IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

10.1 Primary Air Pollution

Air pollutants are chemicals that are normally not present in the
atmosphere, or chemicals that are at significantly higher levels than are
normal.
Primary air pollutants are chemicals that are released into the air before
they undergo further reactions to become secondary air pollutants (see
smog and acid rain).

Carbon Monoxide: CO
Carbon monoxide is toxic. It binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells
and prevents them from reacting in equilibrium with oxygen.
Low levels of CO cause headaches and dizziness. Concentrations of ~1%
causes death in minutes.
CO is produced by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
Naturally this can occur in the incomplete oxidation of methane:
CH4(g) +3/2 O2(g) CO(g) + 2 H2O(g)
Incomplete combustion can also occur in large fires where there is
insufficient oxygen: Forest fires or large wildfires.
Man made sources are the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels:
C8H18(g) +17/2 O2(g) 8 CO(g) + 9 H2O(g)
This type of reaction is commonly seen in internal combustion engines
where insufficient oxygen can be present in rich (higher fuel to air ratio)
burning engines.
The concentration of the man-made sources is the primary danger. Local
levels can be very high.
To limit Primary air pollution, there are four primary approaches:
1. Limit the use of the technology that produces the pollution.
2. Remove the cause of the pollution in the process.
3. Improve the process to limit the pollution.
4. Remove the pollutant after it has been produced.
Carbon monoxide production can be limited by burning less fossil fuels.
This requires less use of internal combustion engines, or using fuels other
than hydrocarbons.
In the use of an internal combustion engine, the engine can be tuned lean,
to allow more oxygen in the combustion chamber to completely combust
the CO (see problem with NOx production).

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

After the CO has been produced, it can be removed with a thermal exhaust
reactor. This adds extra air to the exhaust gasses. Due to the heat of the
exhaust gasses, the CO in the exhaust will react with oxygen to produce
CO2.
CO(g) + 1/2 O2(g) CO2(g)
A second and very effective way to remove CO is a catalytic converter. A
catalytic converter used platinum or palladium as a catalyst to oxidize the
CO to CO2.
2 CO(g) + 2 NO(g) 2 CO2(g) + N2(g)
Unfortunately, platinum and palladium are very expensive.

Oxides of Nitrogen NOx: N2O, NO, NO2

Oxides of nitrogen are respiratory tract irritants that lead to tissue damage
and susceptibility to infections.
Oxides of nitrogen react to form nitric and nitrous acid upon contact with
water. This causes the respiratory irritation.
Natural sources of nitrogen oxides are some biological processes, and
lightning.
Biologically, NOx can be produced by some types of decomposition of
organic molecules.
The high energy of lightning is required to overcome the very high
activation energy of:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
Man made sources of NOx are primarily due to combustion processes.
High temperature inside internal combustion engines can produce NOx
(mostly NO).
The nitrogen gas in air is combusted with oxygen:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
Jet engines can also produce NO. Once again, the concentration of manmade NOx production is the biggest problem.
Because of the high levels of nitrogen in air, removal of nitrogen from the
process is not feasible.
Like most pollution related to cars and industry, using less, driving less or
not using internal combustion engines is a long term solution.

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

An engine tuned to run rich (higher fuel to air
ratio) as this will provide less oxygen to react
with the nitrogen.
Unfortunately, the conditions to limit NOx levels
(less Oxygen) are the conditions that increase
CO levels (insufficient oxygen). To limit CO
levels often produces more NOx. These two
factors must be balanced.
A catalytic converter is the best solution to deal
with the CO and the NOx. An engine can be
tuned to produce regular levels of both and they
can be reacted in the catalytic converter:
2 CO(g) + 2 NO(g) 2 CO2(g) + N2(g)

Hydrocarbons
The last pollutants that is primarily associated with cars and internal
combustion engines are hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are produced naturally by many plants: rice, evergreen trees
(terpenes) and other plants. These are produced at low levels over all of
the earth.
Many of these compounds are toxic or can produce toxic compounds
(benzene).
Man-made sources are due to leakages of fuels and solvents, and partially
combusted hydrocarbons from engines.
Limiting these pollutants requires stopping the escape or stopping there
use.
In an engine, a catalytic converter will oxidize partially combusted
hydrocarbons to CO2.

Sulfur dioxides SO2

Sulfur dioxides are a very serious primary air pollutant that is produced by
many industrial processes.
Sulfur oxides are respiratory tract irritants.
Natural sources of sulfur oxides are decay products (rotten eggs) and
volcanoes.
Man made sources are the burning of coal that has high sulfur levels, and
smelting of ores that contain sulfides.
These activities are concentrated in industrial areas.
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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

Sulfur coals are now cheaper than low sulfur coals. Diesel fuel can
contain sulfur, and it costs more to produce diesel fuel that is low sulfur.
The best method to lower sulfur oxide emissions is to remove the sulfur
before combustion or to combust low sulfur fuels. Both of these options
are expensive.
It is easy and cheap to remove sulfur from gasoline (bubble hydrogen gas
through it removes the sulfur).
It is more difficult and costly to remove the sulfur from solid coal.
Sulfur oxides can be removed from flue
gasses in a process called scrubbing.
Exhaust gasses are exposed to an
alkaline limestone (CaCO3) or lime
(CaO) slurry.
CaCO3(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s)
The CaSO3 can be oxidized to CaSO4
(gypsum) that is a sailable product.
A newer method is a fluidized bed combustion. The coal is combusted
on a bed of limestone (CaCO3) and the sulfur is converted to CaSO3 or
CaSO4 during the combustion.
These processes are very expensive. There must be laws that force
industries to implement these measures.
Particulates are the last primary air pollutant that we will look at.
Particulates affect the respiratory system and can cause lung diseases.
Natural sources: dust, ash, smoke, bacterial, fugal spores
and pollen.
The greatest man-made sources that are problematic are
burning of fossil fuels (primarily diesel and coal).
These are produced in concentrated areas and also in areas
of other pollution.
Particulates also can act as catalysts for the production of
secondary air pollutants.
Large particulates can be separated by settling.
Smaller particulates can be separated by electrostatic
precipitation
Ionized particles are attracted to a charged plate collector.

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

10.2 Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a toxic pollutant near the earth and a vital gas protecting us
from ultraviolet (uv) radiation from the sun in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere, 12-50 km above the earth).
Oxygen and ozone together block most of the damaging uv light.
Oxygen molecules absorb higher energy uv, and ozone absorbs the lower
energy uv light.
Oxygen (O = O) has a double bond that requires 496 kJ/mol to break.
This requires light with a wavelength of 242 nm or less to break (high uv,
UVA).
Ozone has a delocalized 1.5 order bond that requires 362 kJ/mol to break.
This requires light with a wavelength of less than 330 nm to break (low
uv, UVB).
The bond in
oxygen gas is
broken by UVA
high energy
O=O(g) !UVA,
!!!!
!
" 2O(g)

O(g) +O 2 (g) " O3 (g)

The bond in ozone gas is broken by UVB

low energy
O ! O ! O(g) !UVB,
!!!!
" O 2 (g) + O(g)

O(g) +O 2 (g) " 2O 2 (g) or O(g) +O 2 (g) " O3 (g)

This is the natural process that consumes and produces ozone in the upper
atmosphere.
This process has been interfered with in the last decades to weaken the
protective affect of the ozone layer.
The increase of uv radiation on the earth causes problems because the high
energy radiation can break the bonds of molecules in living organisms on
the earth.
Animals:
Sunburn
Skin cancer
Cataracts
Single celled organisms
have altered growth rates
and patterns

Plants:
Growth inhibited and
weakened organisms
Disease susceptibility
Interferes with
photosynthesis
Marine plants effected
(affects CO2 storage)

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

The ozone layer has been degraded by chemicals that have been released
into the atmosphere on industrial scales.
The primary culprits are CFCs (chloro-fluoro carbons) and NO2. The
CCl bond can be broken by the uv light in the upper atmosphere to form
a chlorine radical. NO2 can also produce an oxygen radical.
These radical can catalytically break ozone into oxygen.
CFCs:

CCl2 F2(g) ! CClF(g)

+ Cl(g)

Cl(g) + O3(g) ! ClO(g) + O 2(g)

ClO + O ! Cl + O 2(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

NO2:

NO 2(g) ! NO(g) + O(g)

O(g) + O3(g) ! 2 O 2(g)

CFCs were used primarily as a refrigerant, in aerosol sprays, and in the

plastics industry. Freon was a common chemical.
They are stable (freon lasts for over 80 years), inflammable, and inert (in
the lower atmosphere).
Replacements for CFCs must have the above properties, and have fewer
or no CCl bonds.
Some replacements are:
Chlorodifluoromethane, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, and 3-methylpropane.
The first has only one CCl bond, but the second and third are
flammable. They are less stable than Freon, so they will not stay in the
atmosphere as long.
All are also strong infrared absorbers, that makes them greenhouse gasses
(next topic)
In the arctic regions, ozone depletion is worst in spring. In winter, ice
crystals in the atmosphere catalyze the production of Cl2 and HClO
molecules.
In spring, as the ice crystals melt, these molecules are released into the
atmosphere to produce chlorine radicals and decompose ozone in the polar
regions.
The immediate short term response to ozone
depletion in the increased use of sunscreen
products.
Naturally, the body produces a brown pigment
(melanin) that absorbs uv light.
Monomers of melanin:

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

The alternating single and double CC bond
allow for bond delocalization. These delocalized
electrons allow a molecule to absorb uv light.
A common ingredient in sunscreens is PABA
(para-aminobenzoic acid). It is also carcinogenic.
Other sunscreen products also have this bond delocalization
Another option is to stay indoors, as glass blocks most uv light.
Alternately, sun blocking compounds (titanium oxide) will reflect
visible and uv light.

10.3 Global Warming

The greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition of the
atmosphere.
The basic principle is:
Short wavelength light passes through the atmosphere and warms
the earth.
Infrared light is radiated from the earth.
Some of the ir light is absorbed by molecules (greenhouse gasses)
in the atmosphere and reradiated in random directions.

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

Global warming is a result of the increase of the greenhouse effect that is
probably due to human activity since the industrial revolution.
A greenhouse gas must be an infrared absorber.
The degree that a gas contributes to the greenhouse effect depends on its
effectiveness as an ir absorber, and its prevalence in the atmosphere.
Chemicals that human activity have added to the atmosphere have
increased the greenhouse effect.
Gas
Source
Ir absorber

Effect on warming

H2O

Evaporation

0.1

CO2

Combustion of fossil fuels

50 %

CH4

Anaerobic decay (cows)

30

18 %

N2O

Fertilizers and combustion

150

6%

O3

Smog and pollution

2000

12 %

CFCs

Refrigerants

10,000+

14 %

There is little debate that the mean temperature of the earth is increasing.

There is also little doubt that carbon dioxide levels have changed
similarly to temperature changes

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

There are some serious scientific problems that are arising from this issue:
Politics driving science
Abandoning of the scientific method
The drive to find the evidence to prove the required conclusion.

The effects from global warming are not clear. The models used to predict
consequences are not complex enough and produce conflicting results.
It is reasonable certain that there will be large scale changes in local
climate, rainfall levels and temperatures (increases and decreases).
This will have major impact on human populations in already marginal
agricultural areas.

Sea levels will also rise due to the melting of ice

caps and the increase in the volume of the oceans
because of thermal expansion.
For island nations and low level areas (Victoria,
Miami, Bangladesh), there will be considerable
dislocations.
Particulates in the atmosphere have the opposite
effect as the greenhouse effect.
They block light before it has gotten to the earth.
This decrease in radiation coming to the earth
decreases the temperature.
The temperature dip in the 1940s and the 1960s is probably due to
volcanic activity.

IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

10.4 Acid Rain and Smog

Acid rain and smog are secondary pollutants. They result from chemical
reactions to primary pollutants.
Acid rain results when pollution has decreased the pH of rain to below 5.6
Natural rain has a pH down to 5.6 because of carbon dioxide normally in
the air.
Covalent oxides react with water to form acidic compounds.
Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid with water.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
This naturally results in rain that is acidic. Carbonic acid is a weak acid
and normally reaches concentrations to provide a pH of 5.6-6.0.
Primary pollutants that form oxides can contribute to acid rain.
Acid rain is rain with a pH < 5.6 and is not caused by CO2.
The combustion and oxidation of sulfur can produce sulfur oxides
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
SO2(g) + 1/2O2(g) SO3(g)
Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide will react with water to form sulfurous
acid and sulfuric acid.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
These contribute to acid rain.
The combustion of nitrogen produces nitrogen monoxide which is
oxidized to nitrogen dioxide.
N2(s) + O2(g) NO(g)
2 NO(g) + O2(g) 2 NO2(g)
The reaction with water can produce nitrous acid or nitric acid:
2 NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
4 NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) 4 HNO3(aq)

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

H 2O(g) +O 3(g) ! 2HOi (g) +O 2(g)

The mechanism for acid formation involves the formation of a

hydroxyl free radical OH.
They form from the action of ozone or an oxygen free radical O
produced by ozone.

H 2O(g) +Oi (g) ! 2HOi (g)

HOi (g) + NO(g) ! HNO 2(g)

These hydroxyl radicals react with the oxides and water to form
the acids:
Ammonia in the environment can precipitate with acids to form
ammonium salts. (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3

HOi (g) + NO(g) ! HNO 2(g)

HOi (g) + SO 2(g) ! HOSO 2 i (g)
HOSO 2 i (g) +O 2(g) ! HO 2 i (g) + SO 3(g)

These salts can be deposited on the ground where they can react to SO + H O ! H SO
3(g)
2 (g)
2
4(g)
form nitrates and acidify the soil:
NH4+(aq) + 2O2(g) 2H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + H2O(l)
A map of North America shows where the affect of acid
rain is the greatest
Most of the problem is industrial.
Emission controls on cars have limited acid rain due to
car pollution to only periodic times.
The worst acid rain recorded in North American had a pH
~2.4 in Los Angeles before any pollution restriction were
in place for cars.
Acid rain is detrimental to living things.
Plants:
Critical nutrients are leached
from the soil.
Leaves are damaged by acid
exposure.
Toxic aluminum ions are
leached from rocks into
ground water.

Lake and
Rivers:
Toxic aluminum ions in
water.
Aquatic animals have
damage to exposed tissues.
Small animals and plants in
the food chain die.
pH of 4 is a dead lake.

Buildings:
Buildings made with marble
will react with the acid:

Humans:
Oxides that react with water
in the respiratory tract result
in acids witch cause
irritation.
Higher levels of toxic ions
can be dissolved from rocks,
pipes etc. (Pb2+, Cu2+)

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)
CaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) +
H2O(l)

To limit oxides in the atmosphere sulfur compounds must be removed

from fuels before or after combustion.
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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

A better solution is to stop burning fossil fuels as an easy source of
energy.
As a remedy for damaged areas, Calcium oxide or Calcium hydroxide
could be used to neutralize the acid. This has
been successful in some lakes.
Smog is a toxic combination of smoke, fog,
organic molecules and oxides. This combination
can create very dangerous conditions in a city.
Smog formation is common is large cities. In
cities surrounded by mountains, where there are
periods of little wind, the smog can build up to
dangerous levels.
Rain will dissolve many of the components of
smog, and wild will blow them away.
A thermal inversion can produce concentrated
smog.
Photochemical smog is an oxidizing
smog that forms with sunlight. It is
usually worst in summer, with little
winds, no rain, and plentiful sunlight
from high-pressure systems.
Sunlight oxidizes compounds and
produces radicals that can further
result in a multitude of dangerous
chemicals.
The primary fault in photochemical
smog is automobile pollution.
There are an infinite number of
possibilities of reactions and products
that can form.
Some of the most dangerous are produced by oxygen radicals that are
formed by sunlight acting on NO2.
NO2(g) NO(g) + O(g)
The oxygen radicals can produce ozone, hydroxide radicals, acids,
aldehydes, and peroxides.
Peroxides are oxygen atoms single bonded with an oxidation state of -1.
They are very reactive.

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

If this combination of chemicals is allowed to concentrate, the air can
cause severe irritations and kill people with previously damaged lungs.
One of the worst products are PANs. Peroxy acetyl nitrates.
PANs form from a peroxy acid and NO2. They are irritants at parts per
billion (g per kg), are toxic to plants, and are known mutagens at very
low levels.

10.5 Dissolved Oxygen in Water

Oxygen gas dissolves in water. Microscopic oxygen bubbles are
surrounded by hydrogen bonded water spheres in the water. Any
splashing or bubbling will allow oxygen to dissolve in water.
At 20C oxygen can dissolve in water to a concentration of ~9ppm
(~9mg/L).
Fish need a minimum of 3 ppm to survive, and an aquatic environment
requires at least 6 ppm to thrive.
There are many factors that affect the amount of oxygen that is dissolved
or can dissolve in a sample of water.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is one of the most important factors in
the quality of water from an oxygenation perspective.
Biological oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen required to
biologically decompose any organic material in a sample of water.
It is usually measured over a period of five days in a sealed container. The
oxygen content of the water is measured after this time to find what is left.
Pure Water has a BOD < 1ppm. A BOD over 5 ppm is considered
polluted.
High BOD can remove all the oxygen from a water sample. A river can
re-oxygenate itself through mechanical action, but a lake or ocean may
remain de-oxygenated for a long period of time.
High levels of nitrates (fertilizer runoff) can cause large algae blooms. As
these die, their decomposition can consume all the available oxygen.
Further decomposition occurs anaerobically which produces toxic and
fouls products.
Living things that enter this area die, decomposing and consuming any
oxygen left. A dead zone forms.
This is called eutrophication.

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

Another important factor in oxygen solubility is the temperature.
Dissolved oxygen requires a stable, hydrogen bonded sphere. Higher
temperatures do not favour stable hydrogen bonds.
Higher temperature water will have a lower oxygen solubility.
In warm water organisms will consume oxygen faster when there is less
oxygen.
Thermal pollution can damage water bodies.
Additionally, a warm layer of water can form a low-solubility blanket over
a colder body of water that limits the transfer of oxygen to the colder
water below.

10.6 Water Use

Drinking water is one of the most precious resources
on the earth. About 97% of the water on the earth is
salt water not suitable for drinking.
Of the fresh water, ~2.1% is in ice caps and glaciers;
~0.6% is in rivers and lakes; and ~0.6% is
groundwater.
Only ~1.0% of the fresh water on the earth is readily
available for human use.
With the growth in the worlds population, demand for
fresh water is growing.
However, water is distributed very unevenly. Some
countries have an abundance (Canada, Russia) others have
very little (Northern Africa, Middle east).
Water use per person varies per country, and the what the
water is used for also varies for different countries. The
main difference is the degree of industrialization.
Conserving water is a matter of social and political will.
If wasting water is costly, conserving water becomes a
matter of profit.
Describe ways that water could be conserved in:
Industry
Agriculture
Domestic Use
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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

Water that is considered safe for drinking must be:

Free of pathogens
Free of unpleasant odours, tastes, colours, and turbidity
Free of dangerous dissolved substances.
Filtering can reduce turbidity. Ozone, UV light , and chlorine are the
other common method of treatment for drinking water.
Chlorine treatment uses chlorine gas
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
Or HClO (hypochlorous acid, active ingredient in bleach) is added to the
water directly.
HClO is a strong oxidizing agent that oxidizes many pathogens (not all
viruses):
HClO(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- HCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ozone is more effective than chlorine. The ozone itself oxidizes the
pathogen:
O3(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- O2(g) + H2O(l)
High intensity ultraviolet light is ionizing radiation. This ionizes the
pathogens due to the intense energy delivered by the short wavelength
light.
Chlorine is very cheap, has a long retention time (if pathogens enter the
water system after the treatment), but has a bad taste. There is a
possibility that toxic chlorine compounds can form.
Ozone and UV treatment is more effective and leaves no bad taste in the
water. It is more expensive and has a very short retention time.
There has been much research into desalination of sea water.
The oldest and simplest method is distillation.

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

The problem is the high heat capacity of liquid water, and the high heat of
vaporization to boil water. This is very costly.
The largest current distillation plant is in Saudi Arabia. It produces ~ 150
x106 m3/year. It cost over one billion dollars to build
Saudi demands for water are about 3 x109 m3/year
Reverse osmosis can also be used to desalinate sea water.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane.
The water molecules will flow from a pure water sample to a salty water
sample.
The membrane will allow water molecules to pass through, but not ions.
Reverse osmosis plants are expensive to build. The largest is in Israel that
produces ~ 100 x106 m3/year. The cost is about C$0.65 per m3.
(This is a similar cost to distillation depending on the cost of the material
that is burned.)
Another method of desalinization is through an ion exchange column.
A resin removes the sodium and chloride ions and replaces then with
hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
This is a very expensive method, but it can be used to produce very pure
water.
After water is used by people it must be treated so it is safe to return to the
environment.
Water used in industry should have toxic substances removed.
Water from domestic use is sewage. It can be returned untreated to the
environment, where it is eventually broken down by natural processes.
There can be dangerous problems due to untreated wastes.
Sewage treatment aims to remove solids from the water, lower the
biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the water, kill any pathogens in the
water, and remove any other chemicals or ions that have been added to the
water.
There three main stages to sewage treatment: Primary, secondary and
tertiary.
Primary treatment involves coarse filtering and settling.
Large solids are filtered out.
Sand and grit are allowed to settle out in a grit chamber.

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

Suspended solids are allowed to settle through a process of flocculation.
Al2(SO4)2(aq) + 3Ca(OH)2(aq) 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3CaSO4(aq)
The precipitate settles with the suspended solids
forming a sludge that is treated further.
Oils and grease is skimmed of the settling ponds.
(Has been used in cosmetics.)
Primary treatment removes ~60% of solid
material and about 30% of BOD.
Secondary treatment is intended to remove the
BOD from the waste water.
The most effective method is to inject oxygen into
the mixture to aerobically break down organic
material with aerobic bacteria.
The activated sludge that forms can be recycled to
break down other material.
Up to 90% of the BOD can be removed this way.
Tertiary treatment is designed to remove ions and other organic molecules
from the waste water.
There are many methods for tertiary treatment. Here are some examples.
Many ions can be removed by precipitation.
Phosphates:
Al3+(aq) + PO43-(aq) AlPO4(s)
3Ca2+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq) Ca3(PO4)2(s)
Metal ions can often be precipitated with hydroxide ions or sulfide ions:
Cr3+(aq) + 3 OH-(aq) Cr(OH)3(s)
Cd2+(aq) + H2S(g) CdS(s) + 2 H+(aq)
Activated carbon can absorb organic compounds. Upon heating, the
activated carbon is reactivated and the organics are oxidized to carbon
dioxide and water.
Nitrates are very difficult to remove as all nitrate compounds are soluble.
If nitrates are a concern ion exchange can be used (very expensive), or a
slower process can use bacteria to break down the nitrates to nitrogen.
Similarly, high nitrate ponds can have algae growth that consume the
nitrates for growth. This is a very slow process.

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10.7 Toxins in Water

In our examination of toxins in water, we will look at three categories:
Heavy metals
Organic molecules
Nitrates
Three of the most serious heavy metal pollutants are: cadmium, mercury,
and lead.
Cadmium has entered the environment as a waste product of zinc mining,
discarded batteries (NiCad), electroplating, and as a pigment.
It is toxic because it replaces zinc in many enzymes. It can cause stomach
pain, vomiting, diarrhea, kidney damage, and damage to red blood cells.
LD50 = 225 mg/kg (rats)
LC50 = 500mg/m3 (rats) (lethal concentration in the air)
20g/m3 for kidney/respiratory damage.
Mercury has entered the environment as a fungicide, battery ingredient,
and many industrial processes. It also concentrates in the food chain in
fatty tissues.
Organo-mercury compounds are very dangerous as they are quickly taken
up by metabolic processes.
Mercury is a neurotoxin that can damage the liver, kidneys, brain and
blood.
LD50 = 40 mg/kg (rats)
Lead is in the environment mostly from processes that are now banned in
most countries: leaded gasoline (tetraethyl lead) pigments in paint, lead
pipes, and car batteries.
Lead causes kidney damage and failure. It can cause developmental
problems and other brain damage in children.
LD50 = 70 mg/kg (rats)
Some recent studies have found a strong synergistic affect between lead
and mercury.
If the LD1 level for mercury and lead are combined in the same
population, the result was 100% fatality.
Since lead and mercury are both in the environment, this synergistic effect
is likely to be actualized.
Many organic compounds constitute toxic pollutants in water. Herbicides
and pesticides can persist in water and cause many and varied problems in
the environment and humans.

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

These toxic chemicals can continue to kill plants and animals after they
have spread beyond their intended purpose.
As most organisms have similar cellular mechanisms, these chemicals can
create unintended consequences.
Dioxins are present in waste water that have organochlorine compounds
that have been incinerated at too low temperatures. They are also produced
in pulp-mills. It is very toxic (LD50 = 0.02 mg/kg rat). It is persistent in
the environment and accumulates in fatty tissues and liver cells. It is also
known to cause birth defects.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were used in transformers because of

their low electrical conductivity. They are very stable in the environment.
They collect in fatty tissues and cause developmental problems in
children. They are also a probable carcinogen.
The number of chlorines can vary from 4 to 10.
Nitrates are difficult to remove from water, and are constantly added to the
environment as fertilizers.
Nitrate levels are to be below 50 mg/L for safe drinking
water (WHO).
High nitrate levels can be dangerous for babies. Lack of
acid in their stomach can allow bacteria to reduce nitrates
to nitrites. Nitrites can oxidize the iron in haemoglobin
and oxygen starved babies.
Nitrite levels in adults can also be a problem. Nitrites are
found in preserved meats and beer.
Nitrites can be converted into nitrosamines that are known
carcinogens.
Heavy metals and phosphates (not nitrates) can be removed from water by
precipitation. Many of these are only slightly soluble in water with
certain ions. The addition of appropriate ions can precipitate the
unwanted ion which can be removed by filtration.
The slightly soluble ion compounds form a solubility equilibrium:
+
!
MX(s ) ! M (aq)
+ X(aq)

K sp = "# M + $% "# X ! $%

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

A table of equilibrium values will be provided to you in questions and is
available in your text. (A-10)
Example 1:
A compound M2X has a solubility of
1.5 x 10-7 M. What is the solubility constant for this compound?

Example 2:
What is the concentration of lead in an saturated solution of lead chloride?

Example 3:
Lead ions are removed from a water system by bubbling Hydrogen sulfide
gas through the water. The sulfide concentration is 0.028 M. What is
the highest concentration of lead ions that can be left in the water?

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

Example 4:
To remove phosphate ions, Magnesium ions are added to a water solution.
Will a precipitate form if [Ca2+] = 5.2 x10-4M, and [PO43-]=2.4x10-6M?

Follow-up Problems: 19.4-19.9

10.8 Soil and Waste

Soil Degradation is the lowering of crop yields due to natural or
anthropogenic causes.
Salinization: due to over-irrigation or lowering of natural river flow. Salts
concentrate in top soil. Plants are unable to take up water through
osmosis.
Nutrient depletion: constant intensive farming removes nutrients and
micro-nutrients that are not replaced.
Soil Pollution: Intentional or accidental dumping of toxic substances or
the slow accumulation of toxic substances can lower the yield of
agricultural land. Accumulation of toxins can also kill many organisms
in non agricultural lands.
Can also lead to ground water toxicity.
Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
The presence of organic matter at various levels of decay (humus) is an
important factor in healthy soil.
Source of important nutrients for future growth.
Absorbs moisture and heat to keep soil healthy and fertile.
Humus and clay can have a high ion-exchange capacity. This can trap
ions in water and exchange them with other ions.
This can trap nutrient ions for future growth or toxic ions to remove them
from the water supply. This can have positive and negative
consequences.
The ability of clay and humus to do this is called the ion-exchange
capacity.

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IB Chemistry 10 Environmental Chemistry

Hydrocarbons (VOC), (Semi VOC, SVOC) from transport and industry.
Argichemicals - Pesticides, herbicides and fungicides.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons from incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
PCBs from electrical equipment
Organotin compounds used as bactericides and fungicides in wood, paper
and paint processing.
Method
Landfill

Advantages
Cheap, efficient
Reclaim land after use

Disadvantages
Gross
Methane problem

Open Dumping

Cheap, efficient

Gross
Water and air pollution
Infestations

Ocean Dumping

Cheap, efficient
Nutrients returned to
ocean

Toxins directly to the sea

Danger to marine organisms

Incineration

Reduce volume, uses

minimal space
Low level of toxicity
Can recycle some of
the energy

expensive
Partial combustion of
hydrocarbons (dioxins)
Produces greenhouse gasses???

Step towards
sustainable used of
resources

Recycling

Very expensive
Not efficient
Can cause more pollution than it
removes

Nuclear Waste
Low Level Waste: Low level of radioactivity - short half lives. (medical
waste, or equipment in contact with radioactive materials)
Storage until much of the radioactivity is gone.
Often dumped into the sea.
Ions exchange to remove cesium and strontium (most common radioactive
isotope)
High Level Waste: Highly radioactive with potentially long half lives
(waste from spent fuel rods, and processing fuel)
Most waste in melted and vitrified.
Long term storage is the problem. Currently it is stored underground in
geologically stable areas.

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