalent to A, then A and
B have the same pivot positions. We proceed by means of induction on m.
(i) The Base Case. Let m = 1. If A is the zero matrix, then B is the zero matrix because A and
B are row equivalent. So, neither A nor B has any pivot positions. In particular, the pivot
positions of A and B are the same.
If A is not the zero matrix, then A has at least one pivot column. Let the first pivot column
of A be the i-th column. Then the (1, i)-th entry of A is 1, and all previous columns are
zero. Because B has exactly one row, B has at most one pivot column. Since A and B are
row equivalent, there exists a sequence of elementary row operations transforming A into B.
Under any elementary row operation on A the first i 1 columns of A remain zero and the
i-th column remains nonzero. Thus, the first i 1 columns of B are zero, and the (1, i)-th
entry of B is nonzero. Thus, the (1, i)-th entry of B is a pivot position of B. Therefore, the
pivot positions of A and B are the same.
(ii) The Induction Step. Let k be a positive integer.
Induction Hypothesis: Assume that if A is a k n matrix with entries in F, and the matrix
B is in echelon form and is row equivalent to A, then the pivot positions of A and B are the
same.
Let A be a (k + 1) n matrix with entries in F. Assume that the matrix B is in echelon form
and is row equivalent to A. If A is the zero matrix, then B is the zero matrix because A and
B are row equivalent. In particular, A and B have the same pivot positions.
If A is not the zero matrix, then A has a pivot column. Let the first pivot column of A be
the i-th column. Then the i-th column of A has a nonzero entry, and all previous columns
are zero. Because A and B are row equivalent, there exists a sequence of elementary row
operations transforming A to B. Under any elementary row operation on A the first i 1
columns of A remain zero and the i-th column remains nonzero. Thus, the first i 1 columns
of B are zero, and the i-th column of B is nonzero. Thus, the i-th column of B is the first
pivot column of B.
By multiplying the row containing the first pivot position of B by an appropriate scalar, we
can make the pivot entries in the first rows of A and B equal. Let A0 and B 0 be the the
matrices obtained from A and B, respectively, by deleting the first row from each. Then
89
there exists a sequence of elementary row operations transforming A0 to B 0 . By the induction

hypothesis A0 and B 0 have the same pivot positions. Therefore, A and B have the same pivot
positions.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, for all positive integers m, if A is an m n matrix
with entries in F, and the matrix B is in echelon form and is row equivalent to A, then the pivot
positions of A and B are the same.
3.2.4
Reduced Echelon Form and Row Reduction
Definition 3.2.17. A matrix is in reduced echelon form (or reduced row echelon form) if
1. The matrix is in echelon form.
2. The leading entry in each nonzero row is 1.
3. Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
The following algorithm applies elementary row operations to obtain a reduced echelon form for
a matrix. An Algorithm for Elimination to Reduced Echelon Form. Place a cursor at the
first entry of the first nonzero column of the matrix.
1. If the cursor entry is zero, then interchange the cursor row with the first row below it which
has a nonzero entry in the cursor column.
2. Eliminate all other entries in the cursor column below the cursor entry by adding multiples
of the cursor row to the other rows.
3. Move the cursor down one row and right one column. If the cursor entry and all entries below
it are zero, then move the cursor right one column. Repeat the last step if necessary. If there
are no more rows or columns, then goto step 4. Otherwise, return to step 1.
4. Beginning with rightmost pivot and working upward and to the left, use elementary row
operations to create zeros above each pivot. If a pivot is not 1, then multiply the row by a
constant to obtain a 1 in the pivot.
Regardless of the elementary row operations one applies to transform a matrix into reduced echelon
form, the reduced echelon form is always the same.
Theorem 3.2.18. The reduced echelon form of a matrix is unique.
Proof. Let n be a positive integer. We must prove that for all positive integers m, if A is an m n
matrix with entries in F and a matrix B and C are in reduced echelon form and are row equivalent
to A, then B = C. We proceed by means of induction on m.
(i) The Base Case. Let m = 1. Because B is row equivalent to A, and A is row equivalent to
C, B and C are row equivalent. Thus, there exists a sequence of elementary row operations
transforming B into C. Any elementary row operation other than multiplying the one and
only row of B by 1 changes the leading entry of the row into a scalar other than 1, and hence
transforms B into a matrix that is not in reduced echelon form. Therefore, B = C.
90
(ii) The Induction Step. Let k be a positive integer.

Induction Hypothesis: Assume that if A is a k n matrix with entries in F, and matrices B
and C are in reduced echelon form and are row equivalent to A, then B = C.
Let A be a (k + 1) n matrix with entries in F. Assume that matrices B and C are in reduced
echelon form and are row equivalent to A.
If the last row of B contains only zeros, then the last row of C contains only zeros by
Theorem 3.2.16. By deleting the last rows of B and C, we obtain two k n row equivalent
matrices in reduced echelon form. By the induction hypothesis, B = C.
If the last row of B is nonzero, then it must contain the last pivot position of B. Let the last
pivot position of B be in the j-th column of B. By Theorem 3.2.16, the last pivot position of
C is in the j-th column of C. Because B and C are in reduced echelon form, the j-th columns
of B and C are em . Let B 0 and C 0 be the the matrices obtained from B and C, respectively,
by deleting the the last row from each. Then there exists a sequence of elementary row
operations transforming B 0 to C 0 . Because B 0 and C 0 are in reduced echelon form, B 0 = C 0
by the inductive hypothesis. Thus, the first m 1 rows of B and C are equal.
To prove that the last rows of B and C are equal, notice that any elementary row operation
that changes the last row must change at least one of the first j entries of the last row. Because
the last rows of B and C agree in the first j entries, their last rows must be equal. Therefore,
B = C.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, for all positive integers m, if A is an m n matrix
with entries in F, matrices B and C are in reduced echelon form and are row equivalent to A, then
B = C.
Denote the reduced echelon form of a matrix A by ref A.
Terms
matrix
columns of a matrix
size of a matrix
equal matrices
row vector
rows of a matrix
coefficient matrix of a linear system
augmented matrix of a linear system
elementary row operations
row equivalent matrices
91
echelon form
reduced echelon form
pivot position
pivot column
Concepts
Elementary row operations are reversible.
Row equivalent matrices have the same pivot positions.
Every matrix has a unique reduced echelon form.
Skill
Find the reduced echelon form of a matrix by applying elementary row operations.
Exercises
1. Find the reduced echelon form of each of the following matrices. Indicate the pivot positions
in the original matrix and in its reduced echelon form. List the pivot columns of the original
matrix.
2
3
1 2 3 4
(a) 4 4 5 6 7 5
6 7 8 9
2
3
1 3 5 7
(b) 4 3 5 7 9 5
5 7 9 1
2. Describe all possible echelon forms of a nonzero 2 2 matrix.
5. Let A, B and C be matrices of the same size.
(a) Prove that A A.
(b) Prove that if A B, then B A.
(c) Prove that if A B and B C, then A C.
92
3.3
Solving Systems of Linear Equations
Objectives
Use row reduction to solve systems of linear equations.
Use a linear system to determine whether a vector b is a linear combination of vectors
a1 , . . . , an .
Use linear systems to determine whether lines and planes in Fn are parallel, intersecting or
skew.
3.3.1
Solving Systems of Linear Equations by Row Reduction
Definition 3.3.1. A bound variable of a linear system is a variable corresponding to a pivot

column of the systems coefficient matrix.
Definition 3.3.2. A free variable of a linear system is a variable that is not a bound variable of
the system.
8
< 3x + 2y
2x + 2y
:
2x + 2y
Solution. This system of equations is linear,
2
3
4 2
2
+ z
+ z
+ 2z
= 11
= 10
= 14
and its augmented matrix is

3
2 1 11
2 1 10 5
2 2 14
First, we apply elementary row operations to find an echelon form of this matrix. Adding
times row 1 to rows 2 and 3 we obtain
2
3
3 2
1
11
4 0 2/3 1/3 8/3 5
0 2/3 4/3 20/3
Subtracting row 2 from row 3 yields
2
which is in echelon form.
3
4 0
0
2
2/3
0
1
1/3
1
3
11
8/3 5
4
2/3
93
3.3. SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Second, we apply elementary row operations to find the reduced echelon form of this matrix.
Adding 1/3 times row 3 to row 2 and subtracting row 3 from row 1 provides
2
3
3
2
0
7
4 0 2/3 0 4/3 5
0
0
1
4
Multiplying row 2 by 3/2 we have
Adding
2 times row 2 to row 1 yields
Multiplying row 1 by 1/3 we obtain
2
1
0
0
0
1
3
7
2 5
4
3
4 0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
3
3
2 5
4
1
4 0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
3
4 0
0
3
1
2 5
4
which is in reduced echelon form.

Finally, the linear system corresponding to this augmented matrix is
8
= 1
< x
y
= 2
:
z = 4
The variables x, y and z are all bound variables. This system does not have any free variables.
The solution set of this linear system is {(1, 2, 4)}. Because this linear system is equivalent to the
original linear system, the solution set of our original linear system is {(1, 2, 4)}.
N
8
>
>
<
2x1 + 4x2
3x1 + 6x2
>
>
:
2x1 + 4x2
x4
+ 6x3
Solution. This system of equations is linear,

2
0 0
6 2 4
6
4 3 6
2 4
+ x4
+ 2x5
+ 2x5
3x5
+ 4x5
=
=
=
=
and its augmented matrix is

3
0 1
2 2
0 0
2 0 7
7
6 0
3 6 5
0 1
4 2
We apply elementary row operations to find

1 and row 2 we obtain
2
2 4 0
6 0 0 0
6
4 3 6 6
2 4 0
2
0
6
2
an echelon form of this matrix. Interchanging row

3
0
2 0
1
2 2 7
7
0
3 6 5
1
4 2
94
Multiplying row 1 by 1/2 yields

2
1
6 0
6
4 3
2
2
0
6
4
0
0
6
0
0
1
0
1
3
1 0
2 2 7
7
3 6 5
4 2
Subtracting 3 times row 1 from row 3, and subtracting 2

2
1 2 0 0
1
6 0 0 0 1
2
6
4 0 0 6 0
6
0 0 0 1
2
Interchanging rows 2 and 3 yields
Multiplying row 2 by 1/6 we obtain
1
6 0
6
4 0
0
2
1
6 0
6
4 0
0
Finally, subtracting row 3 from row 4 we

2
1
6 0
6
4 0
0
times row 1 from row 4 we have

3
0
2 7
7
6 5
2
2
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
1
1
3
1 0
6 6 7
7
2 2 5
2 2
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
3
1 0
1 1 7
7
2 2 5
2 2
0
0
1
0
3
1 0
1 1 7
7
2 2 5
0 0
have
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
which is in reduced echelon form.

The linear system corresponding to this augmented matrix is
8
x1 + 2x2
+ x5
>
>
<
x3
x5
x
+
2x
>
4
5
>
:
0
=
=
=
=
0
1
2
0
Every (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) satisfies the last equation, 0 = 0. Consequently, the first three equations
completely determine the solution set.
8
+ x5 = 0
< x1 + 2x2
x3
x5 = 1
:
x4 + 2x5 = 2
95
The variables x1 , x3 and x4 are bound variables, while x2 and x5 are free variables. Solving for the
bound variables in terms of the free variables,
8
2x2
x5
< x1 =
x3 =
x5 + 1
:
x4 =
2x5 + 2
def
def
Define s = x2 and t = s5 . Then

8
x1
>
>
>
>
< x2
x3
>
>
x4
>
>
:
x5
=
=
=
=
=
2s
s
t
t
2t
t
+ 1
+ 2
The general solution of this linear system is

(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) = ( 2s
t, s, t + 1, 2t + 2, t)
for all scalars s and t. The solution set is

{( 2s
t, s, t + 1, 2t + 2, t) : s, t 2 F}
Because this linear system is equivalent to the original linear system, the solution set of our
original linear system is
{( 2s t, s, t + 1, 2t + 2, t) : s, t 2 F}
The linear system has one solution for each choice of the parameters s and t. Hence, the linear
system has infinitely many solutions.
Notice that a vector x is a solution of this linear system if and only if
2
3
2
3
2
1
6 1 7
6 0 7
6
7
6
7
7 + t6 1 7
0
x (0, 0, 1, 2, 0) = s 6
6
7
6
7
4 0 5
4 2 5
0
1
The solutions of the system are exactly the vectors x
combination of the vectors
2
3
2
2
6 1 7
6
6
7
6
6 0 7 and 6
6
7
6
4 0 5
4
0
that dier from (0, 0, 1, 2, 0) by a linear

3
1
0 7
7
1 7
7
2 5
1
N

8
< x
= 0
= 0
= 1
y
:
x + y
+ z
+ 2z
+ 3z
96
Solution. This system of equations is linear, and its augmented matrix is

2
1
4 0
1
0
1
1
1
2
3
3
0
0 5
1
We apply elementary row operations to find an echelon form of this matrix. Subtracting row 1
from row 3 we obtain
2
3
1 0 1 0
4 0 1 2 0 5
0 1 2 1
Subtracting row 2 from row 3 yields
1
4 0
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
3
0
0 5
1
which is in reduced echelon form. The linear system corresponding to this augmented matrix is
8
< x
:
+ z
+ 2z
0
= 0
= 0
= 1
The variables x and y are bound variables, and z is a free variable.

There are no (x, y, z) for which 0 = 1. Consequently, there is no vector (x, y, z) which satisfies
these three equations simultaneously. The solution set of the system is the empty set. Because this
linear system is equivalent to the original linear system, the solution set of the original system is
the empty set, and the original linear system is inconsistent.
N
We summarize the results of this section in the Existence and Uniqueness Theorem for Linear
Systems.
Existence and Uniqueness Theorem for Linear Systems.
(i) A linear system is consistent if and only if the rightmost column of the systems augmented
matrix is not a pivot column.
(ii) A consistent linear system has a unique solution if and only if every column of the systems
coefficient matrix is a pivot column.
(iii) A consistent linear system either has a unique solution or infinitely many solutions.
One might carelessly guess that every linear system with a free variable has infinitely many
solutions. However, the linear system of Example 3.3.5 has a free variable, yet the system has no
solutions whatsoever. A correct statement is that every consistent linear system with a free variable
has infinitely many solutions.
97
3.3.2
Linear Systems and Linear Combinations
One application of linear systems is to determine whether a vector b is a linear combination of

vectors a1 , . . . , an .
Theorem 3.3.6. A vector b 2 Fm is a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an 2 Fm if and only if the
linear system with augmented matrix
a1 an b
is consistent.
Proof. Let a1 , . . . , an , b 2 Fm . The vector b is a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an if and only if

there are x1 , . . . , xn 2 F so that
x1 a1 + + xn an = b
2
3
2
a1,1
a1,n
b1
6 .. 7
6 .. 7
6 ..
x1 4 . 5 + + xn 4 . 5 = 4 .
am,1
am,n
bm
2
3
2
a1,1 x1 + + a1,n xn
b1
6
7
6 ..
..
4
5 = 4 .
.
2
am,1 x1 + + am,n xn
bm
3
7
5
3
7
5
That is, b is a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an if and only if the linear system

8
>
< a1,1 x1 + + a1,n xn = b1
..
.
>
:
am,1 x1 + + am,n xn = bm
is consistent. This augmented matrix of this linear system is
a1 an b
Therefore, a vector b 2 Fm is a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an 2 Fm if and only if the linear

system with augmented matrix
a1 an b
is consistent.
3
2 3
2 3
7
1
4
4
5
4
5
4
8
2
Example 3.3.7. Determine whether
is a linear combination of
and 5 5.
9
3
6
Solution. The reduced echelon form of
1
4 2
3
4
5
6
3
7
8 5
9
98
is
1
4 0
0
0
1
0
3
1
2 5
0
Since the rightmost column of the reduced

echelon form is not a pivot 2
column,
2 3
3 the2corresponding
3
7
1
4
linear system is consistent. Therefore, 4 8 5 is a linear combination of 4 2 5 and 4 5 5 . In fact,
9
3
6
from the reduced echelon form we can see that
2 3
2 3
2 3
7
1
4
4 8 5 = ( 1) 4 2 5 + 2 4 5 5
9
3
6
N
3
2 3
2 3
7
1
4
Example 3.3.8. Determine whether 4 8 5 is a linear combination of 4 2 5 and 4 5 5.
10
3
6
Solution. The reduced echelon form of
is
4
5
6
3
7
8 5
10
0
1
0
3
0
0 5
1
1
4 2
3
1
4 0
0

corresponding
2
3 echelon form is a pivot column,2the 3
2 3 linear
7
1
4
system is inconsistent. Therefore, 4 8 5 is not a linear combination of 4 2 5 and 4 5 5
N
10
3
6
3.3.3
Linear Systems and Intersections of Lines and Planes
We can also use linear systems to determine whether lines and planes in Fn are skew, parallel, or
intersecting.
Definition 3.3.9. Lines l1 and l2 in Fn are parallel, denoted l1 k l2 , if there are nonzero vectors
v1 , v2 in Fn parallel to l1 and l2 , respectively, so that v1 is parallel to v2 .
Definition 3.3.10. Lines in Fn are skew if they are not parallel and do not intersect. See Figure 3.4.
99
30
20
z
10
-10
-10
-5
0
10
5
10
Figure 3.4: Skew Lines in Space
Example 3.3.11. Determine whether the lines in R3 with parametric equations

8
8
0
4t
< x 1 =
< x 1 =
y+3 =
t
y+2 =
5t
:
:
z 5 = 2t
z 3 =
6t
are parallel, intersecting or skew. If they intersect, then find all points of the intersection.
Solution. To determine whether the lines are parallel, notice that a vector parallel to the first line
is
2
3
0
4 1 5
2
and a vector parallel to the second line is
2
4
3
4
5 5
6
Neither of these vectors is a scalar multiple of the other. Thus, the lines are not parallel.
It is crucial to realize that the variable t does not represent the same parameter in both sets of
parametric equations. Each line must have its own parameter. So, call the parameter s in the first
set of parametric equations.
8
8
0
4t
< x 1 =
< x 1 =
y+3 =
s
y+2 =
5t
:
:
z 5 = 2s
z 3 =
6t
Solving for x, y and z in terms of s and t,
8
1
< x =
y =
s
3
:
z = 2s + 5
8
< x =
y =
:
z =
4t
5t
6t
+ 1
2
+ 3
100
Setting x, y and z from each set of parametric equations equal we obtain

8
1 =
4t + 1
<
s
3 =
5t
2
:
2s + 5 =
6t + 3
Collecting terms involving s or t on the left-hand sides and collecting constants on the right-hand
sides yields
8
4t =
0
<
s + 5t =
1
:
2s
6t =
2
The augmented matrix of this linear system is
2
0
4 1
2
The reduced echelon form of this matrix is
2
1
4 0
0
4
5
6
0
1
0
3
0
1 5
2
3
1
0 5
0
Since the rightmost column of the augmented matrix is not a pivot column, the linear system is
consistent. Thus, the lines intersect. The corresponding system of equations is
8
=
1
< s
t =
0
:
0 =
0
To find all points of intersection, either substitute s = 1 in the first set of parametric equations,
or substitute t = 0 in the second set of parametric equations. In either case, (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3).
Therefore, the lines intersect only at (1, 2, 3).
N
Example 3.3.12. Determine whether the
8
< x 1 =
y+2 =
:
z 4 =
lines in R3 with parametric equations

8
t
= 2t
< x
3t
y 3 = t
:
t
z + 3 = 4t
are parallel, intersecting or skew. If they intersect, then find all points of the intersection.
Solution. To determine whether the lines are parallel, notice that a vector parallel to the first line
is
2
3
1
4 3 5
1
and a vector parallel to the second line is
3
2
4 1 5
4
101
Neither of these vectors is a scalar multiple of the other. Thus, the lines are not parallel.
As in the previous example, the variable t does not represent the same parameter in both sets
of parametric equations. So, call the parameter s in the first set of parametric equations.
8
8
s
= 2t
< x 1 =
< x
y + 2 = 3s
y 3 = t
:
:
z 4 =
s
z + 3 = 4t
Solving for x, y and z in terms of s and t,
8
s + 1
< x =
y = 3s
2
:
z =
s + 4
8
< x = 2t
y = t
:
z = 4t
+ 3
3
Setting x, y and z equal from each set of parametric equations we obtain

8
< s + 1 = 2t
3s
2 = t + 3
:
s + 4 = 4t
3
Collecting terms involving s or t on the left-hand sides and collecting constants on the right-hand
sides yields
8
2t =
1
< s
3s
t =
5
:
s
4t =
7
2
1
4 3
1
2
1
4 0
0
2
1
4
0
1
0
3
1
5 5
7
3
0
0 5
1
Since the rightmost column of the augmented matrix is a pivot column, the linear system is inconsistent. Consequently, the given lines do not intersect. Therefore, since the lines are neither parallel
nor intersecting, the lines are skew.
N
Example 3.3.13. Determine whether the line in R3 with parametric equations
8
2t
< x 1 =
y+3 =
3t
:
z 5 =
4t
intersects the plane in R3 with parametric equations
8
4s 7t
< x 1 =
y+2 =
5s + 11t
:
z 3 =
6s 13t
If they intersect, then find all points of the intersection.
102
Solution. Once again, the variable t does not represent the same parameter in both sets of parametric equations. Each line and each plane must have its own set of parameters. So, call the parameter
u in the set of parametric equations for the line.
8
2u
< x 1 =
y+3 =
3u
:
z 5 =
4u
Solving for x, y and z in terms of s, t
8
2u +
< x =
y =
3u
:
z =
4u +
and u,
1
3
5
8
< x =
y =
:
z =
Setting x, y and z equal from each set of parametric

8
7t + 1
< 4s
5s + 11t
2
:
6s
13t + 3
4s
7t
5s + 11t
6s
13t
+ 1
2
+ 3
equations we obtain
=
=
=
2u
3u
4u
+ 1
3
+ 5
Collecting terms involving s, t or u on the left-hand sides and collecting constants on the right-hand
sides yields
8
7t
2u =
0
< 4s
5s + 11t + 3u =
1
:
6s
13t
4u =
2
2
4
7
4 5
11
6
13
2
1
4 0
0
0
1
0
2
3
4
0
0
1
3
0
1 5
2
3
1
0 5
2
Since the rightmost column of the augmented matrix is not a pivot column, the linear system is
consistent. Thus, the line and the plane intersect. The corresponding system of equations is
8
=
1
< s
t
=
0
:
u =
2
To find the point of intersection, either substitute s = 1 and t = 0 in the set of parametric
equations for the plane, or substitute u = 2 in the set of parametric equations for the line. In
either case, (x, y, z) = ( 3, 3, 3). Therefore, the line and plane intersect only at ( 3, 3, 3).
N
Terms
103
bound variable
free variable
parallel lines
skew lines
Concepts
A matrix has at most one pivot position in each row and at most one pivot position in each
column.
Existence and Uniqueness Theorem for Linear Systems
Skills
Solve a linear system by finding the reduced echelon form of the systems coefficient matrix.
Determine whether a vector b is a linear combination of vectors a1 , . . . , an .
Determine whether lines and planes in Fn are parallel, intersecting, or skew.
Exercises
1. Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false. If the statement is true,
then prove it. If the statement is false, then provide a counterexample.
(a) There is a system of three linear equations in three variables that has exactly three
solutions.
(b) Every system of linear equations that has a free variable has infinitely many solutions.
2. Solve the linear systems.
8
< x1
2x1 + 2x2 +
(a)
:
x2 +
8
x2 +
<
x1 + 3x2 +
(b)
:
3x1 + 7x2 +
x3
9x3
5x3
=
=
=
8
7
2
4x3
5x3
7x3
=
=
=
5
2
6
3. A linear system is underdetermined if it has fewer equations than variables. A linear system
is overdetermined if it has more equations than variables.
(a) Prove that a consistent underdetermined linear system has infinitely many solutions.
(b) Provide an example of an inconsistent underdetermined linear system.
(c) Provide an example of an inconsistent overdetermined linear system.
104

(d) What are the possibilities for the number of solutions of a consistent overdetermined
system?
4. Determine whether b is a linear combination of a1 , a2 and a3 .

2
3
2 3
2
3
2
3
1
0
5
2
(a) a1 = 4 2 5 , a2 = 4 1 5 , a3 = 4 6 5 , b = 4 1 5
0
2
8
6
2
3
2 3
2 3
2
3
1
0
2
5
(b) a1 = 4 2 5 , a2 = 4 5 5 , a3 = 4 0 5 , b = 4 11 5
2
5
8
7
5. Find parametric equations for the line of intersection of the planes in R3 with standard
equations x + 2y 3z = 5 and 5x + 5y z = 1.
6. Determine whether the lines in R2 with standard equations x
x 3y = 0 have a common point of intersection.
7. Determine whether the lines in R3 with
8
=
< x
y 1 =
:
z
=
parametric equations
8
6t
< x 1 =
9t
y 4 =
:
3t
z
=
4y = 1, 2x
y =
3, and
2t
3t
t
are parallel, intersecting or skew. If they intersect, then find all points of intersection.
8. Determine whether the lines in R3

8
< x 1
y
:
z 2
with parametric
8
= 2t
<
= 3t
:
=
t
equations
x+1 =
t
y 2 = t
z 1 = 3t
are parallel, intersecting or skew. If they intersect, then find all points of intersection.
9. Determine whether the planes in R3 with standard equations x + 2y + z = 4, y

x + 3y = 0 have a common point of intersection.
z = 1, and
10. Determine whether the line in R3 with parametric equations

8
4t
< x 1 =
y + 3/2 =
t
:
z 1
=
2t
intersects the plane in R3 with standard equation 5x
all points of intersection.
2y + z = 1. If they intersect, then find
11. Determine whether the line in R3 with parametric equations

8
t
< x 5 =
y + 3 = 2t
:
z 1 = 7t
intersects the plane in R3 with standard equation x
all points of intersection.
3y + z = 1. If they intersect, then find
105
3.4. SPAN
12. Find parametric equations of the plane in R3 containing the point ( 1, 2, 1) and containing
the line of intersection of the planes with standard equations x+y z = 2 and 2x y +3z = 1.
13. Let p1 , p2 2 Fn . Let v1 , v2 2 Fn be nonzero. Let l1 be the line through p1 parallel to v1 .
Let l2 be the line through p2 parallel to v2 .
(a) Prove that l1 and l2 intersect
if and only if the the rightmost column of the matrix
v1
v2 p2 p1 is not a pivot column.
(b) Prove that l1 and l2 are

parallel if and only if one of the first two columns of the matrix
v1
v2 p2 p1 is not a pivot column.
v2 p2 p1
(c) Prove that l1 and l2 are skew if and only if every column of the matrix v1
is a pivot column.
(d) Prove that no two lines in F2 are skew.
3.4
Span
Objective
Introduce the span of a set of vectors.
The span of a set of vectors is the set of all linear combinations of those vectors.
Definition 3.4.1. The span of a nonempty set S Fn is the set of all linear combinations of
elements of S, denoted span S.
Example 3.4.2. The span of the set whose only element is the zero vector is span{0} = {0}.
z
O
y
(c)
z
x
O
(f)
(b)
Figure 3.5: The Span of a Nonzero Vector in R3

z
Example 3.4.3. Let v 2 Rn be nonzero. Then span{v} is the line through the origin parallel to
v. See Figure 3.4.
x
x
O
O
y
x
z
(e)
(f)
106

z
v2
O
y
v1
x
(b)
Figure 3.6: The Span of Two Nonparallel Vectors in R3

x
x
Example 3.4.4. Let v1 , v2 2 Rn be nonparallel.
Then span{v
1 , v2 } is the plane through the origin
O
containing v1 and v2 . See Figure 3.4.
O
O
y 8
y2
2 3
3 2 39
0
4 =
< 1
Example 3.4.5. Determine whether 4 0 5 is an element of span 4 2 5 , 4 5 5 .
:
;
1
3
x 6
82 3 2 39
3
2 3
0
0
z
< 1
=
z4
4 5 5 if and only if 4 0 5 is a linear
Solution. The vector 4 0 5 is in span 4 2 5 , (d)
(e) combination
:
;
1
3
6
1
2 3
2 3
1
4
of 4 2 5 and 4 5 5. As in the previous section we can determine whether one vector is a linear
3
6
combination of others by examining the matrix whose columns are the given vectors. The reduced
echelon form of
2
3
1 4 0
4 2 5 0 5
3 6 1
2
is
1
4 0
0
0
1
0
3
0
0 5
1

linear
2 3 echelon form is a pivot8column,
2 3 the
2 corresponding
39
0
4 =
< 1
system is inconsistent. Therefore, 4 0 5 is not an element span 4 2 5 , 4 5 5 .
N
:
;
1
3
6
107
3.4. SPAN
82 3 2 39
2 =
< 0
Example 3.4.6. Find the set of all vectors in R3 which are not elements of span 4 0 5 , 4 3 5 .
:
;
1
0
Solution. To solve this problem we reformulate it as a question about linear systems: For what
b1 , b2 , b3 2 R is the linear system with augmented matrix
2
3
0 2 b1
4 0 3 b2 5
1 0 b3
inconsistent? The reduced echelon form of this matrix is
2
3
1 0
b3
1
4 0 1
5
3 b2
2
0 0 b1 3 b2
The rightmost column of this matrix is a pivot

82 column
9 only if b1
3 2 if3and
2 =
< 0
set of vectors in R3 which are not in span 4 0 5 , 4 3 5 is
:
;
1
0
82
9
3
< b1
=
4 b2 5 : b1 2 b2 6= 0
:
;
3
b3
2
3 b2
6= 0. Therefore, the
3
1
The vector 4 0 5 is one such vector not in this span.
0
Term
span
Skills
Determine whether a vector b is in the span of a given set S of vectors. If so, then express b
as a linear combination of vectors in S.
Describe the set of vectors which are not in the span of a given set of vectors.
Exercises
(a) If a1 and a2 are nonzero vectors, then span{a1 , a2 } contains the line through the origin
and a1 .
108

(b) The span of any two vectors is a plane containing 0.
(c) The linear system with augmented matrix a1 a2 a3

if b 2 span{a1 , a2 , a3 }.
is consistent if and only
2. Determine whether b is an element of span{a1 , a2 , a3 }.

2
3
2 3
2
3
2
3
1
0
5
2
(a) a1 = 4 2 5 , a2 = 4 1 5 , a3 = 4 6 5 , b = 4 1 5
0
2
8
6
2
3
2 3
2 3
2
3
1
0
2
5
(b) a1 = 4 2 5 , a2 = 4 5 5 , a3 = 4 0 5 , b = 4 11 5
2
5
8
7
82
9
3 2
3
7
5 =
<
3. List five vectors in span 4 1 5 , 4 3 5 , and express each as a linear combination of
:
;
6
0
2
3
2
3
7
5
4 1 5 and 4 3 5.
6
0
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
4
1
4. For what values of h is 4 1 5 in the plane containing 0 and parallel to 4 4 5 and 4 3 5.
h
2
7
82
3 2
39
8
12 =
<
5. Describe span 4 2 5 , 4 3 5 geometrically.
:
;
6
9
2
2
6. Show that span
,
= R2 .
1
1
7. Provide an example of nonzero vectors a1 , a2 , a3 , b 2 R3 so
2
3
2 3
2
3
2
1
0
4
8. Let a1 = 4 0 5 , a2 = 4 3 5 , a3 = 4 2 5 , b = 4span
2
6
3
(a) Is b 2 {a1 , a2 , a3 }?
that b 2
/ span{a1 , a2 , a3 }.
3
4
1 5.
4
(b) Is b 2 span{a1 , a2 , a3 }?
(c) Is a1 2 span{a1 , a2 , a3 }?
9. Provide an example of a 3 3 matrix with real entries which is not in echelon form and whose
set of columns span R3 . Prove that your example is correct.
10. Provide an example of a 3 3 matrix with real entries which is not in echelon form and whose
set of columns does not span R3 . Prove that your example is correct.
11. Can a set of n < m vectors in Fm span Fm ? Explain.
109
3.5. THE MATRIX-VECTOR PRODUCT
3.5
The Matrix-Vector Product
Objective
Develop an algebraic operation for forming linear combinations.
Definition 3.5.1. The matrix-vector product of an m n matrix A =
2
3
x1
6
7
columns in Fm and a vector x = 4 ... 5 2 Fn is the linear combination
a1
an
with
xn
def
Ax =
n
X
xj aj
j=1
of the columns of A with the corresponding components of x as coefficients.

We define the matrix-vector product Ax only if the number of columns of A equals the number
of components in x.
Example 3.5.2.
1
4
Example 3.5.3.
Example 3.5.4.
2
5
2
3
6
1
4 2
3
7
4 8 5=7 1
4
9
3
4
7
5 5
8
6
+8
2
5
+9
3
6
50
122
3
2 3 2
3
1
4
39
= 7 4 2 5 + 8 4 5 5 = 4 54 5
3
6
69
1
4
2
5
3
6
7
8
The matrix has three columns, but the vector only has two components. So, the number of columns
of the matrix does not equal the number of components of the vector. Therefore, the matrix-vector
product is not defined.
3.5.1
Properties of the Matrix-Vector Product
The matrix-vector product distributes over the vector sum and commutes with scalar multiplication.
Theorem 3.5.5. If A is an m n matrix with entries in F, then
(i) A(x + y) = Ax + Ay, and
(ii) A(cx) = c(Ax).
110
for all x, y 2 Fn and all c 2 F.
def
Proof. Let A = a1 an be an m n matrix with entries in F.
def
def
(i) Let x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) and y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) be vectors in Fn .

02
3 2
31
x1
y1
B6
7 6
7C
A(x + y) = A @4 ... 5 + 4 ... 5A Definitions of x and y
2
6
= A4
=
=
=
n
X
j=1
n
X
xn
yn
x1 + y1
7
..
5
.
xn + yn
Definition of the Vector Sum
(xj + yj )aj
Definition of the Matrix-Vector Product
(xj aj + yj aj )
Distributivity of Scalar Multiplication over Addition of Scalars
j=1
n
X
xj aj +
j=1
n
X
y j aj
Commutativity and Associativity of the Vector Sum
j=1
= Ax + Ay
Definition of the Matrix-Vector Product
(ii) Exercise.
Definition 3.5.6. For each positive integer n, the n n identity matrix is the matrix
def
In =
e1
Example 3.5.7. The 4 4 identity matrix is

2
1
6 0
I4 = 6
4 0
0
Theorem 3.5.8. For all x 2 Fn ,
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
en
3
0
0 7
7
0 5
1
In x = x
Proof. Exercise.
Theorem 3.5.9. If A =
(i) A0 = 0, and
a1
(ii) Aej = aj for all j = 1, . . . , n.
an
is an m n matrix with entries in F, then
111

Proof. Exercise.
The definition of the matrix-vector product expresses the product as a linear combination of
the columns of the matrix. This is how we want to think about the matrix-vector product in a
theoretical sense. However, when computing the product of a matrix and a vector by hand, it is
often more efficient to compute by rows as shown below and in Example 3.5.10.
Let
2
3
a1,1 a1,n
2
3
6 ..
.. 7
..
x1
6 .
7
.
.
7
def 6
def 6 . 7
7
A = 6
6 ai,1 ai,n 7 and x = 4 .. 5
6 .
.. 7
..
xn
4 ..
.
. 5
am,1 am,n
Then
3
2
a1,1
6 .. 7
6
6 . 7
6
6
7
6
6
7
= x1 6 ai,1 7 + + xn 6
6
6 . 7
6
4 .. 5
4
am,1
2
a1,1 x1 + + a1,n xn
6
..
6
.
6
a
x
+
+ ai,n xn
= 6
i,1
1
6
6
..
4
.
am,1 x1 + + am,n xn
Ax
Example 3.5.10.
3.5.2
1
4
2
5
3
6
3
a1,n
.. 7
. 7
7
ai,n 7
7
.. 7
. 5
am,n
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
5
7
4 8 5 = 1(7) + 2(8) + 3(9)
4(7) + 5(8) + 6(9)
9
50
122
Linear Systems, Vector Equations and Matrix Equations
We can express a linear system

8
>
<
as a vector equation
>
:
a1,1 x1 + + a1,n xn
am,1 x1 + + am,n xn
=
..
.
= bm
3 2
a1,1 x1 + + a1,n xn
6
7 6
..
4
5=4
.
am,1 x1 + + am,n xn
2
b1
3
b1
.. 7
. 5
bm
112
and as a matrix equation

2
..
.
a1,1
6 ..
4 .
am,1
More concisely, this matrix equation is

where
a1,1
6 ..
A=4 .
am,1
32
a1,n
.. 7 6
. 54
am,n
3 2
x1
.. 7 = 6
. 5 4
xn
Ax = b
3
2
a1,n
.. 7 , x = 6
4
. 5
am,n
..
.
3
2
x1
.. 7 and b = 6
4
. 5
xn
From now on we will refer to Ax = b as a linear system.
3.5.3
3
b1
.. 7
. 5
bm
3
b1
.. 7
. 5
bm
Column Space
Definition 3.5.11. The column space of an m n matrix A with entries in F is the set
def
Col(A) = {Ax : x 2 Fn }
The column space of a matrix A is the span of the set of columns of A. That is, if A =
a1 an , then
Col(A) = span{a1 , . . . , an }
Terms
matrix-vector product
identity matrix
column space
Concept
If A is an m n matrix with entries in F, then
(i) A(x + y) = Ax + Ay, and
(ii) A(cx) = c(Ax)
for all x, y 2 Fn and all c 2 F.
Skill
Find the product of an m n matrix with an n-vector.
Exercises
113
(a) A vector b is a linear combination of the columns of a matrix A if and only if Ax = b
is consistent.
(b) The equation Ax = b is consistent if the augmented matrix A b has a pivot position
in every row.
(c) If the span of the set of columns of an m n matrix A is Fm , then Ax = b is consistent

for all b 2 Fm .
(d) If A is an m n matrix and Ax = b is inconsistent for some b 2 Fm , then A does not

have a pivot position in every row.
(e) Every linear combination of vectors can be written as Ax for an appropriate matrix A
and vector x.
2. Find the matrix-vector product using the definition of the matrix-vector product and using
the row-column method. If the product is undefined, then explain why.
2
32
3
4 2
3
(a) 4 1 6 5 4 2 5
0 1
7
2
3
2
5
4
6 5
(b)
1
1
2
3
6
5
2
3 5
(c) 4 4
3
7
6
2 3
1
8 3
4 4 5
1
(d)
5 1
2
1
2
3
3
4 2 1 4 6 5
(e)
9
3. Find a matrix A and a vector b so that the matrix equation Ax = b expresses the linear
system
3x1 + x2 +
5x3 = 9
x2 + 4x3 = 0
def
4. Let A = 4
1
3
5
3
2
1
3
4
6 5. Describe the set of all b 2 R3 so that Ax = b is inconsistent.
8
5. Prove that if A is an m n matrix with entries in F and m > n, then there is some b 2 Fm
so that Ax = b is inconsistent.
114
6. Prove that if A is an n n matrix with entries in F and there exists b 2 Fn so that Ax = b

has a unique solution, then the span of the set of columns of A is Fn .
7. Prove Theorem 3.5.5 (ii).
8. Prove Theorem 3.5.9.
9. Let A be an m n matrix with entries in F
(a) Prove that if x, y 2 Col(A), then x + y 2 Col(A).
(b) Prove that if c is a scalar and x 2 Col(A), then cx 2 Col(A).

def
10. A matrix A = [ai,j ] is upper triangular if ai,j = 0 whenever i > j. Prove that an n n
def
matrix A = a1 an is upper triangular if and only if
span{Ae1 , . . . , Aek } = span{e1 , . . . , ek }
for each k = 1, . . . , n.
3.6
Solution Sets of Linear Systems
Objective
Relate the solution set of a nonhomogeneous linear system Ax = b to the solution set of the
corresponding homogeneous linear system Ax = 0.
Definition 3.6.1. A linear system
Ax = b
is homogeneous if b = 0. Otherwise, the linear system is nonhomogeneous.
3.6.1
Homogeneous Linear Systems
Every homogeneous linear system Ax = 0 is consistent because

A0 = 0
Definition 3.6.2. The trivial solution of a linear system Ax = 0 is 0.
Definition 3.6.3. The null space of an m n matrix A with entries in F is the set
def
Nul(A) = {x 2 Fn : Ax = 0}
The null space of a matrix A is the solution set of the homogeneous linear system Ax = 0. Since
every homogeneous linear system has the trivial solution, 0 2 Nul(A).
1 3
Example 3.6.4. Express the null space of A =
as the span of a set of vectors.
2 6
115
3.6. SOLUTION SETS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

y
3
1
O
Nul(A)
Solution. The reduced echelon form of A is
The corresponding system of equations is
1
0
3
0
x + 3y = 0
Thus,
x=
3y
Let t = y. The null space of A consists of the vectors
x
= t
y
Therefore,
Nul(A) = span
3
1
3
1
Geometrically, Nul(A) is the line in R2 containing the origin and parallel to

ure 3.6.1.
3.6.2
3
1
. See FigN
Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems
The solution set of a nonhomogeneous linear system Ax = b diers from the solution set of the
corresponding homogeneous linear system Ax = 0 by a constant vector.
Theorem 3.6.5. Let A be an m n matrix with entries in F, and let b 2 Fm . If p 2 Fn is a
solution of Ax = b, then the solution set of Ax = b is
{x 2 Fn : x
p 2 Nul(A)}
116
Proof. If x 2 Fn is a solution of Ax = b, then

A(x
p) = Ax
Thus, x p 2 Nul(A).
Conversely, if x p 2 Nul(A), then
Ap = b
A(x
p) = 0
Ax
Ap = 0
b=0
b = 0
Ax
= b
Ax
Thus, x is a solution of Ax = b.
Therefore, the solution set of Ax = b is the set {x 2 Fn : x
p 2 Nul(A)}.
3
1
(3,2)
O
Nul(A)
Example 3.6.6. Let A =

of Nul(A).
1
2
3
6
9
18
p=
and b =
Solution. By inspection
. Express the solution set of Ax = b in terms
3
2
is a solution of Ax = b. In Example 3.6.4 we showed that
3
Nul A = span
1
117
3.6. SOLUTION SETS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

By Theorem 3.6.6, the solution set of Ax = b consists of all vectors x so that
3
x p = t
1
3
3
x =
+t
2
1
for some t 2 R. This set is a line in R2 containing the point (3, 2) parallel to
3
1
Terms
homogeneous linear system
nonhomogeneous linear system
null space
Concepts
The null space of a matrix A is the solution set of the homogeneous linear system Ax = 0.
The solution set of a nonhomogeneous linear system Ax = b diers from the solution set of
the corresponding homogeneous linear system Ax = 0 by a constant vector.
Skills
Express the solution set of a homogeneous linear system as the span of a set of vectors.
Express the solution set of a nonhomogeneous linear system as a translate of the solution set of
the corresponding homogeneous linear system by a particular solution of the nonhomogeneous
linear system.
Exercises
(a) The solution set of the linear system with augmented matrix a1 a2 a3 b equals
def
the solution set of Ax = b where A = a1 a2 a3 .
(b) If Ax = b is inconsistent, then b is not an element of the span of the set of columns of
A.
(c) If the augmented matrix A b has a pivot position in every row, then Ax = b is
inconsistent.
(d) If A is an m n matrix with entries in F and the span of the set of columns of A is not
Fm , then Ax = b is inconsistent for some b 2 Fm .
118

(e) A homogeneous linear system is always consistent.
(f) If x is a nonzero solution of Ax = 0, then every component of x is nonzero.
(g) The equation Ax = b is homogeneous if 0 is a solution.
(h) The solution set of Ax = b is a translate of the solution set of Ax = 0.
2. Express Nul(A) as the span of a set of vectors.

def
(a) A =
def
(b) A =
3
1
1
0
1
0
def 6
(c) A = 6
4 0
0
9
3
3
1
6
2
3
4
4
0
0
0
7
5
2
1
0
0
0 3
0 0
0 1
0 0
3
5
1 7
7
4 5
0
3. Provide an example of a 3 3 nonzero matrix A so that 4

4. Let A be an m n matrix with entries in F
3
1
2 5 2 Nul(A).
1
(a) Prove that if x, y 2 Nul(A), then x + y 2 Nul(A).
(b) Prove that if c is a scalar and x 2 Nul(A), then cx 2 Nul(A).
3.7
Linear Independence
Objective
Develop the concepts of linear independence and linear dependence of families of vectors.
Recall from Proposition 1.5.8 that vectors a, b 2 Fn are parallel if and only if there are scalars
k1 , k2 , not both zero, such that
k1 a + k2 b = 0
We can reformulate this characterization of parallel vectors by saying that a and b are parallel if
and only if there is an equation consisting of the zero vector on one side, and a linear combination
of a and b on the other side in which at least one of the coefficients is nonzero. We will use this
observation to generalize parallel pairs of vectors to linearly dependent families of vectors.
119
3.7. LINEAR INDEPENDENCE
3.7.1
Linear Relations
Definition 3.7.1. A linear relation among a1 , . . . , ap 2 Fn is an equation

p
X
kj aj = 0
j=1
where k1 , . . . , kp are scalars.

Example 3.7.2. The equations
6
1
2
and
are linear relations between
1
2
and
+ ( 2)
3
6
1
2
+0
3
6
3
6
=0
=0
Definition 3.7.3. The trivial relation among a1 , . . . , ap 2 Fn is the linear relation

p
X
0aj = 0
j=1
Definition 3.7.4. A nontrivial relation among a1 , . . . , ap 2 Fn is a linear relation among

a1 , . . . , ap 2 Fn which is not the trivial relation.
We can now characterize parallel vectors using linear relations: Vectors a, b 2 Fn are parallel if
and only if there is a nontrivial linear relation between a and b.
3.7.2
Families
When we specify a set by listing its elements, any repetition in the listing does not contribute to
the elements of the set. For example,
{1, 2, 2, 2, 5, 5} = {1, 2, 5}
It is now useful for us to consider collections with repeated elements. We will call such a set a
family. For example, the set of columns of the matrix
1 3 1
A=
2 5 2
is
However, the family of columns of A is
1
2
1
2
3
5
3
5
1
2
120
We often distinguish among repeated elements in a set by assigning each element a subscript index.
For example, if we consider {a1 , . . . , ap } Fn as a family, then we allow for the possibility that
ai = aj for i 6= j. A useful way to distinguish between a set and a family is to remember that
families may have twins.
3.7.3
Linear Independence
Definition 3.7.5. A family {a1 , . . . , ap } Fn is linearly independent if the only linear relation
among a1 , . . . , ap is the trivial relation.
Definition 3.7.6. A family of vectors in Fn is linearly dependent if it is not linearly independent.
Example 3.7.7. Let a 6= 0. The family {a} is linearly independent because if
ka = 0
then k = 0.
Example 3.7.8. The family {0} is linearly dependent because 10 = 0 is a nontrivial linear relation.
Example 3.7.9. The family {a1 , a2 } is linearly dependent if and only if a1 and a2 are parallel.
Example 3.7.10. Any family {a1 , . . . , ap } containing the zero vector is linearly dependent since
0a1 + + 10 + + 0ap = 0
is a nontrivial linear relation.
Example 3.7.11. Any family {a1 , . . . , ap } containing the same vector more than once, say ai = aj ,
is linearly dependent since
0a1 + + 1ai + + ( 1)aj + + 0ap = 0
is a nontrivial linear relation.
Example 3.7.12. Determine whether the family
(2 3 2 3 2 3)
1
4
7
4 2 5,4 5 5,4 8 5
3
6
9
is linearly independent. If the family is linearly dependent, then find a nontrivial linear relation
among its elements.
Solution. Consider a linear relation
2 3
2
1
k1 4 2 5 + k2 4
3
2
1
4 2
3
3
2
4
7
5 5 + k3 4 8
6
9
32
4 7
k1
5 8 5 4 k2
6 9
k3
5 = 0
3
5 = 0
121

2
1
def
Let A = 4 2
3
4
5
6
3
7
8 5. The reduced echelon form of A is
9
2
3
1 0
1
4 0 1
2 5
0 0
0
Since there is a column of A which is not a pivot column, the linear system Ax = 0 has a nontrivial
solution. Thus, the family
(2 1 3 2 4 3 2 7 3)
4 2 5,4 5 5,4 8 5
3
6
9
is linearly dependent.
To obtain a nontrivial linear relation solve for k1 , k2 and k3 .
2
3
2
3
k1
1
4 k2 5 = t 4 2 5
k3
1
For t = 1 we obtain the nontrivial linear relation

2 3
2 3 2 3
1
4
7
4 2 5 24 5 5 + 4 8 5 = 0
3
6
9
Notice that we can solve for one of these vectors in terms of
2 3
2 3
2
7
1
4 8 5 = ( 1) 4 2 5 + 2 4
9
3
2 3
2 3
2 3
7
1
4
So, 4 8 5 is a linear combination of 4 2 5 and 4 5 5.
9
3
6
the other two. For example,

3
4
5 5
6
Example 3.7.13. Determine whether the family

3)
(2 3 2 3 2
1
4
7
4 2 5,4 5 5,4 8 5
3
6
10
is linearly independent.
Solution. Consider a linear relation

2 3
2
1
k1 4 2 5 + k2 4
3
2
1
4 2
3
3
2
4
5 5 + k3 4
6
32
4 7
5 8 54
6 10
3
7
8 5 = 0
10
3
k1
k2 5 = 0
k3
122

2
1
def
Let A = 4 2
3
4
5
6
3
7
8 5. The reduced echelon form of A is the 3 3 identity matrix
10
2
3
1 0 0
4 0 1 0 5
0 0 1
Since every column of A is a pivot column, the only solution of the linear system Ax = 0 is the
trivial solution. Thus, the family
3)
(2 3 2 3 2
1
4
7
4 2 5,4 5 5,4 8 5
3
6
10
N
Theorem 3.7.14. The family of columns of a matrix A is linearly independent if and only if
Nul(A) = {0}.
def
Proof. Let A = a1 ap . The family {a1 , . . . , ap } is linearly independent if and only if the
only linear relation among a1 , . . . , ap is the trivial relation
p
X
0aj = 0
j=1
That is, the only solution of Ax = 0 is x = 0. Equivalently, Nul(A) = {0}.

Theorem 3.7.15. Let p and m be positive integers. If p > m, then the family {a1 , . . . , ap } Fm
Proof. Define a matrix
def
A =
a1
ap
The size of A is m p, and A has at most one pivot position in each row. Thus, A has at most
m pivots position. Since p > m, there is at least one column of A which is not a pivot column.
Consequently, Nul(A) 6= {0}. Therefore, the family {a1 , . . . , ap } is linearly dependent.
1
3
5
Example 3.7.16. The set
,
,
is linearly dependent since it consists of 3 vectors
2
4
6
in R2 and 3 > 2.
Linear Dependence Theorem. Let {a1 , . . . , ap } be a family of p 2 vectors in Fm . The family
{a1 , . . . , ap } is linearly dependent if and only if a1 = 0 or there exists a positive integer q > 1 such
that aq is a linear combination of a1 , . . . , aq 1 .
Proof. ()) Assume that {a1 , . . . , ap } is linearly dependent. Then there exist scalars k1 , . . . , kp not
all zero so that
p
X
kj aj = 0
j=1
123

Let q be the greatest integer so that kq 6= 0. If q = 1, then
k1 a1 = 0
Since k1 6= 0, we conclude that a1 = 0.
If q > 1, then
q 1
X
kj aj + kq aq +
j=1
p
X
0aj
= 0
j=q+1
kq aq
q 1
X
kj aj
j=1
aq
q 1
X
kj
aj
kq
j=1
Therefore, there exists a positive integer q > 1 such that aq is a linear combination of a1 , . . . , aq 1 .
(() Assume there exists a positive integer q > 1 such that aq is a linear combination of
a1 , . . . , aq 1 . Then there exist scalars k1 , . . . , kq 1 such that
aq =
q 1
X
kj aj
j=1
Then
q 1
X
( kj )aj + aq +
j=1
p
X
0aj = 0
j=q+1
is a nontrivial linear relation among a1 , . . . , ap . Therefore, the family {a1 , . . . , ap } is linearly dependent.
3.7.4
Hyperplanes
Recall that the plane P in Fn containing p 2 Fn and parallel to the non-parallel vectors a and b
in Fn is
def
P = {x 2 Fn : x p = sa + tb for some scalars s and t}
Now that we have generalized the notion of non-parallel to linear independence, we can consider
higher-dimensional analogues of planes.
Definition 3.7.17. The hyperplane H in Fn containing p 2 Fn and parallel to the linearly
independent vectors v1 , . . . , vn 1 in Fn is
8
9
n
<
=
X1
def
H = x 2 Fn : x p =
cj vj for some scalars c1 , . . . , cn 1
:
;
j=1
The key feature of a hyperplane is that it consists of vectors that dier from a fixed vector p
by a linear combination of n 1 linearly independent vectors in Fn .
124
Example 3.7.18.
1. A hyperplane in R2 is a line in R2 .
2. A hyperplane in R3 is a plane in R3 .
Terms
linear relation
nontrivial linear relation
trivial linear relation
linearly independent family of vectors
linearly dependent family of vectors
hyperplane
Concepts
Vectors a, b 2 Fn are parallel if and only if there is a nontrivial linear relation between a and
b.
The family of columns of a matrix A is linearly independent if and only if Nul(A) = {0}.
Let p and m be positive integers. If p > m, then the family {a1 , . . . , ap } Fm is linearly
dependent.
Linear Dependence Theorem
Skill
Determine whether a family of vectors is linearly independent or linearly dependent. If the
family is linearly dependent, then find a nontrivial linear relation among the vectors in the
family, and express one of the vectors in the family as a linear combination of the other vectors
in the family.
Exercises
1. Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the statement is true, then prove it. If
the statement is false, then provide a specific counterexample to show that the statement is
not always true.
(a) The family of columns of a matrix A is linearly independent if the equation Ax = 0 has
the trivial solution.
(b) If a family S is linearly dependent, then each element of S is a linear combination of the
remaining elements of S.
125
(c) The family of columns of every 3 4 matrix is linearly dependent.
(d) If {a, b} is linearly independent and {a, b, c} is linearly dependent, then c 2 span{a, b}.
(e) Two vectors are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same line through the
origin.
(f) If a family in Fn contains fewer than n vectors, then the set is linearly independent.
(g) If {a, b} is linearly independent and c 2 span{a, b}, then {a, b, c} is linearly dependent.
(h) If a family of Fn is linearly dependent, then the family contains more than n vectors.
(i) If {a1 , . . . , a4 } F4 and a3 = 2a1 + a2 , then {a1 , . . . , a4 } is linearly dependent.
(j) If {a1 , . . . , a4 } F4 and a3 = 0, then {a1 , . . . , a4 } is linearly dependent.
(k) If a1 , a2 2 F4 are not parallel, then {a1 , a2 } is linearly independent.
(l) If {a1 , . . . , a4 } F4 and a3 is not a linear combination of {a1 , a2 , a4 }, then {a1 , . . . , a4 }

(m) If {a1 , . . . , a4 } F4 and {a1 , a2 , a3 } is linearly dependent, then {a1 , . . . , a4 } is linearly

dependent.
(n) If {a1 , . . . , a4 } F4 is linearly independent, then {a1 , a2 , a3 } is linearly independent.
2. Determine whether the family of vectors is linearly independent. If not, then find a nontrivial
linear relation among the vectors.
82 3 2
3 2
39
7
9 =
< 5
(a) 4 0 5 , 4 2 5 , 4 4 5
:
;
0
6
8
1
3
(b)
,
3
9
5
2
1
1
(c)
,
,
,
1
8
3
7
82
3 2 3 2
39
3
0
6 =
<
(d) 4 5 5 , 4 0 5 , 4 5 5
:
;
1
0
4
82
3 2
39
8
2 =
<
(e) 4 12 5 , 4 3 5
:
;
4
1
2
3
2
3
5
5
1
4 7
def 6
7. Find a nontrivial solution of Ax = 0 without performing row
3. Let A = 6
4 3
1
4 5
1
0
1
operations.
4. Let A be an m n matrix with entries in F.
(a) Prove that if A has n pivot columns, then Ax = b has at most one solution for each
b 2 Fm .
126

(b) Prove that if Ax = b has at most one solution for each b 2 Fm , then the family of
columns of A is linearly independent.
5. Prove that if {a1 , . . . , ap } Fn is linearly independent, then {a1 a2 , a2 a3 , . . . , ap

ap , ap }
6. Prove that if {a1 , . . . , ap } Fn is linearly independent, b 2 Fn and {a1 + b, . . . , ap + b} is

linearly dependent, then b 2 span{a1 , . . . , ap } .
7. Let {a1 , . . . , ap } Fn . Prove that if a1 6= 0, and for each j = 2, . . . , p, the vector aj has a
nonzero entry in a component where each of the preceding vectors a1 , . . . , aj 1 has a zero,
then the family {a1 , . . . , ap } is linearly independent.
8. Prove that for all scalars a1 , . . . , an , b such that a1 , . . . , an are not all zero, the set of vectors
(x1 , . . . , xn ) in Rn whose components satisfy the linear equation
a1 x1 + + an xn = b
is a hyperplane in Rn .
Chapter 4
Linear Transformations
4.1
Linear Transformations: Definition and Properties
Objectives
Define linear transformation and matrix transformation.
Relate linear transformations to matrix transformations.
Provide examples of linear transformations.
Describe images of sets with respect to linear transformations.
Let A be an m n matrix with entries in F. Define a function T : Fn ! Fm by
def
T (x) = Ax
Definition 4.1.1. A function T : Fn ! Fm is a matrix transformation if there exists a matrix
A such that
T (x) = Ax
for all x 2 Fn .
Example 4.1.2. Define T : R3 ! R2 by

def
T (x) =
Then
02
T @4
31
1
1
0 5A =
2
2
1
2
3
4
3
4
5
6
5
6
2
4
x
3
1
9
0 5=
10
2
Recall two important properties of the matrix-vector product. If A is an m n matrix with

entries in F, then
127
128
CHAPTER 4. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Fn
Fm
x
T
T (x)
Figure 4.1: A Linear Transformation
(i) A(x + y) = Ax + Ay
(ii) A(kx) = k(Ax)
for all x, y 2 Fn and all scalars k. A function possessing two analogous properties is called a linear
transformation.
Definition 4.1.3. A function T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation if
(i) (Additivity) T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y) for all x, y 2 Fn , and
(ii) (Homogeneity) T (kx) = kT (x) for all x 2 Fn and all scalars k.
Example 4.1.4. Let r be a nonnegative real number. Define T : Rn ! Rn by

def
T (x) = rx
Then
and
T (x + y) = r(x + y) = rx + ry = T (x) + T (y)

T (kx) = r(kx) = k(rx) = kT (x)
for all x, y 2 Rn and all scalars k. Therefore, T is a linear transformation called a scaling transformation. In particular, if r = 1, then we call T the identity transformation. If r > 1, then we
call T a dilation. If 0 r < 1, then we call T a contraction. If r = 0, then we call T the zero
transformation. Notice that the zero transformation is also a contraction.
Example 4.1.5. Let a 2 Fn . Define T : Fn ! Fn by
def
T (x) = proja x
If a = 0, then T (x) = 0 for all x 2 Fn . So, T is the zero transformation which is a linear
transformation by Example 4.1.4.
4.1. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS: DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES

y
129
R2
x
T (x)
T
x
Figure 4.2: A Projection Transformation R2
If a 6= 0, then for each x 2 Fn ,

T (x) = proja x = hx, ui u
where u is a unit vector in the direction of a. Thus,
T (x + y) = hx + y, uiu
= (hx, ui + hy, ui) u

= hx, uiu + hy, uiu
= T (x) + T (y)
and
T (kx) = hkx, uiu
= (khx, ui)u
= k(hx, uiu)
= kT (x)
for all x, y 2 Fn and all scalars k. Therefore, T is a linear transformation called the projection
transformation onto a. See Figure 4.2.
Theorem 4.1.6. Every matrix transformation T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation.
Proof. Let T : Fn ! Fm be a matrix transformation. There is an m n matrix A so that
T (x) = Ax
for all x 2 Fn . For all x, y 2 Fn and all scalars k we obtain
T (x + y) = A(x + y) = Ax + Ay = T (x) + T (y)
130
and
T (kx) = A(kx) = k(Ax) = kT (x)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.
R2
T (x)
x
T
x
Figure 4.3: Rotation by in R2
Example 4.1.7. Let be a real number. Consider the function T : R2 ! R2 which rotates each
vector in R2 by radians. See Figure 4.3.
x
Let x =
2 R2 . Express x in polar coordinates r and :
y
x=
r cos
r sin
Recall the addition formulas for cosine and sine.

cos( + ) = cos cos
sin sin
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin
131
Applying the addition formulas we obtain
r cos( + )
T (x) =
r sin( + )
r(cos cos
sin sin )
=
r(sin cos + cos sin )
r cos cos
r sin sin
=
r sin cos + r cos sin
x cos y sin
=
x sin + y cos
cos
sin
x
=
sin
cos
y
cos
sin
=
x
sin
cos
Therefore, T is a matrix transformation. Since every matrix transformation is a linear transformation, T is a linear transformation, called a rotation transformation.
y
R2
T (x)
T
x
Figure 4.4: A Horizontal Shear in R2
Example 4.1.8. Let k 2 R. Define T : R2 ! R2 by
x
x + ky
def
T
=
y
y
Since
T
x
y
x + ky
y
1
0
k
1
x
y
the function T is a matrix transformation. Thus, T is a linear transformation. The transformation

T is called a horizontal shear. See Figure 4.4.
132

y
T (x)
R2
T
x
Figure 4.5: A Vertical Shear in R2
Example 4.1.9. Let k 2 R. Define T : R2 ! R2 by
x
x
def
T
=
y
kx + y
Since
T
x
y
x
kx + y
1
k
0
1
x
y
the function T is a matrix transformation. Thus, T is a linear transformation. The transformation

T is called a vertical shear. See Figure 4.5.
Theorem 4.1.10. If T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation, then
T (0) = 0
Proof. By homogeneity,
T (0) = T (00) = 0T (0) = 0
Example 4.1.11. The function f : R ! R defined by

def
f (x) = 2x
is not a linear transformation because f (0) =
3 6= 0.
Example 4.1.12. The function f : R ! R defined by

def p
f (x) = |x|
is not a linear transformation because

p
p
p
f (9 + 16) = f (25) = 25 = 5 6= 7 = 3 + 4 = 9 + 16 = f (9) + f (16)
133

Linear transformations are exactly the functions that preserve linear combinations.
Theorem 4.1.13. A function T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation if and only if for every

integer p 2,
0
1
p
p
X
X
T@
kj vj A =
kj T (vj )
j=1
j=1
for all v1 , . . . , vp 2 Fn and all scalars k1 , . . . , kp .

Proof. Exercise.
Definition 4.1.14. Let f : X ! Y be a function. The image of S X with respect to f is the

set
def
f (S) = {f (x) : x 2 S}
Definition 4.1.15. The image of a function f : X ! Y is the set
def
im(f ) = f (X)
Fn
Fm
T (x)
x
v
T (v)
T (p)
T (l)
Figure 4.6: Linear Transformations Map Lines to Lines or Points
Example 4.1.16. Describe the image of a line with respect to a linear transformation.
Solution. Let l be a line in Fn passing through p and parallel to v 6= 0. That is,
l = {p + tv : t is a scalar}
Let T : Fn ! Fm be a linear transformation. Then
T (p + tv) = T (p) + tT (v)
134
for all real numbers t. If T (v) 6= 0, then the image of the line l with respect to T is
T (l) = {T (p) + tT (v) : t is a scalar}
which is the line in Fm containing T (p) and parallel to T (v). If T (v) = 0, then T (l) = {T (p)}
which is a single point.
N
In general, linear transformations map lines to lines or points. See Figure 4.6.
Theorem 4.1.17. If k is a positive integer and T : Rn ! Rm is a linear transformation, then for
every k-parallelotope P in Rn , the set T (P ) is a k-parallelotope.
Proof. Assume that T : Rn ! Rm is a linear transformation, k is a positive integer, and P is a
k-parallelotope in Rn . Then there exist p, v1 , . . . , vk 2 Rn such that
8
9
k
<
=
X
P = x 2 Rn : x p =
cj vj for some c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1]
:
;
j=1
Then
T (P ) = {T (x) : x 2 P }
8
9
k
<
=
X
=
T (x) : x p =
cj vj for some c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1]
:
;
j=1
8
9
k
<
=
X
=
T (x) : x = p +
cj vj for some c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1]
:
;
j=1
8 0
9
1
k
<
=
X
=
T @p +
cj vj A : for some c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1]
:
;
j=1
8
9
k
<
=
X
=
T (p) +
cj T (vj ) : for some c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1]
:
;
j=1
8
9
k
<
=
X
=
y 2 Rm : y = T (p) +
cj T (vj ) for some c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1]
;
:
j=1
8
9
k
<
=
X
=
y 2 Rm : y T (p) =
cj T (vj ) for some c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1]
:
;
j=1
Therefore, T (P ) is a k-parallelotope in Rm .
Terms
matrix transformation
135
linear transformation
scaling transformation
identity transformation
dilation
contraction
zero transformation
rotation transformation
projection transformation
horizontal shear
vertical shear
image of a set with respect to a function
image of a function
Concepts
Every matrix transformation is a linear transformation.
Linear transformations are exactly those functions that preserve linear combinations.
Linear transformations map the zero vector in the domain to the zero vector in the codomain.
Skills
Determine whether a given function is a linear transformation.
Describe the image of a set with respect to a linear transformation.
Exercises
1. Let T : Fn ! Fm be a matrix transformation with matrix A. What is the size of A?
2. True or False: The function T : R2 ! R2 which rotates vectors by a fixed angle is a linear
transformation.
5
2
2
2
3. For each of the following linear transformations T : R ! R , plot a =
,b=
,
2
4
T (a) and T (b). Describe T geometrically.
1
0
def
(a) T (x) =
x
0
1
136

def
(b) T (x) =
def
(c) T (x) =
def
(d) T (x) =
1/2
0
0
0
0
1
0
1/2
1
0
x
1
0
4. Let T : R2 ! R2 be a linear transformation so that
2
T (e1 ) =
and
T (e2 ) =
5
Find T
5
3
and T
x1
x2
5. Let T : R2 ! R2 be a linear transformation so that
5
2
1
T
=
and
T
2
1
3
Find T
15
6
and T
6. Define f : R2 ! R3 by
17
12
1
6
1
3
3
2x1 3x2
f (x1 , x2 ) = 4 x1 + 4 5
5x2
def
Prove that f is not a linear transformation.
7. A function f : Fn ! Fn is a translation if there exists b 2 Fn such that

f (x) = x + b
for all x 2 Fn . Prove that a translation is a linear transformation if and only if b = 0.
8. Prove that if {a1 , . . . , ap } Fn is linearly dependent and T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation, then {T (a1 ), . . . , T (ap )} is linearly dependent.
9. Prove that if T : F ! F is a linear transformation, then there is a unique scalar a 2 F so that
T (x) = ax for all x 2 F.
10. Let T : Rn ! Rm be a linear transformation.
(a) Prove that for every line l in Rn , the set T (l) is a line or a point.
(b) Prove that for every plane P in Rn , the set T (P) is either a plane, a line or a point.
11. Prove that if T : Rn ! Rm is a linear transformation, then for every segment
set T ( ) is a segment or a point.
in Rn , the
137
4.2. THE STANDARD MATRIX OF A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

12. The k-simplex in Rn with vertex p 2 Rn determined by v1 , . . . , vk 2 Rn is
8
9
k
k
<
=
X
X
def
= p+
cj vj : c1 , . . . , ck 2 [0, 1) and
cj = 1 .
:
;
j=1
j=1
Prove that if T : Rn ! Rm is a linear transformation, then for every k-simplex

set T ( ) is a k-simplex.
in Rn , the
13. Provide an example of a function f : C ! C such that

f (z + w) = f (z) + f (w)
for all z, w 2 C, but f is not a linear transformation.
14. Provide an example of a function f : R2 ! R such that
f (kx) = kf (x)
for all x 2 R2 and all k 2 R, but f is not a linear transformation.
15. Prove that a function T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation if and only if for every integer
p 2,
0
1
p
p
X
X
T@
kj vj A =
kj T (vj )
j=1
j=1
for all v1 , . . . , vp 2 Fn and all scalars k1 , . . . , kp . In other words, linear transformations are
exactly those functions which preserve linear combinations!
4.2
The Standard Matrix of a Linear Transformation
Objective
Introduce the standard matrix of a linear transformation.
In Section 4.1 we saw that every matrix transformation is a linear transformation. The converse
is true for linear transformations from Fn to Fm .1
Theorem 4.2.1. Every linear transformation from Fn to Fm is a matrix transformation.
Proof. Let T : Fn ! Fm be a linear transformation. Define a matrix A by
def
A =
T (e1 )
T (en )
1 In Chapter 5 we will encounter a more general notion of linear transformation. In that more general context it
is not true that every linear transformation is a matrix transformation.
138
Let x 2 Fn . Since span{e1 , . . . en } = Fn there exist scalars x1 , . . . , xn such that

x=
n
X
xj ej
j=1
Hence,
0
T (x) = T @
=
n
X
n
X
j=1
xj ej A
xj T (ej )
j=1
T (e1 )
= Ax
2
3
x1
6 . 7
T (en ) 4 .. 5
xn
Therefore, T is a matrix transformation.

Definition 4.2.2. The standard matrix of a linear transformation T : Fn ! Fm is the matrix
T (e1 ) T (en )
where {e1 , . . . , en } is the set of standard basis vectors in Fn .
Example 4.2.3. Let r be a nonnegative real number Find the standard matrix of the scaling
transformation T : Rn ! Rn defined by
def
T (x) = rx
Solution. Since T (ei ) = rei for i = 1, . . . , n, the standard matrix for T is
2
3
r 0 0
0 7
6
6 0 r
7
re1 ren = 6 .
7
.
..
4 ..
5
0 0 r
Example 4.2.4. Let a 2 Fn be nonzero. Find the standard matrix of the projection transformation
T : Fn ! Fn defined by
def
T (x) = proja x
Solution. Let
u=
a
,
kak
4.2. THE STANDARD MATRIX OF A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
139
and let u1 , . . . , un be the components of u. Then

T (ei ) = proja ei
= hei , uiu
= ui u
for i = 1, . . . , n. Thus, the standard matrix for T is
u1 u un u
Example 4.2.5. Let be a real number. Find the standard matrix of the rotation transformation
T : R2 ! R2 by radians.
Solution. Since
T (e1 ) =
and
T (e2 ) =
the standard matrix for T is
cos
sin
cos
sin
sin
cos
sin
cos
N
Term
standard matrix of a linear transformation
Concept
A function from Fn to Fm is a linear transformation if and only if it is a matrix transformation.
Skill
Find the standard matrix of a linear transformation from Fn to Fm .
Exercises
1. Determine whether each statement is true or false.
(a) A linear transformation T : Rn ! Rm is completely determined by its eect on the
columns of In .
(b) There is a linear transformation T : Fn ! Fm which is not a matrix transformation.
140
2. Find the standard matrix of each linear transformation.

2 3
2
3
3
5
6 1 7
6 2 7
7
6
7
(a) T : R2 ! R4 , T (e1 ) = 6
4 3 5 and T (e2 ) = 4 0 5.
1
0
1
4
(b) T : R3 ! R2 , T (e1 ) =
, T (e2 ) =
and T (e3 ) =
3
7
5
4
(c) T : R2 ! R2 contracts vectors by a factor of 1/3.
1
2
2
(d) T : R ! R projects vectors onto
.
2
(e) T : R2 ! R2 rotates vectors counterclockwise about the origin by 3/2 radians.

(f) T : R2 ! R2 rotates vectors clockwise about the origin by /4 radians.
3. Define T : R4 ! R4 by
02
31 2
x1
0
B6 x2 7C 6 x1 + x2
6
7C 6
TB
@4 x3 5A = 4 x2 + x3
x4
x3 + x4
3
7
7
5
Prove that T is a linear transformation by showing that T is a matrix transformation.
4.3
The Algebra of Linear Transformations and Matrices
Objective
Relate sums, scalar multiples and compositions of linear transformations to sums, scalar
multiples and products of matrices.
4.3.1
Sums
Definition 4.3.1. Let X be a set. Let f : X ! Fm and g : X ! Fm be functions. The sum of f

and g is the function f + g : X ! Fm defined by
def
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

Theorem 4.3.2. If S : Fn ! Fm and T : Fn ! Fm are linear transformations, then S + T is a
linear transformation.
Proof. Let x, y 2 Fn . Let k be a scalar. Then
(S + T )(x + y) = S(x + y) + T (x + y)
= S(x) + S(y) + T (x) + T (y)
= S(x) + T (x) + S(y) + T (y)
= (S + T )(x) + (S + T )(y)
141
4.3. THE ALGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS AND MATRICES

and
(S + T )(kx) = S(kx) + T (kx)
= kS(x) + kT (x)
= k[S(x) + T (x)]
= k(S + T )(x)
Therefore, S + T is a linear transformation.
Definition 4.3.3. The sum of m n matrices A = a1 an and B = b1

is the m n matrix
def
A + B = a1 + b1 an + bn
bn
The operation of forming the sum of two matrices is called matrix addition.
Example 4.3.4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
8
10
12 16
14 18
The next theorem expresss the most important properties of the matrix sum.
Theorem 4.3.5.
(i) (Commutativity) For all A, B 2 Fmn
A+B =B+A
(ii) (Associativity) For all A, B, C 2 Fmn
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
(iii) (Existence of an Additive Identity) There is a unique matrix 0mn 2 Fmn so that
A + 0mn = A
for all A 2 Fmn .
(iv) (Existence of Additive Inverses) For each A 2 Fmn there is a unique matrix
that
A + ( A) = 0mn
A 2 Fmn so
Proof.
(i) Let A, B 2 Fmn .
A + B = a1 + b1
(ii) Exercise.
an + bn
b1 + a1
bn + an
=B+A
142
(iii) Define 0mn by

def
0mn =
Let A 2 Fmn with columns a1 , . . . , an .

a1 an + 0
A + 0mn =
a1 + 0 an + 0
=
a1 an
=
= A
To prove that 0mn is unique assume that Z 2 Fmn and A + Z = A for all A 2 Fmn . In
particular,
0mn + Z = 0mn
By part (i),
0mn + Z = Z + 0mn = Z
Thus, Z = 0mn . Therefore, 0mn is the unique element of Fmn so that A + 0mn = A for
all A 2 Fmn .
(iv) Exercise.
Definition 4.3.6. The m n zero matrix is

def
0mn =
We denote the m n zero matrix by 0 when its size is clear from context.
Definition 4.3.7. The dierence of matrices A, B 2 Fmn is the m n matrix
A
def
B = A + ( B)
Theorem 4.3.8. If S : Fn ! Fm and T : Fn ! Fm are linear transformations with standard

matrices A and B, respectively, then the standard matrix of S + T is A + B.
def
def
Proof. Let A = a1 an and B = b1
matrices for S and T , respectively, we obtain
bn . Since A and B are the standard
(S + T )(ei ) = S(ei ) + T (ei )

= ai + bi
for each i = 1, . . . , n. Therefore, the standard matrix for S + T is
a1 + b1 an + bn = A + B
4.3. THE ALGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS AND MATRICES
4.3.2
143
Scalar Multiples
Definition 4.3.9. Let X be a set. The product of a scalar k and a function f : X ! Fm is the
function kf : X ! Fm defined by
def
(kf )(x) = kf (x)
Theorem 4.3.10. If T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation and k is a scalar, then kT is a linear
transformation.
Proof. Let x, y 2 Fn . Let c be a scalar. Then
(kT )(x + y) = kT (x + y)
= k[T (x) + T (y)]
= kT (x) + kT (y)
= (kT )(x) + (kT )(y)
and
(kT )(cx) = kT (cx)
= kcT (x)
= c[kT (x)]
= c(kT )(x)
Therefore, kT is a linear transformation.
def
Definition
4.3.11.
The scalar-matrix product of a scalar k and an m n matrix A =
a1 an is the m n matrix
def
kA =
ka1
kan
The operation of forming the product of a scalar with a matrix is scalar multiplication.
Example 4.3.12.
( 7)
Theorem 4.3.13.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
14
21
28
35
42
(i) (Associativity) For all A 2 Fmn and all scalars k and l

k(lA) = (kl)A = l(kA)
(ii) (Existence of a Multiplicative Identity) For all A 2 Fmn
1A = A
(iii) (Distributivity of the Scalar-Matrix Product over the Scalar Sum) For all A 2 Fmn and all
scalars k and l
(k + l)A = kA + lA
144
(iv) (Distributivity of the Scalar-Matrix Product over the Matrix Sum) For all A, B 2 Fmn and
all scalars k
k(A + B) = kA + kB
Proof.
(i) Exercise.
(ii) Exercise.
(iii) Exercise.
def
(iv) Let A =
a1
an
def
and B =
b1
bn
be elements of Fmn . Let k be a scalar.
k(A + B) = k a1 + b1 an + bn
k(a1 + b1 ) k(an + bn )
=
ka1 + kb1 kan + kbn

=
ka1 kan + kb1 kbn

=
= k a1 an + k b1 bn
= kA + kB
Theorem 4.3.14.
(i) 0A = 0mn
(ii) ( 1)A =
for all A 2 Fmn .

Proof. Exercise.
Theorem 4.3.15. If T : Fn ! Fm is a linear transformation with standard matrix A and k is a
scalar, then the standard matrix of kT is kA.
def
Proof. Let A =
a1
an . Since A is the standard matrix for T we obtain

(kT )(ei ) = kT (ei ) = kai
for each i = 1, . . . , n. Therefore, the standard matrix for kT is
ka1 kan = kA

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80

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Adding twice each side of equation 2 to the respective side

Thus, the solution set is {(1, 2, 3)}.

3.1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Figure 3.2: Example 3.1.10

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Figure 3.3: Example 3.1.11

3.1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

solution set of a linear system

inconsistent linear system

Is the system consistent?

multiplying both sides of an equation by a nonzero scalar, and/or

where k is a real number.

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Matrices, Row Reduction and Echelon Forms

Definition 3.2.1. Let m and n be positive integers. An m n matrix A with entries in F is an

3.2. MATRICES, ROW REDUCTION AND ECHELON FORMS

Denote the i-th component of the j-th column aj by ai,j . Then

More concisely we may write

when the size of A is unambiguous.

Definition 3.2.6. The rows of an m n matrix

are the row vectors

Definition 3.2.7. The coefficient matrix of

the linear system

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

the linear system

The coefficient matrix of this system is

The augmented matrix of this system is

Elementary Row Operations

3.2. MATRICES, ROW REDUCTION AND ECHELON FORMS

multiplying both sides of an equation by a nonzero scalar.

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Definition 3.2.15. A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a

3.2. MATRICES, ROW REDUCTION AND ECHELON FORMS

there exists a sequence of elementary row operations transforming A0 to B 0 . By the induction

Reduced Echelon Form and Row Reduction

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

(ii) The Induction Step. Let k be a positive integer.

3.2. MATRICES, ROW REDUCTION AND ECHELON FORMS

(b) Prove that if A B, then B A.

(c) Prove that if A B and B C, then A C.

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Solving Systems of Linear Equations

Solving Systems of Linear Equations by Row Reduction

Definition 3.3.1. A bound variable of a linear system is a variable corresponding to a pivot

and its augmented matrix is

3.3. SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

2 times row 2 to row 1 yields

Multiplying row 1 by 1/3 we obtain

which is in reduced echelon form.

Solution. This system of equations is linear,

and its augmented matrix is

We apply elementary row operations to find

an echelon form of this matrix. Interchanging row

CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Subtracting 3 times row 1 from row 3, and subtracting 2

Multiplying row 2 by 1/6 we obtain

Finally, subtracting row 3 from row 4 we

times row 1 from row 4 we have

which is in reduced echelon form.

3.3. SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Define s = x2 and t = s5 . Then

The general solution of this linear system is