Voltage-controlled oscillator

A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic

oscillator whose oscillation frequency is controlled by
a voltage input. The applied input voltage determines
the instantaneous oscillation frequency. Consequently,
modulating signals applied to control input may cause
frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM).
A VCO may also be part of a phase-locked loop.

charge of a capacitor. The delay-based ring VCO operates somewhat dierently however. For this type, the
gain stages are connected in a ring. The output frequency
is then a function of the delay in each stage.
Harmonic oscillator VCOs have these advantages over relaxation oscillators.
Frequency stability with respect to temperature,
noise, and power supply is much better for harmonic
oscillator VCOs.
They have good accuracy for frequency control since
the frequency is controlled by a crystal or tank circuit.
A disadvantage of harmonic oscillator VCOs is that they
cannot be easily implemented in monolithic ICs. Relaxation oscillator VCOs are better suited for this technology. Relaxation VCOs are also tunable over a wider range
of frequencies.

A microwave (12-18 GHz) Voltage Controlled Oscillator

Types of VCO
2 Control of frequency in VCOs

VCOs can be generally categorized into two groups based

on the type of waveform produced: 1) harmonic oscillators, and 2) relaxation oscillators.

Linear or harmonic oscillators generate a sinusoidal

waveform. Harmonic oscillators in electronics usually
consist of a resonator with an amplier that replaces the
resonator losses (to prevent the amplitude from decaying) and isolates the resonator from the output (so the
load does not aect the resonator). Some examples of
harmonic oscillators are LC-tank oscillators and crystal
oscillators. In a voltage-controlled oscillator, a voltage
input controls the resonant frequency. A varactor diodes
capacitance is controlled by the voltage across the diode.
Consequently, a varactor can be used to change the capacitance (and hence the frequency) of an LC tank. A
varactor can also change (pull) the resonant frequency
Voltage-controlled oscillator schematic - audio
of a crystal resonator.
A voltage-controlled capacitor is one method of making an LC oscillator vary its frequency in response to a
control voltage. Any reverse-biased semiconductor diode
displays a measure of voltage-dependent capacitance and
can be used to change the frequency of an oscillator by
varying a control voltage applied to the diode. Specialpurpose variable capacitance varactor diodes are available with well-characterized wide-ranging values of capacitance. Such devices are very convenient in the man-

Relaxation oscillators can generate a sawtooth or triangular waveform. They are commonly used in monolithic integrated circuits (ICs). They can provide a wide
range of operational frequencies with a minimal number
of external components. Relaxation oscillator VCOs can
have three topologies: 1) grounded-capacitor VCOs, 2)
emitter-coupled VCOs, and 3) delay-based ring VCOs.
The rst two of these types operate similarly. The time
spent in each state depends on the rate of charge or dis1

3 VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

ufacture of voltage-controlled oscillators[note 1] For lowfrequency VCOs, other methods of varying the frequency
(such as altering the charging rate of a capacitor by means
of a voltage controlled current source) are used. See
Function generator.
The frequency of a ring oscillator is controlled by varying either the supply voltage, the current available to each
inverter stage, or the capacitive loading on each stage.

Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators

A voltage-controlled crystal oscillator (VCXO) is used for

ne adjustment of the operating frequency. The frequency of a voltage-controlled crystal oscillator can be
varied a few tens of parts per million (ppm), because the
high Q factor of the crystals allows pulling over only a
small range of frequencies.
There are two reasons for using a VCXO:
To adjust the output frequency to match (or perhaps
be some exact multiple of) an accurate external refA 26 MHz TCVCXO.
erence.
Where the oscillator drives equipment that may generate radio-frequency interference, adding a varying
voltage to its control input can disperse the interference spectrum to make it less objectionable. See
spread spectrum clock.
A temperature-compensated VCXO (TCVCXO) incorporates components that partially correct the dependence on temperature of the resonant frequency of the
crystal. A smaller range of voltage control then sufces to stabilize the oscillator frequency in applications
where temperature varies, such as heat buildup inside a
transmitter.
Placing the oscillator in a temperature-controlled oven
at a constant but higher-than-ambient temperature is another way to stabilize oscillator frequency. High stability
crystal oscillator references often place the crystal in an
oven and use a voltage input for ne control.[1] The temperature is selected to be the turnover temperature: the
temperature where small changes do not aect the resonance. The control voltage can be used to occasionally
adjust the reference frequency to a NIST source. Sophisticated designs may also adjust the control voltage over
time to compensate for crystal aging.

3.1

Phase-domain equations

Analog applications such as frequency modulation and

frequency-shift keying often need to control an oscillator
frequency with an input a voltage-controlled oscillator

(VCO). The functional relationship between the control

voltage and the output frequency may not be linear, but
over small ranges, the relationship is approximately linear, and linear control theory can be used.
Real VCOs (especially those used at radio frequency)
may have non-linear relationship, but linear control theory models are still useful. There are devices called
voltage-to-frequency converters (VFC). These devices
are often designed to be very linear over a wide range
of input voltages.
Modeling for VCOs is often not concerned with the amplitude or shape (sinewave, triangle wave, sawtooth) but
rather its instantaneous phase. In eect, the focus is not
on the time-domain signal A sin(t+0 ) but rather the
argument of the sine function (the phase). Consequently,
modeling is often done in the phase domain.
The instananeous frequency of a VCO is often modeled
as a linear relationship with its instaneous control voltage.
The output phase of the oscillator is the integral of the
instaneous frequency.
f (t) = f0 + K0 vin (t)
t
(t) =
f ( ) d

f (t) is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator at time

t (not the waveform amplitude)

3
f0 is the quiescent frequency
of the oscillator (not the waveform amplitude)
K0 is called the oscillator sensitivity, or gain. Its units are
hertz per volt.
f (t) is the VCOs frequency
(t) is the VCOs output phase
vin (t) is the time-domain control input or tuning voltage of
the VCO

Colpitts and these oscillators are very similar in conguration.

For analyzing a control system, the Laplace transforms of

the above signals are useful.

5 Applications

F (s) = K0 Vin (s)

(s) =

F (s)
s

VCOs are used in:

VCO design and circuits

Function generators,

Tuning range, tuning gain and phase noise are the important characteristics of a VCO. Generally low phase
noise is preferred in the VCO. The noise present in the
control signal and the tuning gain aect the phase noise;
high noise or high tuning gain imply more phase noise.
Other important elements that determine the phase noise
are the transistors icker noise (1/f noise),[2] the output
power level, and the loaded Q of the resonator.[3] See
Leesons equation. The low frequency icker noise affects the phase noise because the icker noise is heterodyned to the oscillator output frequency due to the active devices non-linear transfer function. The eect of
icker noise can be reduced with negative feedback that
linearizes the transfer function (for example, emitter degeneration).
Leesons expression[4] for single-sideband (SSB) phase
noise in dBc/Hz (decibels relative to output level per
Hertz) is[5]
[ ((
L(fm ) = 10 log
)(
)]
F kT
1
Ps

VCOs generally have the lowest Q-factor of the used oscillators, and so suer more jitter than the other types.
The jitter can be made low enough for many applications
(such as driving an ASIC), in which case VCOs enjoy the
advantages of having no o-chip components (expensive)
or on-chip inductors (low yields on generic CMOS processes). These oscillators also have larger tuning ranges
than the other kinds, which improves yield and is sometimes a feature of the end product (for instance, the dot
clock on a graphics card which drives a wide range of
monitors).

1
2

)2
f0
2Ql fm

)(
+1

fc
fm

where f 0 is the output frequency, Q is the

loaded Q, f is the oset from the output frequency (Hz), f is the 1/f corner frequency,
F is the noise factor of the amplier, k is
Boltzmanns constant, T is absolute temperature in Kelvins, and P is the oscillator output
power.
Commonly used VCO circuits are the Clapp and Colpitts
oscillators. The more widely used oscillator of the two is

The production of electronic music, to generate variable tones in synthesizers,

Phase-locked loops,
Frequency synthesizers used in communication
equipment.

Voltage-to-Frequency converters are voltage-controlled

oscillators, with a highly linear relation between applied
voltage and frequency. They are used to convert a slow
analog signal (such as from a temperature transducer)
to a digital signal for transmission over a long distance,
since the frequency will not drift or be aected by noise.
VCOs may have sine and/or square wave outputs. Function generators are low-frequency oscillators which feature multiple waveforms, typically sine, square, and triangle waves. Monolithic function generators are voltagecontrolled. Analog phase-locked loops typically contain
VCOs. High-frequency VCOs are usually used in phaselocked loops for radio receivers. Phase noise is the most
important specication for them. Low-frequency VCOs
are used in analog music synthesizers. For these, sweep
range, linearity, and distortion are often most important
specs. Audio-frequency VCOs for use in musical contexts were largely superseded in the 1980s by their digital
counterparts, DCOs, due to their output stability in the
face of temperature changes during operation. From the
1990s on, pure software is the primary sound-generating
method, but VCOs have become popular again often
thanks to their imperfections.

10

EXTERNAL LINKS

Voltage-controlled crystal oscillator as a clock generator

[3] Rhea, Randall W. (1997), Oscillator Design & Computer Simulation (Second ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07052415-7

A clock generator is an oscillator that provides a timing

signal to synchronize operations in digital circuits. VCXO
clock generators are used in many areas such as digital
TV, modems, transmitters and computers. Design parameters for a VCXO clock generator are tuning voltage
range, center frequency, frequency tuning range and the
timing jitter of the output signal. Jitter is a form of phase
noise that must be minimised in applications such as radio
receivers, transmitters and measuring equipment.

[4] Leeson, D. B. (February 1966), A Simple Model of

Feedback Oscillator Noise Spectrum, Proceedings of the
IEEE 54 (2): 329330, doi:10.1109/PROC.1966.4682

The tuning range of a VCXO is typically a few parts per

million over a control voltage range of typically 0 to 3
volts. When a wider selection of clock frequencies is
needed the VCXO output can be passed through digital divider circuits to obtain lower frequency(ies) or be
fed to a PLL (Phase Locked Loop). ICs containing both
a VCXO (for external crystal) and a PLL are available.
A typical application is to provide clock frequencies in a
range from 12 kHz to 96 kHz to an audio digital to analog
converter.

See also
VFO
VCF
VCA
LFO
modular synthesizer
Digitally controlled oscillator, DCO
Numerically controlled oscillator, NCO
Phase-locked loop, PLL

Notes

[1] A voltage-controlled inductor would be in principle as

useful, but such devices are unsatisfactory at the frequencies usually desired.

References

[1] For example, an HP/Agilent 10811 reference oscillator

[2] Wideband VCO from Herley - General Microwave - For
optimum performance, the active element used is a silicon bipolar transistor. (This is in lieu of GaAs FETs
which typically exhibit 10-20 dB poorer phase noise performance)"

[5] Rhea 1997, p. 115

10 External links
schematics
Designing VCOs and Buers Using the UPA family
of Dual Transistors

11
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