SS2013 Abstracts

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Table of Contents
Keynote addresses
2
3
4
5
6
7
Pit slopes in weathered and weak rocks
C.D. Martin, University of Alberta, Canada; P.F. Stacey, Stacey Mining Geotechnical Ltd.,
Canada
Numerical analysis, slope design and in situ stress
J. Sjberg, Itasca Consultants AB, Sweden
Water and slope stability the application of a new science
G. Beale, Schlumberger Water Services, UK
Global slope performance index
T.D. Sullivan, Pells Sullivan Meynink; and The University of New South Wales, Australia
Data gathering, inte rpretation, reliability and geotechnical models
J.R.L. Read, CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
Excavation control, management of blast damage, and quality control

J.V. Simmons, Sherwood Geotechnical and Research Services, Australia
Geotechnical models
9
Pit slope design in phyllites for the Simandou large open pit project
10
Rock mass and structural modelling for the large open pit gold mining project
in the Northern Andes: The La Colosa project, Colombia
C. Fietze, Golder Associates Africa (Pty) Ltd, South Africa; A. Creighton, Rio Tinto,
Australia; L.M. Castro, Golder Associates Ltd., Canada; R. Hammah, Golder Associates,
Ghana
J. Horner, J. Weil, iC consulenten, Austria; J. Betancourt, A. Naranjo, P. Montoya,

J. Snchez, AngloGold Ashanti Colombia, Colombia
11
An extensional mechanism of instability and failure in the walls of open pit

mines
M.C. Bridges, AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
12
13
Rapid characterisation of potentially hazardous blocks in open pit mining
M.K. Elmouttie, G.V. Poropat, G. Krhenbhl, P. Dean, CSIRO Earth Science and Resource
Engineering, Australia
Reliability of strength estimates based on limited laboratory data
M-H. Fillion, J. Hadjigeorgiou, Lassonde Institute of Mining, University of Toronto,

Canada
Slope Stability 2013 | Abstracts
14
Interpreting local critical orientations of structural weakness in relation to

stress and dilatancy in rock slopes
J.V. Smith, School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, RMIT University,
Australia
15
Combining field methods and numerical modelling to address challenges in

characterising discontinuity persistence and intact rock bridges in large open
pit slopes
Z. Tuckey, Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia; D. Stead, Department of Earth Sciences,
Simon Fraser University, Canada; E. Eberhardt, Department of Earth and Ocean
Sciences, University of British Columbia, Canada
16
17
18
19
20
Discussion on how to classify and estimate strength of weak rock masses
L.M. Castro, J. Carvalho, Golder Associates Ltd.,Canada; G. S, Vale, Brazil
Structural data bias in the digital age
M.J. Fowler, Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
Bench berm design using probalistic key block analysis
E. Hormazabal, SRK Consulting (Chile) S.A., Chile
Ongoing research into anisotropic rock masses using numerical modelling
K.G. Mercer, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of Western Australia,
Australia
Geochemistry and geotechnical models a case study from the proposed

Kempfield Silver Project, Bathurst, New South Wales
H. Baxter, T. Rutherford, R. Bertuzzi, Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
21
Combined use of traditional core logging and televiewer imaging for practical
geotechnical data collection
X.P. Gwynn, M.C. Brown, P.J. Mohr, SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK
22
Experimental and numerical assessment of shear surface damage using 3D

point clouds
S. Karekal, G.V. Poropat, H. Guo, CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering,
Australia
23
The determination of joint roughness coefficient using three-dimensional

models for slope stability analysis
D.H. Kim, I. Gratchev, School of Engineering, Griffith University, Australia; G.V. Poropat,
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
24
Geotechnical and geological model applied to crushing processes in open pit

mines
P. Pea, Ingeniera de Rocas Ltda., Chile; R. Fuenzalida, TECK Carmen de Andacollo,

Chile; R. Villarroel, P. Merino, Ingeniera de Rocas Ltda., Chile; M. Tapia, TECK Carmen de
Andacollo, Chile; P. Casanova, Geoatacama, Chile
25
Maximising geotechnical data and characterisation of critical units through

targeted field work
A.J. Phillips, H.F. Wilson, Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
26
Structural geology modelling: a summary on data integrity and modelling

methods
K.M. Rees, J. Graaf, Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
27
A statistical approach to account for elevated levels of uncertainty during

geotechnical design
R.D.H. Thomas, Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
28
Preliminary review of the geotechnical characteristics and shear strength

estimates of small scale anisotropic waveform formations of the Pilbara,
Western Australia
S. Tokimoto, School of Civil and Resource Engineering, The University of Western

Australia; K.G. Mercer, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of Western
Australia, Australia
29
Dissection of a pit case study
A.J. Troy, Terra Firma Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
Remediation
31
A strategic approach to the design and implementation of an effective mine

dewatering system
M. Bester, E. Nel, G.M. Mc Gavigan, Anglo American Kumba Iron Ore, South Africa
32
33
34
Water management for slope stabilisation an example from Peru
C. Prez, Schlumberger Water Services, Peru; V. Prez, Minera Yanacocha S.R.L., Peru;
G. Beale, Schlumberger Water Services, UK; D. Ros, F. Soto, Minera Yanacocha S.R.L.,
Peru
Cockatoo Island stage 3: seawall failure and remediation
P.K. Wong, Coffey Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Australia; P. Petropulos, Coffey Mining Pty Ltd,
Australia
Case history: deep-seated slope failure in weak rocks, El Tapado pit north wall,
Yanacocha operation
G.A. Becerra Abregu, E. Valencia Jeri, E. Garcia, Minera Yanacocha S.R.L, Peru; P. Yuan,
Golder Associates Inc., USA; T. Byers, Newmont Mining Corporation, USA
35
Pit slope depressurisation investigation f or an open cut iron ore mine in the
Pilbara
A. Dodman, G. Beale, Schlumberger Water Services, UK; J. Rodriguez, Schlumberger
Water Services, Australia; A. Cottrell, J. Youngs, BHP Billiton, Australia
36
Approach to groundwater and pore water pressure modelling for different

geotechnical conditions in open pit slope stability analysis
H. El-Idrysy, SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK
37
A case study on actual water pressure measurements at an open pit excavated

in strong, tight rock and the implications for slope design
M. Rougier, L.M. Castro, Golder Associates Ltd., Canada; D. Birchall, Barrick Gold,
Canada
Uncertainty in design
39
An application of a reliability based method to evaluate open pit slope stability
40
Risk evaluation of slope considering mechanical and hydraulic characteristics

of unsaturated soils
M. Valerio, C. Clayton, S. DAmbra, C. Yan, Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
Y-K. Song, J-R. Oh, M.S. Jung, Y.J. Son, National Disaster Management Institute, Korea
41
Analysis of failures in open pit mines and consideration of the uncertainty

when predicting collapses
A.G. Cabrejo-Livano, GroundProbe Pty Ltd, Australia
42
Managing slope performance in uncertain geological conditions at Meandu

Mine, Queensland
J.V. Simmons, Sherwood Geotechnical and Research Services, Australia; D.C. Edwards,
Downer EDI Mining Pty Ltd, Australia; N. Ferdinands, Stanwell Corporation Limited,
Australia
43
Iterative geotechnical pit slope design in a structurally complex setting: a case

study from Tom Price, Western Australia
D.S. Lucas, Mining One Consultants, Australia; P.J.H. de Graaf, Rio Tinto Iron Ore,
Australia
44
45
46
Slope design at Cuajone Pit, Peru
E. Hormazabal, SRK Consulting (Chile) S.A., Chile; R. Veramendi, J. Barrios, Southern

Peru Cooper Corporation, Peru; G. Zuiga, F. Gonzalez, SRK Consulting (Chile) S.A., Chile
Three-dimensional limit equilibrium analysis of open pits
H.H. Lu, M.D. Fredlund, SoilVision Systems Ltd., Canada; D.G. Fredlund, Golder
Associates Ltd., Canada
Integrated slope stability assessment in a complex geotechnical and

hydrogeological setting
R. Campbell, SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK; D. Mackie, SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.,
Canada; W.S. Anderson, Teck Resources Ltd., Canada
47
48
Geotechnical reliability assessment of a large counterfort retaining wall
W. Deng, K. ONeill, K. Luu, Aurecon Pty Ltd, Australia; K. Little, Baulderstone

Construction, Australia
Towards developing a more rigorous technique for bench scale slope stability
analysis in hard rock
R. Teet, A. Vakili, A. de Veth, AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
Numerical analysis
50
Characterisation and stability modelling in weak rock masses of the Robinson

Mine
M. Fournier, R. Mercer, D. Yang, Knight Pisold Ltd., Canada; J. Miller, KGHM Inc., USA
51
The use of numerical modelling, slope monitoring and operational procedures

to manage slope deformations at the Ranger 3 Pit
D.R. Wines, Itasca Australia Pty Ltd, Australia; I. Hulls, Mining One Consultants,
Australia; E. Woods, Energy Resources of Australia Ltd, Australia; A. Creighton, Rio
Tinto, Australia
52
53
Incorporating brittle fracture into three-dimensional modelling of rock slopes
M. Havaej, A. Wolter, Simon Fraser University, Canada; D. Stead, Department of Earth

Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Canada; Z. Tuckey, Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia;
L. Lorig, Itasca Consulting Group Inc., USA; E. Eberhardt, Department of Earth and
Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, Canada
Open pit numerical model calibration using a pseudo three-dimensional radar

monitoring technique
J. Severin, SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc., Canada; E. Eberhardt, Department of Earth and
Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, Canada; S. Fortin, Teck Resources Ltd.,
Canada
54
Two-dimensional and three-dimensional distinct element numerical stability

analyses for assessment of the west wall cutback design at Ok Tedi Mine,
Papua New Guinea
I.A. de Bruyn, SRK Consulting (Australasia) Pty Ltd, Australia; M.A. Coulthard,
M.A. Coulthard and Associates Pty Ltd, Australia; N.R.P. Baczynski, Ok Tedi Mining Ltd,
Papua New Guinea; J. Mylvaganam, SRK Consulting (Australasia) Pty Ltd, Australia
55
56
Three-dimensional numerical stability analysis of the Oyu Tolgoi open pit
M. Smithyman, H. Puebla, A. Chance, R. Beddoes, Golder Associates Ltd., Canada;

A. Creighton, Rio Tinto, Australia
Three-dimensional analysis of pit slope stability in anisotropic rock masses
D.P. Sainsbury, Mining One Consultants, Australia; B. Sainsbury, Castlemaine Goldfields

Ltd, Australia
57
UDEC and RFPA2D simulations on the influence of the geometry of partiallyspanning joints on rock mechanical behaviour
P.L.P. Wasantha, P.G. Ranjith, Civil Engineering Department, Monash University,
Australia; T. Xu, Northeastern University, China
58
59
Slope stability analysis at Siilinjrvi Mine
S. Mononen, Yara Suomi Oy, Finland; H. Kuula, M. Lamberg, Pyry Finland Oy, Finland
The effect of slope curvature in rock mass shear strength derivations for
stability modelling of foliated rock masses
S. Narendranathan, R.D.H. Thomas, J.M. Neilsen, Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
60
Stability analyses for a large landslide with complex geology and failure
mechanism using numerical modelling
B. Wentzinger, D. Starr, S. Fidler, Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia; Q. Nguyen, ATC
Williams Pty Ltd, Australia; S. Hencher, Steve Hencher Associates Ltd, UK
Slope performance
62
A web-based GIS decision support system for slope stability monitoring data
interpretations and visualisation management
A.B. Firman, C.D. Wiratno, S. Bahri, H. Timbul, PT Adaro Indonesia, Indonesia
63
Can full waveform technology enhance the use of terrestrial laser scanning to
monitor rock slope deformation?
J.G. Williams, N.J. Rosser; Department of Geography, Durham University, UK; A. Afana,
Department of Geography, Durham University; and 3D Laser Mapping Ltd, UK;
G. Hunter, 3D Laser Mapping Ltd, UK; R.J. Hardy, Department of Geography, Durham
University, UK
64
Experience using terrestrial remote sensing techniques for rock slope

performance assessment
M. Sturzenegger, D. Willms, Klohn Crippen Berger Ltd., Canada; K. Pate, Seattle City
Light, USA; B. Johnston, Tetra Tech Inc., USA
65
66
Powerful rockfall incidents at Al-Hada descent and remedial measures
B.H. Sadagah, Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia;
M.S. Aazam, A. Al-Amri, O. Al-Hoseiny,
A. Al-Harbi, Ministry of Transportation, Saudi Arabia
Innovative use of slope monitoring radar as a support to geotechnical

modelling of slopes in open pit mines
A.E.E. Escobar, Codelco El Teniente, Chile; P. Farina, L. Leoni, C. Iasio, N. Coli, IDS
Ingegneria Dei Sistemi, Italy
67
Slope monitoring and data visualisation state-of-the-art advancing to Rio

Tinto Iron Ores Mine of the FutureTM
P.J.H. de Graaf, S.D.N. Wessels, Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
68
Application of ground penetrating radar to identify the locations of sub-surface

anomalies at Kansanshi Mine, Zambia
N.K. Smith, First Quantum Minerals Ltd, Zambia
69
Application of advanced InSAR techniques to detect vertical and horizontal

displacements
J. Morgan, TRE Canada Inc., Canada; S. Raval, The University of New South Wales,
Australia; B. Macdonald, G. Falorni, TRE Canada Inc., Canada; J. Iannacone, University
of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
70
71
72
Geotechnical risk management at Teck Coal
A. Bidwell, A. Knight, Teck Coal Ltd., Canada; W.S. Anderson, Teck Resources Ltd.,
Canada
Undrained behaviour in spoil piles
A. Duran, Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
Shear strength parameters for assessing geotechnical slope stability of open pit
coal mine spoil based on laboratory tests
A.K. Kho, D.J. Williams, N. Kaneko, N.J.W. Smith, School of Civil Engineering, The
University of Queensland, Australia
73
74
Flow failure in coal stockpiles how to reduce risk
P. Davies, S. Zargarbashi, L. McQueen, Golder Associates Pty Ltd,Australia
Integration of full waveform terrestrial laser scanners into a slope monitoring

system
A. Afana, 3D Laser Mapping Ltd; and Durham University, UK; G. Hunter, J. Davis, 3D
Laser Mapping Ltd, UK; N.J. Rosser, R.J. Hardy, J.G. Williams, Department of Geography,
Durham University, UK
75
76
77
2011 Manawatu Gorge landslide-technical challenges faced during remediation
M.B. Avery, S. Bourke, Geovert Ltd, New Zealand
Mt Owen Mine barrier pillar
W.D. Bartlett, Thiess Pty Ltd, Australia; I.H. Clark, GEONET Consulting Group, Australia;
D.E. McCormack, G.D. Johnson, A.N. Brown, Thiess Pty Ltd, Australia
Quarry wall stability and design optimisation using photogrammetric mapping

and analysis techniques
P.W. Booth, G.E. Meyer, Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
78
Early detection of impending slope failure in open pit mines using spatial and
temporal analysis of real aperture radar measurements
G.J. Dick, E. Eberhardt, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, The University of
British Columbia, Canada; D. Stead, Department of Earth Sciences, Simon Fraser
University, Canada; N.D. Rose, Piteau Associates Engineering Ltd., Canada
79
80
Geohazard mitigation in remote and rugged terrain
U.K. Gunasekera, Rio Tinto Australia, Australia
Stabilisation of landslides using gravity fed siphon and electro-pneumatic

pumped wells: two examples of slope stabilisation projects from the United
Kingdom and Czech Republic
J.K. Holliday, Aurecon Australia Pty Ltd, Australia; A.R. Clark, Independent consultant,
UK; D.S. Fort, Atkins, UK; A. Gillarduzzi, High Point Rendel, UK; S. Bomont, TPGEO,
France
81
Risk management and remediation of the north wall slip, West Angelas Mine,
Western Australia
G.G. Joass, R. Dixon, T. Sikma, S.D.N. Wessels, J. Lapwood, P.J.H. de Graaf, Rio Tinto Iron
Ore, Australia
82
83
Application of radar monitoring at Savage River Mine, Tasmania
G.K. Macqueen, E.I. Salas, B.J. Hutchison, Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd,
Australia
Slope stability study in open pit and underground mines by means of forensic
analysis and radar interferometry
O. Mora, Altamira Information, Spain; I. lvarez, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain; E. Amor

Herrera, Hullera Vasco-Leonesa, Spain
84
Stability analysis and remedial design of two road cuttings in North

Queensland based on remote geotechnical mapping using digital
photogrammetry
I. Ortega, P.W. Booth, J. Darras, Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
85
86
Hangingwall and footwall slope stability issues in sublevel caving
B-M. Stckel, K. Mkitaavola, Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara AB, Sweden; J. Sjberg, Itasca

Consultants AB, Sweden
An evaluation of the CUSUM and inverse velocity methods of failure prediction

based on two open pit instabilities in the Pilbara
J. Venter, A. Kuzmanovic, S.D.N. Wessels, Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
87
Slope stabilisation program at West Gully, PT Freeport Indonesia
E. Widijanto, I. Setiawan, K. Afrizal, M. Stawski, P. Warren and B. Utama, PT Freeport

Indonesia, Indonesia
Hydrogeology
89
Integrating complex hydrogeological and geotechnical models a discussion of

methods and issues
G. Fagerlund, SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc., Canada; M. Royle, Schlumberger Ltd.,
Canada; J. Scibek, SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc., Canada
90
Three-dimensional pore pressure prediction in dual phase conditions for slope

stability assessment
E.R. De Sousa, M.J. Fowler, G.E. Swarbrick, Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
91
Mine design for below water table clay detritals mining: Marandoo Mine,
Western Australia
D. McInnes, C. Haberfield, Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia; P.J.H. de Graaf, Rio Tinto
Iron Ore, Australia; C. Colley, Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
92
The hydro-geotechnical decision cycle having mine design and planning

decisions made by the right people
J.W. Hall, RPS Aquaterra, Australia
93
The hydrogeology of a moving cut slope and real time modelling of

groundwater movement
I. Gray, J. Wood, B. Neels, A. OBrien, Sigra Pty Ltd, Australia
Rockfall
95
96
An integrated approach for rockfall analysis with drapery systems
K. Thoeni, Centre for Geotechnical and Materials Modelling, The University of Newcastle,
Australia; C. Lambert, Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury,
New Zealand; A. Giacomini, S.W. Sloan, J.P. Carter, Centre of Excellence for Geotechnical
Science and Engineering; and Centre for Geotechnical and Materials Modelling, The
University of Newcastle, Australia
Coefficient of restitution for rigid body dynamics modelling from onsite

experimental data
F.R.P. Basson, R. Humphreys, A. Temmu, Newmont Asia Pacific, Australia
97
Spatial and temporal aspects of slope hazards along a railroad corridor in the
Canadian Cordillera
R. Macciotta, D.M. Cruden, C.D. Martin, N.R. Morgenstern, M. Petrov, Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada
98
99
100
Earthquake stability assessment for open pit mine slopes
J.C.W. Toh, D.K.E. Green, G.E. Swarbrick, M.J. Fowler, B.E. Estrada, Pells Sullivan
Meynink, Australia
Seismic stability of large open pit slopes and pseudo-static analysis
B. Damjanac, Varun, L. Lorig, Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., USA
Three-dimensional rockfall modelling and rockfall protection Port Hills
M.B. Avery, Geovert Ltd, New Zealand; H. Salzmann, Freefall ZT GmbH, Austria; A. Teen,
Geovert Global Pte Ltd, Singapore
101
Verification of Trajec3D for use in rockfall analysis at Newmont Boddington

Gold
C.C. Graf, T. Peryoga, G. McCartney, T. Rees, Newmont Boddington Gold, Australia
Wall control
103
West Gully Upper innovative rockfall and debris flow protection systems
104
Rockfall stabilisation of a steep and high slope at West Angelas Mine using pretensioned anchored mesh
H.P. Anderson, Geovert Pty Ltd, New Zealand; A. Teen, Geovert Global PTE, Singapore;
H. Salzmann, Freefall Geotechnical Engineering ZTGmbH, Austria
P.J.G. Lopes, T.T. Le, Geovert Pty Ltd, Australia
105
Rock and soil slope protection using a high stiffness geocomposite mesh
system
D. Cheer, Maccaferri S.p.a., Italy; G. Giacchetti, Alpigeo, Italy
106
Landslide risk management in Australia 2013 status of resources available to

practitioners
A. Leventhal, GHD Geotechnics, Australia; A. Miner, AS Miner Geotechnical, Australia;
B. Walker, JK Geotechnics, Australia
107
Design and construction of an anchored soil nail wall close to movement

sensitive structures
A.K. Kho, Cardno Pty Ltd, Australia; M. McAuley, GHD Pty Ltd, Australia
Excavation control
109
Blast induced damage mechanism on final walls and the blasting methods to
minimise damage
W.W. de Graaf, Mining Engineering Department, University of Pretoria, South Africa;
S.J. Etchells, AEL Mining Services, South Africa
110
Measurements of dynamic surface strains induced by blasting near a highwall

of a coal mine a preliminary assessment
K.N. Henley, A.T. Spathis, Orica Australia Ltd, Australia
111
112
Blasting vibration assessment of rock slopes and a case study
K.W.K. Kong, MWH Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
Drape mesh protection at the Savage River Mine, Tasmania
B.J. Hutchison, G.K. Macqueen, S.L. Dolting, Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd,
Australia; A.T. Morrison, Geobrugg Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
113
Understanding the blast damage mechanisms in slopes using observations and

numerical modelling
S.J. Etchells, AEL Mining Services, South Africa; E.J. Sellers, JK Tech Pty Ltd, Australia; J.
Furtney, Itasca Consulting Group Inc., USA
Keynote addresses
Pit slopes in weathered and weak rocks

C.D. Martin University of Alberta, Canada
P.F. Stacey Stacey Mining Geotechnical Ltd., Canada
Abstract
The Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design developed as part of the Large Open Pit (LOP)
project was published in 2009. The guidelines were focused on hard rocks in open pit mines so
did not address design issues for pit slopes in materials generally classed as weak rocks. Research
currently being undertaken by the LOP sponsors is directed at filling this gap.
Canvassing of the LOP sponsors and their affiliates resulted in identifying pit slope issues in
five general categories of weak rocks:
1.
Cemented transported sediments.
2.
Saprolites (residual soils and weathered rocks).
3.
Leached rocks/soft iron ores (leached, creating a rock with a high void ratio).
4. Mudrocks.
5.
Hydrothermally altered rocks.
Establishing the strength of hard rocks is traditionally approached using rock mass
classifications and the HoekBrown failure criterion. However, there is ample evidence that
these approaches do not capture the strength characteristics and the failure processes evident in
weak rocks. In this paper the authors describe some of the processes that should be considered
when attempting to establish the strength and failure envelopes input into slope designs for
open pits in weak rocks.
Slope Stability 2013 | Abstracts | 2
Numerical analysis, slope design and in situ stress

J. Sjberg Itasca Consultants AB, Sweden
Abstract
This paper presents a brief review of the history of numerical modelling applied to the design
of rock slopes, with contributions to previous slope stability symposia used to illustrate the
development. The related issue of the effect of in situ (or initial) rock stresses on slope stability
is also discussed in the paper. The use of numerical modelling has evolved significantly from
the first, precarious, steps in the late 1960s. Currently, modelling is a standard tool in almost all
slope design work and highly sophisticated models allow simulation of many (if not all) aspects
of slope behaviour. Three-dimensional modelling is common and the use of models that allow
explicit crack propagation, is slowly emerging. There is, however, still room for improvements
within this field. Many of the existing modelling approaches have not been fully validated, mainly
due to the problem of obtaining complete geometrical description and properties for all units
within a fractured rock mass. The advance in data collection and generation of input data has
not kept pace with the improvements in modelling techniques, and rock mechanics problems
remains to a large extent data limited. There is a need for more encompassing data collection
and monitoring systems for future modelling improvements. An improved characterisation will
require extensive collaborative efforts between engineers, geologists, and geophysicists. In the
future, a move towards real-time modelling can also be envisioned. This concept has not yet
been fully applied in rock mechanics, but there are examples of applications in other engineering
and scientific disciplines, such as weather forecasting and physics modelling, and some ideas are
presented.
Water and slope stability the application of a new

science
G. Beale Schlumberger Water Services, UK
Abstract
The science of pit slope hydrogeology has rapidly gained momentum over the past 15 years
to meet the requirements of larger and deeper mining projects. The advent of new monitoring
systems, and particularly the use of grouted-in vibrating wire piezometers, has contributed to a
practical understanding of the factors that control the behaviour of water pressure in pit slopes.
An expanding global database linking pore pressure with deformation and slope movement is
highlighting the role that water pressure plays in slope stability. The talk discusses the importance
of water for slope stability, the integration of geotechnical and hydrogeological studies, and the
development of a practical approach for project planning, implementation and monitoring.
Global slope performance index

T.D. Sullivan Pells Sullivan Meynink; and The University of New South Wales,
Australia
Abstract
The evaluation of the performance and risk of excavated slopes is a complex esoteric task.
Slope designers are always faced with gaps and uncertainties and in many cases the conditions
as exposed are significantly different to the design predictions. In theory these issues may be
addressed with detailed, rigorous investigations, analysis and models. But experience shows that
even this approach is not always successful and surprises occur.
The paper presents a simple empirical system for predicting the current and future
performance of excavated slopes. The system is the result of decades of experience with the
design and evaluation of 100s of slopes excavated for both mining and civil purposes. The
examples include a very wide range of slope heights, slope angles, environments and material
types. The experience also covers the full spectrum of operational performance, from stable
slopes, to complete collapse.
In very simple terms three principal elements contribute to the stability of excavated slopes;
intact strength, geological structure and groundwater. The Global Slope Performance Index
(GSPI) is based on these three elements divided into five indices. These indices are each rated
with a linear numerical scale and then combined into a simple algorithm, the GSPI.
The index has been benchmarked against actual slope performances and demonstrated by
statistical analysis, which allows the likelihood of different slope performances and risk to be
determined based on the Global Slope Performance Index
Data gathering, interpretation, reliability and

geotechnical models
J.R.L. Read CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
Abstract
The geotechnical model is the cornerstone of open pit design (Read and Stacey, 2009). It must
be in place before the steps of setting up the geotechnical domains, allocating the design sectors
and preparing the slope design can commence. The processes that must be followed to construct
the model are outlined in this paper. They include recent advances in assessing parameter and
model uncertainty, in particular, a modified Bayesian approach that has been developed to
estimate the expected value of the measure of reliability. Overall, they form part of a system of
reporting confidence in the geotechnical model and matching target levels of geotechnical effort
with target levels of confidence in the data at each stage of project development.
Excavation control, management of blast damage, and

quality control
J.V. Simmons Sherwood Geotechnical and Research Services, Australia
Abstract
Implementation of slope design transfers well-intentioned concepts, technical expertise, and
cost commitments to a reality that cannot be fully or reliably predicted. With the uncovering
of real geological and operational conditions come observations, actions, and experiences
which may mandate changes to design for a multitude of reasons. Within the hierarchy of risk
management actions, design is near the highest level of control, and approved design will include
acceptance of geological and geotechnical uncertainties. Excavation, blasting, and quality control
are aspects of design implementation where intention becomes confronted by reality; choices
of action take place within a risk management framework in real time against a background that
may be dominated by uncertainties.
Excavation control starts with consideration of survey methods and accuracy limits. Under
some conditions, uncertainty in geometry may have a significant influence on outcomes of
stability assessment, and this review offers a perspective based on risk management and quality
control principles. When inspections are carried out it is necessary not just to identify materials,
structure, and groundwater parameters but also to interpret and describe geotechnical
behaviour type with respect to an accepted scheme that can guide risk management responses.
An example is provided to illustrate the range of rock mass damage associated with different blast
designs, with the view that blast damage can be more readily recognised and treated as a special
case of excavation control. Quality control is discussed in terms of the gathering of evidence
for updating estimates of likelihoods, and may range from simple visual inspection to complex,
problem-driven measurements. Some examples are discussed and the overriding requirement
to gather, check, and test evidence is emphasised. In conclusion, careful thought is required to
resist the distorting aspects of modern communication tools on the timely communication of risk
management information.
Geotechnical models
Pit slope design in phyllites for the Simandou large

open pit project
C. Fietze Golder Associates Africa (Pty) Ltd, South Africa
A. Creighton Rio Tinto, Australia
L.M. Castro Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
R. Hammah Golder Associates, Ghana
Abstract
At the Simandou iron ore project site in Guinea, phyllites with varying degrees of strength
and alteration are prevalent. Their presence makes it difficult to adequately characterise, classify
and estimate the strengths of the rock masses. The foliation in the phyllite has low strength,
and thus induces anisotropic behaviour. This paper will present information on how these
difficult-to-classify rock mass units were treated in the design of the Simandou open pit.
In order to geomechanically characterise the Simandou rock masses, significant attention was
paid to the weathering and alteration processes of the phyllite. The strength of the rock masses
closely correlated to the degree of alteration and weathering; the most weathered phyllites had
the weakest strength.
The strength of the more altered rock mass used for the pit slope design was estimated from
a combination of laboratory rock testing and back-analysis. The back-analysis was based on slope
instabilities that had occurred on natural slopes in the Simandou area.
The geotechnical risks, most likely to arise, were identified and taken into account in the pit
slope design. Since toppling was the most serious of these risks, the paper discusses it in greater
detail. Parametric numerical analyses of toppling were performed to evaluate the importance of
the variation in the strength and stiffness of the materials and the likely mode of failure, where
toppling or shear (rotational-type failure) could develop.
Rock mass and structural modelling for the large open

pit gold mining project in the Northern Andes: The La
Colosa project, Colombia
J. Horner iC consulenten, Austria
J. Weil iC consulenten, Austria
J. Betancourt AngloGold Ashanti Colombia, Colombia
A. Naranjo AngloGold Ashanti Colombia, Colombia
P. Montoya AngloGold Ashanti Colombia, Colombia
J. Snchez AngloGold Ashanti Colombia, Colombia
Abstract
The La Colosa gold mining project, located in the Central Cordillera of Colombia, wholly
owned and developed by AngloGold Ashanti Colombia, represents the largest gold project
in the northern Andes. The project is currently in the pre-feasibility stage (PFS). Rock mass
characterisation and the elaboration of a 3D rock mass model and a 3D structural model are
required for the geotechnical open pit mine design.
Crucial for the interpretation of structural and geotechnical data is the understanding of the
tectonic setting of the area, in order to define major faults and zones of increased fracturing.
Prior to rock mass characterisation and 3D modelling, a detailed structural geologic survey was
carried out, defining tectonic deformation events and the relation to magmatic and ore-forming
activity.
Geologic-geotechnical data from surface mapping as well as from drill core logs of more
than 96,000 m of diamond drilling were analysed. In addition, structural data from oriented
drillings and from bore hole scanning were evaluated. Review and analysis of drill core data
focused on the quality of information acquired during the various stages of drilling and drill
core logging. In particular inconsistent data on fracturing and faulting made a detailed review
necessary comparing drill core photos with the geologic and geotechnical drill core logs. The
result of the re-logging enabled the elaboration of a structural model, the determination of the
depth of weathered and fractured material close to surface, as well as the definition of principal
fracture zones.
Drill core logging data as well as surface outcrop data were analysed in terms of rock
mechanical parameters and were integrated into the existing 3D lithological model. Together
with the results from laboratory testing, rock mass types could be defined and modelled in 3D.
Seven structural domains were determined using major faults and lithological boundaries as
limits, according to the tectonic-structural setting of the deposit.
An extensional mechanism of instability and failure in

the walls of open pit mines
M.C. Bridges AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Evidence from studies of instability and failures in the walls of open pit mines and cuttings
indicates a predominance of an extensional mechanism, comprising toppling, ravelling and
creep-subsidence. This is interpreted to arise from relief and dilation when a pit wall is excavated,
removing overburden and lateral confinement of the wall. Evidence does not support sliding and
shear or shallow toppling mechanisms of instability or failure.
Rapid characterisation of potentially hazardous blocks

in open pit mining
M.K. Elmouttie CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
G.V. Poropat CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
G. Krhenbhl CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
P. Dean CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
Abstract
The management of open pit mine slope stability analysis can be optimised by using all
available data ranging from qualitative assessment of rock mass properties through to the
results of sophisticated computer-based analyses. The choice of approach is typically based on
both technical and resource constraints. In this paper we propose a practical method to manage
design risks by understanding the potential structure-controlled failure mechanisms of a slope.
In particular we emphasise that an understanding of the trustworthiness or level of confidence
associated with the stability analysis is essential to manage the rock mass and to determine the
appropriate amount of resources required.
The example discussed in this paper involves consideration of the potential formation of
kinematically hazardous blocks on a mine highwall or bench face, where it is not clear from the
outset what approach is required. The proposed method provides a quick assessment based
on the spatial location of structure data and the practical uncertainties resulting from variation
of key input data. In this paper, we will present new methods to provide this guidance based
on recent advances in the use of digitally mapped structural data, first pass rigid block stability
analysis and analysis of the confidence of the stability analysis undertaken.
Reliability of strength estimates based on limited

laboratory data
M-H. Fillion Lassonde Institute of Mining, University of Toronto, Canada
J. Hadjigeorgiou Lassonde Institute of Mining, University of Toronto, Canada
Abstract
In an open pit mine operation, the quality and quantity of collected geomechanical data can
have significant implications in the design of safe and economically viable slope designs. The
selection of representative values of the rock mass properties is not straightforward, given the
inherent geological and structural variability within an orebody. Under these circumstances the
design of a comprehensive geomechanical sampling program is critical. Such a program, however,
has to comply with practical and financial constraints while developing a degree of confidence in
the quality of the geomechanical data.
A common target level of confidence in the rock mass properties used in slope design is higher
than 80% for an open pit mine at the operations stage. This requires an ongoing maintenance of
the geomechanical database and model. In practice, given the perceived high costs of laboratory
testing, quite often only a relatively small number of samples are selected for laboratory testing.
This leads to a series of questions pertaining to the confidence level that can be assigned to
values obtained by testing only a few samples.
This paper investigates the potential of small-sampling theory to provide practical
recommendations on the adequacy of a testing program. The geomechanical database of an Anglo
American operating open pit mine was reviewed with respect to the strength properties obtained
through a series of ISRM suggested testing methods. For the purposes of this investigation the
focus was on uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) results but the methodology can be applied
to other material properties. In this case study, the mine geological model identified six distinct
rock types. Strength values for six different rock domains were analysed using the confidence
interval approach. In order to investigate the sequence of testing on the interpretation of results,
statistical analyses were also performed by randomly interchanging the order of test results for
each rock domain. The results showed that even if the number of specimens tested is higher
than the minimum proposed by the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) suggested
methods, the sample size was too small to obtain a reliable strength value for most of the rock
domains. Furthermore, the results showed that the minimum sample size obtained using the
confidence interval approach is significantly influenced by the test results sequence used for
the analyses. Based on the results of this study, there is a demonstrated need for a method to
determine the minimum sample size while minimising the influence of the testing sequence.
Interpreting local critical orientations of structural

weakness in relation to stress and dilatancy in rock
slopes
J.V. Smith School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, RMIT University,
Australia
Abstract
The orientation of structural weaknesses, such as faults, joints, bedding and foliation, is a
major influence on the stability of rock slopes. In the unloaded parts of benches, the critical
orientation of structures is typically considered with respect to gravity. In the toe of each bench
and the zone of rock behind the benches the critical orientations must be considered with
respect to the local stress trajectory. In this zone the maximum principal compressive stress
(1) is approximately parallel to the slope, in a two dimensional cross-section. This principal
stress orientation approximates the inter-ramp slope angle for a series of benches with local
steepening of the trajectory behind the lower part of each bench and local flattening behind
the top part of each bench. The critical structures will be those with orientations favourable to
slip with respect to the local 1 trajectory. The orientation of surfaces favourable to slip is also
related to the friction angle and dilatancy of a material.
Materials which undergo no volume change during deformation typically slip on surfaces at
45 to 1 . Materials undergoing volume increase during deformation slip on surfaces at lower
angles. This can be observed in conjugate pairs of structures where the slip occurs simultaneously
on mirror image structures. The angle between conjugate structures in rocks is typically around
60, that is, each structure is inclined 30 to 1 . Experiments and field observations have shown
that this angle decreases at lower confinement and increases at higher confinement.
Based on these relationships, a slope of 50 would have 1 inclined at approximately 50 (with
local variations) and the conjugate critical structures would therefore be oriented at 20 and 80
out of the slope. The low-angle structure would have a resolved shear displacement of sliding
out of the slope. The high angle structure would have the opposite shear sense, that is, the block
behind the slope moving down relative to the block nearer the slope face. Movement on the
high-angle structures can appear to be a toppling failure. At the toe of the overall slope, where
stresses are at their most concentrated, 1 will progressively flatten to horizontal as it goes under
the pit floor. In the zone of greatest stress concentration, the 1 trajectory will approximate half
the slope angle, depending on factors including the in situ stress ratio. At this location, 1 would
be, for example, inclined at approximately 25 and the conjugate critical structures would be
oriented at approximately 5 into the slope and 55 out of the slope. Movement on the low angle
structures can be upward into the pit and may appear to be heave in the pit floor. Movement on
the high-angle structures can also appear to be heave in the pit floor.
Rock slopes which contain structural weakness oriented in one or both of the local
critical orientations will undergo plastic yield at a lower threshold than other rock masses.
The susceptibility of structures to this effect can be assessed from a stereograph using the
Combining field methods and numerical modelling

to address challenges in characterising discontinuity
persistence and intact rock bridges in large open pit
slopes
Z. Tuckey Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
D. Stead Department of Earth Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Canada
E. Eberhardt Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British
Columbia, Canada
Abstract
Confidence in stability assessments of large rock slopes may be improved by greater
understanding the persistence of adverse discontinuities, and the proportion and location of
intact rock bridge content within the slope. This paper presents a discussion of the challenges and
uncertainty in characterising discontinuity persistence and intact rock bridges, with reference to
results from field investigations of open pit slopes at three mines using digital photogrammetry,
ground-based LiDAR, and modified 2D window mapping methods. A conceptual numerical
model is then devised, where a distinct element numerical code was applied to investigate the
influence of rock bridges on brittle rock mass failure and dilation in a model large open pit slope.
Distinction between co-planar or out-of-plane intact rock bridges, and larger rock mass
bridges between more persistent discontinuities is considered necessary and the authors
suggest that a fracture network engineering approach tailored to large open pits may be helpful
for their characterisation. With modified trace mapping procedures, intact rock bridges may be
quantified in terms of an intensity parameter R21 that describes the total length of inferred
rock bridge traces per unit area within a mapping window. An analogous blast-induced damage
intensity factor B21 is also introduced, that describes the total length of blast-induced fracture
traces per unit area in a mapping window. For numerical models, a damage intensity parameter
D21 is applied, which quantifies the intensity of fracturing that develops inside a modelled slope.
Discussion on how to classify and estimate strength of

weak rock masses
J. Carvalho Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
G. S Vale, Brazil
Abstract
Weak rocks can be found in many mines around the world, such as the weathered (saprolite/
saprock) rocks in tropical areas, the (argillic) altered rocks in the Andes and several gold mines in
Nevada, and the soft iron ore deposits in Brazil and Africa. However, it is difficult to classify these
materials from drilling core and obtain representative strength for these weak rock masses. This
paper discusses the rock mass classification and proposes a transition function for estimating
their strengths.
Current application of the rock mass rating (RMR) Bieniawski classification system and its
subsequent input into the HoekBrown strength criterion yields low strength parameters that do
not represent high stable slopes excavated within weak rock masses, as observed in many mine
operations and road cuts.
This paper presents some modifications to the RMR76 system, which somewhat takes into
account the Robertson (1988) proposed classification system for weak rock masses, by allowing
the collection of ratings for RQD and joint condition to obtain higher RMR values for the upper
portion of the R1 (i.e. R1+ or R1/R2) and R2 category rock masses that would be greater than the
current minimum value of 18 for dry slopes. The RMR classification should not be applied to R0
type materials (UCS<1 MPa), as they should be treated as soil.
It is recognised that at the low end of the rock quality scale, in the transition from inter-block
shear failure towards a more matrix controlled rock mass behaviour, a gradual change in the
strength curve can be created by considering the reduction in the cohesion component. For
the estimation of the weak rock mass strength, a low-end transition HoekBrown relationship
originally proposed by Carvalho et al. (2007) has been calibrated with additional data and
considering the strength range from R1 to R2 materials.
S (2010) carried out laboratory strength tests and back-analysis of failed slopes for the N4E
open pit iron mine in the Vales Carajs Mineral Complex, located in the north of Brazil. The
calibrated strength parameters were used to assist in defining the lower strength limit, where
this transition function should not be applied. Examples for other mines are also included, where
weathered/altered rocks exist and were compared with strength parameters estimated from this
low-end transition relation.
Structural data bias in the digital age

M.J. Fowler Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
Abstract
This paper presents a description of data bias associated with both conventional and digital
mapping of rock mass discontinuities. Digital mapping of rock mass discontinuities is now
commonplace with, for instance, borehole imaging, LiDAR and photogrammetry becoming
standard tools for geotechnical investigations.
Rock mass discontinuities are a major control on the design of hard rock slopes and
underground openings. Understanding the inherent bias of different sampling methods is an
important aspect of building reliable engineering geological models.
Bench berm design using probabilistic key block

analysis
E. Hormazabal SRK Consulting (Chile) S.A., Chile
Abstract
In operational open pit mines, large rock surfaces are exposed daily and hundreds or
thousands of new discontinuities are exposed, all of which may results in the formation of
unstable key blocks and wedges. It is impractical to attempt to map each discontinuity and carry
out a stability analysis by the traditional kinematic analysis and wedge/planar failure analysis
for each discontinuity mapped. The approach presented in this paper is to design the bench
berm configuration in such a manner that sufficient key blocks and wedges will be analysed by
probabilistic methods so that an acceptable level of safety is achieved. Geotechnical engineers
therefore require a design tool which will allow them to evaluate the type and frequency of key
blocks that may be formed and the effect of decreasing the bench angle or increasing the berm
width on the probability of failure of the key blocks.
This paper describes a computer program, SBlock in which a probabilistic method is applied
to determine the potential key block dimensions, the back break and the berm width for given
acceptability criteria. Also, two case histories of operational open pit mines are presented to
validate the methodology and calibrate the results.
It is concluded that a probabilistic approach is suitable for the evaluation and design of the
bench berm configuration in situations where a large numbers of discontinuities are exposed in
the operational open pit benches.
Ongoing research into anisotropic rock masses using

numerical modelling
K.G. Mercer Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of Western Australia,
Australia
Abstract
This paper details results from the ongoing numerical modelling research into the shear
strength characteristics of planar anisotropic rock masses such as those found in the Pilbara
region of Western Australia. Numerical simulations using the distinct element code UDEC were
used to model different weathered anisotropic rock formations such as shales and Banded
Ironstone Formations (BIFs).
These simulations confirmed the overall shear strength reduction due to sliding on planar
discontinuities at angles sub-parallel to bedding and better quantified the difference between
the planar anisotropic transition models (ATMs) for shale and BIF. However, the modelling
revealed a zone of upslope shear strength reduction (USSR) which can occur at positive angles
of anisotropy (AoA) between 40 to 90 under certain rock mass configurations. This zone was
identified but not previously quantified in earlier studies.
The magnitude of the shear strength reduction is dependent on the tensile strength of the
intact rock as well as bedding parting spacings. The USSR has significant implications especially
in relation to the effect on the stability of slopes having particular configurations of anisotropic
rocks. The current ALM1 and ALM2 do not take the USSR into account and therefore can
potentially overestimates the shear strength of the rock mass in this range of AoA. Consequently
a new ALM (ALM3) has been developed which does take the USSR into account. Until the ALM3
is coded into commercial software and the new ALM3 parameters more rigorously defined, care
should be exercised when assessing the stability of slopes having these geological formations
and geometry.
Geochemistry and geotechnical models a case study

from the proposed Kempfield Silver Project, Bathurst,
New South Wales
H. Baxter Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
T. Rutherford Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
R. Bertuzzi Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
Abstract
This paper presents a case study on the proposed Kempfield Silver Project where geochemistry
was used to define sub-surface fault structure orientation. The Kempfield site is located within
the Hill End Trough along the eastern margin of the Lachlan Fold Belt. Surface outcrop is sparse
with mapping mostly limited to lithology. However, similarities in the alteration of the lithologies
limited their use in correlating faults. Geochemical assays of chip samples were made for over
35 minerals/elements, including aluminium, titanium, potassium, calcium and iron. Using Vulcan
to view boreholes in 3D, the amounts of each element was assessed for correlations that may
define changes in lithology, alteration or the presence of structures. Iron grades (Fe) proved
the most favourable for the identification of structures at depth, with a distinct correlation of
lithology with >5% Fe on the hanging wall of faults and <5% on the footwalls. The fault dips
indicated by the geochemical assessment were commensurate with fault orientations from
oriented core. This information was then factored into the geotechnical model and used as part
of the slope stability analysis.
Combined use of traditional core logging and

televiewer imaging for practical geotechnical data
collection
X.P. Gwynn SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK
M.C. Brown SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK
P.J. Mohr SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK
Abstract
Acoustic and optical televiewers are becoming routinely used to capture structural
geotechnical data for use in pit slope and underground design. They provide rapid and accurate
high resolution oriented images of the borehole walls and can be used as a replacement for
manual core orientation techniques, with the picking of structures being left to the televiewer
operator who then provide the data to the geotechnical engineers. SRK UK Ltd. has developed an
approach where the raw acoustic televiewer logs are used in conjunction with manual rock mass
logging of the core. This hybrid logging method allows for the detailed description of each open
feature whilst making use of the accurate structural orientation measurements obtained from the
televiewer data. The depth correlated structural logging data is subsequently used to populate a
rock mass log, automatically producing rock mass classification values. This rapidly reduces the
time required for geotechnical logging; thus reduces field time requirements of the consultant
and potentially reduces cost to the client. The paper covers the current field methodology,
required post processing of the logged data and discusses advantages and disadvantages of using
this hybrid method. A case study from Scandinavia is also presented.
Experimental and numerical assessment of shear

surface damage using 3D point clouds
S. Karekal CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
H. Guo CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
Abstract
This paper describes modelling of shearing of rock joint surfaces using 3D point clouds
generated using photogrammetry. High resolution 3D images of discontinuity surfaces were
created before and after shearing. The surface damage due to shearing of joint surfaces was
assessed using image processing by comparing the 3D images of undamaged surfaces with those
of damaged surfaces. The shear surfaces were concrete replicas of natural surfaces. The damage
due to shearing was estimated using numerical modelling in which comparison was made
between the concrete surfaces before and after the shear test. It was found that the modelling
results were fairly well correlated with the observed surface damage, thus validating the
numerical models. The digitised surfaces could also be used to predict anisotropic shear strength
and damage of the asperities by numerically shearing the joint surfaces at various directions.
The determination of joint roughness coefficient using

three-dimensional models for slope stability analysis
D.H. Kim School of Engineering, Griffith University, Australia
I. Gratchev School of Engineering, Griffith University, Australia
Abstract
Joint roughness coefficient (JRC) is one of the important parameters to determine shear
strength of joints. JRC values are generally measured using profile gauges and estimated by
comparing the surface profiles with typical roughness profiles. Therefore, the values can be
subjective and vary depending on personal experience of an engineer. Digital photogrammetry
methods provide 3D models based on high resolution digital images, and thus JRC values can be
more objectively estimated from photogrammetry analysis using linear profile data.
This paper seeks to investigate the feasibility of using the photogrammetry method to obtain
JRC values. Photogrammetry surveys were performed at several slope sites, and JRC values were
estimated using 3D images. To investigate the effect of resolution of digital images, the JRC
values were first obtained using different distances between the slope and camera, and then
compared with the roughness profiles which were manually measured by means of a Bartons
comb. A computer analysis using the distinct element code UDEC was also performed to better
understand the effect of JRC on the stability of slopes.
Geotechnical and geological model applied to crushing

processes in open pit mines
P. Pea Ingeniera de Rocas Ltda., Chile
R. Fuenzalida TECK Carmen de Andacollo, Chile
R. Villarroel Ingeniera de Rocas Ltda., Chile
P. Merino Ingeniera de Rocas Ltda., Chile
M. Tapia TECK Carmen de Andacollo, Chile
P. Casanova Geoatacama, Chile
Abstract
The geotechnical model for pit stability in Carmen de Andacollo (CDA) deposit does not offer
a good interpretation to predict or explain the rock behaviour in the crushing process. This work
proposes a modification to the database analysis and geotechnical characterisation to create a
three-dimensional model that can predict and explain the rock behaviour in this process. Two
lines where followed to develop this work: 1) define particle size results after blasting, according
to the geological conditions; and 2) define the intact rock behaviour in the crushing.
Considering the geotechnical tests to characterise the intact rock, the tensile test (Brazilian
test) is the one that best correlates with the crushing process. This test breaks the rock through
tensile stress, however at the moment of this study, there was scarcity of this type of test and
it had a low representativeness in the deposit. Hence, the point load test (PLT) was selected
because it was the most representative parameter available; at a low cost and in addition, it is an
indirect measurement of the tensile strength.
The following defined the particle size characteristics of the rock mass after blasting: mesh
through which 50% P(50) and 80% P(80) of the blasted material passed and the percentage
of pieces smaller than 67 mm, between 67100 and >100 mm. This information has different
meshes and was assessed in function of lithology, geotechnical unit and mineral zone. This
analysis allowed choosing four parameters to define the rock mass crushability. Point load
strength PLT(IS(50)) corresponds to a strength index where two tapered points are buried in
the rock specimen opening it by tensile stress. The purpose of using PLT is to use the trends
generated with this test to assess the general rocks stress strength.
Mineral zone is relevant in the behaviour of the particle size and strength of the intact rock
as it establishes the level of weathering or the environmental effect on the rock. Rock quality
designation (RQD) is an indirect indicator of in situ particle size of the rock mass as it measures
the percentage of diamond drill cores larger than 10 cm per drilled section. In this case, RQD
was the best-distributed geotechnical parameter available for the deposit. Hydrothermal
alteration characteristics complement the information provided by the mineral zone. That is
how the siliceous alterations create a significant increase in tensile strength and in the rocks
Maximising geotechnical data and characterisation of

critical units through targeted field work
A.J. Phillips Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
H.F. Wilson Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Identification and investigation of weak geological units and structures is an important
component of a slope design. Such units and structures are highly prone to weathering and
typically exhibit lower shear strength than the surrounding rock mass. These units are inherently
problematic to obtain quality geotechnical data from due to their fragile nature and often limited
frequency. It is therefore essential that a data collection campaign is designed and implemented
with the view of collecting maximum quality and representative data from these units. Samples
with minimised disturbance from diamond drill core provide a valuable insight into the in situ
ground conditions of these units. This method of data collection requires good quality drilling
and early identification of weaker units to maximise recovery. Careful handling, correct sampling
and transport procedures to enhance preservation of the core until geotechnical laboratory test
work can be undertaken are equally essential. It should be ensured that samples are preserved
in their in situ conditions prior to arrival at the testing laboratory. Consideration needs to be
given to communication between all personnel, early identification of critical weak units, timing
of logging and sampling and sample transportation and storage. This paper aims to provide a
methodology for sampling of such materials, building on the knowledge of the current standards
and best practice benchmarked with other industries. The ultimate result is the ability to collect
and preserve a higher quantity and quality of samples of weak material critical to slope stability.
With increased sampling from weaker units, it is possible to rely more on results of laboratory
testing and reduce reliance on empirical methods for shear strength characterisation. This
provides increased confidence in the geotechnical model and ultimately slope design.
Structural geology modelling: a summary on data

integrity and modelling methods
K.M. Rees Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
J. Graaf Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
The creation of a structural geology model greatly improves the geotechnical understanding
of a deposit by giving meaning to the thousands of defect measurements collected. Structural
geology models are all about geometry; geometry of the various rock packages and geometry
of the overriding structural framework. Geotechnical models on the other hand deal in the
details; the statistical defect set orientations, the spacing between the defects and their infill
and surface characteristics. In order to get an overall picture of the rock mass, the geotechnical
model needs to be assessed in association with the structural geology model and vice versa.
Structural geology models incorporate a vast array of data types, including drillhole, televiewer,
conventional geological mapping, photogrammetric geological mapping, etc., but how accurate
and complete is all of this data? The integration of multiple data types into a structural geology
model can be fraught with complications. Varying levels of accuracy occur between different
datasets and these variants need to be assessed prior to structural geology modelling. Where
conflict exists between multiple data types, the most accurate data should be used, thus it is
important to understand data accuracy. Drillhole data for example can be affected by inaccurate
orientation marks and survey pickups, leading to inaccurate structural measurements.
Furthermore, the spacing and orientation of drillholes often does not provide a representative
sample of the rock mass as the drill design is generally tailored to the geometry of the ore body
for resource modelling. These factors need to be understood when using the data to create a
structural geology model. While orientated drillhole data provides a good basis, integrating other
data types such as geological mapping provides for a more robust model, however conventional
geological modelling comes with its own set of issues.
Advances in data collection techniques can enable many of the issues associated with poor
data quality to be overcome. Televiewer data can be used to validate drill core logging data, while
photogrammetry techniques can enable accurate digital geological maps to be created. However,
regardless of the method employed, it is paramount that adequately trained personal carry out
the mapping to ensure high quality data. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the quality of
data used in structural geology modelling and present reasons for applying new technologies to
your mining operation or resource assessment.
A statistical approach to account for elevated levels of

uncertainty during geotechnical design
R.D.H. Thomas Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Uncertainty in geotechnical engineering results from the inherent variability of natural
materials, and the challenges engineers and geologists have in correctly assessing them.
Geotechnical design at the definitive feasibility study (DFS) stage should be based on a
geotechnical model with target levels of confidence of ideally between 50 and 75%. Due to
various reasons such as budgetary constraints for ground investigation or changes to the resource
model affecting mine design, a higher degree of data uncertainty can exist in one or many of the
model inputs. This can be accounted for by selection of conservative design values, but where
probabilistic design is desired further uncertainty can be induced by estimating population
characteristics, for instance by adopting coefficients of variation from published literature, e.g.
Harr (1987) and Kim (2005).
This paper presents a case study for a DFS level open pit slope design for a gold project in West
Africa. The geological, structural and hydrogeological models were suitably defined, however
limited geotechnical drillhole data was available for some units. The limited data sets hindered
rock mass characterisation and derivation of design values (and distributions) for subsequent
slope stability modelling, resulting in elevated levels of uncertainty. The author was faced with
the prospect of either accepting the uncertainty and accounting for the small populations
by choosing lower bound values and assumed distributions, or relying on regional data from
experience of working with the encountered units elswhere. In an effort to ensure the most
relevant, deposit specific data was used, the author sought to supplement the limited data sets
with additional drillcore data from elsewhere within the project area.
The challenge the author faced was to justify combining data that would conventionally be
considered separately. A number of statistical tests were used to demonstrate the validity of
combining the different populations of drillcore data. A suite of logged and derived parameters
were tested. The results of the statistical analyses and the effect of combining drillcore data
populations on the resultant level of uncertainty and ultimate pit slope design are presented.
Preliminary review of the geotechnical characteristics

and shear strength estimates of small scale anisotropic
waveform formations of the Pilbara, Western Australia
S. Tokimoto School of Civil and Resource Engineering, The University of Western
Australia, Australia
K.G. Mercer Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of Western Australia,
Australia
Abstract
Anisotropic rock masses such as the Hamersley Group found within the Pilbara region of
Western Australia commonly exhibit pervasive folding in wavelengths ranging from several
centimetres to large regional folding with wavelengths of up to several kilometres. All folding
influences the stability of open pit slopes however the influence of relatively small scale folding
is particularly difficult to account for in limit equilibrium slope stability analysis. In addition,
existing research work on assessing the shear strength of anisotropic rock masses has thus far,
only considered the effect of planar discontinuities.
Using data from published literature, the paper will provide a general over view of the
geological and geotechnical characteristics of formations within the Pilbara region of Western
Australia where waveform formations are typically found. The paper will then go on to review
the scale at which the waveform folding of bedding is likely to have the greatest impact on
the shear strength of anisotropic rock masses and how these different scales can be modelled
when assessing the stability of pit slopes. Finally the paper will present some preliminary results
of numerical modelling studies of the shear strength characteristics of small scale waveform
formations using two commonly occurring rock types found in the Pilbara region.
Dissection of a pit case study

A.J. Troy Terra Firma Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Given that Mother Nature is the ultimate arbiter in terms of actual material strengths
and appropriate pit design, a progressive slope failure experienced at Mine A has highlighted
opportunities to improve geotechnical awareness and balanced risk reduction. The dissection
of a pit approach uses the unwelcome failure to examine five contributing geotechnical factors,
their associated challenges and overall assumptions previously made. The resulting back analysis
and focussed material strength re-interpretation highlights the need for regular and ongoing
performance reconciliation to identify and resolve inconsistencies within the geotechnical
model. With this in mind, it is hoped that elements from the findings will be considered during
successive ground investigations, for deposits in related environments.
Remediation
A strategic approach to the design and implementation

of an effective mine dewatering system
M. Bester Anglo American Kumba Iron Ore, South Africa
E. Nel Anglo American Kumba Iron Ore, South Africa
G.M. Mc Gavigan Anglo American Kumba Iron Ore, South Africa
Abstract
In order to reduce business and safety risk at Anglo American Kumba Iron Ore mining
operations, it is imperative that groundwater is strategically managed to ensure dry mining
conditions and depressurised slopes whilst ensuring maximum effective usage of the abstracted
water and managing the potential environmental impacts. Hydrogeological input into slope
design is required in order to ensure safe mine production and minimisation of costs. A
structured approach according to engineering design principles is suggested for the design and
implementation of an effective and efficient mine dewatering system. Comprehensive data
collection and site characterisation, conceptual and numerical groundwater flow modelling as
well as dewatering simulations are required to accurately determine the dewatering system
requirements. Subsequent to implementation, a comprehensive monitoring program is put in
place in order to optimise the dewatering system and effectively manage the environmental
impact. The implementation phase of an effective dewatering strategy at Sishen and Kolomela
Mines are discussed as case studies.
Water management for slope stabilisation an example

from Peru
C. Prez Schlumberger Water Services, Peru
V. Prez Minera Yanacocha S.R.L, Peru
D. Ros Minera Yanacocha S.R.L, Peru
F. Soto Minera Yanacocha S.R.L, Peru
Abstract
Peru is one of the worlds leading mining countries and includes a number of large open pits
such as Antamina, Toquepala and Yanacocha. The Yanacocha operation comprises six large pits
including El Tapado where mining has been ongoing since 1999. Instability of the north wall of
the El Tapado pit occurred as the slope was mined down. Initial site investigations identified high
water pressures in the permeable silica alunite material behind the slope and also in strongly
altered propylitic clays at shallower levels within the slope.
Minera Yanacocha created a multi-disciplinary team of mining engineers, geotechnical and
hydrogeological staff to develop a mitigation plan to allow mining of the slope to continue. The
failure main surface was identified at the silica alunite contact within the overlying clays using
piezometer and inclinometer installations. The silica alunite had a permeability range from
10-3 to 10-6 m/s and it was possible to install pumping wells to reduce the water pressures. The
overlying propilitic clay had a much lower permeability (10-7 to 10-8 m/s) and the plan was to
depressurise the material using a combination of surface water controls, under-drainage by
pumping from the silica alunite and horizontal drain holes. The first stage of the program was
to install a joint monitoring network which could measure the both the pore pressure and slope
movement response to the initial dewatering wells in the silica alunite. The second stage was to
install the surface water controls to minimise ongoing infiltration and recharge to the clay units
during the wet season. The third stage was the horizontal drain hole program to increase the
rate of depressurisation of the propyllitic clays and to evaluate the coupled hydromechanical
response associated with the ongoing excavation of the pit wall. This paper explains the joint
methodology performed by the project team to stabilise the slope and allow mining to near the
full planned depth of the pit.
Cockatoo Island stage 3: seawall failure and

remediation
P.K. Wong Coffey Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Australia
P. Petropulos Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
The hematite mining operation at Cockatoo Island, Western Australia, required the
construction of a 13 m high, composite earth and rockfill seawall to exclude 10 m tides from the
Indian Ocean. The Stage 3 seawall is underlain by up to 30 m of soft, low permeability coralline
sediments which are in turn underlain by stronger and higher permeability marine sediments
and hematite scree layers. During initial construction, a 140 m section of the seawall failed when
a height of 8.7 m was reached.
This paper describes the post failure investigation and analysis results, and the remedial
works which were successfully completed. The investigation results indicated the basal drainage
characteristics of the coralline sediments to be variable along the length of the seawall.
At the location of the failure, basal drainage was very low and this was considered to be a
major contributing factor to the failure coupled with rapid construction of the embankment.
Instrumentation and monitoring prior to the failure was limited, partly due to difficulties
associated with high tidal fluctuations. In contrast, the remedial work was carried out successfully
with a significantly improved instrumentation and monitoring system, including inclinometers,
extensometers, piezometers, settlement plates, survey prisms and total pressure cells. A rigorous
review and approval process was developed in conjunction with the client, Cockatoo Mining,
using an observational method to assess the risk of instability prior to placing each additional
embankment layer.
The degree of client involvement and the collaborative approach adopted in relation to the
observational method, approvals, data transfer, and joint management for the remedial work is
extremely rare on most mines. The successful completion of the remedial work demonstrated
that such a collaborative approach is a key ingredient to the successful completion of high risk
projects in complex ground conditions.
Case history: deep-seated slope failure in weak rocks,

El Tapado pit north wall, Yanacocha operation
G.A. Becerra Abregu Minera Yanacocha S.R.L., Peru
E. Valencia Jeri Minera Yanacocha S.R.L, Peru
E. Garcia Minera Yanacocha S.R.L., Peru
P. Yuan Golder Associates Inc., USA
T. Byers Newmont Mining Corporation, USA
Abstract
The Yanacocha Operation is an open pit gold mining operation in the Andes Mountains of
Northern Peru. Since 1993, mining at Yanacocha has occurred in eight large pits, and several
smaller pits. Mineralisation typically occurs in hydrothermally-altered volcanic rocks. Weak
rocks at Yanacocha include argillically- and propylitically-altered volcanic rock masses, which are
often in sharp contact with higher-strength rock masses with silica and silica-alunite alteration.
Although mineralisation generally occurs in the silica-altered rock masses, pit slopes are
developed in part in the weaker rocks.
In OctoberNovember 2010, a deep-seated instability was identified in the north and
northeast walls of the El Tapado (ET) Pit. The implications of the instability were substantial, in
that it put up to 400,000 ounces of gold at risk in the ET Pit; and affected the planned production
schedule for the adjacent El Tapado Oeste (ETO) Pit, as much of the waste from ETO was to be
placed as backfill in the ET Pit. This instability also possessed the potential to propagate beyond
the pit crest, and impact the stability of a large waste dump and a main haul road located just
outside the pit limit.
Mining in the area of the north wall was discontinued between December 2010 and July 2011
to allow for:

Geotechnical, geological, and hydrogeological characterisation.
Development of alternate mine plans.
Evaluation of design changes and development options.
Stability analyses.
Assessment of slope displacement experience.
Slope depressurisation.
Mining resumed in July 2011, subject to slope displacement monitoring, and a process of
continuous input and review from the site Geotechnical, Hydrogeological, Planning, and Mine
Operations groups; and a group of external geotechnical and hydrogeological professionals. The
ET Pit was completed successfully in July 2012.
This case history summarises the conditions that contributed to the instability in the ET North
Pit slope depressurisation investigation for an open cut

iron ore mine in the Pilbara
A. Dodman Schlumberger Water Services, Australia
J. Rodriguez Schlumberger Water Services, Australia
A. Cottrell BHP Billiton, Australia
J. Youngs BHP Billiton, Australia
Abstract
Iron ore mining operations in the Pilbara region of Western Australia are currently undergoing
unprecedented growth. Expansion of active open cut mines and development of new deposits
below the pre-mining water table, present significant challenges in terms of general mine
dewatering and pit slope depressurisation. Studies to characterise pore pressure behaviour
have become a key component of the mining cycle. Pore pressure inputs to geotechnical slope
stability assessments and timely implementation of mine drainage is essential to optimise slope
design, performance and safety.
This paper presents a case study of a staged hydrogeological study for a large highwall at an
active iron ore mine in the Pilbara. The primary objective was to characterise pore pressures,
provide input to slope design studies and support management of pit slope depressurisation,
ahead of an aggressive pushback. The bulk stratigraphy is structurally complex, defined by
alternating banded iron formation (BIF) and shale macro-band sequences. Key geotechnical
issues include a number of fault structures identified behind the final pit wall which may require
a high level of advanced depressurisation, saturated low permeability footwall shale units and
potential hydraulic connectivity between the local orebody groundwater system and a regional
dolomite aquifer.
Installed vibrating wire piezometers (VWPs) show a strong response to pumping within
the mineralised BIF. In contrast, high pore pressures prevail within the deep shale units. The
study demonstrates the importance of integration between hydrogeological and geotechnical
programs to provide adequate planning for the design and implementation of dewatering and
slope depressurisation systems, and presents key learning outcomes for similar environments.
Approach to groundwater and pore water pressure

modelling for different geotechnical conditions in open
pit slope stability analysis
H. El-Idrysy SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK
Abstract
This paper presents two feasibility case studies related to groundwater modelling for pit slope
stability studies at a diamond mine and a gold mine. While both open pit mine projects had a
target final pit depth of about 450 m the impacts of groundwater conditions on the slope stability
analyses are very different. The former required very detailed analysis and simulation of pore
water pressure whilst at the gold mine, both groundwater flow and pore water pressure had
limited impact on the slope stability assessment. The two case studies demonstrate that pore
water pressure does not always significantly influence the stability of the pit slopes and that it is
essential to identify the key controlling factors for slope stability before embarking on detailed
modelling of pore water distribution. However, when pore water pressure and groundwater flow
are identified as controlling factors due to geotechnical setting, extensive numerical modelling
of groundwater flow is required to optimise a dewatering/depressurisation system that achieves
the required Factor of Safety (FS) from pit slope stability analyses. A fully integrated numerical
modelling analysis of pore water pressure and geotechnical slope stability is an intensive, iterative
exercise but the result of such work is very rewarding in terms of optimising pit slope angles.
A case study on actual water pressure measurements

at an open pit excavated in strong, tight rock and the
implications for slope design
M. Rougier Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
D. Birchall Barrick Gold, Canada
Abstract
Precedent experience is that deep open pit slopes in strong, tight rock masses with high
groundwater pressure will not exhibit rock mass failure. The phenomenon is not disputed. It is
noted that simple limit equilibrium or finite element slope stability models, often relied upon in
mine design and feasibility assessment, can indicate the contrary for high groundwater pressure
conditions. In part this is because case history examples on actual groundwater pressure
information from this type of open pit are limited. Consequently, over-conservative groundwater
conditions can on occasion been assumed for stability analysis purposes.
This paper presents a case study of the results of actual measurements of pore water pressure
during pit development using vibrating wire piezometers. They were taken for the purpose of
addressing risk management concerns over non-conservative stability analysis results for pit
deepening and expansion of the Williams open pit at Barrick Golds Hemlo Operations. The
property is situated on the north shore of Lake Superior near Marathon, Ontario, Canada, in an
area of moderate hydraulic recharge.
The actual drawdown cone was found to be tight to the pit shell at depth, yet broader than
expected nearsurface. This may have been due to structural features and the interpreted effect
of blast damage or the combination of slow excavation and moderate recharge. Site-specific
observations are presented in terms of their implications for future slope design at Hemlo and in
terms of the groundwater aspect of slope stability modelling in tight rock in general, particularly
where limited information is available.
Uncertainty in design
An application of a reliability based method to evaluate

open pit slope stability
M. Valerio Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
C. Clayton Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
S. DAmbra Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
C. Yan Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
Abstract
The stability of open pit rock slopes is commonly assessed using deterministic methods. A
single value for the Factor of Safety of the slope is calculated, and is assumed to represent the
overall stability of the slope. A limitation of the deterministic approach is that it does not account
for the natural variability of the input parameters or the uncertainty caused by sampling. The
uncertainty and variability of input parameters such as frictional strength, cohesive strength,
and discontinuity orientations are often accounted for by selecting values that incorporate
conservatism based on limited laboratory testing or other data collection methods. The
confidence in the Factor of Safety calculated using deterministic analyses remains a matter of
engineering and experiential judgment.
Reliability based methods, now adopted by many practitioners, overcome some of the
limitations of deterministic methods by incorporating the natural variability of key input
parameters into the calculation methods. If the natural variability is included, then a range of
Factors of Safety can be calculated for the various combinations of the input variables. This range
represents the probability density function of the continuous distribution of Factors of Safety,
from minimum to maximum values. The cumulative distribution of values can then be used to
quantitatively describe the likelihood of achieving a certain Factor of Safety. Understanding the
distribution of Factors of Safety, and the reliability of the results, provides a method to make
reliability based decisions.
This paper presents a feasibility level study undertaken for Diavik Diamond Mines Inc. using
point estimation methods in combination with limit equilibrium methods to evaluate the Factor
of Safety of a proposed open pit slope. Point estimation involves the use of sample statistics to
estimate population parameters. Confidence intervals are constructed that include the value
of an unknown variablein this case Factor of Safetywith high probability. The confidence
intervals are developed based on the method of moments from probability theory, which is
used to describe random variables of the sample population using the expected value of the
random variable and the square of the expected value. A Monte Carlo random sampling method
is used to develop a simulated population to approximate a normal distribution, which in this
case represents the probability of slope performance defined in terms of the Factor of Safety.
This paper describes the process followed to develop the probability density and cumulative
distribution functions for the Factor of Safety. The statistical distribution of Factor of Safety is
presented and is used to evaluate the pit slope stability in terms of probability of failure and
Risk evaluation of slope considering mechanical and

hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated soils
Y-K. Song National Disaster Management Institute, Korea
J-R. Oh National Disaster Management Institute, Korea
M.S. Jung National Disaster Management Institute, Korea
Y.J. Son National Disaster Management Institute, Korea
Abstract
Rainfall is an important triggering mechanism of slope failure which accompanies severe
damage and loss of life and property. Slope failure is mainly triggered by a deepening of the
wetting band accompanied by a decrease in matric suction induced by water infiltration. Early
warning methods for slope failure in Korea only tend to use rainfall intensity and duration as the
main variables, not considering mechanical and hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated soils.
In this study, geotechnical properties of unsaturated weathered soil, including basic physical
properties, soil-water characteristics curve, unsaturated permeability curve, and unsaturated
shear strength, were investigated in test beds in which slope failures frequently occurred. Also
presented is a procedure for the risk evaluation of slope failures, which integrates the Factor
of Safety of the infinite slope of unsaturated soil, considering not only rainfall intensity and
duration, but also the mechanical and hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils.
Analysis of failures in open pit mines and consideration

of the uncertainty when predicting collapses
A.G. Cabrejo-Livano GroundProbe Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
The Inverse Velocity (IV) Method, by Fukuzono (1985), has been used in the mining industry
along with slope monitoring radars for almost a decade to predict collapses, with significant
successes but also with certain limitations due to the uncertainty associated with the method
and the characteristics of the different mechanisms of failure in rock masses.
This paper summarises the results of research undertaken on 74 pit wall failures, on high and
low walls, in different type of mines all over the world, since 2004. Only the characteristics of the
failures associated with the application of Fukuzonos method are discussed.
The results are presented statistically, aiming to illustrate the different values of inverse
velocity at collapse that could be achieved and the possible errors when forecasting the time of
collapse. Keeping in mind the variability of results are essential to a successful risk management
at any open pit mine.
Some discussions on the type of inverse velocity plots and its possible association to different
failure mechanism are also presented for geotechnical practitioners to be aware of when
forecasting collapses.
Managing slope performance in uncertain geological

conditions at Meandu Mine, Queensland
J.V. Simmons Sherwood Geotechnical and Research Services, Australia
D.C. Edwards Downer EDI Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
N. Ferdinands Stanwell Corporation Limited, Australia
Abstract
The Ground Control Management Plan at the Meandu Mine provides the basis for the
approval of slope designs and operational activities in a coal deposit sequence characterised by
complex sedimentation, thick seams, faults, an eruptive volcanic cover sequence, and multiple
episodes of deep weathering. Rapid lateral and vertical variations in geotechnical conditions
imply that the overburden model for mine planning includes significant uncertainties for slope
hazard and stability risk assessment. The paper provides a description of the evolution of
slope designs and circumstances that have shaped the current approach to short-term design
and operational hazard management Long-term slope design considerations also include the
groundwater regime and the placement of both coal washery tailings and power station ash
slurry in mined-out voids.
Iterative geotechnical pit slope design in a structurally

complex setting: a case study from Tom Price, Western
Australia
D.S. Lucas Mining One Consultants, Australia
P.J.H. de Graaf Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
Abstract
Rio Tinto Iron Ores (RTIO) Tom Price open cut mine in the Pilbara region of Western Australia
commenced in 1966 and had a cumulative production to mid 2012 estimated at over 800 Mt. The
South East Prongs (SEP) pit at Tom Price hosts one of the mines prime sources of high grade and
low impurity hematite ore. An integrated mine planning and geotechnical design approach was
required to evaluate and optimise late stage mining design options within large scale structural
geological (adverse bedding strength anisotropy and fault) and hydrogeological controls.
The SEP pit is structurally complex. The orebody is hosted within a doubly-plunging syncline
bounded by the low-permeability shale, with predominant east-west striking faults confining
the mineralisation to within the central part of the syncline. Multiple deformation events have
resulted in significant folding and additional faulting. The complex structural geology, with
bedding dipping into the pit void, and numerous faults, present a challenging geotechnical
environment to design and implement robust mine design to maximise late stage mining ore
recovery.
By mid 2010, the SEP pit had been mined to between 600 and 640 RL. Mining ceased after
accelerated movement was detected in the north wall. Additional geotechnical investigations
were undertaken in late 2010 and 2011. This augmented information obtained from previous
investigations. Stratigraphic units and faults were defined by mapping and geophysical logging,
but areas of uncertainty remained, particularly in some fault locations, which could not be
improved by further drilling.
The planned final 375 m high pit shell is to extend 30 to 70 metres deeper than the current
mining levels, and about 100 m below the regional water table. A modified pit design was
required to fit within a constrained region of the pit, to minimise the likelihood of fault controlled
instability impacting the main access ramp on the west wall, and to account for dewatering and
depressurisation requirements.
The project geotechnical team, consisting of RTIO geotechnical personnel and their
geotechnical consultants (Mining One) worked closely with RTIOs mine design team to develop
workable risk assessed options which enabled an optimum design to be adopted, with a detailed
hazard and risk management plan for implementation during mining.
The final design was optimised to allow access by a large equipment fleet for more efficient
mining, while deferring key geotechnical risks to a later stage of mining to provide greater
reliability of ore supply for the short-term mining schedule and opportunity to improve design
reliability as mining proceeds.
Slope design at Cuajone Pit, Peru

E. Hormazabal SRK Consulting (Chile) S.A., Chile
R. Veramendi Southern Peru Copper Corporation, Peru
J. Barrios Southern Peru Copper Corporation, Peru
G. Zuiga SRK Consulting (Chile) S.A., Chile
F. Gonzalez SRK Consulting (Chile) S.A., Chile
Abstract
The Cuajone porphyry copper deposit is located on the western slopes of Cordillera
Occidental, the southern Andes of Peru. The current pit measures about 2.5 km eastwest, 3.0 km
northsouth, and at the end of 2012, had a maximum depth of 950 m. Mining by open pit
methods commenced in 1976 and has continued since that time. Ore production is 80 ktpd.
As part of the slope design program and slope optimisation, the past and present performance
of the pit slopes was evaluated to provide information on the potential behaviour of future pit
expansion. A geomechanical assessment is being carried out to evaluate the stability of the
walls of the next expansion. To evaluate the stability of the open pit, a series of geotechnical
studies have been performed. These studies involve, among others, slope stability analyses
based on limit equilibrium methods and finite element numerical models. In addition, a detailed
back-analysis of a five million ton failure (DSE42) was performed to calibrate rock mass properties
and to understand slope behaviour in poor rock mass quality.
This paper describes the back-analysis of the DSE42 failure and the slope design process for
the current pit and next pushback.
Three-dimensional limit equilibrium analysis of open

pits
H.H. Lu SoilVision Systems Ltd., Canada
M.D. Fredlund SoilVision Systems Ltd., Canada
D.G. Fredlund Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
Abstract
The analysis of slope stability in the design and ongoing operations of any particular open
pit remains a difficult challenge. Slope failures and loss of equipment, mining time, and lives
make stability concerns an issue which warrants research efforts. Engineers have relied for
decades on software tools to perform analysis of the slopes of open pits in order to estimate
the Factor of Safety (FS). Usually open pit geometry is typical three-dimensional (3D) geometry
which cannot adequately be simplified into a two-dimensional (2D) plane strain representation.
Traditional analysis has been performed using 2D limit equilibrium methods (LEM) since this
method continues to be the simplest to apply. This paper examines the application of the 3D
LEM to analyse the slopes of an open pit. The 3D LEM has advantages in that it can consider slips
at any particular azimuth vector angle (i.e. it can search the whole 3D open pit model and find
the critical slip surface, and critical slip vector). The results of 3D LEM are compared with results
from 2D LEM analysis. The result is a methodology which is credible and applicable within a
reasonable time frame for the analysis of open pits.
Integrated slope stability assessment in a complex

geotechnical and hydrogeological setting
R. Campbell SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd, UK
D. Mackie SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc., Canada
W.S. Anderson Teck Resources Ltd., Canada
Abstract
Integration between geotechnical and hydrogeological groups for slope stability studies
is often discussed but more rarely appropriately implemented. Although guidelines exist,
experience has shown that the communication and technical integration between the
geotechnical and hydrogeological teams can be problematic. This paper presents an example
of a holistic integration process which builds on established best practice guidelines rather than
attempting to re-invent the currently accepted methodology. The Galore Creek copper-gold
project, located in northwestern British Columbia, has been chosen as an illustrative case study.
The Galore Creek copper-gold deposit, owned by the Galore Creek Mining Corporation (GCMC),
currently includes plans for three open pits and additional mining-related infrastructure. The
proposed mining area is surrounded by high, rugged, and ice-capped mountains on three sides
with the Galore Valley opening to the north. The area experiences high levels of precipitation
(rainfall and snow), as well as a significant annual freshet period. Combined with challenging
topographic and climactic conditions, pit wall stability will be influenced by a structurally
complex, variable rock mass, and locally elevated and compartmentalised pore water pressures.
From the project outset, it was determined that an integrated approach to slope design would
be required to consider the prevailing physical and environmental factors at play in the Galore
Valley. To achieve the slope design in a practical and timely manner, both consultant and client
geotechnical and hydrogeological teams met regularly from the initial planning and investigation
stage through to the final stability modelling of the proposed pit slopes.
With targeted field investigations providing the framework to update rock mass, structure,
and hydrogeological characterisation, a number of potentially unstable zones within the mining
area were highlighted. Elevated pore water pressures, combined with a locally weak rock mass
and significant slope heights (in excess of 1,000 metres), required constant interaction between
the geotechnical and hydrogeological groups to ensure that appropriate inputs and material
behaviour were represented within the numerical stability models. A number of pore water
pressure scenarios were evaluated including average freshet and full dewatering system failure.
These varied pore water pressure scenarios were assessed and exported as 2D sections for limit
equilibrium and finite element slope stability modelling.
With the project schedule in mind, the hydrogeological and geotechnical teams were required
to constantly exchange ideas and information since slope geometry had to remain flexible
due to the evolving pit designs. Regeneration of pore pressure grids, for input into numerical
stability models was not practical due to time constraints during this period. Phreatic surfaces
Geotechnical reliability assessment of a large

counterfort retaining wall
W. Deng Aurecon Pty Ltd, Australia
K. ONeill Aurecon Pty Ltd, Australia
K. Luu Aurecon Pty Ltd, Australia
K. Little Baulderstone Construction, Australia
Abstract
In the development of Barangaroo Headland Park in Sydney, a retaining wall was required
to retain up to 18.5 m of fill and to form a physical barrier between the Headland Park fill and
the Future Cultural Space. To minimise the quantity of imported select fill to the site and to
provide a more impenetrable barrier to water and odours, a reinforced concrete counterfort
wall solution was derived in conjunction with an anchoring system to reduce the base width. The
counterfort wall is constrained by the adjacent excavation for the Future Cultural Space which is
approximately 7 m deep and up to 7 m away from the proposed counterfort wall face.
Due to the significance of the structure, a supplementary geotechnical reliability assessment
of the counterfort wall failure was undertaken in addition to the deterministic geotechnical
design and assessments based on AS5100.3 in the detailed design stage. This paper presents
the geotechnical reliability assessment carried out. The project background, and the elements
of works which are relevant to the counterfort retaining wall, are introduced. The underlying
ground conditions and geotechnical uncertainties are then described, with the assessment
of the most likely values of the geotechnical parameters involved in computing the Factor of
Safety by the deterministic method, and the standard deviations of the parameters that involve
uncertainty and risk. The probabilities of failure for various geotechnical failure modes are then
assessed. The major contributors to the standard deviation of the Factor of Safety are identified
and measures to reduce these uncertainties that informed to the design are discussed. Finally,
the significant contribution of the geotechnical reliability analysis to the detailed design of the
counterfort wall is summarised, and remarks on the application of a reliability assessment in
geotechnical design are made.
Towards developing a more rigorous technique for

bench scale slope stability analysis in hard rock
R. Teet AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
A. Vakili AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
A. de Veth AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
The mining industry is a strong but volatile market that is focused on future growth through
expanded production, increased operational efficiency and cost optimisation (Ernst and Young,
2013). As operational expenditure increases and the readily minable ore is extracted, the
technical challenges facing mining are becoming more prevalent. With increased depths of open
pit operations, the need to minimise the footprint of the mine and limit pre-stripping requires
the optimisation of slope geometry and configurations in such a way that extraction is maximised
without increasing risk to personnel, equipment or mine life. An essential component of the
slope optimisation process is the rigorous geotechnical assessment of the stability of the pit walls
at bench, inter-ramp and overall slope scale.
Advancements in computational power and numerical modelling have significantly progressed
the analysis of overall slope and inter-ramp scale stability. However the current industry standard
methods of bench scale stability analysis still heavily rely on empirical, kinematic and limit
equilibrium techniques. These techniques are adequate for scoping and pre-feasibility level
projects where the data availability is limited and the confidence in results restricted. In contrast,
as the pit develops and progresses into feasibility to implementation stages of development,
optimisation becomes a more significant component of the geotechnical assessment and more
rigorous analytical methods should be employed.
This paper introduces an improved analytical method that integrates discrete fracture
network (DFN) generation and kinematic analyses for bench scale slope stability analysis.
Conventional kinematic analyses were conducted on a representative data set and the resulting
probability of failure (POF) compared to a POF generated from a calibrated stochastic DFN
model. Results showed that the conventional analysis was conservative in nature due to the
inability to assess the influence of discontinuity interaction and spacing on the resultant wedge.
The authors experience of recent technical work had also flagged a dissimilarity between the
conventional kinematics and real world observations. Additional numerical modelling utilising a
pseudo-discontinuum modelling technique was conducted in an attempt to quantify the extent
of the conservatism seen in conventional versus alternative methods of bench scale stability
assessment.
The ability to incorporate a holistic DFN approach to the assessment of batter scale stability
facilitates the optimisation and risk reduction process. The limitations of this alternative method
are not fully established and further validation and testing is needed however, potential does
exist for the inclusion of DFNs in kinematic bench scale assessments and the subsequent
Numerical analysis
Characterisation and stability modelling in weak rock

masses of the Robinson Mine
M. Fournier Knight Pisold Ltd., Canada
R. Mercer Knight Pisold Ltd., Canada
D. Yang Knight Pisold Ltd., Canada
J. Miller KGHM Inc., USA
Abstract
The Robinson Mine is a large porphyry copper deposit located approximately 400 km north of
Las Vegas in central Nevada. Large scale open pit mining operations started in 1908, but ceased
in 1978. The property was re-opened in 2008 and the mine currently consists of five open pits.
Since 2012, the mine has been operated by KGHM Inc. with a focus on expanding and deepening
the Ruth pit. The pit walls were largely developed with 15 m high benches and an inter-ramp
angle of 36. This wall configuration was largely based on a pit geotechnical study in the early
1990s.
In 2011, excessive slope deformation and wall failures were observed along the 300 m high
north wall. The deformations were primarily within the Chainman Shale, which forms the
lower half of the wall. Initial deformation control and risk mitigation efforts focused on surficial
flattening of the deforming materials and on the installation of a slope monitoring radar system.
By December, the mine was forced to discontinue mining in the area, which has had a significant
impact on the mine plan. Preliminary backanalyses in early 2012, suggested that a circular-type
failure was occurring within the highly altered and weak shale and that this unit appeared to be
degrading over time The back-analyses also suggested considerably lower strengths for this unit
than what was being utilised in the existing pit slope design. A geotechnical drilling program was
undertaken to better understand the rock mass characteristics at these depths and to support
updated slope recommendations.
The results of the drilling program suggested high core recoveries in the shale and the
rhyolite, even though many sections of the drill core could be crushed by hand. The rock mass
was classified using the RMR system, with low ratings assigned to the low quality intervals via
adjustments derived from GSI mapping of available surface exposures. Triaxial and direct shear
laboratory testing was also taken on the soil-like materials. The results of this work suggested
that the strategically employed RMR classification, coupled with a HoekBrown model, may not
adequately capture the strength condition for a rock mass that varies spatially between regions
of intact rock and soil-like materials. In general, the back-analysis models show considerable
deviation from what would be considered as the expected condition, given the rock mass
characterisation and laboratory testing available. The incorporation of a disturbance zone into
the slope stability analyses overcame some of these limitations and resulted in a better match to
observed slope performance.
The use of numerical modelling, slope monitoring and

operational procedures to manage slope deformations
at the Ranger 3 pit
D.R. Wines Itasca Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
I. Hulls Mining One Consultants, Australia
E. Woods Energy Resources of Australia Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Elevated slope movements were observed on the northeast wall of the Ranger 3 pit during
excavation of the final pit shell. Both prism and radar monitoring indicated that the movement
rate and magnitude were greater in this area when compared to surrounding areas, and periods
of acceleration were evident. Several months after the initial onset of movement, tension cracks
were observed behind the upper pit crest. At that stage, several benches were yet to be mined
at the base of the wall, and concern existed regarding the safety of operations below the moving
wall.
A calibrated three-dimensional numerical model was selected as the prime risk management
strategy for mining the balance of the attainable ore in Pit 3. A detailed structural geological
study was initially undertaken to provide reliable inputs for the modelling. The modelling
was integrated into the overall risk management process, with the model being constantly
updated based on the observed slope behaviour and the rock mass conditions being exposed
at the toe of the slope. Ongoing and detailed calibration between the model behaviour and the
comprehensive slope monitoring data was performed to provide a reliable understanding of the
mechanism of movement, and to assess the likelihood of slope failure. Possible failure scenarios
were also examined as a part of the risk management strategy, and strict operating procedures
were implemented to minimise the risks associated with mining under an actively moving pit
wall.
Although the modelling indicated that ongoing slope movements could be expected, slope
failure was not predicted, provided that final pit excavation would be completed, as planned,
prior to the upcoming wet season. In light of these modelling results, mining continued in Pit
3 based on the original mine plan, and final pit excavation was successfully completed in late
2012. Backfilling of the pit commenced soon after. After initial discovery of the tension cracks,
some consideration had been given to incorporating a step-out in the lower part of the wall
in an attempt to stabilise the observed movements. The successful risk management process,
including detailed numerical modelling, comprehensive slope monitoring and strict operational
procedures, allowed the original mine plan to be achieved, and therefore avoided the significant
loss of ore associated with the proposed design change.
This paper summarises the numerical modelling methodology and results, the monitoring
Incorporating brittle fracture into three-dimensional

modelling of rock slopes
M. Havaej Simon Fraser University, Canada
A. Wolter Simon Fraser University, Canada
Z. Tuckey Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
L. Lorig Itasca Consulting Group Inc., USA
Columbia, Canada
Abstract
During the last decade significant advances have been made in the two-dimensional
modelling of brittle fracture associated with rock slope failure both in open pit mines and natural
mountain slopes. This paper focuses on the application of the three-dimensional lattice code,
Slope Model, in modelling brittle fracture and damage evolution involved in three-dimensional
kinematically-controlled slope instability mechanisms. Results of simulations of non-daylighting
wedge failure and active-passive block slope failures are presented, with an emphasis on
characterising brittle damage at varying stages of slope failure development. A new approach
to characterising brittle fracture damage is developed based on fracture generation rates and
the inverse velocity of the failing rock mass. Brittle fracturing of in-plane and outofplane
rock bridges is simulated using a conceptual approach incorporating a simple Discrete Fracture
Network (DFN) into simulations. In order to simulate the complex geometry associated with
threedimensional slope failures, pre-processing routines have been developed to incorporate
photogrammetric and LiDAR derived Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) within the Slope Model
software. Procedures are demonstrated through the use of preliminary Slope Model simulations
of the Vajont landslide, a major catastrophic landslide, which resulted in the loss of over
2,000 lives.This paper summarises the numerical modelling methodology and results, the
monitoring methods and data and the operational procedures that were used to successfully
manage final pit completion.
Open pit numerical model calibration using a pseudo

three-dimensional radar monitoring technique
J. Severin SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc., Canada
Columbia, Canada
S. Fortin Teck Resources Ltd., Canada
Abstract
Slope monitoring plays an important role in the calibration of numerical models created to
investigate the mechanics of large open pit slopes. Geodetic prisms are often relied upon to
delineate the boundaries of potential slope hazards; however the data can be limited by its
point-measurement nature. Localised displacements at each prism may be misinterpreted when
extended to the behaviour of the entire slope, and important displacements between prisms
may be overlooked. A novel experiment was conducted in which two ground-based synthetic
aperture radar systems were simultaneously deployed to record continuous, line-of-sight
displacement of an open pit slope in stereo. The displacement vectors were combined to create
a pseudo 3D displacement map of the pit slope consisting of over 25,000 monitoring points. The
data collected demonstrated that an improved understanding of the 3D kinematics of a large rock
slope can be achieved using advanced state-of-the-art monitoring techniques to aid mine design.
The displacement data as well as the understanding of the slope kinematics were then used to
calibrate a numerical model of the current pit slope created using 3DEC, a 3D distinct element
modelling code. Rock mass and fault properties were modified until the response observed in
the model was more representative to that of the monitoring data throughout the slope face.
Rock mass response to mining-induced stress was shown to vary over several different parts of
slope, including the areas adjacent to the main faults within the slope.
Two-dimensional and three-dimensional distinct

element numerical stability analyses for assessment
of the west wall cutback design at Ok Tedi Mine, Papua
New Guinea
I.A. de Bruyn SRK Consulting (Australasia) Pty Ltd, Australia
M.A. Coulthard M.A. Coulthard and Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
N.R.P. Baczynski Ok Tedi Mining Ltd, Papua New Guinea
J. Mylvaganam SRK Consulting (Australasia) Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Detailed evaluations for finalisation of the design for the west wall cutback at the Ok Tedi
copper-gold mine in Papua New Guinea have been ongoing since 2010. The geotechnical rock
mass characterisation, structural model and conceptual hydrogeological model have been
progressively updated since 1997, and have been significantly advanced during recent feasibility
studies. The pit is being progressively deepened with ongoing mining, and a cutback of the west
wall is being planned that would result in a final wall height of 1,000 m. The wall will be cutback
by up to 300 m over a crest length of greater than 1,500 m, which will take place over a period
of approximately 13 years.
A comprehensive set of 2D distinct element analyses were completed in 2011 for assessment
of the stability of the west wall final design. Depressurisation of the cutback slope was indicated
to be of great importance, and measures for depressurisation were taken into account in the
supporting analyses. Additional field investigations and assessments for confirmation of the
design performance were carried out in 2012 and are ongoing in 2013. The key aspect of this
work involved further distinct element analyses for assessment of the slope performance in
three dimensions, particularly in the context of the effects of major structures, joint sets, pit
wall curvature and pore water pressures as the slope cutback is developed. The extreme size
and complexity of the 3D model necessitated simplifications to the geotechnical domains and
structural inputs in order to create a practical working model. As expected, the 3D analyses
provided Factors of Safety for slope instability significantly greater than those obtained from the
original 2D analyses. However, it is most important to understand the context and limitations
of these results when making final decisions on design outcomes. For this reason, selected
additional 2D analyses were carried out in order to assess the sensitivity of the results to
simplifications in the geotechnical domains and structural inputs and to the coarser block size
necessary for the very large 3D model.
Three-dimensional numerical stability analysis of the

Oyu Tolgoi open pit
M. Smithyman Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
H. Puebla Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
A. Chance Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
R. Beddoes Golder Associates Ltd., Canada
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D), stress-deformation models are useful for analysing the stability of
complex 3D problems in open pit mine slopes. Stress-deformation models are very powerful
because in addition to the Factor of Safety, the states of stress and strain throughout the pit
are computed in a single model where a large number of potential failure mechanisms may be
considered simultaneously. However, the massive quantities of information provided by these
models make them difficult to interpret.
This paper presents and discusses a FLAC3D, version 4.0 (Itasca, 2009) numerical model
that was developed to assess the stability of the proposed Oyu Tolgoi open pit, which will be
approximately 2,900 2,100 m wide, and 600 m deep once it is completed. This large pit will
include two distinct sub-pits that will have numerous fault intersections within the pit walls that
cannot be adequately represented and assessed by 2D slope stability analysis models.
The FLAC3D model of the proposed Oyu Tolgoi open pit focused on assessing 3D complex
failure mechanisms that involve one or more of the steeply dipping faults within the pit walls
at two critical stages over the life-of-mine. This model allowed consideration of the pit stability
from a stress-deformation perspective. While this approach can be used to assess pit stability
in cases where very large displacements associated with well-defined failure mechanisms are
computed (e.g. catastrophic failure), assessing the large scale structurally controlled stability is
more challenging if a catastrophic failure is not predicted.
In this analysis, a number of methods were considered to determine the overall and local
stability of the pit slopes. The following characteristics were considered: i) displacements, ii)
strains, iii) velocities, iv) the yielding state of the model elements, and v) FLAC3Ds internal Factor
of Safety calculation.
The automated Factor of Safety (FS) calculation within FLAC3D provides only the single most
critical failure in the model. In the case of the Oyu Tolgoi open pit, the computed FS was relatively
large and not related to 3D complex failure mechanisms involving the faults within the pit walls.
Had the model been be set up to focus only in specific mechanisms of interest, the computed
FS would have been larger, but nothing more than another number. From this perspective,
the FS calculation was found of limited use in this case and hence, other information from the
stress-deformation analysis was used to assess the stability of the pit slopes beyond the
Three-dimensional analysis of pit slope stability in

anisotropic rock masses
D.P. Sainsbury Mining One Consultants, Australia
B. Sainsbury Castlemaine Goldfields Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Anisotropic and foliated rock masses, the behaviour of which are dominated by closely spaced
planes of weakness, present particular difficulties in the assessment of pit slope stability. Various
numerical modelling techniques are available that explicitly simulate the joints and discontinuities
within an anisotropic rock mass. However, due to the computational intensity of these numerical
techniques, it is not practical to explicitly simulate the joint fabric of an entire three-dimensional
pit slope for routine stability assessment. In order to simulate the effects of anisotropic rock
mass strength and deformation behaviour on pit slope stability, a modelling methodology has
been developed to account for rock mass anisotropy and scale effects using a continuum based
ubiquitous joint constitutive model. This paper outlines the anisotropic modelling methodology
and presents a series of demonstration models that have been used to validate the technique.
UDEC and RFPA2D simulations on the influence of

the geometry of partially-spanning joints on rock
mechanical behaviour
P.L.P. Wasantha Civil Engineering Department, Monash University, Australia
P.G. Ranjith Civil Engineering Department, Monash University, Australia
T. Xu Northeastern University, China
Abstract
The Authors used Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC) and two-dimensional Rock Failure
Process Analysis (RFPA2D) programs, which use the Discrete Element Method (DEM) approach
and the Finite Element Method (FEM) approach, respectively, to simulate the mechanical
behaviour of rock-like materials with partially-spanning joints in different geometries. The results
from the two programs were compared with the results of an experimental study, conducted on
cement-mortar specimens with partially-spanning joints in different geometries, in order to
evaluate the feasibility of the two programs in simulating the mechanical behaviour of rock-like
materials with partially-spanning joints.
Three different partially-spanning joint geometrical properties, i.e. joint location, orientation
and trace length, were considered in numerical simulations using both UDEC and RFPA2D and
the experimental study. For partially-spanning joint location, both numerical programs produced
reasonably consistent results with experimental results for the variation of Uniaxial Compressive
Strength (UCS) against joint location, especially for higher values of joint location. However,
considering the overall variation of UCS against joint location we proposed that the joint location
is of negligible influence on the UCS of the rock. Variations of UCS against partially-spanning
joint orientation for the experimental work and UDEC simulations were observed to match
very closely, whereas RFPA2D results have underestimated the UCS for all joint orientations. The
selection of continuously yielding joint constitutive model for the joints in UDEC simulation,
which is more representative of the joints used in the experimental study, can perhaps be the
reason for the more accurate replication of experimental results using UDEC. Moreover, both
numerical simulations verified the result observed in the experimental study in which the UCS of
test specimens is minimal when the partially-spanning joint is orientated at an angle of 45. The
strain distribution characteristics obtained from both numerical programs generally agreed. The
fact that when the joint is oriented in 45 angle, the influence from the joint on failure of rock is
maximum and with increasing and decreasing joint orientations from 45, the contribution from
the joint for the rock failure is less. The UCS of test specimens was observed to decrease linearly
with increasing joint trace length from the results of the experimental study, and the results of
numerical simulations from both numerical programs showed a reasonably good agreement with
the experimental results. According to the strain distribution characteristics of the experimental
and numerical simulation results from both programs, relatively longer partially-spanning joints
can significantly influence the failure of test specimens, whereas samples with relatively
Slope stability analysis at Siilinjrvi Mine

S. Mononen Yara Suomi Oy, Finland
H. Kuula Pyry Finland Oy, Finland
M. Lamberg Pyry Finland Oy, Finland
Abstract
Siilinjrvi phosphate mine in eastern Finland has been in operation as an open pit since 1979.
The current main pit, the Srkijrvi open pit, is 2,900 m in length, 235 m in depth and at its widest
part 750 m wide. The ore feed to the mill is close to 11 Mt/a. The stripping ratio in current LOM
(mine life to 2034) is on average 0.6 but a major extension program is ongoing and for the next
nine years the stripping ratio will be around 1.2. Part of the main pit extension program involves
new infill drillings, altogether 39 km in 201214. The updated geological and rock mechanics
data is and will be used in slope stability analysis. Engineering company Pyry Finland Oy is
developing rock mechanics analyses and delivering guidances to the mine engineering team.
The Siilinjrvi carbonatite complex is a steeply dipping Archean vein intrusion that has
intruded into granite gneiss. The complex is approximately 16 km long. The main rock types
are calcite carbonatite, glimmerite and their varieties depending on the amount of apatite and
calcite. The carbonatite is surrounded by a fenite halo. The geology in the mine is challenging as
seen from a rock mechanics perspective. The glimmerite rock has poor rock quality and a low
uniaxial compressive strength. The glimmerite has a similar major joint direction as the intrusion
general strike and dip which is noted as a weakness plane for the rock mass. The glimmerite rock
mass was partly highly sheared due to late/post intrusion tectonics. The shear zones consist of
an extremely weak rock mass and have high water loss values.
Geotechnical characterisation of the rock mass has been carried out using Q and GSI
systems. The rock quality was mapped directly from the open pit walls and from drill holes. Also
3D-photogrammetry was used to map joints and shear zones in the pit.
The stability analysis was performed using the distinct element program, 3DEC. The rock mass
was modelled as a Mohr-Coulomb elastic, perfectly plastic continuum. Analysis used a shear
strength reduction approach: the shear strength envelope of material was reduced by a Factor
of Safety until the velocities in the model are not balanced. Because of limited groundwater data
simulations were made with drained and almost fully saturated conditions.
The lowest safety factor was found to be in the weak rock mass area where the safety factor for
overall stability was 1.6 in saturated slope and about 1.9 in drained slope. In individual benches
the lowest safety factors varied from <1 to 1.2. For the detailed parametric study 2D analysis was
also made with Phase 2. The cross section was taken through the middle part of the open pit. In
2D analysis the extent of the disturbance zone and groundwater table was studied.
The stability analysis was performed in order to identify potentially unstable areas.
From those areas collection of groundwater data will be substantially increased. Also
additional geotechnical core logging and mapping will be executed. To monitor the stability
of the open pit, purchasing of slope stability radar is under consideration by the mine
The effect of slope curvature in rock mass shear

strength derivations for stability modelling of foliated
rock masses
S. Narendranathan Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
R.D.H. Thomas Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
J.M. Neilsen Coffey Mining Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
In open pits the instability mechanisms are multifaceted involving; shearing along or over the
asperities of the defect surface and/or block rotation at very low normal stresses. At higher
degrees of confinement, shearing along or through asperities and block rotation including rock
mass failure due to intact rock breakage can occur. It is common to have pit designs with varying
profiles resulting in concave, straight and convex geometries. This difference in wall geometry
would result in varying magnitudes of effective shear strength being mobilised. The contribution
of the lateral confinement to the degree of shear strength mobilised is often overlooked in design.
In this paper a case study will be presented, which compares the different slope performance
outcomes within similar geotechnical conditions with the only variant being the slope geometry
and the influence of lateral confinement. An algorithm is developed, based on observations from
this site case study, linking the concavity of a slope face to the degree of (extra) shear strength
mobilised. It is the authors intent that this algorithm can be used in a similar manner to which
highway engineers use curve-speed models to determine safe approach speeds for corners
given a particular road curvature, (in our case pit slope concavity) and approach speed (rock
mass characteristics). This relationship has been implemented for forward analyses at the mine
in question; however the authors acknowledge that further work needs to be undertaken so as
to ensure the validity of the relationship for generalised application.
Stability analyses for a large landslide with complex

geology and failure mechanism using numerical
modelling
B. Wentzinger Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
D. Starr Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
S. Fidler Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
Q. Nguyen ATC Williams Pty Ltd, Australia
S. Hencher Steve Hencher Associates Ltd, UK
Abstract
Geotechnical studies were undertaken for a large landslide which occurred during the
construction of the South West Transit Corridor, in South East Queensland, Australia. The
site investigation revealed complex geology comprising trachyte flows extruded on top of
sediments and basalt flows. The evolution of the landslide was monitored using surface survey,
inclinometers, piezometers and observation wells. The results of the site investigation, geological
mapping, laboratory testing program and monitoring were used to prepare a geotechnical model
for stability analyses.
The development of the geological and geotechnical models is briefly discussed, and the
methodology used to define the failure mechanism and calibrate the model is presented and
discussed. Various methods and software packages were trialled in order to model the complex
failure, geology and groundwater conditions. The shape of the failure surface was defined using
the results of the movement monitoring devices and surface observations of tensions cracks. The
assumptions made in defining the failure surface shape and strength properties are presented.
The final numerical model was validated using back-analysis with ground water conditions
known to trigger movements, and the material properties along the shear surface were
compared with the results of laboratory strength tests. The methodology used to estimate the
Factor of Safety against reactivation of the movements using numerical modelling is presented.
The use of the model to develop remedial measures is also discussed.
Slope performance
A web-based GIS decision support system for slope

stability monitoring data interpretations and
visualisation management
A.B. Firman PT Adaro Indonesia, Indonesia
C.D. Wiratno PT Adaro Indonesia, Indonesia
S. Bahri PT Adaro Indonesia, Indonesia
H. Timbul PT Adaro Indonesia, Indonesia
Abstract
This paper illustrates how the application of web-based Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
to store and visualise the slope monitoring data performed by Robotic Total Station (RTS) and
Slope Stability Radar (SSR) into an interactive map on the web. Since 2004 PT Adaro Indonesia
has been developing an advanced slope monitoring system to monitor slope stability of its open
pit mines. As one of the worlds largest, with a mining area of nearly 45,000 hectares, PT Adaros
single open pit mine boasts of 13 RTSs supported by 800 active monitoring prisms scattered
throughout the mine area. Later in 2009, SSR Groundprobe was developed to complement the
automatic monitoring system already in place. Nowadays there are two SSRs (SSR SSR X089
and XT135) that monitor movement on the specific pit slopes of concern. From the results of
the automatic slope monitoring system performed by RTS and SSR, the information is taken as
the value of the movement that occurs in each respective area or waste dump. If the movement
of a slope exceeds a predetermined trigger level, then it can be taken in the form of changes in
mine design controlling evacuation or any type of work (including the mining activity) done in the
affected area to avoid the risk of equipment damage caused by a catastrophe, such as landslide.
For long term purposes, data from the RTS and SSR can be used as supporting data for further
Geotechnical analysis to get an overview of the characteristics of a slope in a particular area.
Database management of large amounts of data from the continuous monitoring slope
movements by the RTS and the SSR, presents frequently occurring obstacles that needs special
attention. One challenge lies in the presentation in real time mode since previous data should
not be ignored as they depict sustainability. From the data can be easily managed using the SQL
(Structured Query Language) server-based Leica GeoMos software that is capable of managing
unlimited amount of data, and if necessary do the query, analysis, and database modifications
via the SQL server enterprise software. Another challenge is the SSR data management, where
data is managed manually using wall folders that have limitations of just two weeks, and can only
be performed exclusively using SSR Control software.
To overcome these obstacles, one effective way is to develop a GIS database for organising
slope monitoring data. In order to deliver slope monitoring data in a more effective and
interactive, a web-based GIS applications can also be developed. With this WebGIS, mine slope
stability monitoring information can be easily and quickly accessed because it is web based
Can full waveform technology enhance the use

of terrestrial laser scanning to monitor rock slope
deformation?
J.G. Williams Department of Geography, Durham University, UK
N.J. Rosser Department of Geography, Durham University, UK
A. Afana Department of Geography, Durham University, UK; and 3D Laser Mapping
Ltd, UK
G. Hunter 3D Laser Mapping Ltd, UK
R.J. Hardy Department of Geography, Durham University, UK
Abstract
The reliable monitoring of slope deformation is a significant parameter for mitigating landslide
damages, including business disruption and danger to workers. Despite this, remote sensing of
surface deformation used to interpret failure mechanisms at the shear zone remains limited by
factors such as the resolution and viewing angle of monitoring. Here we present an analysis of
data captured using a new generation of full waveform terrestrial laser scanners (FW-TLS), which
offers potential gains for near real time rock slope monitoring. This approach, having evolved
from recent advances in airborne LiDAR, resolves the structure of the reflected laser signal (the
waveform) from which a series of attributes of the surface character, geometry and deformation
are extracted.
The influence of target geometry, analogous to a deforming rock face, on the reflected
waveform is interpreted from a set of controlled condition datasets. The analysis highlights
the sensitivity of the maximum amplitude, relative to other parameters of the waveform, to
changes in target geometry. We conclude by considering the implications for slope deformation
monitoring of this new approach.
Experience using terrestrial remote sensing techniques

for rock slope performance assessment
M. Sturzenegger Klohn Crippen Berger Ltd., Canada
D. Willms Klohn Crippen Berger Ltd., Canada
K. Pate Seattle City Light, USA
B. Johnston Tetra Tech Inc., USA
Abstract
This paper reports on projects, which integrate the advantages of terrestrial remote sensing
techniques to analyse the performance of rock slopes. The first project is concerned with a
bench performance assessment of an inactive open pit mine in British Columbia, Canada;
this assessment is part of the design work for the proposed pit expansion. The second project
involves characterisation of the rock abutments of an operational concrete hydroelectric dam, in
the Washington State, USA.
The bench scale stability of mine slopes in blocky to moderately fractured rock mass is
primarily determined by structurally-controlled failure mechanisms such as planar, wedge and
toppling failure. Conventional design involves the analysis of adversely-oriented discontinuities,
which have the potential to generate unstable blocks. These kinematic analyses are used to
develop design parameters, including bench face angle, bench width and inter-ramp angle.
Bench performance assessment aids in both bench and inter-ramp design, based on detailed
quantification of the previously achieved bench geometry.
The first case study is from geotechnical investigation work at Bell Pit, near Granisle, BC.
The bench performance assessment in this case utilises terrestrial digital photogrammetry
to quantify the achieved bench geometry of the pit walls. The advantages of using remote
sensing data as opposed to measurements made at the outcrop include: a more detailed and
arguably more accurate dataset, reduction of issues related to access, and reduction of safety
concerns due to rock falls. Similar advantages are advertised in the literature concerning remote
sensing-based discontinuity characterisation, which is now commonly used in the industry. In
this case study, a geometric correction is applied to the measured back-break and effective bench
face angle in order to enhance measurement accuracy. A discussion concerning the validity of
the assessment is provided.
The second case study involves discontinuity characterisation of the natural rock slope
abutments of the Boundary Dam, a concrete hydro-electric dam located along the Pend Oreille
River. These abutments show evidence of past rock block failures where blocks failed along
discontinuities. Structural mapping using terrestrial remote sensing techniques allows both the
characterisation of these discontinuities and the description of past failure mechanisms, which
may highlight potential future failure modes. The procedure is carried out along the Pend Oreille
River canyon using a combination of terrestrial and vessel-mounted LiDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) point clouds.
Powerful rockfall incidents at Al-Hada descent and

remedial measures
B.H. Sadagah Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia
M.S. Aazam Ministry of Transportation, Saudi Arabia
A. Al-Amri Ministry of Transportation, Saudi Arabia
O. Al-Hoseiny Ministry of Transportation, Saudi Arabia
A. Al-Harbi Ministry of Transportation, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
Al-Hada descent lies at the western region of Saudi Arabia at elevation of about 2,000 m,
characterised by sharp cliff. Al-Hada descent road was constructed with an elevation difference of
1,300 m between the highest and lowest heights along the road. The road alignment is intersected
by eight very steep gullies of almost 45 to 80. The gullies contain large quantities of mud, old
levees and large rock blocks. Al-Hada descent road was hit by heavy rainfall lasting about two
hours. The rainstorm initiated rockfalls and debris flows on steep gullies, and caused rock blocks
to drop down rapidly along the gully channel. A large rock block unbalanced at high elevation,
dropped from a height of about 150 m elevation difference to break three Jersey barriers and
cause indents on the ascending and descending roads. This rock block continued downhill to rest
on an unstable debris accumulation that received more rolling, sliding and bouncing rocks from
higher steep elevations. On scrapping the debris flows at the lower elevation road segment, a
number of rockfalls took place too.
The temporary solution was to remove almost 230,000 m3, however unreachable debris
accumulation of 65 to 80 inclination was difficult to remove and cannot be accessed.
Construction of a gallery was a planned ultimate solution to protect the road from the rockfalls
and debris flows. This case history outlines the analysis of rockfall and design of barriers for the
Al-Hada descent road.
Innovative use of slope monitoring radar as a support

to geotechnical modelling of slopes in open pit mines
A.E.E. Escobar Codelco El Teniente, Chile
P. Farina IDS Ingegneria Dei Sistemi, Italy
L. Leoni IDS Ingegneria Dei Sistemi, Italy
C. Iasio IDS Ingegneria Dei Sistemi, Italy
N. Coli IDS Ingegneria Dei Sistemi, Italy
Abstract
In the modern mining industry a comprehensive slope monitoring program, aimed at managing
potential large scale instabilities and able to simultaneously detect local scale movements,
should represent an integral part of every geotechnical risk assessment plan.
El Teniente provides a good example of a complex modern mining operation where stability
issues have to be addressed with a slope monitoring program which is able to support
geotechnical engineers not only in managing risk, but also in the interpretation of ongoing
stability problems. Situated in Chile, 44 km east of Rancagua, 75 km south of the capital Santiago
and at an altitude of 2,500 m, El Teniente is one of largest underground copper mines in the
world and also recently integrated surface mining. The nature of the project in terms of depth,
size and mining methods, and the possible interactions among the different mining processes,
expose its facilities and processes to significant risk levels. Slope stability is one of the most
critical sources of risk, at least in connection with surface operations. In order to cope with these
risk conditions and to possibly mitigate them, new technological solutions based on process
automation and innovative concepts have been adopted. This paper describes the innovative
use of slope monitoring data currently under implementation at El Teniente, which is based on
the combination of radar data used in an unconventional way and other geotechnical-geological
analyses. Although slope monitoring radar is a wellestablished safety-critical monitoring
practice designed to provide alarms in case of impending pit wall slope failures occurring, there
is limited published information available on the use of such a powerful technology for other
purposes in mining operations such as the interpretation of slope behaviour.
This paper presents the authors experience with using radar data to identify the most
likely failure mechanisms and to assess and validate geotechnical models. More specifically,
at El Teniente the proposed integrated approach involves calibrating the input parameters for
finite element modelling (FEM) to replicate movements observed through the monitoring data
acquired by radar. The paper presents the results of the use of radar to monitor different areas
of the mine affected by stability issues, such as the Camino Principal (the main access road to the
Rajo Sur pit) and the north walls of the Rajo Sur (potentially affected by slope movements) and
how the data have been used to get a better preliminary understanding of ongoing instability
phenomena.
Slope monitoring and data visualisation state-of-theart advancing to Rio Tinto Iron Ores Mine of the
Future
S.D.N. Wessels Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
Abstract
Rio Tinto Iron Ores (RTIO) Western Australian mine operations comprises 14 mines with a
centralised Mission Control Operations Centre (OC) in Perth, and currently delivers 237 Mt/a
ore from over 120 individual open pits. Operational challenges in terms of implementation
of effective slope monitoring systems with appropriate visibility of system health and alarm
notifications needed to be addressed. The geotechnical, management and support teams are
site and Perth based, and all require access to geoscience monitoring data.
Historically, each site had an independent monitoring and alarming systems. Transparency of
monitoring data, health checks and alarming capabilities were limited. The lack of a system to
display temporal geotechnical (slope performance), and hydrogeological monitoring data, with
24/7 alarm and system health status had been identified as a gap following a previous slope
instability incident at one of the Pilbara Operations.
At project inception, the need for a visualisation and management tool which had a
multidisciplinary focus and integrating georeferenced geoscience monitoring data with physical
models in near real time, was identified. Consequently the Geoscience Monitoring Data System
(GMDS) was developed to address three main requirements:

Provide a consolidated overview of all geoscience monitoring data and physical models.
Show monitoring system and device health, and alarm status at a high level.
Be integrated with existing slope performance and hazard management systems.
This tool is in alignment with Rio Tintos Mine of the Future and RTIOs Operations Centre
vision by using technology to reduce costs, increase efficiency and improve health, safety and
environmental performance. It provides the functionality to manage diverse instrumentation
data in a consistent, standardised approach to support RTIOs geographically spread expansion
plans.
Application of ground penetrating radar to identify the

locations of sub-surface anomalies at Kansanshi Mine,
Zambia
N.K. Smith First Quantum Minerals Ltd, Zambia
Abstract
Geotechnical zones within the North West Pit and Main Pit of Kansanshi Mine consist
of a regolith profile with isolated marble blocks, referred to as boulders within a highly
weathered, unmineralised saprolite. The majority of the regolith is free-dig area with pre-split
blasting to target boulders and create a smooth face. A serious rockfall risk is associated with
irregularly-shaped boulders protruding from the batter face if not effectively treated during
pre-splitting. Due to the random distribution of boulders within the regolith profile, drilling used
a closely spaced pattern, with a large number of rigs, and this proved to be very costly. A ground
probing radar system utilising a 50 MHz, unshielded, Rough Terrain Antenna (RTA) to scan a
predetermined grid over a planned blast pattern, is able to detect subsurface anomalies such as
boulders and cavities. Scan data can be imported into Surpac and manipulated to create a three
dimensional boulder model from which an effective blast pattern could be designed.
Results have indicated several significant benefits; up to 80% cost saving in terms of drill and
blast, more effective utilisation of drilling resources in hard rock areas, effective presplitting
of boulders on highwall faces reducing rockfall risk and reduced equipment damage through
identification of subsurface cavities.
Application of advanced InSAR techniques to detect

vertical and horizontal displacements
J. Morgan TRE Canada Inc., Canada
S. Raval The University of New South Wales, Australia
B. Macdonald TRE Canada Inc., Canada
G. Falorni TRE Canada Inc., Canada
J. Iannacone University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
Abstract
The monitoring of surface subsidence is an important aspect in many underground mines.
There are various ground-based methods that can be used for deformation monitoring, including
optical levelling, GPS, and tiltmeters. This study proposes the use of satellite-based InSAR for
the monitoring of surface movement over the Metropolitan Mine, an underground coal mine
located in the Southern Coalfields of New South Wales, Australia where ground subsidence has
been documented. An advanced multi-image InSAR approach, characterised by a high density
of measurement points and millimetre precision, is applied to illustrate how results provide an
overview of surface displacement dynamics before, during and after active mining. Two stacks
of ENVISAT radar imagery (87 total images) acquired between June 2006 and August 2010 were
analysed with the SqueeSAR algorithm to reconstruct ground movement patterns during this
period. Movements were assessed on a 35-day interval (the revisitation frequency of the ENVISAT
satellite), and a time series of deformation was generated for every measurement point. The use
of two image stacks acquired from different viewing geometries allowed both the vertical and
eastwest components of ground movement over this site to be determined. Results illustrate
the surface-level impact of underground mining by quantifying the spatial extent and timing of
surface movement. The precision of the InSAR data were briefly assessed by comparing results
with ground-based GPS survey measurements. While the timing and direction of movements
were similar, the comparison was limited by the lack of both spatial and temporal overlap of
the data sets. The use of a radar satellite with a higher temporal frequency is recommended for
future monitoring of this site.
Geotechnical risk management at Teck Coal

A. Bidwell Teck Coal Ltd., Canada
A. Knight Teck Coal Ltd., Canada
W.S. Anderson Teck Resources Ltd., Canada
Abstract
The first standardised Geotechnical Assessment Process for identifying and assessing
geotechnical risks at Teck Coals open pit mining operations was developed and implemented in
2012. This work was started as a corporate initiative because Teck, as a publicly traded company,
desired to demonstrate industry-best practices for managing geotechnical risks and to develop
Teck Coal corporate geotechnical standards. Furthermore, corporate geotechnical standards and
a consistently high level of geotechnical practice are required as part of the safe and profitable
execution of the potential expansions at Teck Coals operating sites and the possible development
of additional mines.
This paper describes the three stage Geotechnical Assessment Process the application of an
assessment tool to scrutinise the geotechnical aspects of mine design, operation and closure,
the categorisation and ranking of identified geotechnical risks, and the development of action
plans to mitigate the risks. The assessment tool was developed in-house because there were no
suitable published or publicly-available procedures. The risk categorisation and ranking procedure
was adapted from the existing Teck stage gating process used for major projects. The ranked
risks were grouped by common themes, and then used as the basis for developing site-specific
Project Initiatives that list actionable steps to ensure that each sites geotechnical systems
and processes are aligned with Teck Coals emerging standardised approach for identifying and
managing the geotechnical risks at existing operations and for potential expansions.
Undrained behaviour in spoil piles

A. Duran Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
Abstract
Stability of spoil piles has been traditionally undertaken with the use of drained strength
parameters and utilising groundwater profiles within the spoil which are appropriate. Moreover,
whilst the authors experience suggests this is by far generally the case, review of recent failures
at two strip mining operations suggests scenarios where there is a strong indication that
undrained strength parameters could be assigned. The author presents seven case studies. As an
alternative to undrained strength parameters, the author has considered; low strength shears in
the sub-floor or spoil loading providing short term pore pressure increases in the sub-floor. The
former provides unrealistic estimates of shear strengths applicable at both operations whilst the
latter requires invoking groundwater assumptions, which although appearing reasonable, are
difficult to readily implement in stability analyses.
Accepting that undrained behaviour is appropriate, based on the seven case studies this paper
highlights three key aspects: scenarios where undrained strengths are developed; materials that
are likely to allow development of undrained strengths; and typical values of undrained shear
strength indicated by backanalysis.
Shear strength parameters for assessing geotechnical

slope stability of open pit coal mine spoil based on
laboratory tests
A.K. Kho School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia
D.J. Williams School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia
N. Kaneko School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia
N.J.W. Smith School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia
Abstract
As open pit coal mines venture to previously unchartered depths, the importance of ensuring
the geotechnical slope stability of high spoil piles becomes critical. However, a reasonable
understanding of material parameters under the high stresses involved is yet to be achieved.
Of particular interest is the necessity and effectiveness of testing scalped specimens in the
laboratory and applying the results obtained to actual mine spoil piles. In an attempt to better
understand the implications of particle size on shear strength parameters of coal mine spoil
materials, samples were retrieved for testing from four mine sites in Queensland and New
South Wales. The sampling covered a range of spoil types from fresh, well-cemented sandstone
to weakly-cemented, weathered clay-rich rock. Laboratory direct shear strength testing was
undertaken in shear boxes of two sizes; 60 and 300 mm, to investigate the effects of scalping.
Specimens were placed loose and tested at their as-sampled moisture content and in a water
bath. This was aimed at better simulating mine site conditions in which initially relatively dry
spoil is placed loose and is subsequently wet-up by rainfall infiltration. The paper presents the
shear strength parameters obtained for spoil specimens tested in the laboratory, and compares
these with data from the literature and recommended shear strength parameters, which has
implications for assessing the geotechnical slope stability of coal mine spoil piles.
Flow failure in coal stockpiles how to reduce risk

P. Davies Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
S. Zargarbashi Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
L. McQueen Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
This paper presents findings from a geotechnical study undertaken to reduce the risk of coal
stockpile instability, following a flow failure observed in New South Wales. To characterise the
stockpile behaviour, key input parameters such as permeability, shear strength and compressibility
have been assessed for different in situ densities. Excess pore water pressure developed within
the stockpile has been estimated by finite element analyses, using 2D PLAXIS, for different
stockpile filling rates and target heights and taking into account the stockpile loading/unloading
operations adopted in the mine. PLAXIS pore pressures were then incorporated into a series of
limit equilibrium stability analyses conducted for three stockpile heights at different filling rates
to study variation of Factor of Safety (FS) with the rate of stockpile filling rate, stockpile height
and groundwater level. Conclusions from this modelling case study show that loading rates as
high as 5 m/day may be adopted to raise the stockpile to a maximum height of about 10 m.
Placement rates faster than 3 m/day result in an elevated risk of instability for higher stockpiles.
Placement rates faster than 1 m/day increase the risk of flowslides for stockpiles of 15 m or
higher. The analysis also shows that loader reclamation from the toe shortly after stockpile filling
escalates the risk of instability for stockpiles above 10 m placed faster than 1 m/day. The results
were used to update a mine stockpile risk management plan to include consideration of stockpile
filling rates, coal placement/reclamation method and stockpile height. A monitoring strategy was
also developed to assist with risk management.
Integration of full waveform terrestrial laser scanners

into a slope monitoring system
A. Afana 3D Laser Mapping Ltd; and University of Durham, UK
G. Hunter 3D Laser Mapping Ltd, UK
J. Davis 3D Laser Mapping Ltd, UK
N.J. Rosser Department of Geography, Durham University, UK
R.J. Hardy Department of Geography, Durham University, UK
J.G. Williams Department of Geography, Durham University, UK
Abstract
Forecasting of the timing of slope failure has been widely modelled using strain-rate based
approaches. Such techniques are reliant upon high-precision data on slope deformation, yet
conventionally a trade-off between monitoring precision and spatial resolution has to be made
in mine slope safety systems. Newly available full waveform terrestrial laser scanners (FW-TLS)
have been shown capable of capturing detailed additional metrics of rock slope surfaces, which
from sequential scans allow significantly reduced uncertainties in change detection. Innovatively,
this approach obtains both geometric and radiometric target surface information which is suited
to the measurement of very small scale deformation, whilst retaining the spatially rich detail of
TLS point-clouds.
We present data captured using this new technology integrated into the slope safety
monitoring system SiteMonitor, to explore the opportunities offered by this new technology in
characterising actively failing rock slopes in new ways. Results presented highlight the ability to
resolve surface features at a scale appropriate to precursory mass wasting and creep in unstable
rock slopes. These findings open the possibility for a step-change in the integration of recent
strain-rate based predictive models with the unprecedented level of combined precision and
detail offered by newly available FW-TLS data.
2011 Manawatu Gorge landslide-technical challenges

faced during remediation
M.B. Avery Geovert Ltd, New Zealand
S. Bourke Geovert Ltd, New Zealand
Abstract
The August 2011 Manawatu Gorge landslide had an initial failure of approximately 20,000 m3.
The sheer volume of the failure caused the closure of State Highway 3 through the gorge and a
rapid response team consisting of consulting engineering geologists and specialist contractors
acted promptly to ascertain the extent, cause and short term remediation works to allow
reopening of the very important transport link. In the following months several further failures
occurred which led to the development and design of extensive long term remedial works. A
design workshop was held in November where scientists, engineers and specialist contractors
convened to discuss options for the long term remediation of the slip. The final design included
the removal of some 370,000 m3. The extent of the earthworks was determined using the Digital
Terrain Model (DTM) developed earlier in the project, based on a combination of Geological
and Nuclear Sciences (GNS) produced 3D laser scans and recently flown LiDAR. The earthworks
began in December 2011 and finished (down to road level) in May 2012. Once excavation was
completed the highway required an almost complete rebuild as there were a number of half
and full bridge structures that were extensively damaged during the event, likely both from the
sudden impact energy of material during failures and also the long term effects from thousands
of tons of material loading the structures over an extended 12 month period. Stabilisation and
drilling work on site included the installation of mesh drape, horizontal shallow inclined drainage
holes, stabilisation of colluvium slopes using rock dowels and installation of a 500 kJ Geobrugg
rockfall attenuator. The stabilisation of the landslide and the rebuilding of the highway structures
was completed in October 2012.
Mt Owen Mine barrier pillar

W.D. Bartlett Thiess Pty Ltd, Australia
I.H. Clark GEONET Consulting Group, Australia
D.E. McCormack Thiess Pty Ltd, Australia
G.D. Johnson Thiess Pty Ltd, Australia
A.N. Brown Thiess Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
As the Mt Owen Mine progressed, turning from mining in a south westerly direction to a
south easterly direction, in-pit dumping constraints demanded an innovative solution to prevent
potential lowwall instabilities. An in situ rock pillar was designed to retain waste spoil, this was
termed the barrier pillar. Measuring 270 m high and over a kilometre long, consisting of over 40
Mbcm of in situ rock and retaining in excess of 160 Mm3 of waste spoil. It is considered that the
barrier pillar is the worlds largest in situ rock mass earth retaining structure.
Stability of the barrier pillar was governed by the weak tuffaceous layers within the coal
that have caused historical instabilities. Analyses of the barrier pillar have been undertaken
throughout the mine life; as the mine design evolved, so did the pillar design. The initial analysis
was undertaken using a two-dimensional limit equilibrium model with multiple sections. Due
to the complex nature of the geological structure, a subsequent analysis was undertaken using
FLAC3D. Three pillar designs were analysed through thirteen stages of mining in order to predict
rock mass behaviour through the proposed mining sequence, identify potential instability and
determine the most appropriate pillar design.
Automated prism monitoring and two brands of slope stability radars were used to monitor
displacement of the barrier pillar. No significant displacement was detected during mining
prompted an investigation into maximising coal recovery. Two-dimensional limit equilibrium
analysis was used to assess the design. Comparisons were made between the successfully mined
goodbye cut and the original FLAC3D modelled pillars to ensure no additional modelling was
required.
Quarry wall stability and design optimisation using

photogrammetric mapping and analysis techniques
P.W. Booth Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
G.E. Meyer Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
A geotechnical assessment of the Oaklands Junction Quarry, Melbourne was undertaken
to provide recommendations on pit wall design parameters for use in future quarry planning.
Holcim (Australia) Pty Ltd plans to double the depth of the existing main pit over the remaining
life of the quarry, and a robust geotechnical assessment of the existing pit walls was required to
provide long term pit face stability during operation and subsequent quarry rehabilitation.
Due to safety restrictions, access to the batters to undertake conventional (tape measure and
compass) geotechnical mapping was very limited. The acquisition of geotechnical mapping data is
described, using photogrammetric methods to undertake the mapping remotely. Measurements
included the orientation, spacing, persistence and large scale waviness of the rock discontinuities
that control the stability of the quarry pit walls.
The use of photogrammetry provided far greater mapping coverage and a much larger set of
high quality geotechnical data than could have been obtained by conventional mapping methods.
The persistence and large scale waviness of the discontinuities are critical to the geotechnical
design, due to the typically low shear strength of joint infill materials.
The acquisition of high resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) of the quarry batter faces
is described, generated using the 3DM Analyst Mine Mapping Suite (ADAM Technology, 2013)
digital photogrammetry system from stereo pairs of photographs taken of the pit walls. The
same software was then used to carry out the remote geotechnical mapping. The results
included more than 1,200 individual measurements of discontinuity orientation, as well as a
smaller number of measurements of discontinuity spacing and persistence.
The DTMs were used to quantitatively assess the large scale waviness of selected discontinuities,
and provided justification to increase the large scale friction angle adopted for the subsequent
stability analyses by up to 5, as compared to the values that would otherwise have been adopted
based on drill core alone. The assessment of safe pit slope angles is discussed, and observations
of existing large scale failures in the pit walls were used to corroborate the use of increased
friction angle in the design.
Early detection of impending slope failure in open

pit mines using spatial and temporal analysis of real
aperture radar measurements
G.J. Dick Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia,
Canada
Columbia, Canada
N.D. Rose Piteau Associates Engineering Ltd., Canada
Abstract
Slope monitoring in open pit mines is an essential component of day-to-day operations and
plays a key role in assisting geotechnical engineers and mine operators in maintaining mine
safety and production schedules. Pit slope monitoring techniques have advanced significantly
within the past decade, most notably in ground-based radar technology. Ground-based radar
allows real-time monitoring of slope deformation across a broad coverage area, alerting mine
staff to wall movements exceeding established thresholds. Line of-sight measurements derived
from the radar can be presented as 3D point clouds for the scan area, allowing mine staff to view
the distribution of slope movements across the pit wall with each progressive scan.
This paper presents a new methodology for spatial and temporal analysis of deformation
point clouds captured by ground-based radar. The methodology builds on two existing early
warning methods, the Fukuzono inverse-velocity method and the SLOpe gradient (SLO) method,
which are based on the analysis of point measurement data derived from traditional geodetic
prism monitoring. However, similar methodologies that fully utilise the spatial and temporal
characteristics of ground-based radar data are yet to be developed.
Radar data from historical slope failures captured by GroundProbe Slope Stability Radar
(SSR) at a number of hard rock mines was utilised in the development of the new spatial and
temporal analysis methodology. A slope failure that occurred at an open pit copper mine is
presented throughout as a case example. The spatial analysis component of the methodology
uses a benchmark point (or pixel), based on an alarm threshold specific to each failure case, and
averaged deformation increments based on a percentage of the deformation measured by the
benchmark pixel at the time of alarm. The temporal analysis component of the methodology
examines deformation and velocity trends for all spatial analysis cases. The results of the
spatial and temporal analysis were then used to evaluate the inverse-velocity and SLO time of
failure prediction methods. Overall, the proposed methodology will improve, and provide a
more systematic means of interpreting spatial and temporal ground-based radar data, aiding
geotechnical engineers in managing slope movement alarms and alarm responses to provide a
safer working environment for mine employees.
Geohazard mitigation in remote and rugged terrain

U.K. Gunasekera Rio Tinto, Australia (formerly with Newmont Asia Pacific Region)
Abstract
Newmont Asia Pacific Region (APAC) operated a number of exploration tenements in Papua
New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Indonesia. A common feature to all these sites were
rugged terrain, very thick vegetation canopy, high intensity rainfall and relatively young geology.
Geohazards such as landslides, earthquakes and flash flooding are common in these terrains.
Past incidents at the exploration sites highlighted the requirement for geotechnical input prior
to site selection. This article explains the process that was developed in the preparation of a
Geohazard Mitigation Tool (GHMT) that was used for the selection of safe sites suitable for
Newmont exploration infrastructure. Available good quality topographic images were used to
acquire slope, drainage and landslide information. Regional and local soils and geology maps
were helpful in ascertaining soils conditions. Prevailing wind information was also useful. To put
all the above information together into a geohazard rated map of the exploration regions, ArcGIS
tools were utilised.
Stabilisation of landslides using gravity fed siphon and

electro-pneumatic pumped wells: two examples of
slope stabilisation projects from the United Kingdom
and Czech Republic
J.K. Holliday Aurecon Australia Pty Ltd, Australia (formerly High Point Rendel, UK)
A.R. Clark Independent consultant, UK (formerly High Point Rendel, UK)
D.S. Fort Atkins, UK (formerly High Point Rendel, UK)
A. Gillarduzzi High Point Rendel, UK
S. Bomont TPGEO, France
Abstract
The rise of groundwater in response to extreme weather events is having a major impact on
slope stability and the consequential disruption to infrastructure services and associated costs
related to their repair is significant.
Climate change studies are predicting increased frequency and duration of extreme weather
events. Case histories have demonstrated the link between prolonged rainfall events, rising
groundwater levels and increased frequency of slope instability.
The stability of slopes can be improved if groundwater can be controlled and this is most
commonly achieved through the use of drainage measures. An innovative drainage system that
uses siphon drain and electro-pneumatic pump technology has been employed in Europe since
1986 using drains and lines of wells to lower and maintain groundwater levels within slopes.
Two examples of projects using siphon and electro-pneumatic drains to control slope stability
are presented. The first example is a coast protection scheme constructed in 2004 at Castlehaven
on the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom. The second example involves landslide problems
affecting remediation works to slopes undertaken in 2009 at a former open cast brown coal mine
at the Most Leky site in the Czech Republic.
Risk management and remediation of the north wall

slip, West Angelas Mine, Western Australia
G.G. Joass Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
R. Dixon Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
T. Sikma Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
J. Lapwood Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
Abstract
A planar failure of approximately 600 kT occurred on the north wall of Centre Pit North (CEPN)
at West Angelas Mine site in February 2010. The failure impacted a substantial resource of high
grade iron ore and left a number of significant geotechnical hazards on and adjacent to the
failure surface. These presented a series of challenges which had to be overcome in order to
remediate the failure and reclaim the bulk of the buried ore. A number of recovery options were
investigated and presented to management. This paper outlines the plan which was adopted,
the challenges encountered during its implementation and the risk management and mining
procedures used to bring the remediation and recovery to a successful conclusion.
Application of radar monitoring at Savage River Mine,

Tasmania
G.K. Macqueen Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd, Australia
E.I. Salas Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd, Australia
B.J. Hutchison Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Grange Resources Ltd have been utilising radar monitoring since 2007 at their Savage River
mining operation in Tasmania, Australia. Radar has provided prior warning of several large
wall failures in the brittle amphibolite of the North Pits east wall, and these experiences have
increased the confidence in the radars capability to provide reliable prior warning of large wall
failures. With the increased confidence in the radar attention has focused on the remaining
sources of risk in the forms of human error through mistakes in the application of the radar and
human error in the form of slips and trips, particularly within software settings. These potential
sources of human error are mitigated with the use of Standard Operating Procedures, Trigger
Action Response Plans, training and checklists.
Radar monitoring of the east wall of North Pit has been found to have limited capability in
providing prior warning of small wall failures. In order to mitigate the risk posed by small wall
failures, remote controlled mining capabilities (including remote drilling, dozing, excavating, and
blasthole loading) have been adopted for routine use within specified zones at the toe of the pit
wall.
This paper describes how through applying appropriate radar alert thresholds across the
entire pit wall, whilst ensuring the integrity of the radar monitoring system, and mitigating
the risk posed by small wall failures, the risks of operating beneath a hazardous pit wall can be
significantly reduced.
Slope stability study in open pit and underground

mines by means of forensic analysis and radar
interferometry
O. Mora Altamira Information, Spain
I. lvarez Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
E. Amor Herrera Hullera Vasco-Leonesa, Spain
Abstract
This paper demonstrates the capabilities of satellite radar technology to generate complete
ground deformation maps of an open pit mine, to follow and detect movement intensities
ranging from millimetric to metric scales. Several vulnerable parts of the mine have been studied
and monitoring of these very small to very large instabilities has provided valuable information
for risk and exploitation management at the mine. A forensic analysis has been also performed
and validated with these interferometric radar measurements.
Images from the X-band high resolution images of TerraSAR-X satellite have been acquired
between 2008 and 2012 to monitor ground displacement evolution. Two types of ground
markers, natural reflectors providing backscattering of the terrain and trihedral artificial
reflectors installed on certain areas of the mine have been used. Measurement quality depends
on the temporal changes, and several radar Interferometric techniques, including persistent
scatterer interferometry (PSI) and Altamira Information developments (stable point network
and non-coherent technique) have been used to detect displacement intensities. Phenomena
caused by mine activities have been detected, showing a perfect temporal correlation with the
mine evolution. The project has also been very useful for the control and analysis of a strong
slope instability affecting the open pit, where displacements have been more than 10 m in some
months.
Stability analysis and remedial design of two road

cuttings in North Queensland based on remote
geotechnical mapping using digital photogrammetry
I. Ortega Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
P.W. Booth Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
J. Darras Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Remote geotechnical mapping of two large rock cuttings on a vital transportation corridor
in North Queensland was undertaken to provide input data for stability analysis and design
of stabilisation elements. The mapping approach described utilised state-of-the-art digital
photogrammetry tools to allow the collection of structural data from large areas where direct
access to the slopes for conventional (tape measure and compass) mapping was either not
possible or very limited without the use of rope access methods.
The photogrammetric method employed allowed the mapping to be completed rapidly
and safely, without affecting the serviceability of the roadway during the site investigation. It
provided measurements of the orientation, spacing and persistence of the rock discontinuities
that control the stability of the cuttings. It also provided detailed digital terrain models (DTMs) of
the slopes, which provided critical topographic information for input to the analysis and design
processes.
In recent years, the use of digital photogrammetry as a tool to collect structural and
geotechnical mapping data from large rock cuttings has become commonplace in the mining
industry. The application of this method to civil engineering problems on the other hand has
been far less common, but comes as a natural progression as this technology becomes more
user-friendly and cost-effective.
Hangingwall and footwall slope stability issues in

sublevel caving
B-M. Stckel Luossavaara-Kirunavaara AB, Sweden
K. Mkitaavola Luossavaara-Kirunavaara AB, Sweden
J. Sjberg Itasca Consultants AB, Sweden
Abstract
Mining using large scale underground sublevel caving results in caving of the surrounding
host rock and mining-induced ground surface deformations. These effects are most prominent
on the hangingwall side, but also develop to some extent on the footwall side of an orebody
mined with caving methods. This situation is, in many respects, similar to that of large scale
slopes, albeit with the addition of the caved rock. The problem issues are particularly
similar for the case when underground mining commences below an existing open pit. The
Luossavaara-Kirunavaara AB (LKAB) Kiruna Mine is a case in point, in which underground sublevel
caving commenced in the 1960s, following open pit mining that had been on-going since the
late 19th century. The mine is in close proximity to the city of Kiruna, which has resulted in
a continuous urban transformation of the Kiruna municipality for almost a century. The LKAB
industrial area is also strongly affected. With deepened mining, the effects on the ground surface
are becoming larger and the demands on monitoring and prediction are larger than ever today.
This paper presents a status report concerning large scale slope stability in cave mining and
the effects on the surroundings, including currently on-going rock mechanical activities within
this subject area. Ground deformations are currently being monitored using Global Positioning
System (GPS) techniques on fixed measurement hubs, with measurements taken quarterly of
strategically important hubs and annually on all installed hubs (today around 450). LKAB has
an on-going research and development project on the use of radar remote sensing (InSAR
techniques) for ground deformation monitoring. The advantages of the InSAR techniques are
that: (i) measurements have high spatial density, (ii) monitoring occurs more frequently with
reduced manpower (currently every 24th day with the Radarsat-2 satellite), and (iii) the need of
fixed measurement hubs is eliminated. The theoretical precision is very high but there are issues
regarding measurements at high latitudes (snow-covered ground, etc.), which are currently
being investigated. The paper also describes the methodology used for predicting ground surface
deformations due to mining. Prognoses are produced for planning purposes both for internal
(within LKAB) and external (the municipality of Kiruna, etc.) use. The prognosis methodology
employed is based on a combination of analysis of measurement data, numerical modelling, and
empirical relations. The resulting prognoses are reviewed annually and updated as required. With
the anticipated increase in affected surface area, the precision in prediction needs improvement
and LKAB is sponsoring a number of research projects concerning both hangingwall and footwall
stability, which are briefly described in the paper.
An evaluation of the CUSUM and inverse velocity

methods of failure prediction based on two open pit
instabilities in the Pilbara
J. Venter Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
A. Kuzmanovic Rio Tinto Iron Ore, Australia
Abstract
Predicting the expected time of slope collapse is an important aspect of managing open pit
slope stability as it determines the appropriate actions to be taken. It is important to know when
to evacuate but is also useful to know well in advance if a particular slope is creeping towards
collapse or whether the deformations measured are unlikely to result in collapse. Having this
type of information well in advance allows a mine to plan and execute remedial actions, such
as schedule changes, slope angle changes and buttresses, that will mitigate economic as well
as safety risks. While several methods of analysing slope monitoring data have been published
to date, none have been able to establish themselves as the definite answer to any of these
questions.
This paper evaluates several previously published methods of predicting the time of slope
collapse based on the monitoring data collected for slope instabilities that occurred at two of
Rio Tintos Pilbara Iron Ore operations in 2009 and 2010. The methods tested against the data
are: CUSUM, inverse velocity and the slope of velocity and time multiplied velocity (SLO) method
(Mufundirwa and Fujii, 2008). The paper concludes by evaluating the effectiveness of each of
these methods to serve as early warning of impending failure and to predict the onset of collapse.
Both instabilities were managed without injury to personnel and no loss of equipment.
Slope stabilisation program at West Gully, PT Freeport

Indonesia
E. Widijanto PT Freeport Indonesia, Indonesia
I. Setiawan PT Freeport Indonesia, Indonesia
K. Afrizal PT Freeport Indonesia, Indonesia
M. Stawski PT Freeport Indonesia, Indonesia
P. Warren PT Freeport Indonesia, Indonesia
B. Utama PT Freeport Indonesia, Indonesia
Abstract
PT Freeport Indonesia operates a copper-gold mine located in the province of Papua, Indonesia,
about 3,500 km east of Jakarta. Current ore production from the project is about 220,000 tonnes
per day (tpd) of which about 2.5 ktpd from Big Gossan stope mine, 60 ktpd come from the DOZ
block cave and the rest is mined from the Grasberg open pit. Two new underground mines under
development are the Grasberg block cave and Deep Mill level zone to ultimately replace surface
mine operation.
One of the critical zones for entire mining operation is the mill-processing area. This area is not
only dedicated for the processing plant but also is used as access to one of underground waste
dump areas. The mill area is surrounded by steep natural slopes and extreme topography which
often results in instabilities (debris flows, rockfalls) related to the geological features. West Gully
is one of locations at the mill area which requires extensive work to mitigate rockfall hazard
which impacts on the operations at the mill. Historical rockfall incidents, geological information,
site observation, rockfall simulation, and road access reliability requirement for the future mining
operation drive geotechnical recommendations to provide robust rockfall mitigation option.
Scaling and meshing of more than 7,000 m2, constructing two 8,000 kJ of debris flow barriers,
and 8,000 kJ of rock fence for an approximately 700 m high slope was required to reduce rockfall
risk to an acceptable level. Those rockfall protections are augmented by 225 m corrugated steel
tunnel at the mill level as an additional road protection from potential rockfall events.
Complex geological conditions, steep mountainous topography, average annual rainfall of
5,000 mm, foggy conditions, limited working space and the short distance to the critical facilities
created a challenging situation for engineering design, construction, geotechnical monitoring
and logistics. This paper outlines the slope stabilisation challenges and unique conditions and
also the efforts of the team to reduce and mitigate rockfall hazards to ensure the safety of the
workers and future safe production continuity.
Hydrogeology
Integrating complex hydrogeological and geotechnical

models a discussion of methods and issues
G. Fagerlund SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc., Canada
M. Royle Schlumberger Ltd., Canada
J. Scibek SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc., Canada
Abstract
Prediction of pore pressure data used in complex 3D geotechnical slope stability modelling
often runs into problems associated with dissimilar model domains, grids, nodal density, etc.
This is often due to the larger scale hydrogeological model being restricted to the use of laterally
extensive layers to represent the site lithology, whereas the geotechnical models often use a
cubic or tetrahedral convex blocking method for model construction. Hydrogeological model
platforms do not always allow the modeller to reproduce the geology (especially if steeply
dipping, over turned, or pinching out) or the slope details to the level of detail expected for the
stability modelling.
To alleviate this problem, the use of regular sized elements in horizontal to moderately variable
layers/slices is described. The model geometry is not new, but presented here as a means of
solving some common problems encountered in pit design modelling. The resulting efficiencies
in model construction, ability to modify the geology and pit wall design during the modelling
process, and more accurately simulate a complex 3D problem in the hydrogeological model
simulation are discussed. Methods for simulating drainage tunnels, drill hole fans, and horizontal
drains using discrete elements are presented. Additionally, the problems encountered with
using larger scale (mine scale) models to determine boundary conditions for the smaller, pit wall
scale models are discussed, with several methods for dealing with this reviewed.
This paper describes methods used to construct a FEFLOW (DHI-WASY GmbH, 2012) finite
element model of the West Wall 3DEC (Itasca, 2013) stability analysis for the Ok Tedi mine
life extension (MLE) that overcame some of these issues. However, the methods used are not
limited to FEFLOW or even Finite Element models, and are used with other codes that the
hydrogeological modellers are familiar with. The paper does not presume to be a comprehensive
examination of the methods and issues, rather to provide useful tips and discussion points for the
slope stability modelling audience. As such, recognised limitations of the methods are included,
and the authors invite readers to use this as a means to initiate further consideration of the
modelling issues involved in the increasingly complex stability analyses taking place these days.
Three-dimensional pore pressure prediction in dual

phase conditions for slope stability assessment
E.R. De Sousa Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
G.E. Swarbrick Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
Abstract
This paper presents an approach for modelling both liquid and steam pore pressures for
prediction of slope stability of proposed mine slopes at the Lihir gold mine in Papua New Guinea.
A three-dimensional FEFLOW model has been developed of the Louise Amphitheatre including
a centrally located geothermal zone. The model comprises a detailed lithological representation
and some structural zones. The complex interaction of surface infiltration, ocean boundaries,
geothermal upflow, dewatering, drainage to existing pits and groundwater and steam relief are
represented in the model. The model is calibrated by some 200 vibrating wire piezometers that
measure both pressure and temperature.
The model predicts both groundwater flow and heat transport for annual pit development. A
unique post processing method has been developed to rapidly estimate steam pressures based
on the flow and heat predictions. A detailed model assessment process has been developed in
order to judge the reliability or otherwise of modelling output.
The output of the process is a three-dimensional pore pressure grid that identifies zones of
both liquid and steam pressures. The results can be subsequently viewed or utilised elsewhere,
such as inputs for slope stability analyses. Comparison with conventional dual phase modelling
using TOUGH2 is favourable.
Stability analyses are used to confirm slope designs and target locations and times where
steam relief is required.
Mine design for below water table clay detritals mining:

Marandoo Mine, Western Australia
D. McInnes Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
C. Haberfield Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
C. Colley Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Geotechnical investigations were carried out as part of the Feasibility Study Extension (FSE)
and Trial Mining program for the development of below the water table (BWT) expansion at Rio
Tinto Iron Ores (RTIOs) Marandoo Mine. The Marandoo Mine site is located in the Pilbara region
of Western Australia, 1,500 kilometres north of Perth.
Previous studies have indicated that a 40 m thick, at approximately 40 m depth, layer of
Tertiary clay, will present significant challenges relating to slope and waste dump design as well as
operational challenges (trafficability and handleability). Due to uncertainty over the confidence
of parameters derived from triple tube sampling and testing, conservative design parameters
were adopted for the previous studies. It was recognised that significant upside could be realised
through improved material characterisation techniques.
The main objectives of the investigation and testing program were to: 1) characterise the
physical properties and variability of the clay; and 2) obtain design parameters for the slopes
for mining of the pit. This was carried out with conventional drilling, sampling and logging
procedures. Hyperspectral scanning of diamond core was undertaken, which provided useful
information on the vertical distribution of clay species through the detrital stratigraphy. Following
review of the historic sample test results, it was hypothesised that sampling and testing methods
had contributed to pre-softening of samples. Subsequent testing focused on Shelby tube and in
situ testing; both resulted in significant improvement in measured shear strength parameters
over triple tube sampling.
A self-boring pressuremeter was used in two locations to carry out in situ testing of the clay
at various depths. The results of the pressuremeter testing have indicated that the permeability
of the clay is significantly lower than assumed in previous studies. An assessment of the effect
of the structure of the clay on the stability of the slopes will be an objective of further studies.
Key outcomes so far have emphasised the significant impact of sampling method, preservation,
timely testing on derived material properties, and recognition of the limitations of various
techniques in characterising heavily over consolidated clays. The material characterisation has
also confirmed the critical importance of water management in mining in relation to preserving
clay strength. This work has enabled detailed planning to be undertaken for studies covering
trafficability, handleabilty, waste dump and slope performance; with field trials scheduled in the
mine plan.
The hydro-geotechnical decision cycle having mine

design and planning decisions made by the right
people
J.W. Hall RPS Aquaterra, Australia
Abstract
The design of pit slopes where groundwater or pore pressure has some influence on slope
stability requires two key mining disciplines to be applied; geotechnical engineering and
hydrogeology. These two broad disciplines also cover structural geology, geomechanical,
groundwater and hydro-mechanical coupled modelling and surface water hydrology. These are
all specialist disciplines with specific education and training requirements. With experience, we
develop an understanding of, and can even become experts in, these other disciplines. That is,
we become adept practitioners in the overall slope design and mine planning process. However,
this takes time.
What of our site based mine planning staff, who are mostly young and still developing their
overall mine planning skills? It is not uncommon for our site based geotechnical engineer (or
hydrogeologist) to have a whole range of duties assigned to them, many of which are outside
their current skill and experience levels. Is this fair? Can it result in practical, cost effective or safe
slope designs? It can, but only when our site staff are provided with adequate technical support
from the cross disciplines.
So, what does this support look like, and when do we need to provide it? A useful way to
assess this is to consider what I call the Hydro-Geotechnical Decision Cycle. This is simple process
whereby the geotechnical engineers does what they are good at (and qualified to do) and the
hydrogeologists do the same, so that together they can develop the appropriate mine planning
solutions through an iterative process of data collection, analysis, design, implementation
and feedback. Sound familiar? This is the same as a Continuous Improvement cycle (i.e.
plan-do-check-act).
This paper develops the concept of the Hydro-Geotechnical Decision Cycle and presents
examples of where it can help when applied and where it has gone wrong when it has not been
applied.
The hydrogeology of a moving cut slope and real time

modelling of groundwater movement
I. Gray Sigra Pty Ltd, Australia
J. Wood Sigra Pty Ltd, Australia
B. Neels Sigra Pty Ltd, Australia
A. OBrien Sigra Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
This paper covers the work undertaken to determine the behaviour of groundwater in a
moving cut slope comprising fractured igneous rock overlying sedimentary deposits. The work
was undertaken to provide part of a solution to the stabilisation of the slope through drainage.
The work initially involved the installation of multiple piezometers and several pumping tests
to determine the hydraulic conductivity and storage characteristics of the rock mass. Using this
information a numerical model of the slope was created in which the time variant input was the
piezometric head. Using the values of hydraulic conductivity and storage along with the varying
piezometric information it was possible to determine where water was entering and leaving the
slope during different weather events and to therefore optimise drainage design. The paper also
describes the data acquisition and telemetry system developed and employed on this project
and also some of the mathematics of drainage design. The paper also considers some drainage
solutions to stabilise the slope more effectively than the cut and fill approach that has not yet
succeeded.
Rockfall
An integrated approach for rockfall analysis with

drapery systems
K. Thoeni Centre for Geotechnical and Materials Modelling, The University of
Newcastle, Australia
C. Lambert Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, New
Zealand
A. Giacomini Centre for Geotechnical and Materials Modelling, The University of
Newcastle, Australia
S.W. Sloan Centre of Excellence for Geotechnical Science and Engineering; and Centre
for Geotechnical and Materials Modelling, The University of Newcastle, Australia
J.P. Carter Centre of Excellence for Geotechnical Science and Engineering; and Centre
for Geotechnical and Materials Modelling, The University of Newcastle, Australia
Abstract
The rockfall hazard in mining environments needs to be rigorously managed in order to ensure
safe mining operations, in particular when designing portal entries for punch longwalls. The
installation of drapery systems is a common practice to mitigate the rockfall hazard at the base of
highwalls. However, the hazard is not completely eliminated since blocks can still detach and fall
in between the drapery and the highwall. This contribution shows how geostructural modelling
and 3D rockfall analysis can be combined in order to accurately map and assess the rockfall
hazard at the base of such highwalls. The study entails the estimation of the size distribution of
unstable blocks and the simulation of their trajectories and velocities for highwalls without and
with drapery.
First, 3D photogrammetry is combined with discrete fracture network modelling in order to
generate polyhedral models of the rock mass structure. Polyhedral modelling and kinematic
analyses are combined to estimate the volume and shape distribution of unstable blocks.
Unstable blocks are then classified according their shape.
Second, a 3D discrete element rockfall model is presented which allows for an accurate
prediction of velocities and run-out distances for rock slopes with and without drapery. The
3D model is used to predict trajectories and velocities for blocks representative of a highwall,
i.e. block size and shape according the results from the polyhedral modelling. The focus is to
investigate the efficiency of the drapery and to quantify the residual rockfall hazard at the base
of a highwall.
Coefficient of restitution for rigid body dynamics

modelling from onsite experimental data
F.R.P. Basson Newmont Asia Pacific, Australia
R. Humphreys Newmont Asia Pacific, Australia
A. Temmu Newmont Asia Pacific, Australia
Abstract
Rigid body dynamics uses the Newtonian laws of motion to solve the physics behaviour of
moving bodies as a function of time. This approach is fast enough for real time simulation of
multiple fall bodies, and can simulate the trajectories of three-dimensional volumetric bodies
during free fall, bouncing, sliding and rolling. An additional benefit of rigid body dynamics is
that the input parameters required are few, measurable and intuitive, as only the coefficient of
restitution (COR), and the static and dynamic friction angles are required.
The Geotechnical Team at Newmont Boddington Gold (Boddington) undertook simple
experiments to determine the ranges of COR values applicable to different surfaces for the
Boddington pits. Ten rocks between 0.35 and 2.08 kg were collected, weighed, marked, and
measured. Each rock was then dropped ten times from a height of 1.40 m onto the four different
horizontal pit surfaces pit floor, haul road, catch berm, and hard rock. The rebound of each
drop test was measured with a scaled white board behind the test area from video footage. A
total of 400 data points were collected and the results analysed. It was found that the different
rebound surfaces have different levels of predictability in rebound behaviour, and that some
surfaces a more prone to occasional outlier results. The aim of these experiments was to obtain
rebound information for use in the rigid body dynamics modelling software package Trajec3D.
During a full scale rockfall experiment, and the accompanying three dimensional back
analysis with volumetric fall bodies, many factors determine the outcome that complicates the
verification of the individual simulation components. The simple experiments discussed before
were simulated in Trajec3D to determine if rigid body dynamics could simulate realistic rebound
behaviour with different rock shapes, sizes, and physics material interaction properties.
The combined outcomes from the rockfall experiments and rigid body dynamic simulations
lead to the identification of the critical factors controlling fall body rebound behaviour at
Boddington. Appropriate COR values will be selected and used in the analysis of larger scale
rockfall experiments, the back analyses of known rockfall events, and to identify and assess
potential future rockfall areas.
Spatial and temporal aspects of slope hazards along a

railroad corridor in the Canadian Cordillera
R. Macciotta Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Alberta, Canada
D.M. Cruden Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Alberta, Canada
C.D. Martin Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Alberta, Canada
N.R. Morgenstern Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Alberta, Canada
M. Petrov Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta,
Canada
Abstract
A successful slope management program depends on understanding the interaction between
the potential slope failure and the elements at risk. This interaction defines the magnitude and
likelihood of the potential consequences, which in turn defines the need for allocating resources
for risk mitigation. The interaction can be divided into the probability of interaction between the
displaced material and the elements at risk, and the degree of loss should impact occur. In this
paper, the temporal and spatial aspects of landslides are analysed along a section of a railroad
corridor through the Canadian Cordillera. The temporal and spatial aspects of the elements
at risk are discussed and illustrated within the context of railroad freight train operations. An
example is presented where the annual frequency of interaction between landslides and freight
trains is estimated, and the associated spatial and temporal variability analysed. The paper
highlights the importance, within a slope risk management strategy, of understanding landslide
trends in space and time and how these spatial and temporal trends are related to morphology,
geology and triggering mechanisms.
Earthquake stability assessment for open pit mine

slopes
J.C.W. Toh Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
D.K.E. Green Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
G.E. Swarbrick Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
B.E. Estrada Pells Sullivan Meynink, Australia
Abstract
Earthquake stability assessment of large open pit mine slopes brings together two areas of
slope engineering that are usually quite separate. To account for the scale and nature of open
pit slopes, analysis techniques widely used for small scale civil infrastructure slopes need to be
adapted and then extended.
The first part of this paper presents a framework for earthquake stability assessment of open
pit mine slopes that has been used in practice by the authors. The framework attempts to
provide consistency across various analysis techniques, from pseudo-static analysis to dynamic
numerical modelling. Guidance is given for selecting an appropriate earthquake load coefficient
for pseudo-static analysis.
The second part of this paper presents two examples of dynamic numerical modelling. One
example demonstrates that the earthquake response of large rock slopes is highly dependent on
the interaction between the seismic hazard, the resonant behaviour of the slope and surrounding
ground, the rock mass character, and the slope geometry, and it follows that understanding
dynamic site response is an integral part of earthquake engineering for large rock slopes. The
other example presents parts of a detailed analysis of slope stability and deformation, and
compares the results to those obtained from simpler analysis methods.
Seismic stability of large open pit slopes and pseudo

static analysis
B. Damjanac Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., USA
Varun Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., USA
L. Lorig Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., USA
Abstract
Seismic shaking induces stress changes in rock and soil slopes, which when combined with
existing static stresses, may exceed the available strength and cause failure. Although one of
the greatest hazards during strong earthquakes is associated with consequences of triggered
landslides and natural slope failures, existing data seem to indicate that earthquakes are not a
credible stability hazard for open pit slopes. Because regulations require investigation of slope
stability under earthquake loading, relatively simple quasi-static analyses are typically carried
out. The quasi-static analysis of the effect of seismic shaking on stability of slopes is usually too
conservative. Thus, the mines primarily rely on empirical evidence when considering seismic
hazard in the design of the open pit slopes. However, it is important to understand the reasons
for relatively good performance of open pit slopes compared to multiple evidences of landslides
during historical earthquakes, but also to determine, using a proper methodology, the conditions
when open pit slope stability can be at risk during seismic shaking.
This paper provides, based on mechanical principles (using numerical models), a rationale to
explain field observations that indicate relatively small effect of earthquakes on stability of open
pit slopes, and also investigates the level of conservatism in the predictions of the quasi-static
analyses as a function of important ground motion parameters. First, the increased demand
in terms of dynamic stresses is quantified as a function of pit/slope geometry (topographic
amplification) and amplification by wave trapping due to difference in stiffness of geological
layers. It is shown that open pits have an advantage due to their three dimensional circular/
elliptical geometry and less amount of weathered material close to the surface as compared
to natural slopes. Next, a typical slope is subjected to suite of ground motions covering a wide
range of peak ground accelerations and frequency contents. The dynamic Factor of Safety is
calculated based on displacement criteria. After comparing the reduction in dynamic Factor of
Safety with different earthquake intensity parameters, peak ground velocity (PGV) appears to
be the parameter that best correlates with seismic risk for slopes. Finally, it is shown that the
conventional approach of pseudostatic analysis using earthquake-magnitude-based seismic
coefficients results in Factors of Safety that are almost always conservative, and often too
conservative.
Three-dimensional rockfall modelling and rockfall

protection Port Hills
M.B. Avery Geovert Ltd, New Zealand
H. Salzmann Freefall ZT GmbH, Austria
A. Teen Geovert Global Pte Ltd, Singapore
Abstract
After the February 2011 Christchurch earthquakes Geovert were commissioned by the
Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority (CERA) to provide the desperately needed answers
to the widespread rockfall hazard. Including how best to protect people and assets, how much
will it cost and how long will it take. To provide this information Geovert proposed the use of a
newly developed state of the art 3D rockfall modelling program which was capable of modelling
the vast earthquake affected area in the Christchurch Port Hills. The modelling focused on
possible remedial options and their costs, and associated construction programmes, to provide
supplementary information to the current Christchurch City Council (CCC) commissioned
Geological and Nuclear Sciences (GNS) reports. The outcomes of the modelling were to assist
CERA in making critical decisions relating to areas where rockfall hazard exists and where
protective works may effectively reduce the this hazard. The 3D modelling was carried by a
subconsultant to Geovert Ltd using Hy-Stone, a specialist rockfall modelling programme from
the University of Milan in Italy with data for the modelling supplied by CERA, CCC and GNS. This
data is the same data used by other consultants commissioned by CERA and CCC in an attempt
to better understand the issues affecting the Port Hills. HyStone is a rockfall modelling software
utilising numerical code to analyse rockfalls, the related hazard and the associated risk. While a
number of remedial options were considered as part of the study it was immediately evident that
the most appropriate solution to the hazard was the installation of rockfall barriers. While some
areas were better suited to earth bunds, very few locations were treatable at source. Typical
results indicated energies were in the order of 1,000 to 2,000 kJ with relatively low bounce
heights (less than 34 m high). Treatment of this level of energy is relatively straight forward
with proprietary products readily available. While the extent of the rockfall issue surrounding
the Christchurch earthquakes is phenomenal, the requirements for rockfall protection are by no
means exceptional on a global level.
Verification of Trajec3D for use in rockfall analysis at

Newmont Boddington Gold
C.C. Graf Newmont Boddington Gold, Australia
T. Peryoga Newmont Boddington Gold, Australia
G. McCartney Newmont Boddington Gold, Australia
T. Rees Newmont Boddington Gold, Australia
Abstract
The Boddington gold mine is owned by Newmont Asia Pacific and is located approximately
130 km southeast of Perth in Western Australia. Operations officially commenced in 2010 with
production from two large pits. At full capacity Boddington will become the largest gold mine in
Australia. Boddington is located within the Saddleback Greenstone Belt and the pits are being
developed in a largely hard rock environment.
In open pit mining generally, isolated falls of individual or small clusters of rock pose a risk to
personnel and equipment. The aspects of interest in modelling the rockfall behaviour includes
the rock trajectory path, landing distance from the bench and the lateral spread from the point of
origin that have detached from the slope. Readily available software for the modelling of rockfalls
simplifies the problem to two-dimensions that does not account for the three-dimensional pit
surfaces, and does not represent the rock geometry. This makes rockfalls difficult to model
accurately and does not address all the aspects that are of interest in the modelling of rockfall
behaviour. These shortcomings were addressed in a three-dimensional rigid body rockfall
analysis program software program Trajec3D (BasRock, 2013). Trajec3D is able to simulate the
trajectory of rocks during free fall, rolling, bouncing and sliding.
A project was undertaken at Boddington to verify the use of Trajec3D to model rockfall events,
and understand rockfall behaviour. The project involved completing a series of tests to determine
the coefficient of restitution on different floor surfaces within the pit, and undertaking rockfall
experiments in the pit. The experimental rockfalls were then back-analysed with Trajec3D to
determine appropriate physics interaction properties.
It was found that there were some limitations to the model, however the model did aid in
understanding rockfall behaviour, and potential rockfall motion paths. It is believed that the
Trajec3D model provides a fair representation of the rockfalls, and is able to be used to establish
a procedure whereby potential rockfall areas can be identified, and effective rockfall mitigation
techniques determined.
Wall control
West Gully Upper innovative rockfall and debris flow

protection systems
H.P. Anderson Geovert Ltd, New Zealand
A. Teen Geovert Global PTE, Singapore
H. Salzmann Free Fall Geotechnical Engineering ZT GmbH, Austria
Abstract
Within PT Freeport Indonesias (PTFI) mining operation in Papua, Indonesia the Mill
Area complex is subject to rockfall and debris flow events which initiate from a source area
approximately 1,000 m up in a steep gully known as the West Gully. Active barrier protection
systems, RXI-500 (5,000 kJ) barrier, were installed to reduce likelihood of these geohazards
impacting the Mill Area. However, during August 2011 an estimated 45,000 m failure event
occurred from the West Gully Upper source area due to differential erosion and the sites tectonic
setting. The mass and velocity of this failure easily exceeded the capacity of the two RX-500
barriers located in the lower section of the gully. The failure event caused significant damage
and economic interruption to the Mill Area complex and blocked the critical transport corridor
(Ridwan Napitupulu Road).
Following a site visit Geovert provided an options report and formally recommended
increasing the overall capacity of the rockfall/debris flow protection system for the West
Gully by significantly increasing individual barrier capacity from 5,000 to 8,000 kJ. PTFI as a
true industry innovator committed to the GBE 8000A system prior to public knowledge of its
existence and prior to the system achieving certification at the Swiss Governmental testing
facility in Walenstadt. Certification was later achieved at Walenstadt in October 2011. Free Fall
Geotechnical Engineering ZT GmbH modelled rockfall and debris flow anticipated trajectories and
impact forces for the West Gully protection system. This modelling supported recommendations
to increase the protection system capacity utilising GBE-8000A barrier technology. Rockfall 7.1
beta, by Dr. Spang Ltd, modelling confirmed 3 locations for GBE-8000A barriers to suitability
retain rockfall and debris flow events in the West Gully. The proposal included provision for
installation of temporary protection works to protect against geohazards while constructing
barriers in the West Gully and contingency planning to allow for safe repair works of barrier
systems if a major failure event occurs. Climatic, environmental and physical conditions
were critical in pre-construction planning and during construction execution to compensate
for; frequent heavy bursts of precipitation (estimated at 11 m/yr at the Mill Area complex),
consideration of the project site situated at approximately 3,600 masl and no road access to
the site resulting in complete reliance on tailored Helicopter transportation of all personnel,
equipment and materials to site.
Rockfall stabilisation of a steep and high slope at West

Angelas Mine using pre-tensioned anchored mesh
P.J.G. Lopes Geovert Pty Ltd, Australia
T.T. Le Geovert Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
This paper presents a rockfall protection technique employed at the West Angelas iron ore
mine located in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. The technique involves the installation
of rock bolts and fully dimensioned high tensile wire mesh covering an area of approximately
6,000 m2 of the overhang 150 m above the pit floor. In order to evaluate the surface stability
of the slope and to propose adequate design, an analysis was undertaken using surficial slope
stabilisation calculation techniques to define nail geometry, type and diameter and appropriate
mesh cover. The final design approach and construction methodology in which rope access
technique drilling is required are also discussed and presented in this paper. The design of
the rockfall mesh system has been proved to be satisfied as it has successfully stopped an
approximately 1.5 m3 detached boulder falling off the crest in February 2012. Due to the simple
installation procedure, the high tensile mesh system had allowed the project to be completed
in shorter duration with minimal disruptions from technical related issues. Under Geoverts
assessment, the high tensile mesh system had saved approximately $700 k of cost against other
stabilisation options such as rockfall barriers.
Rock and soil slope protection using a high stiffness

geocomposite mesh system
D. Cheer Maccaferri S.p.a., Italy
G. Giacchetti Alpigeo, Italy
Abstract
One of the most common solutions adopted for the protection of vulnerable soil and rock
slopes is wire mesh, retained by a system of anchors and ropes. Different types of meshes are
available from a number of manufacturers around the world. Hexagonal Double Twist type
meshes have been used very successfully in civil and geotechnical engineering projects for over
60 years but in the last 10 years many alternative meshes have been brought into the market
place. This can sometimes leave designers and contractors struggling to choose the most
suitable mesh for their project or having to install two different meshes together in order to take
advantage of specific desirable benefits, unique to each.
Recently a revolutionary geocomposite mesh Steelgrid HR, has been developed, which is
able to offer a range of advantageous mechanical and practical benefits combined with the
convenience of a single mesh. Steelgrid HR is supplied as a complete mesh kit or system with
tried and tested installation fittings to enable the contractor, designer and client to benefit from
the unique capabilities of the mesh while overcoming any conceptual ambiguity regarding system
implementation. The system is available with two different corrosion protection specifications to
suit a variety of different project sites from near marine environments to high alpine continental
areas.
Steelgrid HR has been subjected to rigorous testing conducted by a number of highly respected
independent test institutions; including testing to the new UNI 11347 standard: Tests on Meshes
for Slope Coverage. This testing has allowed the Steelgrid HR system to gain both the European
Technical Approval (ETA) and the CE mark. The test data has been incorporated into the unique
and recently revised MacRO software package that enables engineering professionals to calculate
the performance of Steelgrid HR under a variety of slope stability conditions.
This paper will review existing meshes and full scale testing performed to date, provide design
and installation guidance, examine the tests performed on Steelgrid HR mesh and mesh kit
components and will also look into the details of the revised limit states approach version of the
MacRO software package.
Landslide risk management in Australia 2013 status of

resources available to practitioners
A. Leventhal GHD Geotechnics, Australia
A. Miner AS Miner Geotechnical, Australia
B. Walker JK Geotechnics, Australia
Abstract
Through its national committee, the Australian Geomechanics Society (AGS) has long
recognised the contribution of Landslide Risk Management (LRM) to the wellbeing of the
Australian community. As part of a commitment since 1985, the Society recently undertook two
initiatives: the 2011 LRM Risky Roadshow seminar series conducted throughout the nation;
and in 2012 the development of an interactive Education Empowerment website specifically
directed towards LRM.
The principle objective of these initiatives was to communicate and educate, and thereby
empower, landslide practitioners and regulators with knowledge and tools required to
implement best practice LRM, as well as to provide information to the general Australian
populace regarding landslide risk. These educational resources and tools are based upon the
internationally recognised LRM guidelines and commentaries published by AGS in 2000 and
2007. It was appropriate to build upon the guideline outcomes through these recent initiatives
to benefit the Australian community.
This paper provides background to the current status of LRM throughout the nation and
provides advice on the package of resources available to assist practitioners in conducting
landslide risk assessments.
Design and construction of an anchored soil nail wall

close to movement sensitive structures
A.K. Kho Cardno Pty Ltd, Australia
M. McAuley GHD Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Legacy Way is a 4.6 km twin 12.4 m diameter road tunnel with approximately 3 km of surface
connections to facilitate entering and exiting the tunnels. The new roadway bypasses Brisbane
CBD to the west and will connect the Western Freeway at Toowong with the Inner City Bypass
(ICB) at Kelvin Grove.
As part of the Eastern surface connection works, a 12 m high 55 m long soil nail and anchored
wall retaining a soil and weathered rock slope was constructed as abutment support to the
extended Inner Northern Busway (INB) bridge and Brisbane Grammar School (BGS) pedestrian
bridge. The new abutment wall was an integral element of an overall solution that required
addition of spans to the existing bridges and removal of the original Reinforced Soil Structure
(RSS) abutments.
The near vertical new abutment wall is located approximately 1 m in front of large diameter
bored piles which support the extended bridge. Resistance of lateral pile loads and restriction of
movement of the new bridge abutment were key constraints in the design.
Bridge extension and construction of the new abutment wall has created sufficient space for
a large buried drainage structure to carry floodwater outflow from nearby playing fields to an
open channel further east. The buried drainage structure runs parallel to the ICB and supports a
shared (pedestrian/bikeway) user path.
This paper provides a commentary on the design approach adopted and construction issues
encountered. Validation of the design through construction support and monitoring records is
also summarised.
Excavation control
Blast induced damage mechanism on final walls and

the blasting methods to minimise damage
W.W. de Graaf Mining Engineering Department, University of Pretoria, South Africa
S.J. Etchells AEL Mining Services, South Africa
Abstract
At most open pit mines, profitability is affected appreciably by the final slope angles of the
pit. Steep stable and safe pit walls can be formed by accurate final wall drilling and blasting
techniques. The violence of the blasting process both leaves damaged surfaces that must be
made safe, and breaking beyond the desired limit will increase mining costs. Much can be
done to significantly reduce the damage, although the geological conditions and geometry of
excavation ultimately limits success.
The aim is to make the transition from well fragmented rock to an undamaged slope or wall
in as short a distance possible. The success of final wall blasting techniques depends on the
aims being achieved despite the conflict of purpose that may exist in the mines production
environment. Various drilling and blasting techniques are applied to minimise the impact from
blasting that causes damage on the perimeter wall. These techniques have a common objective
to minimise fracturing and loosening of the rock beyond the excavation line, and include line
drilling, pre-splitting, buffer blasting and trim blasting.
In final wall blasting, the degree of confinement of the explosives energy adjacent to the slope
plays a key role in the amount of wall damage produced. The energy of the explosives should be
directed away from the final wall. Avoid the false notion that the explosives energy must always
be minimised to limit blast damage to the walls. The challenge remains to apply explosives
energy in ways that limit damage to the walls, but produce the required fragmentation of the
ore to enable high productivity. Perimeter blasting is about techniques to limit damage to the
walls, by creating split surfaces to define boundaries and terminate crack development, reducing
energy against the back wall, and diverting it away from the perimeter zone.
Measurements of dynamic surface strains induced by

blasting near a highwall of a coal mine a preliminary
assessment
K.N. Henley Orica Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
A.T. Spathis Orica Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
Five production blasts at a coal mine were monitored at the top of the highwall using multiple
vibration monitors from which the two dimensional transient surface strains were inferred
using a novel analysis method. The rock type at the top of the highwall was semi-consolidated
sediments typical of natural surface cover in central Queensland coal mines. The monitors were
located between 81 and 280 metres from the production blasts, and approximately 10 m from
the highwall crest. Vibration levels recorded were between 50 and 226 mm/s, while maximum
tensile principal strains were between 123 and 542 microstrain. No obvious surface cracks were
noted at the monitoring location.
Blasting vibration assessment of rock slopes and a case

study
K.W.K. Kong MWH Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
The most common types of blasting damage are caused by ground vibration. The sudden
acceleration of the rock by the detonation energy acting on the drill hole generates an intense
stress wave of both transverse and longitudinal wave motions in the surrounding rock. Key issues
associated with the process of excavation and tunnelling include blast and, to a lesser extent,
other construction vibration that affects the integrity of the surface structure and potentially
slope stability.
The stability of slopes subject to blasting induced ground vibration may be assessed by
different approaches including the pseudo-static approach, the dynamic analysis, the empirical
approach and the energy approach. For soil slope stability analysis, the Pseudo-static Approach
and Dynamic Analysis are generally used. However, for rock slope stability assessment under
blasting vibration effects, an energy approach is normally used.
The energy approach, combined with the empirical correlation of shear strength and stiffness
of rock joints developed by Barton (1990), with various joint characteristics, has been used in the
analysis described in this paper. Peak particle velocity (PPV) of the potential rock block failure
is a key parameter to determine the allowable charge weight per delay of the blast. Detailed
discussion of the energy approach is presented in this paper and a case study illustrates the use
of the method.
The allowable charge weights per delay for rock blasting which may impact on the stability of
slopes can be estimated using the simple energy approach. This approach can give controllable
safety limits for the works. Thus, blasting works can be carried out safely with minimum to
no damage or excessive ground movements to the slopes and other sensitive receivers, if the
allowable PPV and charge weights are followed, and the specified monitoring works are carried
out.
Drape mesh protection at the Savage River Mine,

Tasmania
B.J. Hutchison Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd, Australia
G.K. Macqueen Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd, Australia
S.L. Dolting Grange Resources (Tasmania) Pty Ltd, Australia
A.T. Morrison Geobrugg Australia Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract
In June and August of 2010 Grange Resources experienced two large wall failures at their Savage
River Mine in Tasmania, Australia. These rockslides buried a significant portion of the magnetite
ore scheduled to be mined in the following two years. To ensure long term ore supply, a major
cutback was required to get back down onto the orebody. Several different approaches and mine
plans were considered before deciding on a cast blast and drape mesh option to speed up the
bench advance. Various mesh design schemes were assessed, before selecting a Geobrugg drape
mesh system to cover the 60 to 80 m high, steeply dipping, haematite coated shear. The intent
was to allow rapid mining bench advances during the cutback and rockslide removal process. By
adopting this approach considerable time was saved by eliminating extensive pre-splitting, trim
blast and rock support requirements associated with Granges normal mining procedures.
Two large cast blasts were taken to remove rock material in front of the back scarp. The cast
blasts were each 40 m in height and cast 3035% of the blasted rock off the face from in front of
the haematite coated shear, which formed the back scarps of the two rock failures.
The drape mesh system was installed between April and October of 2011. The system was
very successful in protecting personnel and equipment from rockfalls on the backscarp during
the subsequent mining phase.
This paper describes the various processes associated with mine planning, cast blasting, drape
mesh design, drape mesh tendering and selection, and installation; as well as the costs. The
performance of the mesh in retaining potential and actual rockfalls is also described; along with
issues associated with radar monitoring.
Understanding the blast damage mechanisms in slopes

using observations and numerical modelling
S.J. Etchells AEL Mining Services, South Africa
E.J. Sellers JK Tech Pty Ltd, Australia
J. Furtney Itasca Consulting Group Inc., USA
Abstract
Observations made in the field, together with numerical modelling using the Hybrid Stress
Blast Model (HSBM) are presented to further understand the mechanisms contributing to blast
damage in pit slopes. The aim being to examine the contributing variables such as the variability
of the rock mass, blast design, charging technique and current wall control techniques in the
industry. The HSBM blast modelling research tool, with some improvements to the near field
logic, successfully demonstrates different techniques of wall control that are being used in
the industry. It is shown how the orientation of the discontinuities relative to the pit walls can
negatively affect the performance of both a presplit and a post -split if not taken into consideration
in the blast design. Damage reduction in a presplit requires the correct spacing, decoupling ratio
and split factor. Controlling the fractures at the end of a presplit becomes important if there is a
need to reduce the number of holes per delay to control vibrations and air blast, because there
is an accumulation of damage into the highwall at the end of each section.
The use of post-splitting is more favourable in terms of reducing production time. Dynamic
post-splits at a hard rock quarry are studied and show fair results for jointing at an acute angle
to the face. Poor ground conditions result when the jointing is at an obtuse angle relative to the
face. This technique should only be used if the risk on the operation is appropriately managed,
and the mine is sufficiently shallow.
An effective wall control technique relies on an effective trim blast. Observations highlight
damage up to ten metres or more into the slope with poor blasting, if an ineffective wall control
technique were to be applied. The numerical modelling confirms that the linear charge factor is
the main contributing factor to damage, although it is closely related to the powder factor and
cannot be considered in isolation. Limitation of confinement is the major link to limiting damage.
By understanding blast damage mechanisms, pit slope stability risks can be better quantified and
modelled. This will allow optimisation of a wall control technique to a specific rock mass, and to
link the expected damage on a bench scale to the overall pit slope.

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Copyright 2013, Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of

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