Buddhism

Introduction to Buddhism
Who was Gautam Buddha,What were his basic teachings?

Gautama Buddha (563 B.C. 483 B.C.) was the founder of the Buddhist
Philosophy. His original name was Siddhartha.
Buddha is a title applied to him afterwards as a sign of
enlightenment.
Buddha was a radical thinker and preacher as he galvanized the
prevailing modes of thinking, beliefs, and practices.

Criticised traditional thinking and believes

According to him traditional form of thinking and beliefs are unable to

encourage the habit of sell-effort, self-experience and free analytic
attitude.
He found them lacking in transforming the ethical and humanitarian
attitude of a person.
According to him, only liberation from dogmatic slumber, the
Awakened Wisdom, transformation of attitude, and moral practices can
bring emancipation, peace, happiness, and harmony for man.

Ultimate physician to cure Ills of life : diagnosed cause of men's suffering

The Buddha is called by his disciples the ultimate physician

(baisajya-guru) for his prescription to cure unsatisfactoriness and ills
of life and the society.
His diagnosis of man as a suffering being whose psychophysical
constitution itself is the cause of suffering is an ingenious discovery.
In addition, he finds that mans blind adherence to dogmatic beliefs and
the corresponding practices enhance his suffering further,
the ultimate root-cause of which is his polluted mind.
Therefore, he affirmed, purity of mind through the Awakened
Wisdom attained by self-effort.

Awakened wisdom

The terms like Awakened Wisdom, freedom and self-effort are not
mystified terms.
Awakened Wisdom here means a penetrating and transforming
insight into the nature of existence, which is essentially dynamic and
conditionally arisen.

Four noble truths

What are the four noble truths?

Lord Buddha has presented Four Noble Truths:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

There is suffering. Existence is invariably associated with suffering.

Every suffering (dukkha) has a cause.
Suffering can be eliminated if the cause is eliminated.
There is a path to Nirvana which puts an end to all sufferings.

(1) There is suffering (dukkha) :

Life is full of misery and pain. Even the so-called pleasures are really
fraught with pain.
There is always fear of losing the so-called pleasures and their loss
involves pain.Indulgence also results in pain.
That there is suffering in this world is a fact of common
experience.Poverty, disease, old age, death, selfishness, meanness,
greed, anger, hatred, quarrels, bickering, conflicts, exploitation are
rampant in this world. That life is full of suffering none can deny.

(2) There is a cause of suffering (dukha-samudaya) :

Everything has a cause. Nothing comes out of nothing ex nihilo nihil

fit. The existence of every event depends upon its causes and
conditions.
Suffering being a fact, it must have a cause. It must depend on some
conditions. This being, that arises, the cause being present, the
effect arises, is the causal law of Dependent Origination.

(3) There is a cessation of suffering (duhkha-nirodha) :

Because everything arises depending on some causes and conditions, If

the cause being removed, the effect ceases to exist.
Everything being conditional and relative is necessarily momentary
and what is momentary must perish.
That which is born must die. Production implies destruction.

(4) There is a way leading to this cessation of suffering (dukha-nirodha-gamini

pratipada) :

There is an ethical and spiritual path by following which misery may be

removed and liberation attained.
This is the Noble Eight-fold Path.

Buddha :Follower of Middle path = Eight fold path

In intellectual as well as practical life, the Buddha professes middle path,

i.e., avoidance of extreme dogmatic views like
(i) Absolute existence and non-existence
(ii) Self-indulgence in sensuous pleasure, which is of a low value, uncivilized and
disadvantageous practice and ascetic self-mortifcation, which is pain causing.

He equates the middle path with the Eightfold Noble Path,

which leads to knowledge, vision, Awakened Wisdom and freedom.

What are the steps in eight fold path?

The Noble Eight-fold Path consists of eight steps which are :

(1) Right faith (samyag drsti),

(2) right resolve (sankalpa),
(3) right speech (vak),
(4) right action (karmanta)
(5) right living (ajiva),
(6) right effort (vyayama),
(7) right though (smrti)
(8) right concentration (Samadhi).

What is budhhist understanding behind concept of liberation?

For the Buddha, attainment of Awakening is not a simple intellectual

exercise, i.e., the product of logical rationality.

Analogy of mirror

Just as for the true reflection of an image of mirror is to be cleansed of

image-distorting factors like dust and moisture, in the same way for
the attainment of Awakened Wisdom it is necessary to cleanse the
psychological defilements like greed (lobha), aversion (dosa), and
intellectual confusion (moha) from the mind of the seeker.

Nirvana: total freedom

Nirvana is a state of total freedom and no sufferings.

With perfect knowledge, perfect peace and perfect wisdom, man is free
from all bondage in a state of Nirvana.

Theory of momentariness

Buddhism gives importance to the impermanence of existence and

the sufferings associated with it.
All existence, animate or inanimate, being in a state of
flux, undergoes changes incessantly. Nothing is permanent.
The impermanence itself is the greatest dukha. Ignorance leads to
sufferings and bondage. Karma is born out of ignorance.

Doctrine of Anatma

The most striking feature of Buddhism is the doctrine of non-self

(anatma).
In a glaring and sharp contrast to the major philosophies, the Buddhism
does not accept the permanent entity such as soul or the
atman.
It maintains that there is no permanent and enduring entity in
man. There is no distinct entity as the self or the soul.

Schools of Buddhism
Though Buddha was very particular in avoiding metaphysical discussions,
there arose different schools of Buddhist philosophical thought
after his death.
Why did different schools of Buddhism come into existence?
Budda's silence on metaphysical questions: Why?

Buddha devoted himself to the sole task of finding the path of

which the sorrows and sufferings of life could be put to an
end forever. Buddha was not in favour of speculative metaphysics.

He said that if a person hit by an arrow should, first of all, try to put it out
immediately and to try to heal up the wound.would certainly be
reckoned a foolish man if he speculating about the origin, maker and the
thrower of the arrow whiled a way his time in , without first trying to pull the
arrow out. Similarly, a man should not indulge in vain metaphysical
speculations which will take him nowhere.
The knowledge of these things does not conduce to progress in holiness,
does not contribute to peace and enlightenment.
Discussion of these problems (metaphysical questions) is futile,
because there is no sufficient ground for the solution of them, and
because these insufficient grounds lead but to partial and conflicting views.

Questions which have not been discussed by Buddha have been

called Avyaktani (indeterminable questions) in Pali. They are followings:

Is the world eternal?

Is it non-eternal?
Is it finite?
Is it infinite?
Is the body and self the same?
Is the self different from body?
Was the Tathagat reborn after death?
Was he not born after death?
Is there rebirth and also no rebirth?
Are the rebirth and no rebirth both false?

Different interpretation of of these metaphysical questions by followers after

Buddha's death
Buddhas reluctance to discuss metaphysical questions regarding thing beyond our
experience and his silence about them came to be interpreted by his
follows in different lights, and thus arose different system of Buddhist
philosophy.
What were the devision of Buddhism?
In process of answering these questions, Buddhism divided into two main
religious schools:(1) Hinayana

The Hinayanist admits the existence of external objects along with

the reality of mind. He is, therefore, called Sarvastivadi (Those who hold
the reality of all things).
Sautrantika and Vaibhasika philosophies, belong to the Hinayana school.

(2) Mahayana

The Mahayanist does not admit the reality of non-mental things.

He is, therefore, called idealist.
Madhyamika or Sunyavada and Yogacara or Vijnanavad belong to
the Mahayana school.

What were the fundamental question based on that devision

occurred?

Buddha philosophy has been classified into four main schools

according to the answer given to two chief questions, of which one
is metaphysical and the other epistemological
The metaphysical questions is : Is there any reality at all,
mental or nonmental?
The epistemological question is : How the reality can be known to
exist?

Mahayanist's interpretation

(a) The Madhyamika holds that there is no reality, mental or nonmental. All is void (Sunya). He is, therefore, known as sunyavadin.
(b) The Yogacara holds that only the mental is real, and the non-mental world
is devoid of reality. He is thus known as subjective idealist or Vijnanavadin.
Hinyanist's interpretation
According to Sarvastivada, both the mental and the non-mental are
real. But on the epistemological question this last school holds two
different views.
(c) The Sautrantika holds that the external objects are not directly perceived,
but known by inference.

(d) Like Sautrantikas, Vaibhasika also maintains the independent existence of

mind and external objects, but according to them, the external objects are
directly perceived. Accordintg to it If external objects were never perceived,
as the Sautrantikas hold, then they could not even be inferred. Their
doctrine regarding this is called Bahya-ratyaksa-vada.
The following table will show the classification of Buddha thought :

What is the philosophical position of The Sautrantika School of Hinayana?

The name Sautrantika is given to the school because it attaches

importance to the sutra pitaka of the pali canon.

Accepted both mental and external realities

The Sautrantika subscribes to the reality of both the mental and the nonmental.

Different from Vaibhashika on epistemology

But there are important differences between the realism of the

Vaibhasikas and that of the Sautrantika While the Vaibhasikas maintain
that we perceive external objects directly (bahyapratyaksavada),
the Sautrantikas hold that external objects are not perceived by us
directly but inferred from our perceptions, which are representations
or copies of external objects According to them, external objects are
momentary in nature. These objects produce their ideas in our mind. On the
basis of these ideas, we inferred the existence of external objects.

Representationalism

Ideas are copies or representations of their objects. It is because this that

the Sautrantika epistemology is called representationlism or copy theory
of knowledge, which closely resembles that of John Locke.

What are the Arguments given by Sautantrika in favour of existence of external

object?
The Sautrantika defends the existence of the external objects by the
following argument:
Our ability to distinguish illusionary and non-illusionary

If the thesis of the independent existence of the external objects is false, then
how can we distinguish between illusionary and non-illusionary
experiences? According to the Sautrantika School, it is because of the
existence of the external objects that we are able to distinguish
between illusionary and non-illusionary experiences.

Non existence can not lead to cognition of existence

The Sautrantikas also reject the Yogacara thesis that external objects are
not real and are merely our own metnal forms. if all we ever perceive are
our own mental forms then the Yogacara is not entitled to say that
consciousness appears to itself as external objects.
If external objets are absolutely non-existent, then an internal
cognition cannot appear to be an external object. The illusion of
externality presupposes the knowledge of externality
somewhere. Because when no genuine contrast between internal and
external is admitted the use of the term external can only be vacuous.

On basis of practical utility

Again the reality of objects external to the mind has to be

admitted from the standpoint of practical utility.
The mere idea of food does not and cannot satisfy hunger. It
requires real food. Hence, the Sautrantikas contend that the existence of an
external world, independent of mind or consciousness, is undeniable.

The Madhyanika or Shunyavad School of Mahayana

Shunyavada is one of the most important schools of Buddhism. Nagarjuna is
accepted as the first systematic expounder of Shunyavada.
Why do they called as Madhyamika?: Follower of middle path

Shunyavadins call themselves Madhyamikas or the followers of the

Middle Path (Madhyama Pratipada) which Buddha advocated.
Buddha avoids the extreme doctrines of being and Non-being, and the
extreme practices of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

Nagarjuna rejects the alternative stand points of 'is and is not

and their conjunction as well as disjunction. Hence, his philosophy
named Madhyamika.

What does word shunya means?:Not void but Indescribable

The word "Shunya in its literal sense indicates nothing or an

empty void or a negative abyss.But this is not the real meaning and
sense of Shunya here. Many thinkers have accepted Shunya in its
literal sense ignoring its real philosophical meaning and have
condemned Shunayavada as a hopeless skepticism and a
selfcondemned nihilism.
But Shunya is neither skeptical nor nihilist. According to Shunyavadins,
'Shunya essentially means indescribable as it is beyond the four
category of intellect (chatuskoti-vinirmukta).
It is reality, which ultimately transcends existence, non-existence, both
and neither.
It is neither affirmation nor negation nor both nor neither. Empirically
it means Realtivity (pratity-samutpada) which is phenomena (samsara).
The world Shunya has to be understood from two points of view, viz

(1) From the point of view of phenomena or empirical reality,

it means svabhavashunya i.e. devoid of svabhava or independent,

substantial reality of its own.
There is not a single thing in the world, which is unconditionally, absolutely
real. Everything is related to, contingent upon, conditioned by
something else.Everything is conditioned by something.
The world is not Reality :it is a realm of relativity. That is why Nagarjuna
says, There is not real production : there is only manifestation
of a thing contingent on causes and conditions.
In other words, all empirical entities are devoid of independent self-hood
(Svabhava). In this sense pratitya samutpada is equated with shunyata or
relativity.

(2) From the point of view of the Absolute,

it means prapanca-shunya i.e. devoid of prapancha or verbalization,

thought-construction and plurality.
It is reality, which ultimately transcends existence, non-existence,
both and neither. It is neither affirmation nor negation nor both nor
neither.

What are the types of reality according to Shunyavad?

Nagarjuna admitted two forms of reality One is empirical truth(Samvrti
Satya), It is for the ordinary person. The other is transcendental truth(Parmartha
satya).
Those persons who do not know the distinction between these truths cannot
understand the subtle secrets of Buddhas teachings

Empirical truth(Samvrti Satya)

The empirical truth is the only means by which the transcendental

truth can be attained. and without realizing the transcendental truth
nirvana cannot be attained. It is for the ordinary person.
The world of names and forms is governed by the Doctrine of
Dependent Origination. Therefore, every truth generated by any
conceptual system is relative to and dependent upon other truths and
systems.
In the realm of phenomena, there can be no absolute truth or truth of
the absolutely real. All phenomenal truths are relative, conditioned,
and valid within particular domains of our perceptual, conceptual
experience.
For this reason, Nagarjuna calls phenomenal truths Conventional,
relative, mundane, and lower truths(samvrti-satya).

Empirical truth is of the following two types :

(i) Loka Samvriti : Loka Samvriti is that phenomenon which is born out of
some cause and through which all the activities of the wordly beings are
conducted.Thus it is the truth in the world.(
ii) Mithya Samvriti : This is the phenomenon which is born due to some
cause but is not admitted to be true by all. It helps all in their behavior.
Transcendental truth

Nagarjuna maintains that the transcendental truth cannot be realized

without the help of the empirical truth and without realizing the
transcendental truth Nirvana cannot be attained. On the other hand, there
is the absolute, unconditional, higher truth, beyond percepts and
concepts, defying all descriptions. It is grasped in prajna direct,
intuitive insight into reality as it is in itself.
The Buddha maintained silence with respect to such non-empirical
questions as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or
infinite, Such silence is due to the Buddhas awareness that these questions
transcend reason and sense-experience and that consequently any
attempt to answer them through names and forms can only serve to detract
men, by producing confusion, ignorance, and dogmatism, from the
immediate task of overcoming suffering.
Such questions and the puzzlement they generate simply vanish
away in the light of prajna, transcendental wisdom.

The Yogachar School of Subjective Idealism

The followers of Vijnanavada were called Vijnanavadins. They were

also known as yogacharas as they emphasized the importance of yoga
for the realization of pure knowledge (bodhi).
The standpoint that Reality is consciousness was developed by
Vijnanavada.

Why is it called as Vigyanvad? :admit only consciousness as reality

The Yogachara view is called Vijanana-vada or idealism because it admits

that there is only one kind of reality which is of the nature of
consciousness (vijnana) and objects which appear to be material or
external to consciousness are really ideas or states of consciousness. There
is no extra mental reality.
According to them, what the mind knows is its own idea, and not the
object.
In truth, there is no duality of mind and matter. Externality is a
fiction, an illusion. The mind does not know the relation between the idea
and the so called object.

Why is it Subjective idealism?

This theory may be described further as subjective idealism, because

according to it the existence of an object perceived is not different
from the subject or the perceiving mind. Hence, according to
Yogachara, there is no external objective reality independent of Vijnana.

What are the differences with Shunyavad? : on Reality of mind

While agreeing with the Madhyamikas, as to the unreality of external

objects, the Yogacharac School differs from them in holding that
the mind (citta) cannot be regarded as unreal.
For then all reasoning and thinking would be false and the
Madhyamikas could not even establish that their own arguments were
correct. To say that everything, mental or non-mental, is unreal is
suicidal. The reality of the mind should at least be admitted in order to
make correct thinking possible.

The mind, consisting of a stream of different kinds of ideas, is the only

reality. So, against the Carvaka doctrine "matter is all,
the Yogacara maintains that "consciousness is all.
How did Yogacharya refuted existence of External Object or Extra Mental
Reality or Substance?
Refutation of external object
1. Just as in cases of dreams and hallucinations a man fancies to perceive things
outside, though they do not really exist there, similarly the objects which
appear to be out there, are really ideas in the mind
2. The existence of any external object cannot be proved, because it cannot
be shown that the object is different from the consciousness of the object.

As Dharmakirti states, the blue colour and the consciousness of the blue
colour are identical, because they are never perceived to exist
separately. Though really one, they appear as two owing to defective vision.
As an object is never known without the consciousness of it, the object

cannot be proved to have an known without the consciousness of it, the

object cannot be proved to have an existence independent of consciousness.
Yogacara points out that if we assume that there exists an external object.
This object must be either indivisible, part less and atomic, or divisible
and composite. If it is the former, it cannot be perceived, since atoms
are too minute to be perceived. On the other hand, if it is composite,
we can never perceive all the parts and the sides of the object
simultaneously. Thus, in either case the assumption of the existence of
external objects is fraught with difficulties.

Refutation of Substance based on theory of dependent origination

There is no absolutely unchanging entity like substance. Everything is
changing with respect of something or other. Since everything is changing,
nothing is identical with itself at all times and hence there is no substance.

According to Dependent Origination, there are no self-existent

entities (substance) in the world. All that exists is conditioned and changeable
in nature. Therefore, anything unchanging is non-existent.
It is in this manner that the phrase self-existing entity is selfcontradictory.

Alayvijnana

The Yogacara calls consciousness Alayavijnana.The term Alayavijnana is

sued in the Yogacara School to indicate the abiding or storehouse
consciousness. The expression Alayavijnana is used sometimes to
refer to the continually changing stream of consciousness and at other
time to the absolute Being.

What are the levels of Reality accoding to Yogacharya?

The Yogacara distinguishes between three levels of reality :1. Parikalpita : What is imagined appears as real. Parikalpita-satya is positive
error, as we mistake a rope for a snake
2. Paratantra : The empirical phenomena are recognized to be relative
and interdependent. Paratantra-satya is relative knowledge, as we recognize
rope as a rope.
3. Parinispana :Pure consciousness is realized to be the absolute
reality. Parinispanna- satya is metaphysical insight, when we recognize
that rope is a mere concept and has no being as a thing in itself. The
Parinispanna is also called Tathata, 'suchness or 'thatness. Its nature is beyond
the reach of language. It is indefinable. The Parinispanna is the highest
truth (Paramartha).

The realization of this truth is Nirvana. The mind then ceases to be

mind; the subject-object duality is removed completely.
The Yogacara position is remarkably similar to the idealism of Berkeley.

Pratityasamutpada or Dependent Origination

Why is it an important concept?

The doctrine of Pratityasamutpada or dependent origination is

regarded as the foundation of all the teachings of Buddha (Central
teachings of the Buddha).

It is the causal law both of the universe and the lives of individuals. It is
important from two points of view.

Firstly, it gives a very clear idea of the impermanent and conditioned

nature of all phenomena.
Secondly, it shows birth, old age, death and all the miseries of
phenomenal existence arise in dependence upon conditions, and
how all the miseries cease in the absence of these conditions.

Origination of all other theories based on PS

Pratityasamutpada is the central teaching of Buddha and his other

teachings are deduced from it as corollaries.
Hence Pratityasamutpada is considered as the base for all other Buddhist
philosophical doctrines like

o
o
o
o

Theory of Karma Theory of Momentariness (Ksana-bhanga-vala)

Theory of no-ego (Nairatmavada)
Theory of aggregates (Sanghatavada)
Theory of causal efficiency (artha-Kriya-Karitva)

What is the meaning of PS?

Pratityasamutpada means arising (Samutpada) after getting (pratitya). It

means the production of an effect out of a complement of cause and
conditions. Nothing is spontaneous.
Everything that happens in the metnal or physical world is dependent on
something. The existence of everything is conditional, dependent on some
cause.When the cause and conditions disappear, the effect disappears.

Causal formula

The casual formula is :Asmin Sati, Idam Bhavati Means, this being that
arises, i.e. Depending on the cause, the effect arises.And because it
is relative, it is neither absolutely real (for it is subject to death) nor
absolutely unreal (For it appears to rise).

Why is it middle path?

Between principle of eternity and annihilation

Pratityasamutpada is middle path between the principle of eternity

(Saswatavada) and the principle of annihilation (unchedavada).
According to Shaswatavada somethings are eternal, they have neither
beginning nor end, they are uncaused and do not depend on anything
else. According to Uchedavad nothing remains after destruction of
things.
The doctrine of Pratityasamutpada maintains a middle path between
the two extremes. It maintains that things have existence, but they are not
eternal. On the other hand, they are never completely annihitated but
something always remains. The origin of a thing is owing to another.

How this concept arises from Noble truths and Buddism?

Second Noble Truth which propounds the cause of the suffering (dhukha
samudaya) an The origin of lifes evil is explained by Buddha in the
light of his conception of natural causation (Known as
Pratityasamutpada).
Nothing is unconditional; the existence of everything depends on some
condition. This doctrine is contained in the second Noble Truth which
propounds the cause of the suffering (dhukha samudaya) and in the Third
noble Truth which present the cessation of suffering (Dukha
nirodha).

What is concept of Dwadas Nidan or bhav chakra and How it originates from
PS?

According to Buddha life is suffering which is called jara-marana, it is

because there is birth (jati). Birth is due to the will to be born
(Bhava). Bhava is the cause of life after death.
The cause of this tendency is our metnal clinging (upadana) to the objects
of the world.
This mental clinging is owing to our thirst (Trsna) to enjoy objects.

Previous senseexperince tinged with pleasant feeling (Vedana) is the

cause of our thirst.
But the question arise why do we have sense-experience. It is because
of sense-object contact (sparsa).
This contact again would not arise had there not been the six sense
organs (Sadayatana).
These six sense organs depend for their existence on psychophysical
organism (nama-rupa) which constitutes the perceptible being of man.
Again question arises why do we have this organism? It is because of
the initial consciousness of the embryo (vijnana).This consciousness of the
embryo is because of our predispositions or impressions of Karma
(Samskara) of our past existence.
The impressions which make for rebirth are owing to ignorance
(Avidya) about truth Hence ignorance is the root cause of all our suffering.
Out these twelve links the last two are related to the past life, the first
two to the future and the rest to the present.
So the twelve links cover the past, the present and the future life which
are causally connected.
Thus we have the twelve links in the chain of causation or causal
wheel of dependent origination. It is also known as the twelve sources
(dvadasa-nidana).

Also known as

It has been popularized among Buddhist by various epithets such as BhavaChakra (The wheel of rebirth) Samsara-chakra Janama-marana chakra
Dharma-chakra Pratityasamutpada chakra, etc.

Views of Hinayanist : reality of separate element

According to Hinayanists Pratityasamutpada is a temporal sequence of

real entities between which there was a causal relation.
The Hinayanists had analysed all phenomena into elements (dharmas),
and believed that these dharmas had a separate reality of their own.

Views and Mahayanist: refusal of reality of separate element

According to the Madhyamika, Pratityasamutpada does not mean the

principle of temporal sequence, but the principle of essential
dependence of things on each other. In one word, it is the
principle of relativity.
Accordingly to Chandrakirti Pratityasamutpada means the
manifestation of entities as relative to causes and conditions.
The Madhyamika says that the very doctrine of Pratityasamutpada
declares that all the dharmas are relative; they have no separate reality
(svabhava) of their own.Pratityasamutpada or Interdependence means
Relativity, and Relativity connotes the unreality of the separate
elements. According to it all phenomenal existence, all entities in the world
are conditioned, are devoid of independence existence.

View of Science

Relativity is the most important discovery of modern science. What

science has discovered today, the great Buddha had discovered two
thousand seven hundred years before.

Importance :

The twelve links as interpreted to causality explain the past, the

present and the future life.

Ksanika-vada (Theory of Momentariness)

Buddhas theory of Pratityasamutpada was further developed in the form of theory of
momentariness.
What is Ksanika-vada?
Every thing is momentary and in process of becoming

According to this doctrine every thing change from moment to

moment, everything comes into existence just for a moment gives birth to its effect
and is exhausted. Things last not even for short periods of time, but exist for one
partless moment only, is what Ksanika-vada lays down.
Nothing is permanent. Body, sensation, perception disposition, consciousness, all
these are impermanent and sorrowful.
There is neither being nor not-being, but only becoming. Life is a series of
manifestations of becoming. There is nothing which changes only ceaseless change
goes on. Everyhting is merely a link in the chain, a spoke in the wheel, a transitory
phase in the series.Everything is subject to birth and death, to production and
destruct to creation and decay. There is nothing, human or divine, that permanent.
To quote the excellent words of Shelley

Worlds on worlds are rolling over.

From creation to decay,
Like the bubbles on a river.
Sparkling, bursting, borne away.
Why is there momentariness?

Whatever exists originates from some condition and disappears when

condition ceases to be.
Therefore Buddha says know that whatever exists arises from causes and
conditions and is in every respect impermanent.
Whatever is produced or arise or is born, necessarily be subject to death and
destruction and if so, they are not permanent and if they are not permanent,
they are momentary.
This view is deduced from criterion of existence as causal efficiency
(Artha-kriya-karitva) which states that the criterion of the existence (Sat)
of a thing is its capacity to produce some effect.

What is Arth Kriya Karitva?

The Buddhist logicians support the theory of momentariness by a logical

argument called Arthakriya-karitva or the efficiency of production.
They maintain that the criterion of existence (satta) is its capacity to
produce some effect. An existent thing must produce an effect.
A seed produces a plant. It means that the seed exists because it has
the capacity to produce a plant. Only a non-existent thing like a hares horn
or a sky-flower cannot produce any effect because they are non-existent.
Hence the Buddhist logicians deduce that a thing is momentary and
impermanent. If a thing has the capacity to produce some effect, it must
change. Hence change is the stuff of reality. It is impossible to conceive a
thing that continues without change. Buddhism denies unity in the sense of
identity, but recognizes continuity in its place. From this it can be validly
deduce that a thing having existence must be momentary.

Capacity to produce
Does'nt have capacity to produce

Existent
non existent

What are the important propositions of Ksanikvada?

There are two important propositions of Ksanikavada.
1. Everything is momentary
To it only momentary atoms and ideas exist. There is no eternal reality. This view
has been explained with the help of two theories.

Santanavada or theory of streams. According to it there is a continuous flow

of momentary atoms conscious (idea) and unconscious (matter) in the
series of cause and effect.
Sanghatavada or the theory of Aggregates. According to this theory soul is
only an aggregate of the five fleeting Skandas (pancha skandha) and the so
called matter is only an aggregate of the momentary atoms.

The denial of an eternal substance is called Pudgala-nairatmay. If everything is

momentary then there is neither being, nor not being but only becoming.
2.Everything is changing

It is the logical outcome of the first proposition. If everything is momentary

then only change is real.
From this it is clear that there is neither being nor non-being but
becoming. Everything is becoming, change, flux.
All substances are mere aggregates of impermanent qualities. They are
devoid of permanence and substantiality. All existences are essenceless and
impermanent. This is a universal law.

Analogy of River and flame of lamp to explain momentariness

The Buddhist logicians illustrate the theory of momentariness with the

help of two classical similes of the stream of river and of the flame of
lamp.
The stream of a river is sustained in its flow by ever new ater. It is
continuous flow of different water. Similarly, a flame is not the same
flame in the next moment. Every moment it is another. A river is not the
same river the next moment. It is only a continuous flow of different waters.
Similarly a flame is not one and the same flame. It is a series of flame.
One volume of water or one flame continually succeeds another volume of
water or another flame. The rapidity of succession preserves continuity which
is not broken. Similarity is mistaken as identity or sameness. The socalled same flame is only a succession of so many similar flames, each
flame lasting for a moment. Rapidity of succession gives rise to the illusion of
unity or identity or permanence.Therefore, the so-called same river and the
same flame is only an appearance. They are never the same for two
consecutive moments.
Heraclites said : You cannot bathe twice into the same river.

Nairatmyavada or Anattvada
The logical consequence of the Doctrine of Dependent Origination is the doctrine of
non-self (nairatmyavada).
"Pratityasamutpada > anityavada > ksanikavada > nairatmyavada"
What is NAiratmyavada? and How it describe existence of non-permanent soul?
Theory of dependent origination->every thing is momentary-> soul is also changeable

According to the doctrine of Dependent Origination everything exists dependently

and conditionally. Its logical consequence is that nothing is permanent and
unchanging. Everything is momentary either it is physical or non-physical element.
Impernanence is the inexorable law of all existence. Everything is becoming change,
flux. The law of change is universal, hence here the existence of a permanent
soul is denied. Soul is also changeable in nature.

self is just series of successive mental and bodily processes

It is commonly believed that in man there is a permanent and abiding substance

called soul or self or spirit (atma), which persists through all the changes in the
body and the mind, and which exists before birth and continues after death, and
migrates from one body, after death, to another body.
Consistently with his theory of dependent origination, Buddha denies the
existence of such soul or self. Whenever we look towards what we call mind, we
see a stream of ideas or thoughts. Thoughts, feelings, desires etc, arise at one
moment and vanish at the next, and this process continues perpetually. No mental
idea lasts for more than an instant. Our mental process like a stream is a continuous
flux. The self is nothing but the series of successive mental and bodily
processes which are impermanent. There is no permanent self behind this stream.

What is pudgal nairatmya , Dharma nairatmya and Panch skandhas? What is idea
about Soul in Buddhist philosphy?

The doctrine of anatmavada or theory of no-ego in a wider sense stands for not
only the denial of eternal soul but also the denial of material objects. In this
context they sometimes talk of pudgal nairatmya and dharma nairatmya.
According to this view soul is a continuous stream of momentary
ideas. According to this doctrine, the soul is bundle of five Skandhas
(Aggregates) of changing elements (In Milindpanho soul has been described as
Nam-rupa or the aggregate of five Skandha).

1. Rupa or form (matter) : It consists of different material factors which we perceive in

this body. It is a physical body which produces the form of the body.
2. Vedana (feeling) : It consists of pleasure, pain and other kinds of feeling.
3. Sanjna (perceptions) : It consists of perceptions, concepts or ideas including naming.
4. Samskara (disposition) : It consists of instincts, tendencies and urges etc.
5. Vijnana (consciousness) : It is a constant flow or series.

Analogy of chariot and Milindpanho

The first is material (rupa) and the last four are psychical (Nama). Hence
psychologically, a man is a collection of five groups (pancha-skandha). Each part of
the group is only a momentary existence. Man is only a conventional name for a
collection of different constituents, just as a chariot is a collection of wheels,
axles, shafts, etc. This is illustrated beautifully in a dialogue between king Milinda
and sage Nagasena.
Nagasena, Buddhist teacher, brings out the nature of the soul but means of the
parallel of the chariot. Just as a chariot is nothing but an aggregate of wheels, axle
and the body, so the self is nothing but the name of the five aggregates of body,
feelings, perceptions, predispositions and consciousness. The five aggregates
constitute the empirical individual. There is no eternal soul behind the collection
of the five aggregates.
Hence according to Buddha the self is nothing but a conventional name for a series
of discrete, momentary states of which the individual is directly and immediately
aware in all kinds of experience. To him, the self or soul is simply an abbreviation
for the aggregate of these skandhas and not some entity over and above the
aggregate. Thus there is no distinct substance known as the self our soul
which is permanent and immortal.
Buddha does not deny the existence of self or soul understood as the
collection of the skandhas, what he does deny is the belief that there exists
behind and beyond the skndhas a self or soul as a permanent and unchanging
entity. To put it differently, the Buddha readily acknowledges a changing self, but
rejects an unchanging substantial self as a illusion traceable partly to our linguistic
habits and partly to such psychological factors as craving, grasping, insecurity and
most importantly, fear of vanishing away with death.

What are the Arguments given in favour of Anatmavada?

We cant get the knowledge of eternal soul by perception.

The theory of Pratityasamutpada also leads to the non-permanence of soul.

Permanent and eternal soul cannot produce non-permanent actions (karmas).

Thus, belief in eternal soul is against the law of Karma.
Rebirth cannot be explained because eternal soul can neither take brith nor can die.
Bondage and liberation cannot be explained because pure eternal soul can never
fall in bondage and if it is impure then it can never get liberation. If it is sometimes
pure, sometimes impure then it cannot be eternal.

If we will accept anatmavada moral responsibility creates no problem. A man is

held responsible for his actions, not because he possesses a permanent soul, but
because his existence is an unbroken stream in which the past, present, and future
are bound together by causal chains. In other words, it is by virtue of the
continuity of his existence and not because he possesses a permanent soul
that a man is responsible for his action.

How does Buddhist accounts for rebirth and Karma?

Rebirth is not transmigration instead it is causation on next life from present life

Buddha believs in the law of karma and rebirth. If a permanent soul is denied,
who, then, will reap the consequences of actions in the life hereafter? To this
Buddha replies that rebirth is not transmigration, i.e., migration of the same soul
into another boy. Rebirth means causation of the next life by the present life.
Buddhism does not believe in rebirth in the sense that a permanent soul enters a
different body after leaving one body. As one flame may be lighted from another
flame and though the two are different, they are causally connected, similarly the
end-state of this life may cause the beginning of the next.
The present state of consciousness inherits its characters from previous ones, and
the past in a way continues in the present through its effect. Memory thus becomes
explainable without an eternal soul.

Link between births by Samkaras

Buddhism believes that after death the samskaras or karmic impressions of the
jiva remain. These samskaras (impressions of karmic forces) are in accordance
with the Jivas karmas and it is due to them that a link between one birth and
another is maintained.

The samskaras are said to have been expressed in the last thought
of a dying man. The past (old birth) and the present (new birth)
bear no resemblance except that the new birth is according to
the karmas of the old one.

Self is just Flow of consciousness

Buddha regards the self only as the flow of consciousness which is ever
changing. In this flow of consciousness, the present moment is the result of the
past moment and the present moment causes the future moment. Thus one
moment succeeding, another moment takes in its wake the actions and the memory
of the past moment. In other words, with the change of moment, the actions and the
memory of the past moment are also transferred to the succeeding moment.
Buddha has explained the transience and continuity of life by citing the
example of the flame of a lamp. The flame of a lamp is changing every moment.

This change depends on the conditions prevailing at that particular moment but in
spite of the differences in the flame, it appears to be the same due to continuity.
Similarly, life is a systematic and continuous process of different stages conditioned
by cause and effect. Buddha believs in rebirth in the sense that another birth is
caused due to one birth. And just as a lamp can be lighted by another lamp and yet
the lights of both the lamps cannot be identified, similarly in spite of cause and effect
relation in two births, they are different and not identical.
Buddha always preached to his disciples that they should not indulge in useless discussions
with regard to the soul. In his view, if the soul is taken to be intransient and everlasting one
gets attached to it and suffers in his efforts to make it happy. Buddha likened the love with
the invisible and unproved soul to the greatly ludicrous love of some invisible and
imaginary beautiful woman. The attachment to the soul has been likened to preparing a
ladder to mount to a place which has not been seen by anyone.

Nirvana (Nibbana)

Nirvana is the "summum bonum" of Buddhism. It is discussed in the third noble

truth called Dukha Nirodha which means cessation of suffering. It is a state of
enlightenment, an ultimate experience.

What does Nirvana means?

Etymologically, the word is a combination of two words (Ni + vana) which

means freedom or departure from craving, extinction of greed, hate and
delusion. Nirvana is complete extinction of the fire of passions.
Again, Nirvana means blowing out. It is the cessation of the vicious circle of
Samsara or becoming, the dissolution of the five skandhas (Aggregation). It is
a realization of the free state of consciousness, the tranquil state of the eternal nature
and blessedness.
The ideal saint who has attained nirvana is called an Arhat or perfectly pure, one
who has blown himself out of existence by annihilating all desires and passions.
This highest idea is described both positively and negatively. Positively, Nirvana is
identified with bliss. It is the mental illumination conceived as light, insight, state of
happiness, cool, calm and content. It is happiness here and hereafter, it is
fearless goal. Hence, positively, it is the ideal of place, safety and purity. Negatively,
it is the assimilation of passion, hatred and delusion (raga, dwesa and moha). It is
wearing out of all evils and cessation of the sense of discordance.

Hinyana mahayana description of Nirvana

The Hinayana School favours mostly the negative description of Nirvana. It

is described as Nirodha or Nirveda (Cessation of suffering). It is the annihilation
of existence for ever. Samsara and nirvana are entirely different in the
Hinayana School. Samsara is the way of becoming and Nirvana is the end of
becoming. The Hinayanists believe that Nirvana is something to be acquired.
But, according to the Mahayana School, Samsara and Nirvana are two relative
ideas and as such there is no absolute distinction between the two. Both stand
on the same footing in respect of each other as regard their significance. Suffering is
Samsara and cessation of suffering is Nirvana. Both are only aspects of the same
reality.

Again, Madhyamikas believe that it is not something to be acquired. Nagarjuna

describes Nirvana as: Nirvana is that which is neither abandoned nor acquired, it is
neither a thing annihilated nor a thing eternal; it is neither destroyed nor produced.

Pratitya Samutpada in it samutpada aspect is samsara and the same in its nirodha aspect is
Nirvana.
Difference regarding the means for the attainment of Nirvana
Hinyanist

The Hinayanist believes that by the realization of pudgala-nairatmya (not-self or

unsubstantiality of the person), one could attain Nirvana.

Mahayanist

The Mahayanist maintains that it is not only by the realization of

pudgala-nairatmya, but also by the realization of dharmanairatmya (i.e. that all the dharmas or elements of existence are
unsubstantial, devoid of any independent reality of their
own) that one realy attains Nirvana.
According to Mahayana, the realization of both pudgala-nairatmya
and dharma-nairatmya is necessary for the attainment of Nirvana.

In the Bauddha literature a distinction has been drawn between two kinds
of nirvana
1. Upadhiseasa (Nirvana), where only human passions are extinct, condition of a
perfect saint where the five skandhas are still present,hough the desire which attracts us
to being is extinct
2. Anupadhisesa(Parinirvana), where all being is extinct. In this cessation of all being
consequent on the death of the saint.

But even parinirvana cannot mean absolute non-being. It only means absolute
perfection of being. In nirvana, desire is extinct, though there remains unruffled and
unperturbed consciousness. In parinirvana, the unruffled consciousness is also
extinct. For this reason, nirvana has been described as annihilation of existence.

What is eight fold path to attain liberation?

The fourth noble truth lays down that there is a path consisting of eight
steps called the eight fold noble path (astangika-marga) to reach a state
free from misery. The path is open to all, monks as well as laymen. The
Nobel eight-fold path consists of following eight steps:
1. Right Views (Samyak-drsti) : Right view is defined as the correct knowledge about
the four noble truths. Wrong view (mithyadrsti) about the self and the world is the root
cause of our sufferings. Right view leads us towards nirvana, the final goal.

2. Right Resolve (Samyak-sankalpa) : Right resolve is defined as the firm

determination to reform life in the light of truth.
The aspirant is asked (i) to renounce worldliness,(ii) to give up ill feeling towards others and
(iii) desist from doing any harm to them.
3.Right Speech (Samyak-vak) : Right speech consists in abstention from lying, slander,
unkind words and frivolous talks.
4. Right Conduct (Samyak-karmanta) : Right conduct includes the Panca-sila, the fine
vows of desisting from killing, stealing, lying and intoxication etc.
5.Right Liveihood (Samyak-ajiva) : One should earn his livelihood by honest means.
Even for the sake of maintaining ones life, one should not take to forbidden means but work
in consistency with good determination.
6. Right Effort (Samyak-vyayama) : Right effort consists is making a constant effort (i)
to root out old evil thoughts (ii) prevent evil thoughts from arising anew (iii) to fill the mind
with good ideas, and (iv) retain such ideas in the mind.
7. Right mindfulness (Samyak-smirti) : Right Mindufulness lays down that the aspirant
should constanly bear in mind the things he has already learnt. He should constantly rember
the perishable nature of things. This is necessary for keeping off attachment to things, and
grief over their loss. The practice of such thought is recommended by Buddha in minute
details in Digha-nikaya.
8. Right concentration (Samyak-smadhi) : Right concentration through four stages is
the last step in the path that leads to the goal nirvana.
1. The first state of concentration is on reasoning and investigation regarding the truths.
There is then a joy of pure thinking.
2. The second state of concentration is unruffled meditation, free from reasoning, etc.
there is then a joy of tranquility.
3. The third stage of concentration is detachment from even the joy of tranquility. There is
then indifference even to such joy but a feeling of bodily ease still persists.
4. The fourth state of concentration is detachement from this bodily case too. There are
the perfect equanimity and indifference. This is the state of nirvana or perfect wisdom.

The noble eightfold path consists of three main things : Conduct (shila). Concentration
(Samadhi) and knowledge (prajna) harmonisouly cultivated. They correspond to
Darshana, Jnana and Charitra of Jainism. Shila and Samadhi lead to Prajna which is the
direct cause of liberation.